Rivulis Drip Guide Book 2 20230209 Eng-Webversion

THE
RIVULIS
DRIP GUIDE
2
OVERVIEW OF DRIP
IRRIGATION SYSTEMS &
COMPONENTS – FROM WATER GROW
BEYOND
SOURCE TO EMITTER
www.rivulis.com
THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE
DISCLAIMERS
This booklet, the information and recommendations included therein regarding your choice and operation of Rivulis products,
including the applicable Rivulis drip irrigation system, and regarding other farming related procedures (the “booklet”) are
designed and rendered for information purposes only and to the best of Rivulis’ knowledge and experience. The content is
provided for the purpose of offering an introductory overview of drip irrigation and related agricultural issues. It is therefore not
an exhaustive guide, and this booklet should be used in conjunction with other sources.
Rivulis has used commercially reasonable efforts to ensure that its own product information, including data sheets, schematics,
manuals and brochures are correct in all material respects. That being said, any information should be verified before making any
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Except for the specific product warranties, available from the local Rivulis office of your area, Rivulis hereby disclaims all
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such exclusions may not apply.
Please note further that in light of the numerous variances of every farm, growth, climate, regional differences, etc., the booklet
cannot be deemed as an exhaustive guide of every consideration that must be considered when choosing the suitable product
for you and when taking other farming related decisions included in the booklet. As always, you should consult with a local
irrigation consultant for your specific needs.
As some of our products are not available in all regions, please contact your local authorized Rivulis dealer for additional details
and irrigation solutions. Rivulis reserves the right to change, edit and/or modify the booklet from time to time, as well as any of
its products’ specifications and designs without any notice.
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maintaining, and troubleshooting of Rivulis products, their components and any other product or equipment referenced within
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of any of Rivulis products you and any of your employees, affiliates and partners must implement strict safety procedures
regarding, inter alia, electricity, machinery and the use of hazardous materials.
Some chemicals and fertilizers mentioned in this booklet are dangerous and their use is subject to local laws/regulations. To
learn about the health and environmental hazards and the required safety means related to such materials – refer to the safety
data sheets of such materials.
Any information provided by Rivulis in this booklet about the chemical or fertilizer treatment or chemical materials (including
safety information and handling recommendations), is provided as a general service only. Rivulis is not a treatment material or
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case of changes in any handling guidelines. Therefore, prior to use, you must carefully learn about the hazards related to and the
safe performance and use of such treatments and materials, including by reading the relevant material safety data sheets (MSDS),
and consult with applicable professionals. Using such materials is at your own risk.
All guidelines mentioned in the booklet regarding the use of such materials are subordinate to the instructions of the
manufacturer of such materials and to applicable safety and environment laws.
As Rivulis only manufactures irrigation products, descriptions, guidelines, and recommendations included in this booklet, not
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information and therefore does not guarantee and will not be responsible, for any yield results, crop loss, equipment loss, etc.
resulted from using this information. You solely bear the responsibility of using this information and for handling your farm and
soil.
There are hazards associated with working with farm and irrigation equipment. The user must comply with all relevant safety
measures of all equipment and materials. For example, protective clothing, shoes, and eye protection must be used as required.
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This booklet may be translated into various languages. However, in the case of doubt or variance, the English version prevails.
Rivulis reserves all intellectual property to this booklet. No part of this booklet may be reproduced without the prior written
permission of Rivulis.
2 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

O V E R V I E W O F D R I P I R R I G AT I O N S Y S T E M S & C O M P O N E N T S
The complete set

This book is one of four books written to help you to get the most out of your irrigation system.
Download the books and view our interactive knowledge hub at:
www.rivulis.com/knowledgehub, or scan the QR code:
Introduction to drip irrigation Overview of drip irrigation Design Maintenance

systems & components – Installation
The 6 key considerations in from water source to emitter Startup
developing your irrigation system
Edition: February 2023

© 2023, Rivulis Irrigation Ltd, all rights reserved.
Reproduction, duplication, sale or rent of this booklet in any form is prohibited without the written consent of Rivulis
Irrigation Ltd.
RIVULIS and other marks, logos, branding features and service marks used and displayed in this guide are trademarks,
registered and unregistered, of Rivulis Irrigation Ltd.
Written by Matt Clift

Photography coordination and additional content by Romeo Dragan.
Many thanks to Eyal Ben-David, Rafi Golan, Zvika Golan, Avishai Schneider, and the extended team involved in the
development of the Rivulis Drip Guides. The author also wishes to acknowledge legacy company information which
served as additional source material for this guide.
O V E R V I E W O F D R I P I R R I G AT I O N S Y S T E M S & C O M P O N E N T S 3
CONTENTS
The big picture 12
Main control head 13
Secondary control head 14
Major components of a drip irrigation system 15
Pre-pump/water source 16
The water source 17
Aeration 17
Settling ponds 18
Pre-pump protection 19
Pre-pump protection – suction strainers 20
Pre-pump protection – pre-filtration strainer 21
The pump 22
Selecting the right pump 23
Pump discharge (flow) 25
Pump head (pressure) 26
Putting it together 29
Electric or diesel 30

Filters 31
Introduction concepts 32
Primary/secondary filtration 32
Automatic, semi-automatic or manual filtration 33
Manual filters 33
Semi-automatic filters 33
Automatic filters 34
Micron and mesh 35
Footprint 36
Back-flush water used 37
Filtration methods 37
So what filtration type do you need? 38
Hydrocyclone sand separators 40
Media/gravel filters 41
Screen filters 42
Disc filters 45
CONTENTS
Hydraulic control valves, check valves and air valves 48

The two questions 50
Question 1 – What is the primary function? 50
Function: Basic 51
Function: On/off 51
Function: Pressure reducing (PR) 51
Function: Pressure sustaining (PS) 52
Function: Pressure reducing & pressure sustaining (PR/PS) 52
Function: electric control 52
Function: Quick relief 53
Function: Flow control 53
Function: Level control 53
Question 2 – How will the valve be controlled? 54
Manual: Manual three-way valve 54
Hydraulic: Hydraulic relay 54
Electric: Solenoid 54

The two questions – next steps 55

Throttling 57
Solenoids 57
Check valves 58
Air valves (air vents) 59
Vacuum breakers 60
Continuous/automatic air release valves 60
Combination air valves 60
Air valve location 61
Mainlines and submains 62

Be careful in reducing your mainline/submain diameters … 64
Automation 65
What automation can do 66
Choosing automation 67
CONTENTS
Fertigation & chemigation 68

Overview of fertigation options 70
Fertigation – fertilizer tank 70
Fertigation – venturi 71
Fertigation – hydraulic pump 72
Fertigation – electric pump 73
Fertigation – automated fertigation machine 74
Fittings/connectors 75
Raw material 76
Connectors for drip lines vs drip tapes 76
Drip emission – drip tapes/drip lines and online drippers 77

Application 78
The seasonal/multi-season system 79
The permanent system 81
The subsurface system (SDI) 82

Drip tape/drip line or on-line drip emitters 85

First – an introduction to uniformity 86
Application 87
Non-PC compared to PC/AS/ND dripper options 88
Pressure compensating (PC) drippers 89
Anti-siphon (AS) drippers 91
No-drain (ND) drippers 92
Diameter 93
Wall thickness 94
Emitter spacing 95
Dripper spacing with SDI 97
The benefits of close dripper spacing are numerous 97
CONTENTS
Flow rate 98
Ultra-low flow drippers 98
Filtration 98
Drip line product naming 99
Drip tape product naming 100
On-line drippers 103
On-line dripper outlet types 103
Opening and sealing pressure options 104
Pegs 105
Flushing manifold 106
Pressure gauges & flow meters 107
Pressure gauges 107
Flow meters 108
Crop monitoring 109
Manna Irrigation 109
Rivulis ReelView 109

Frost protection systems 110

Types of frost 110
Active frost protection 112
Conclusion 114
THE BIG PICTURE

Starting with the full farm …
High level – all drip irrigation systems have the following components and flow:
Main control Secondary Flushing

