Animal Classification, Phylogeny

and Organization
 Organisms and Cells
Some organisms are unicellular
• This means they are made of only one cell.
• Examples: bacteria and yeast
Some organisms are multicellular
• This means they are made of many cells.
• Multicellular organisms have many more levels of
organization to make sure the whole body can
work correctly, even when it is doing many things
at the same time.
• Examples: humans and other vertebrates
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Digestive Systems
• Incomplete (No anus)
• Complete (Have an anus)
Protostomes: The clade of animals characterized by the formation of the organism's
mouth before its anus during embryonic development.
Deuterostomes: animals typically characterized by their anus forming before their
mouth during embryonic development.
Cephalization: the differentiation of the anterior (front) end of an organism into a
definite head
Torsion: the twisting of a body organ or part on its own axis.
Ecdysis: the process of shedding the old skin or casting off the outer cuticle
Metamerizism: Segmentation, animal that has a segmented body
 In some animals, the body is
externally and internally divided
into segments with a serial
repetition of at least some organs.
For example, in
earthworm, the body shows this
pattern called metameric
segmentation
and the phenomenon is known as
Metamerism.

Segmentation
 Animal Classification
• Biologists have identified approximately 1.4 million species, more than 3/4
of which are animals
• Approximately 4 to 30 million species are still undescribed.
• The study of diversity of organisms and the evolutionary relationships
among them is called systematics or taxonomy.
• Some biologists distinguish between systematics and taxonomy, as
taxonomy means the work involved in description of species, and
systematics as the assignment of species into evolutionary groups.
• Nomenclature is the assignment of a distinctive name to each species.
• No two kinds of animals have the same binomial name, and every animal
has only one correct name, as required by the International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature, thereby avoiding the confusion that common
names cause.
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Taxonomy Systematics
• Discipline of classifying • Broad field of biology that studies the
organisms into taxa. diversification of species.
• Rules of naming, describing, • Deals with the evolutionary history
identifying and specimen and phylogenetic relationship in
preservation. addition to taxonomy.
• Classification+Nomenclature= • Taxonomy+Phylogeny= Systematics
Taxonomy
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• The goal of animal systematics is to arrange animals into groups that
reflect evolutionary relationships.
• Ideally, these groups should include a single ancestral species and all
of its descendants. Such a group is called a monophyletic group.
• In searching out monophyletic groups, taxonomists look for animal
attributes called characters that indicate relatedness.
• A character is virtually anything that has a genetic basis and can be
measured—from an anatomical feature to a sequence of nitrogenous
bases in DNA or RNA.
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• Polyphyletic groups have members that can be traced to separate
ancestors.
• A paraphyletic group includes some, but not all, members of a
lineage. Paraphyletic groups also result when knowledge of the group
is insufficient.
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Three contemporary schools of systematics:
• Evolutionary Systematics,
• Numerical Taxonomy
• Phylogenetic Systematics (Cladistics)
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Evolutionary systematics
• Oldest
• Traditional approach
1. Analogies: The resemblances that result from organisms adapting
under similar evolutionary pressures are called analogy. It is called
convergent evolution. E.g., wings of birds and insects.
2. Homologies: The resemblances that result from common ancestry
are called homology. It is called divergent evolution. E.g., wing of
bird and arm of human.
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Numerical taxonomy
• Numerical taxonomists use mathematical models and
computer-aided techniques to group samples of organisms according
to overall similarity.
• They do not attempt to distinguish between homologies and analogies.
Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) is a third approach to animal
systematics.
• Methods are more open to analysis and testing, and thus are more
scientific, than those of evolutionary systematistics.
• Differentiate between homologies and analogies.
 A Taxonomic Hierarchy
• The modern classification system is rooted in the work of Carolus
Linnaeus (1707–1778). His binomial system is still used today
• Any grouping of animals that shares a particular set of characteristics
forms an assemblage called a taxon
• He recognized five taxa. Modern taxonomists use those five and have
added three others.
• The taxa are arranged as domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species
 Kingdoms Of Life
• In 1969, Robert H. Whittaker described a system of classification that
distinguished between kingdoms according to cellular organization
and mode of nutrition
• In recent years, new information has challenged the five kingdom
classification system.
• Fossil evidences from early period are unclear; however, molecular
studies of variations in base sequences of ribosomal RNA from
more than two thousand organisms are providing evidence of
relationships rooted within this two billion-year period
• The emerging picture is that the five previously described kingdoms
do not represent distinct evolutionary lineages
 Animal Symmetry
• Asymmetry The arrangement of body parts without a central axis or
point (e.g., the sponges).
• Bilateral symmetry The arrangement of body parts such that a single
plane passing between the upper and lower surfaces and through the
longitudinal axis divides the animal into right and left mirror images
(e.g., the vertebrates).
• Radial symmetry The arrangement of body parts such that any plane
passing through the oral-aboral axis divides the animal into mirror
images (e.g., the cnidarians).
Symmetry
 Terms of Direction
• Aboral The end opposite the mouth
• Oral The end containing the mouth
• Anterior The head end; usually the end of a bilateral animal that meets its
environment
• Posterior The tail end
• Caudal Toward the tail
• Cephalic Toward the head
• Distal Away from the point of attachment of a structure on the body (e.g.,
the toes are distal to the knee)
• Proximal Toward the point of attachment of a structure on the body (e.g.,
the hip is proximal to the knee)
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• Dorsal The back of an animal; usually the upper surface
• Ventral The belly of an animal; usually the lower surface
• Inferior Below a point of reference (e.g., the mouth is inferior to the
nose in humans)
• Superior Above a point of reference (e.g., the neck is superior to the
chest)
• Lateral Away from the plane that divides a bilateral animal into mirror
images
• Medial (median) On or near the plane that divides a bilateral animal
into mirror images
 Body Organization
• Diploblastic - 2 Cell Layers

• Triploblastic - 3 Cell Layers

 •Coelom
•Coelomates
•Pseudocoelomates
•Acoelomates

• Triploblastic animals are organized into several subgroups on the basis of body cavity coelom.
• Coelom is a fluid-filled space in which the internal organs can be suspended and separated from the body’
wall.
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The Triploblastic Coelomate Pattern:
• A coelom is a body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm.
• Have mesodermally derived tissues, such as muscle and connective tissue, associated with internal organs
enhances the function of virtually all internal body systems.
The Triploblastic Pseudocoelomate Pattern:
• A pseudo-coelom is a body cavity not entirely lined by mesoderm.
• No muscular or connective tissues are associated with the gut tract.
• No mesodermal sheet covers the inner surface of the body wall, and no membranes suspend organs in the
body cavity.
The Triploblastic Acoelomate Pattern:
• The animals without coelom are called acoelomates.
• Acoelomates meaning that their tissues and organs develop from three primary embryonic cell (germ cell)
layers.
• Some cells between the ectoderm and endoderm of acoelomate animals are loosely organized cells called
parenchyma. Parenchymal cells are not specialized for a particular function.
 Figure 35-2 Human Organ Systems Part I

Section 35-1

Nervous System Integumentary System Skeletal System Muscular System Circulatory System
 Figure 35-2 Human Organ Systems Part 2

Section 35-1

Respiratory System Digestive System Excretory System

Endocrine System Reproductive System Lymphatic System