Water head control head manifold
Drip laterals
source (distributes (distributes (where
via mainline) via submains) installed)
Main control head

Submains
Mainlines
Water source
Secondary
control head
Drip laterals Flushing manifold Drip laterals Online drippers

MAIN CONTROL HEAD

1. pressurizes the system (pump)
2. provides the primary filtration (primary filter)
3. provides mainline pressure control (valve)
4. monitors the systems (flow meter and pressure gauges)
5. injects fertilizers and chemicals (fertigation and chemigation injection).
Pressure
gauge
Air valves
Valve
Pump Primary filtration
Fertigation
Flow meter
SECONDARY CONTROL HEAD

The secondary control head provides control for each block. To recap
from book 1, a block is an area (or a zone) that is controlled by a valve.
Activates the block (field valve)
Provides additional protection (backup/secondary filter and air valve)
Air valve
Field valve Submain line
Secondary (backup) filtration

MAJOR
COMPONENTS
OF A DRIP
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
There are a vast array of components and choices in determining your drip irrigation system. The purpose of
this book is to look at each component individually, and the factors for making the optimum choice for your
system.
PRE-PUMP /
WATER SOURCE

The water source

In Book 1, we looked at how your water
source generally falls into two categories
– surface water and groundwater. Within
the first book, we also looked at the type
of water, water availability (max discharge
m3/h (gpm)), constraints, and water
content (physical and chemical). As such,
we will not cover this info here.
What is important to note is that your

water source, including water availability
and water content, will have some impact
on almost every component in your
irrigation system, along with agronomic
considerations.
For example, if you source water from a

well, and you have high sand content, you
will most likely need a hydrocyclone filter.
Aeration
If you have dissolved minerals, such
as iron and manganese, aeration is
recommended.
The aeration should occur before the

reservoir.
Settling ponds
The two functions of settling ponds are to:
1. Balance the water use required of the pump system.

2. Settle some of the debris in the water.
Points to remember:
Settling ponds need to be cleaned periodically (from the bottom).

The minimum size should be the daily water volume.
Normally, 24 hours are required for settling for common conditions. Longer is required if you have more
severe conditions, smaller ponds, or if you are using flocculants.

PRE-PUMP
PROTECTION
Surface water sources can often present problems with debris and even aquatic animals such as fish and
eels. This can lead to impellers getting blocked or severely damaged.
Pre-pump protection – suction strainers

Suction strainers are used in surface water sources, where
they sit submerged in the water.
They function as the water intake for the system and

provide a course level of protection, with screens of 1,500
micron (12 mesh) filtration, depending on the model. This
is not enough filtration to protect drippers, but it prevents
large debris from entering the system.
A number of suction strainers, including Rivulis suction

strainers, are self-cleaning, meaning that they have nozzles
that continually rotate within the strainer to blow off
debris that accumulates on the screen. For this cleaning
mechanism to function, a pressurized water source of
minimum 1.5 bar (22 psi) is required.

Pre-pump protection – pre-filtration strainer

Also called stone collectors, pre-filtration strainers sit
before the pump to prevent the entry of stones and
other large debris into the pump.
The screens are designed to provide protection only

to large objects, generally 3,000 micron (6 mesh).
THE PUMP

Pumps pressurize the system, and are also the primary consumption of energy in your irrigation
system. They are also a necessity, unless you are fortunate enough to receive pressurized water.
Therefore correct selection is important.
Selecting the right pump

The pump that you select needs to be able to deliver:
1. the required flow rate (m3/hr) (gpm)

2. at the right pressure (meters head) (psi, or total discharge head in feet – TDH)
3. and do it efficiently (operational cost).
To enable you to choose the right model, pump manufacturers supply pump curves. These curves show the
appropriate model based on the pump discharge (flow m3/hr) (gpm) and pressure (meters head) (total
dynamic head – TDH). See the example below.
Q (gpm)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
15 50
Q = 7.5 m3/h 40
H = 10 m
10
30
H (ft)
H (m)
20
5
10
Ø 98
Ø 85
Ø 70
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Q (m3/h)
In addition to the pump discharge and pressure, you need to consider:
1. the type of pump, e.g. centrifugal pump – horizontal

2. the static and pumping water levels
3. the height the pump has to lift the water.
The ultimate goal is that by the time the water reaches the emitter, there is enough flow and pressure. So we
work from the drip emitter back to the pump.
Selecting a pump is complex, and major pump manufacturers publish their own manuals and guidelines for
selecting a pump. As such, here we will provide an overview, and specific considerations related to irrigation.
3. Pump water capacity
3. Pump head
Static water level 1. Pump Type

Pump discharge (flow)
Back in Book 1, we looked at peak flow requirement. This is the measurement that you use to calculate your
pump flow requirement.
High level formula to determine flow:
Metric calculation
Step Example
Obtain your peak water requirement: mm/day 8.5 mm/day
Convert mm to m3/ha
Convert mm to m by dividing mm by 1,000. 8.5 mm = 0.0085 m
Multiply the m x 10,000. 0.0085 x 10,000
= m3/day/hectare 85 m3/day/hectare
Calculate how much water is required for the

entire irrigation system
Multiply the m3/day/hectare by the total cropping

85 x 130 hectares
area that the pump has to service
= Total pump output required m3/day 11,050 m3/day
Calculate the flow requirement per hour,

adjusted for how many hours the pump will be
used
Divide the pump output m3/day by the number of

11,050 m3/20 hours
hours the pump will operate
= Total flow (discharge) per hour that the pump

552.5 m3/hour
needs to deliver
US measurement calculation
Step Example
Obtain your peak water requirement:
0.33 in/day
in/day
Convert inches per day to gal per acre per

0.33 in/day x 27,154 = 8,961 gal/acre/day
day
Calculate how much water is required for

the entire irrigation system
Multiply the gal/acre/day by the total cropping

8,961 gal/acre per day x 320 acres = 2,867,520 gal/day
area that the pump has to service
= Total pump output required gal/day 2,867,520 gal/day
Calculate the flow requirement per hour,

adjusted for how many hours the pump will
be used
Divide the pump output gal/day by the

2,867,520 gal/day / 20 hours/day = 143,376 gal/hour
number of hours the pump will operate
Divide the total flow (discharge) per hour by 60

143,376 gal/hr / 60 min/hr = 2,390 gpm
to determine the flow rate of the pump in gpm
Pump head (pressure)
There are four elements of the pump head:
1. the pressure needed for the drip emitter to operate

2. the head loss (pressure/friction loss) across the entire system between the pump and the drip emitter
3. elevation lift over the piping network of the farm
4. suction lift to draw the water into the pump.
Working out your required pressure is simply a process of adding all of the above pressure head
requirements. This provides your overall head requirement.

Head loss
Most irrigation components generate head loss.
Head loss could simply be called pressure loss, and some manufacturers call it friction loss. The head loss of a
component is the amount of pressure (head) that is lost when water passes through it.
Why it matters
The very last dripper at the end of a block needs to have adequate pressure to perform. When designing
your system, you need to calculate the head loss of every component to ensure that by the time the water
reaches this dripper, there is still enough pressure.
The table below shows the total pressure required to operate an example drip irrigation system, calculated
by each component of the total irrigation system.
Component Head required (m) Head required (feet) Head required (psi)
Emitter 9 30 13
Valve 2 7 3
Mainline 5 16 7
Elevation difference 5 16 7
Filtration 5 16 7
Suction 1 3 1
Miscellaneous 4 13 6
Total Dynamic Head 31 101 44
In the above example, you can see that the total head required to achieve 9 meters (13 psi) head at the drip
emitter is 31 meters (44 psi).
Why do we care? Aside from the impact of how you design, remember that every extra bit of head is extra
energy that is required.
Reading head loss
Head loss is expressed in a head loss chart or head loss table. The amount of head loss depends on the
product and the flow rate (m3/h) (gpm). Below are two examples of head loss charts/tables, the chart being
for a series of valves, and the table being of an automatic screen filter.
12", 14"
1.5"
PSI MWC
3"R
10"
16"
3"L
1"
2"
3"
4"
6"
8"
14 10
8
10
8 6
6 4
2
1
0.8
1
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
4 6 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000
10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 6000 10000 17000
m /hr
GPM

Product Head Loss Chart (bar)

Flow Rate (m³/h)
Inlet / Outlet
15 25 50 75 100 150 200 300 400 500
inch mm Head Loss (bar)
3 80 0.02 0.07 0.15 0.25 0.43
4 100 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.35 0.65
6 150 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.18 0.33 0.68
8 200 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.60
10 250 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.25
Product Head Loss Chart (PSI)

Flow Rate (gpm)
Inlet / Outlet
66 110 220 330 440 660 881 1321 1761 2201
inch mm Head Loss (PSI)
3 80 0.29 1.015 2.175 3.625 6.235
4 100 0.435 0.725 1.45 2.9 5.075 9.425
6 150 0.435 0.725 1.45 2.61 4.785 9.86
8 200 0.435 0.87 1.45 2.9 5.8 8.7
10 250 0.435 0.725 1.45 2.9 3.625
Putting it together
The flow x pressure requirement is the pump’s H

duty point.
With this information, you can choose the H1

specific pump that can deliver your required
duty point. This is done by using pump curves:
H2
X axis is the Q, which is flow in m3/h (gpm).
Y axis is the H, being the total head
in meters (feet).
Q1 Q2 Q
Let’s look at an example using typical published

pump curves. If we have a head requirement of Calculating Pump Flow
103 m (338 ft), and a flow requirement of 212 m3/h H
(m)
(933 gpm), we can find where the points intersect 240

-6
-6-A
to determine the appropriate pump. 220

-6-AA
200
-5
-5-A
180
-5-AA
160 -4
-4-A
140
-4-AA
103 m
120 -3
-3-A
(338 ft) 100

-3-AA
80 -2
-2-A
60
-2-AA
40 -1
-1-A
20
0
M3/h
0 40 80 120 160 200
212 m3/h
(933 gpm)
Electric or diesel
This choice, including cost calculations, is covered in detail in Book 1 (section “Your Farm – Energy”).

FILTERS
Introduction concepts
Primary/secondary filtration
Almost all drip irrigation systems will require both primary and secondary filtration.
Primary filtration Secondary filtration
Located in the pump shed Located in the field – one per block
Provides filtration for the overall system before Also called a backup filter
the water goes to the mainline
As the name suggests, it provides a backup in case
As the name suggests – it is the primary particles pass the primary filtration, or if there is
filtration for the system damage in the mainline
Usually large, automated media, screen or

Usually small plastic manual or semi-automatic disc of
disc filters, combined sometimes with a
screen filters (2” – 4”)
hydrocyclone filter

Automatic, semi-automatic or manual filtration
The filtration element of the filter will clog over time as it fills with contaminants. It will need to be cleaned to
continue to operate effectively.
When this cleaning process is automated/semi-automated, it is called a back-flush. This back-flush can either
be manual, semi-automatic or automatic, depending on the filter.
Manual filters
As the name suggests, manual filters require

100% manual labor to clean. There is no back-
flush.
To clean the filter element, you need to stop

the water supply, to disassemble the filter,
remove the disc or screen element, and clean
it yourself. In most cases, manual filters are only
suitable as backup filters where the cleaning
requirement is only occasional.
Semi-automatic filters
You will most often find these filters in-field

providing backup filtration. Although not fully
automatic, they require much less labor than
manual filters as back-flush is performed by
simply opening a valve and turning a handle.
Automatic filters
Any farm of size should use automatic ﬁlters for

primary filtration. These filters back-ﬂush themselves
automatically at set time intervals or when a
pressure differential meets a determined threshold.
Pressure differential = the pressure difference

between the inlet and the outlet of the filter.
The higher the pressure differential, the more
clogged the filtration element is.
Aside from periodic maintenance and monitoring,

automatic filters do not require any intervention
for operation. The filters will operate and clean
as required, while also providing irrigation water
during the cleaning process.

Micron and mesh
Each dripper has a recommended filtration degree, e.g. 130 micron/120 mesh.
Your filter will need to meet this filtration requirement, i.e. if you need 130 micron filtration, your filter should
provide 130 micron.
Micron Mesh
cm 1 2 3 4 5
inch 1 2
Size of pores in filtration medium Number of strands or yarns per inch

in mm or micron. 1 mm = 1000 micron of woven media.
That said, micron/mesh should not be the only consideration. It is a guide, but you need to consider if you
need additional filtration based on your needs, e.g. a multi-year subsurface irrigation system may warrant
finer filtration than what is specified.
Footprint
Not all filters are created equal when it comes to their physical size compared to the amount of water they
can filter.
For example, a screen filter can filter 300 m3/hr (1,320 gpm) in just 2 x 1 m (6’ x 3’) of space. A media system
capable of providing the same flow would require 4 x 36” tanks in an array, more than double the footprint
compared to the screen filter.
The footprint becomes more of a consideration the larger your flow requirement is.
Aside from the physical space required, there will be additional capital works to build infrastructure.

Back-flush water used
In the previous section, we explored automatic and semi-automatic back-flushing. When this process occurs,
this back-flush water (the water used to clean the filtration element) is expelled from the filter.
A media filter uses significantly more water in the back-flush process than other filtration methods. If water
is a major constraint, the back-flush water requirement (volume) needs to be considered, including the
possibility of return of the back-flush water to the reservoir.
Filtration methods
The three filtration methods are screen, disc, and media.
Screen Disc Media
Water passes through a screen Water passes through a disc Water passes through media
cylinder. cartridge, which is a set of (gravel). The media itself
provides the filtration medium.
stacked grooved discs.
The water passes from the Water flows from the top of
inside to the outside of the The water passes from the the filter, down through the
screen element within the filter. outside to the inside of the disc media, and through either
“arm collectors” or “mushroom
cartridge within the filter.
diffusers”.
Additionally, we include hydrocyclone sand separators in the category of filters, although they cannot work
alone. They only remove sand, and you still require one of the primary filtration methods above.
So what filtration type do you need?
Short answer, it depends.
The table below shows various water sources and the amount of likely contamination in each.
Water source Organisms Suspended solids Dissolved minerals Trash

0.002 - 1000 mic 1 mic - 3 mm >0.01 mic <2000 mic
Well Very low High Low Very low
Well
Very low High High Very low
w/mineral
River Moderate High Low High
Canal Moderate Moderate Very low High
Reservoir High Moderate Very low High
Lake High Moderate Very low High
Wastewater High High High High
Furthermore, what lifespan do you expect for your drip tape/line (from one season to many years)? Do you
have access to AC power? How much does your water quality vary during the year?

Do you need screen, media, or disc filtration? Do you need a sand separator? What model is best for your
application?
The Rivulis filter recommendation tool can help you answer these questions.
We have developed an online tool that helps guide you to the best filtration solution based on the attributes
of your farm.
It is available online at: https://www.rivulis.com/filter-calculator/
Hydrocyclone sand separators
Hydrocylone sand separators help prevent sand getting into

your irrigation system and damaging components.
Important: Hydrocylones are a form of pre-filtration used

prior to other filtration. It is not used as standalone filtration.
How they operate
Clean
Water
Outlet
Water Inlet
They are designed to remove particles with
a density greater than water.
A “cyclone” is made within the filter that

pushes particles to the side, then they fall
into the chamber.
Keep in mind that for the cyclonic effect to

work, very specific flow ranges are required.
If the flow is out of this range, the filter will
simply not work. Underflow Chamber
The second point to remember is that the

Drain Valve
underflow chamber needs to be flushed or
drained when it is more than 1/3 full.

Media/gravel filters
Media filters, also commonly called gravel filters, are one of the
most effective irrigation filtration methods available. If you have
really contaminated water, you should be considering a media filter.
Media filters are effective at removing both organic and inorganic

contaminants.
Although on most accounts, media filters are the most effective

filtration method available, they have a large footprint compared
to other filtration methods. They also emit a large volume of water
during the back-flush process.
How they operate
The filtration method is effectively quite simple. The filter pushes water through the media (gravel) to
achieve filtration.
The more complex part of these filters is keeping the media clean. The media is automatically cleaned
through a back-flush process, where each tank’s flow is reversed for a period of time and contaminants are
flushed out of the system. This process needs to be automated so that the clean water from the other media
tanks is fed to the tank that is being cleaned.
Screen filters
In general, screen filters are most suited to water that has sediment.
The principal of screen filters is that water passes through a screen from the inside of the screen to the
outside of the screen.
Screen filters are either manual, semi-automatic, or automatic.
Automatic screen filters can be either electric or hydraulic. Electric automatic filters have a motor that drives
the back-flush mechanism, and subsequently they require mains power (often 3-phase).
Much more common are hydraulic automatic filters, which use the water pressure itself to drive a hydraulic
motor. Aside from the controller, which can be battery powered, no external power source is required.
However, greater pressure is required for operation compared to electric filters.
Manual screen filter Semi-automatic screen filter Automatic screen filter

How they operate

The screen within the filter
provides the filtration barrier.
Naturally, over time, the screen

will become clogged with debris.
Semi-automatic and automatics
screen filters enable cleaning of
the screen without opening the
filter.
For automatic screen filters, when

a pressure differential reaches
a preset point or a timed interval, the filter will back-flush. A back-flush valve is opened, which causes a
vacuum through the suction nozzles that rotate within the filter via a hydraulic or electric motor (see image
above).
Watch an animation of an automated Rivulis screen filter by scanning the QR code.

https://youtu.be/4jCv2HPEkEU
Rivulis F6400
A perfect solution for secondary filtration.
It is not always easy to know what type of filter you should use as secondary filtration.
A manual filter means that you generally will not know when it needs to be cleaned. Then, when you do
clean, it is significant “manual” work to open the filter and to clean the disc/screen with a hose.
On the other hand, a fully automatic filter is a very high cost for secondary filtration and the amount of back-
flushes required.
Rivulis F6400 filters are a great “in-between” option.
Each filter has a clogging indicator – a red indicator

that shows when the filter is clogged. Your farm
workers can drive by and see easily which filters need
cleaning.
Cleaning is also much easier. You simply open the

valve and rotate the handle to clean the screen.

Disc filters
Disc filtration offers the benefits of deep filtration, similar to
media filters, but with much more efficiency, similar to screen
filters.
For example, automatic disc filters have an average 20 second

back-flush time compared to an average 120 second back-
flush time for media.
Less water is lost due to back-flush, approximately 50% less

compared to media. Furthermore, automatic disc filters have
an average 70% smaller footprint than equivalent media filtration systems.
Disc filtration is ideal for situations where you have high organic matter due to the three-dimensional filtering
through the discs.
A limitation of disc filters is the maximum flow. The largest model offered by Rivulis has a 300 m3/hr (1,320
gpm) flow (for average quality water). Although disc filters can be built together in arrays, the complexity of
this array must be considered.
How they operate
Water passes through stacked polypropylene discs, which

are a form of “three-dimensional” barrier. The water
passes from the outside in.
For automatic disc filters, a back-flush cycle is initiated when the pressure differential rises above a prescribed
level and/or at set time intervals.
During this process, each filter pod will individually open a back-flush valve to reverse the flow of water to
clean the discs and expel the water.
Disc filter operation Disc filter back-flush

Filtration rules of thumb
• The longer the drip line/tape will be used, the more important the filtration, i.e. a
subsurface or a permanent system where the drip line/tape will be used for 10+ years
should have more filtration than a seasonal system where the drip line/tape will only be
used for a few months.
• A common saying is that screen filters are better for filtering sediment, and disc filters are
better for filtering organic matter, while media filters are good for both. This is not a black
and white rule, but more a rule-of-thumb.
• With most farms having labor challenges, using automatic filters for primary filtration
and semi-automatic filters as backup filters is a good ratio of cost to labor.
• Add a hydrocylcone sand separator before primary filtration in most groundl-water

scenarios.
• Don’t forget pre-filtration such as stone collectors and suction strainers where relevant.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL
VALVES, CHECK VALVES
AND AIR VALVES

Although an irrigation system will most likely have some gate/ball valves, it is expected that these are well
understood and do not require explanation here. In this first section, we will focus specifically on hydraulic
control valves.
Hydraulic control valves are required for efficient drip irrigation systems, and also have greater complexity, so
we will explore these in detail.
Note: For simplicity, in this section, we will simply refer to hydraulic control valves as “valves”.
Below are the four functions that hydraulic control valves can specifically provide.
Enable pressure control Enable remote control
Regulate the pressure of water flowing through the Operate the valve based on a remote source
valve (pressure reducing) so that the downstream that gives a command for the valve.
pressure is constant.
The benefit: Remote activation via electric,

The benefit: Increased uniformity across your field pneumatic or hydraulic control.
and correct operation pressures to each block.
Provide system protection Provide flow control & level control
Depending on the valve, offer quick release of Restrict flow rate to a determined flow rate
water during pressure spikes (quick relief) or keeps a (flow control), or close and open valves when
minimum pressure upstream (pressure sustaining). set tank points are reached (level control).
The benefit: Protect pumps, filters, and pipeline The benefit: Ensure stable flow and water
from pressure surges, while ensuring that supply, including tank/reservoir level control.
equipment has the necessary pressure resistance in
the line to function correctly.
The two questions

Choosing valves can appear complicated, but the type of valve can be chosen by answering two questions:
What is the purpose of the valve (primary function)?

How will the valve be operated/controlled?
If you can answer these two questions, you know what type of valve you need.
Question 1 – What is the primary function?

The primary function is “what the valve does”.
There are nine different primary functions:
• basic
• on/off
• pressure reducing (PR)
• pressure sustaining (PS)
• pressure reducing & pressure sustaining (PR/PS)
• electric control
• quick relief
• flow control
• level control.
We will look at these in more detail.

Function: Basic Description & common application:

• A valve body without any accessories.
• In other words, there is no function.
• It is a valve body, which is often purchased by growers
and dealers who want to build their own valves.
Benefit:
• Build your own valves.
Function: On/off Description & common application:

• As the name suggests – the valve is either on or off.
• There is no pressure regulation or flow control
(the valve has no pilot).
• Most valves have a manual selector for simple in-field
on/off control.
• Can include a hydraulic relay for remote on/off operation.
Benefit:
• Enable simple in-field operation.
• Ideal for small farms where no automation is required.
Function: Pressure reducing Description & common application:

(PR) • Reduces the pressure after the valve for a consistent
downstream pressure, regardless of the flow rate or upstream
pressure fluctuations.
• Used in-field for each block.
• In most irrigation systems, the majority of the valves are
PR valves.
Benefit:
• Ensures uniformity of each block regardless of pressure
fluctuations due to distance from the pump or other factors.
Function: Pressure sustaining Description & common application:

(PS) • Maintains the pressure before the valve at a preset level.
• Some irrigation components such as filters require
back-pressure to function correctly. PS valves are installed
downstream of these components.
Benefit:
• Ensures filters and other irrigation equipment work at their
maximum efficiency.
Function: Pressure reducing & Description & common application:

pressure sustaining (PR/PS) • Provides both pressure reducing and pressure sustaining
functions in one valve.
• Used directly after irrigation components that require back-
pressure and where immediate downstream pressure reduction
is required.
Benefit:
• Eliminates the need for two valves by combining into a dual
function valve.
Function: electric control Description & common application:

• Controls your valve opening through electric control
automation.
• Selects the correct solenoid to match your control system.
Benefit:
• Enables automation using a range of voltages and options.

Function: Quick relief Description & common application:

• Works as a safety valve for your system. Quick relief valves
relieve system pressure when it rises above a preset value.
• Unlike PR valves, quick relief valves are designed to quickly expel
excess pressure when a spike occurs.
• Install in critical stages of the irrigation system after the pump.
Benefit:
• Protects your system from damage of pressure spikes.
Function: Flow control Description & common application:

• Restricts flow to determined flow rate. Unlike PR valves, flow
control valves restrict to a specific flow through differential
pressure.
Benefit:
• Guarantees the same flow to multiple outlets.
• Restricts back-flush flow from media filters for better
performance during automatic cleaning.
Function: Level control Description & common application:

• Closes when an upper level is reached and opens when a lower
set point is reached.
• Maintaining storage water levels.
Benefit:
• Easy solution to prevent under/over fill.
Question 2 – How will the valve be controlled?

There are three different options for control – manual, electric, and hydraulic.
Manual: Manual selector Description & common application:

• A ball valve for manual operation.
• Remotely controlled valves may also have a manual override
installed.
Benefit:
• Simple and easy in-field control.
• Ability to override remote systems.
Hydraulic: Hydraulic relay Description & common application:

• Water pressure is transferred through hydraulic tube to the relay.
The diaphragm opens/closes due to pressure change on it.
Benefit:
• Many control systems now work using hydraulic pressure to
control valves. Hydraulic tube is cost effective (compared to
copper wire of electrical systems), and is better in areas with
high lightning risk.
Electric: Solenoid Description & common application:

• Current through a wire creates a magnetic field that causes
piston movement.
Benefit:
• Used for a number of wire control systems. Command is AC
or DC from the controller, which creates a hydraulic command
to open or close the hydraulic valve.

The two questions – next steps
With the primary function and the control decided, the next step is to decide the specific parameters of the
valve.
This includes whether plastic or metal, the size, and the connection type. You will also decide the exact pilot
and solenoid required.
Plastic or metal is generally a personal preference for the application. Plastic valves are lighter, easier to
install, more economical, and do not have the risk of corrosion. However, they are not as strong and are
available in fewer models, including only smaller valve sizes. They are generally used as block valves.
Metal valves are generally required for the main control head due to the larger size and higher pressure
requirements.
Connection type is defined by the region of the farm (the standard for the country) and the application.
Size is the main determinant of possible flow, and needs to be considered with the flow and the head loss of
each valve, the details of which can be found in the relevant Rivulis product literature.
Pilots regulate the pressure of the valve, e.g. ensure the correct downstream pressure for pressure regulating
valves.
This regulation is achieved by balancing the forces on the operational elements. To put it another way,
pressure is applied to the diaphragm in the control chamber of the valve. The degree of pressure determines
how far the valves opens, i.e. pressure regulation.
The image below shows a PR/PS valve (therefore two pilots). What occurs is:
• The PR pilot receives water pressure from downstream of the valve.

• The PS pilot receives water pressure from upstream of the valve.
• The two pilots control the pressure within the regulation chamber by applying water pressure
to the diaphragm in the valve.
• Regulation is achieved 100% by the balancing of forces by pressure.
• The balance is determined by the settings of the pilot.
PR PS
A pilot will have a pressure range, and generally a preset, e.g. a range of 0.3–2.5 bar (4–36 psi)
and a preset of 0.8 bar (12 psi) for a low pressure application.
Different pilots have different ranges and presets.

Throttling
Throttling controls how much a valve can open. It does not replace a pilot for a pressure regulating valve as it
does not regulate (respond) to a specific pressure. It simply sets how much the valve can open.
Solenoids
Solenoids are available in a wide range of models. A summary of solenoids is provided in the “How the valve
will be controlled” section. When it comes to solenoids, your need will depend on your control system and
valve application. Some of the factors to decide include:
• normally open/normally closed

• two-way/three-way
• voltage
• 1 wire/2 wire
• latching
• material (generally due to pressure rating)
• connection
… and more.
This covers hydraulic control valves, so now let’s look at some other categories of valves.
Check valves
Effectively, they are like one-way signs. They will allow water to pass in one direction, but not flow in the
other.
For most check valves, there are two semi-circle discs inside that are spring loaded. These discs will open
in one direction, but will close when pressure falls below a specified level. When this pressure falls, a seal is
created preventing the reverse flow of water.
Check valves prevent the irrigation system from draining, and also from going back to the water source,
which is important when the water has been treated with chemicals.

Air valves (air vents)

Air valves are critical for your irrigation system. They will help prevent your system blowing up or imploding!
Also, air trapped in the system creates large inefficiencies. Trapped air in the pipe constricts the water from
flowing. In effect, it is reducing the diameter of your pipe.
In the diagram below, the trapped air is “reducing the diameter of the pipe” by 50%.
Built up Air Pressure
7.5 cm (3 in)
Water
15.25 cm (6 in)
Soil suck-back protection: Installation of a vacuum breaker downstream of the secondary control head
valve helps prevent soil sucking back into the drippers at shutoff. The vacuum breaker allows air into the
system, thus reducing suck-back in the laterals themselves.
There are three categories of air valves.
Vacuum breakers
Application:
Discharge air during the system startup and introduce air during
shutdown to prevent pipes and tubes from collapsing. Also used to
help reduce suck-back into the drippers at shutoff.
Continuous/automatic air release valves
Application:
Release air during system operation under pressure, helping to
reduce head loss and decreased flow caused by air trapped in the
pipe.
Combination air valves
Application:
Provide air and vacuum release during system startup and
shutdown, and continuous air release during system operation,
hence a ‘combination’ of the two air valves above.

Air valve location
Application Table
Continuous /
Vacuum Combination
Location in System Automatic
Breakers Air Valves
Air Release Valves
Source
Pump stations √ √ √
Upstream of pump check valves √
On filter inlet manifolds √ √
On filter backflush manifolds √ √
System Head
At all high points √ √
Before water meters √ √
Distribution Network
At all high points √ √
Every 500 m √
At the top of downhill sloping pipes √
At the end of long distribution pipes √
Upstream of on/off field control valves √
Downstream of on/off field control valves √
MAINLINES AND
SUBMAINS

Mainlines and submains transport water across the farm.
The mainlines transport from the pump shed to secondary control head, and the submains from the
secondary control head to the laterals.
In general, mainlines are buried PVC or PE, whereas submains are usually either PVC pipe, PE hose, standard
layflat, or Rivulis H6000 PE/H6500 PE layflat.
PVC Layflat (PVC)

Mainline Submain
Submain in subsurface applications
• Long life but degrades if exposed to sun • Good for on-ground use
• More difficult to work with • Portable
• Not easily portable • Larger diameters are heavy
• Installed subsurface • Outlets can wear over time and cause leaks
HDPE Rivulis H6000/H6500 PE

Mainline Submain
Submain
• Easy to install • Similar to layflat but built of PE,

and therefore much lighter
• Smaller diameters are portable,
but larger diameters are difficult • Pre-installed outlet holes – less labor,
and significantly reduced risk of leaks
• Can be installed surface or subsurface
• Portable
Be careful in reducing your mainline/submain diameters …
When designing a system, it can be tempting to reduce mainline and submain costs by using smaller
diameter piping. Although you will save money upfront, our experience has shown this can lead to
significantly increased energy bills.
Pressure is lost as it passes through piping due to friction loss. Once you exceed velocities of 2.5 meters
(8 feet) per second for the mainlines, significant pressure loss is incurred, resulting in increased pumping
costs to achieve the required pressure. High velocities in mainlines can also increase the likelihood of water
hammer.
We would generally recommend keeping to a maximum of 1.5–2.5 meters (5–8 feet) per second for the
mainline and 2.5–3.5 meters (8–11 feet) per second across the submains, dependent on the situation.
The difference in cost is not to be underestimated. We have modeled that a poorly designed system with
incorrect mainlines and submains can equate to a 50% increase in pumping costs compared to a correctly
designed system.
In different regions, there are also specific standards of maximum and minimum velocity that must be
followed.

AUTOMATION
Due to labor challenges, automation is increasingly being implemented in irrigation systems.
Effectively everything in your irrigation system can be automated.
Automation gives you the capability to

monitor & control the complete irrigation
system
What automation can do
• Valves – for irrigation scheduling • Filters – back-flush

Control • Pumps – activation and control • Local PLCs
• Fertilizer and chemical injection • Lights
• Valve status
• Pump status – status and failures
Monitor
• Flow meters & pressure sensors – monitor fluctuations
• Water quality (pH, EC, etc.)
• IF-THEN programming (e.g. frost protection system activation)

Automate
• Real time alerts & alarms

Choosing automation
Basic Advanced
• Central unit with remote terminal units

• A standalone system (RTUs) in field
with direct connection • Fertigation control
to control valve(s) • Filter control
• Full monitoring
• Automation
• Connection to cellular
• API (application programming interface)
connection
FERTIGATION &
CHEMIGATION
Some chemicals and fertilizers mentioned in this booklet are dangerous and their use is subject to local laws/
regulations. To learn about the health and environmental hazards and the required safety means related to such
materials – refer to the safety data sheets of such materials.
Any information provided by Rivulis in this booklet about the chemical or fertilizer treatment or chemical materials
(including safety information and handling recommendations), is provided as a general service only. Rivulis is not a
treatment material or fertilizer manufacturer and cannot guarantee that this information is sufficient, complete or
accurate and cannot notify you in case of changes in any handling guidelines. Therefore, prior to use, you must carefully
learn about the hazards related to and the safe performance and use of such treatments and materials, including by
reading the relevant material safety data sheets (MSDS), and consult with applicable professionals. Using such materials
is at your own risk.
All guidelines mentioned in the booklet regarding the use of such materials are subordinate to the instructions of the
manufacturer of such materials and to applicable safety and environment laws.

To produce a crop that is “in-spec” for its final market, you need to get all the nutrients right using the right
amount at the right time and at the right location.
One of the major benefits of drip irrigation is the ability to apply chemigation (i.e. fertilizer, herbicides,
insecticides, and fungicides) accurately and effectively by injecting it into the irrigation system itself. Fertilizer,
insecticides, and fungicides are easily applied directly to the root zone with over 90% uniformity, without
manual labor or tractor use.
Of all chemigation, fertilizer injection is the most common.
Fertilizers
Herbicides
Chemigation
Insecticides
Fungicides
Essential Plants Nutrients
N
Cl Ni
K P Ca
B Cu Mo
Mg S
Having the ability to
Zn Fe Mn
carefully control the timing,
Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, and specific
Macronutrients Secondary elements Micronutrients
type of fertilizer provided to

the crop is a powerful tool.
Water H20
Overview of fertigation options

Fertigation – fertilizer tank
• The system is activated by opening the inlet and outlet valves to the fertilizer tank, which is setup
as a bypass system around a valve that creates a reduction of pressure.
• Water is injected in one side of the tank, which agitates and mixes with the fertilizer, and this mix
is expelled through the outlet.
• The amount of head loss generated corresponds to the duration it takes to expel the tank. The greater
the head loss, the faster the tank will be depleted of fertilizer.
• Tables that show the amount of head loss related to the number of hours for the fertilizer to be depleted
are available within the specific product material for each fertilizer tank. Ranges of times are given due to
the variability associated with this fertigation method.

Fertigation – Venturi
• A differential pressure between the inlet port and the outlet port is generated. This differential
pressure creates a suction that “pulls up” the fertilizer.
• The fertilizer is injected into the irrigation water.
• The difference in pressure dictates the volume of vacuum created, and therefore
the fertilizer application rate.
• It is normally installed as a bypass system with a booster pump.
• A rotameter can be added to measure an accurate suction rate.
Fertigation – hydraulic pump
• This is a simple but accurate injection system where a proportional hydraulic pump is used to inject
fertilizer.
• It can be installed inline or as a bypass system.
• A hydraulic pump does not need head loss in the same way that a venturi does.

Fertigation – electric pump
• An electric pump injects the fertilizer.
• Unlike many other fertigation options, an electrical energy source is required.
• Pumps for fertilizer injection can be very accurate and adjustable. However, ensure that the components
of the pump are resistant to the chemicals you intend to inject.
Fertigation – automated fertigation machine
• This is the most advanced, and therefore the most accurate for precision fertigation.
The big differences are:
automation (control) is incorporated into the unit
multiple injection channels mix different fertilizers and chemicals, each at individually adjustable
rates, all from one machine
can also monitor and adjust the water (EC-pH).
• The different models in general correspond to the maximum flow and the number of injection channels.
You can also choose between a bypass system, or an inline system with a mixing tank. The
inline with mixing tank system is the better option for variable flow irrigation systems.

FITTINGS/CONNECTORS
They say that a chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Don’t let connectors be your weakest link in your
irrigation system.
The below table outlines the core range of Rivulis fittings and connectors.
Product Fast ring Drip tape ProGrip Heavy wall Layflat H6000/ H6500
type connectors connectors connectors connectors connectors start connectors
How Ring Screw Screw Barb Screw/barb Threaded for layflat

with clamp + screw
Use Thin wall drip Thin wall drip Thin wall drip 8, 12, 16, 17 & 2”, 3”, 4”, & 6” Take offs from
with line (without tape (with line & drip 20 mm heavy layflat Rivulis H6000/
seam). Up to seam). Up to tape. Up to wall drip line H6500 to either
25 mil wall 15 mil wall 25 mil wall & LDPE thin wall tapes or
thickness thickness thickness drip lines
Raw material
If you are using the connectors in a special use application (e.g. heap leaching for mining), you should
consider also the raw material of the connector. Rivulis purple connectors, made of PBT, are specifically
designed for mining applications.
Connectors for drip lines vs drip tapes
Drip tapes have a seam (as pictured) which makes them unsuitable
for connectors such as fast ring connectors.
For drip tapes specifically, you need to ensure you use a connector
designed to seal around the seam that drip tapes have.

DRIP EMISSION –
DRIP TAPES/DRIP LINES
AND ONLINE DRIPPERS
In the end, it’s all about the drip emitter.
It is the drip emitter that applies the actual water to the crop. The entire system is designed so
that the drip emitter can apply the required water application to the crop.
So what are the questions that you need to answer regarding drip emission?
Application – surface (including hanging on a wire), shallow burial, deep subsurface (SDI),
or with pegs (online drippers only)
Run length required – length of the lateral from submain to the end of the row
Features required – pressure compensation for slopes and long run lengths, anti-siphon to
prevent suckback and no-drain for pulse irrigation
Diameter – also considering the internal and external diameter of the drip lateral
Wall thickness – of the drip lateral hose itself
Emitter spacing – the distance between emitters
Flow rate – of each drip emitter
In this section of the book, we will look at each of these areas individually and in detail.
Application
A fundamental decision for open-field applications, which will influence the rest of the system, is which of
these three application categories will be used:
• seasonal/multi-season – generally thin wall/tapes (4–10 mil) that are replaced each season. For multi-
season, this does not refer to perennial crops. It is seasonal crops where a thicker tube is used, which is
retrieved and reinstalled for multiple seasons
• permanent – usually installed hanging or on-ground, but can also include shallow burial (<10 cm) (<4 in).
Heavy wall tube (35–45 mil) for 10+ years of use in perennial crops
• subsurface – deep burial (20+ cm) (8+ in) of the drip line/tape.

The seasonal/multi-season system
In this application, drip line/tape is used for only one season (single season) or a couple of seasons (multi-
season).
Most applications are single season where, at the conclusion of the season, the drip line/tape is retrieved for
recycling.
Single season application is often used for crops where the production value is very high compared to most
other crops. The single use ensures that new drip laterals are installed each season. The cost of the new drip
lateral is a minor cost compared to the value of crop that is lost if there is a failed dripper.
As crops grown can change, single season use enables you to select the right drip lateral each season for the
specific crop. It also uses less labor than a “multi-season” system, as retrieval and reinstall requires more care
in retrieval, along with splicing and storage.
In single season applications, the laterals are often installed at the same time as plants and plastic mulch
(where used). The drip laterals are generally expensed each season, in a similar way that fertilizer and
chemicals are expensed.
A seasonal system allows for fast setup, and portable systems

where land is leased. Additional flexibility can be achieved
when used in conjunction with a mobile system using Rivulis
filters (as pictured).
It is common to shallow bury the laterals or

to install under plastic mulch. This is not to
be confused with subsurface drip irrigation,
which is buried at 20+ cm (8+ in).
The next page contains is a summary of

pros and cons for laying drip laterals on
the surface compared to light burial or use
under plastic mulch.
Light burial, including

Surface
light burial under plastic mulch
• Water moves further laterally

• More efficient (less evaporation and run off)
• Less water on surface lowers disease risk
• Easy to see problems • Fewer weeds
• Easier to remove from the field
Pros
• Easier to repair Specific additional advantages of plastic mulch:
• Generally, can use thinner drip hose (cheaper) • Soil temperature control
• Greater water conservation
• Control of weeds and erosion
• Prevention of nutrient leaching during rainfall
• Temperature changes can cause snaking

• Wind can blow the drip lateral • Leaks are difficult to detect
• Easier to damage • Repairs are more difficult
Cons
• Less efficient (smaller wetted profile, higher • More difficult to remove
evaporation, higher run off) • Additional cost of the plastic mulch
• More weed growth
Important: If using transparent plastic mulch,

the lateral must be slightly buried. Water
droplets can form on the plastic mulch, which
in turn create a magnifying glass effect that can
burn the drip lateral.

The permanent system
In a permanent system, the drip lines are installed with the expectation that they will remain in place, and
perform for many years.
In almost all instances, this is the type of application that you use for orchards or vineyards, where the crops
are also perennial.
The drip laterals are installed either on ground, or suspended. The drip line is heavy wall, usually over 35 mil,
to ensure longevity.
An alternative application that is becoming more common for almonds and wine grapes is a shallow burial
of the drip line. In addition to providing agronomic benefits of being buried, it also provides protection to
the drip line from birds and other animals.
The subsurface system (SDI)
As the name suggests, subsurface drip irrigation, or SDI for short, is drip irrigation applied underground.
There are two forms of SDI: shallow and deep. Shallow burial refers to the burial of the drip lateral a few
centimeters below the surface (see the “Seasonal” and “Permanent” sections).
The goal of deep burial is multi-season use with the same drip line/tape being used from a few years to over
20 years. The burial is generally 20–30 cm (8–12”), with thicker drip line/tape (minimum 12 mil and up to 45
mil) used to ensure that the product will properly function for many years.
Additionally, pressure compensated (PC) drip lines may be used to achieve extra-long run lengths, or to
irrigate on sloping ground. This SDI method has a wide range of crop applications, including cane, corn,
cotton, vineyards, tomatoes, orchards, and alfalfa.
There are many variations of SDI systems. Below are examples for both row-crop and orchard/vineyard
applications.
Single row Dual row
40 cm - 1.3 ft
30 cm - 1 ft 30 cm – 1 ft
1–2 drip lines per row 1 drip line in center of row (only for mature trees)
1.5–2 m
30 cm - 1 ft 5–7 ft
1.5–2 m / 5–7 ft
30 cm - 1 ft 30 cm - 1 ft

Deep burial can provide an excellent solution for crop rotation of broadacre/full cover crops. The following
provides a wide wetting pattern on many soils, and does not require GPS guidance for placement.
Flex-Rotation Crop SDI System
1.5 m- 5 ft
30 cm – 1 ft 30 cm – 1 ft
SDI is the most advanced form of irrigation. Although there is more complexity in setup, there are significant
advantages that warrant covering here.
Save water – no evaporation

Irrigation applied underground eliminates surface water
evaporation, which can be as high as 45% with sprinkler
irrigation.
(Measurements of evaporation during sprinkler irrigation, University of Southern Queensland, 2012)
Minimize weeds
By applying water directly to the plants, no water is being
applied to the interrow. Less water in the interrows or on the
surface means fewer weeds, and lower costs (herbicides) to
eradicate the weeds.
Stronger root structure

When a drip lateral is buried 20–30 cm (8–12”), roots need to
“chase” the water. This leads to a very healthy root structure
that penetrates deep into the ground, as opposed to
concentrating on the surface.
Reduce plant disease

A noticeable difference with SDI is that while the plants are
irrigated, the top soil remains relatively dry. Compared to
sprinkler irrigation, or even surface drip irrigation, SDI enables
you to irrigate right up to harvest. Furthermore, a drier surface
results in less humidity and therefore less risk of fungal
disease.
Easy field access and harvest
When drip laterals are buried, field access is easy, as SDI

eliminates the need for irrigation pipes on the surface. For
harvesting of nuts where mechanical sweepers are used,
any irrigation on the surface can be a problem, which is
eliminated with SDI. Furthermore, you can irrigate right up to
harvest without the normal risk of bogging in crops such as
sugarcane and alfalfa.
Soil water content using SDI

Better water and air distribution
SDI improves water movement and air–soil–water balance as

water distributes in a sphere of 360 degrees away
from the drip lateral.
Comparatively, when a dripper is on the surface, the water can

only distribute in a 180-degree pattern.
Adapted from: Kandelous, Maziar & Simunek, Jiri,

Jirka & Van Genuchten, Martinus & Malek, Keyvan.
(2011). Soil Water Content Distributions between
Two Emitters of a Subsurface Drip Irrigation System.
Soil Science Society of America Journal. 75. 488-497.

Drip tape/drip line or on-line drip emitters
Online In-Line Drip

Drippers Emitters
Thin Wall Medium Heavy PC

Non-PC Online PC Online
Drip Lines Wall Drip Lines Drip Lines
Drippers Drippers
(non-PC) (non-PC)
PC Integrated PC
Emitters
Tapes
Inserted AS
Emitters
Drip Lines
ND ND
The above shows the high-level decision flow chart for selecting a drip emitter.
To start, there are two product families:
• On-line drippers – The drippers are inserted into the tube (generally
manually) and sit above the tube. Generally, these are used in protected
cropping applications as they allow the connection to a tube and peg,
but there are exceptions where they are used in-field.
• In-line drip emitters – The drip emitter is manufactured into the tube
itself during the manufacturing process. You do not see the dripper as it is
inside the tube. There is an outlet through the hose where the drip emits.
Most open-field and some protected cropping applications use in-line
drip emitters.
Within each product family there are multiple options, which we will now
explore.
First – an introduction to uniformity

One of the key reasons people use drip irrigation is uniformity – all the plants receive an equal amount of
water, which in turn leads to better crop uniformity at harvest.
Uniformity is important as the drip irrigation supplies:
water
fertilizers
pesticides.
You want the plant with the nearest emitter to receive the same application as the plant at the farthest
emitter.
The measurement of uniformity is the

variance of flow between each dripper.
The nearest emitter
We have two methods for calculating

uniformity.
The farthest emitter
Emission uniformity (EU) Flow variation (FV)

• More commonly used for drip tapes • More commonly used for drip lines, and outside
• There are three formulas for measuring EU. Below of USA
is the calculation for classic EU: • Measures the variation of flow considering the
variance between the highest flow and the
• EU=100 x (Qmin/Qavg) x (1- (1.27 x Cv)) lowest flow of all drippers
• The higher the EU, the better the uniformity

• Goal: EU of >.90
• FV = 100 -
( Qmin
Qmax ) 100
• The lower the FV, the better the uniformity

Qmin= the minimum emitter flow in the block • Goal: FV of 10% or lower
Qavg=the average emitter flow in the block
Cv=The coefficient of variation of emitter discharges Qmin= the minimum emitter flow in the block
as published by the manufacturer Qmax=the maximum emitter flow in the block
(standard deviation of flow rates/mean flow rate)

Application
Drip irrigation companies maintain a library of the maximum length that a drip line can operate at and still
maintain uniformity – either EU or FV.
Below is an example from the Rivulis T-Tape brochure. For each product, you can quickly see how far it can
be operated while still maintaining acceptable uniformity. If the product is used for a longer length, then
uniformity will fall below accepted standards. Note: The table represents a single lateral only. However, FV /
EU should be considered for the entire block.
Wall Thickness Maximum Run Length Roll Product

Description Nominal Ø Spacing Flow Rate at 0.55 Bar
(Nominal) (90% E.U. on Flat Ground) Length Number
(l/h per
(mil) (mm) (cm) (l/h per 100m) (m) (m)
emitter)
508-40-125 16mm (5/8") 8 0.2 40 0.5 125 280 2300 101001709
508-40-185 16mm (5/8") 8 0.2 40 0.75 185 215 2300 101001710
508-40-250 16mm (5/8") 8 0.2 40 1 250 180 2300 101001712
508-60-210 16mm (5/8") 8 0.2 60 1.25 210 205 2300 101001715
510-10-750 16mm (5/8") 10 0.25 10 0.75 750 85 1830 101001506
510-10-1000 16mm (5/8") 10 0.25 10 1.00 1000 75 1830 101002024
510-15-220 16mm (5/8") 10 0.25 15 0.33 220 180 1830 101002026
Wall Maximum Run Length Roll Product

Description Nominal Ø Thickness Spacing Flow Rate at 8 PSI (90% E.U. on Flat Ground) Length Number
(Nominal)
(mil) (in) (gpm/100 ft) (gph/100 ft) (gph/emitter) (ft) (ft)
508-04-1.00 5/8" 8 4 1 60 0.20 285 7,500 101001490
508-06-450 5/8” 8 6 0.45 27 0.14 490 7,500 101001045
508-08-340 5/8” 8 8 0.34 20 0.14 595 7,500 101001492
508-08-500 5/8” 8 8 0.50 30 0.20 450 7,500 101001869
508-08-670 5/8” 8 8 0.67 40 0.27 375 7,500 101001494
508-12-220 5/8” 8 12 0.22 13 0.13 770 7,500 101001497
508-12-340 5/8” 8 12 0.34 20 0.20 595 7,500 101001499
A couple of points to note:
• For the example above, it states that this is valid on “flat ground”. If you have a slope, this amount will vary
accordingly, and you will need to consult additional technical information or a hydraulic designer to
calculate the maximum run length on a slope.
• You can achieve longer run lengths by using a larger diameter tube and/or lower flow rates.
• You can also achieve (much) longer run lengths, including on sloping ground, by using Pressure
Compensated (PC) drip lines. More on this later.
• Hydraulic design, via a professional irrigation designer, can also find unique solutions. For example, on a
light downhill slope, uniformity can be achieved by offsetting the friction in the pipe.
• Run lengths may dictate your submain piping placement. If you cannot achieve the run length, you can
run the submain pipe in the middle and have the drip laterals in each direction, effectively doubling the
distance you can achieve (on flat terrain).
Non-PC compared to PC/AS/ND dripper options

Let’s start by exploring what a non-PC dripper is.
If PC means pressure compensating then non-PC means that the dripper does not compensate for
variations of pressure. If the pressure increases, the flow of the dripper increases.
Flow increase of a non-PC dripper as pressure rises

Pressure (bar)
4.00
3.75
3.55 3.64
3.50 3.43
3.31
3.16
3.00 2.91
3.05
2.76
2.61
2.50 2.45
2.27
2.08
Flow rate (l/h)
2.00
1.81
1.62
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00 (m)
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Exponent
The exponent (X) is a published technical reference for each dripper that shows the relation of flow to
pressure.
Most non-PC drippers have an exponent of approximately 0.5 (although this number can vary).
Using this rule of thumb of X = 0.5, if the pressure is 20% higher, you will have 10% higher flow when
using a non-PC drip line.

Using non-PC drippers requires hydraulic design to consider the pressure both along the lateral, and also
across the block itself. Once again, the last emitter must be uniform to the first emitter.
Remember: Increasing the pressure does not extend the maximum run length possible for non-PC drippers.
Every non-PC drip emitter is unique, and you should consult pressure x flow technical information for the
specific product you are using.
Pressure compensating (PC) drippers
One of the major advances in drip technology since its development was pressure compensation (PC).
PC drippers have a diaphragm built into them to regulate the pressure.
Within a relatively large pressure range, PC ensures the same flow per dripper, regardless of what the
pressure is at that point of the tube.
Simplified flow x pressure chart of PC & non-PC drip lines
Flow
Non PC
PC
Pressure
As the flow is regulated, much longer run lengths can be achieved than with non-PC drip lines.
Furthermore, PC drip lines achieve uniformity over sloping ground. The dripper at lower elevation will emit
the same amount of water as the dripper at the highest point, as per the example below.
Metric measurements
Start of Vineyard Row

Elevation: 5.0 m
Pressure: 1.5 bar (the pressure at start of lateral)
Actual flow rate for 2.0 l/h Non-PC drip line: 2.0 l/h
Actual flow rate for 2.0 l/h PC drip line: 2.0 l/h
5.0 m
End of Vineyard Row Elevation
Variation
Elevation: 0.0 m (variation - 5.0 m)
Lateral length: 125 m
Pressure: 1.9 bar (increased pressure due to gravity)
Actual flow rate for 2.0 l/h Non-PC drip line: 2.5 l/h (+25%)
Actual flow rate for 2.0 l/h PC drip line: 2.0 l/h (constant)
US measurements
Start of Vineyard Row

Elevation: 16 ft
Pressure: 21 psi (the pressure at start of lateral)
Actual flow rate for 0.5 gph Non-PC drip line: 0.5 gph
Actual flow rate for 0.5 gph PC drip line: 0.5 gph
16 ft
End of Vineyard Row Elevation
Variation
Elevation: 0 ft (variation - 5.0 m)
Lateral length: 410 ft
Pressure: 27 psi (increased pressure due to gravity)
Actual flow rate for 0.5 gph Non-PC drip line: 0.62 gph (+25%)
Actual flow rate for 0.5 gph PC drip line: 0.5 gph (constant)
Note: The above examples are illustrative only to demonstrate the effect of pressure on flow-rate. They
do not account for head loss in the lateral which also occurs.

Anti-siphon (AS) drippers
On sloping ground, when the irrigation system is shut off, the water will continue to run out of the lower
elevation drippers. This can create a suction in the higher section of drip tube. In conditions where risk of
soil ingestion at shut-off is high, anti-siphon (AS) drippers help protect you with anti-siphon diaphragm
technology.
When there is negative pressure in the hose (i.e. a vacuum caused at system shut-off), the membrane lowers
against the inlet filters, which in turn slows the flow of water in the reverse direction. The stronger the
vacuum, the stronger the seal that is made.
All Rivulis anti-siphon drippers also have a pressure compensating feature.
AS System
Application: SDI, or on surface with sandy soil.
 Water from the pipe slowly drains reducing the suction effect of soil particles into the dripper
at system shut down.
D5000 AS (ANTI SIPHON)
No-drain (ND) drippers
In addition to providing pressure compensation, the dripper seals when pressure falls below a specified
pressure to stop water draining out of the tube at shut-off.
No-drain (ND) drippers are commonly used for pulse irrigation, subsurface, and highly undulating ground.
They are also ideal for greenhouse applications. In fact, most advanced protected cropping applications that
use on-line drippers use ND drippers, which also allow further customization for precision, including high-
sealing pressure and medium-opening pressure options.
ND System
Use D5000 ND, HydroPCND or Supertif PCND where you have pulse irrigation – short and frequent irrigation
cycles where the water needs to stay in the tube during shut-off. When the pressure drops below a specified
pressure, the dripper seals, keeping the water in the tube, ready for the next irrigation cycle.
Application: Pulse Irrigation.
Pipe remains full with water at system shut down.
D5000 ND (NO DRAIN)

Diameter
The internal diameter of the tube is a major determinant of the run length. The larger the internal diameter,
the longer the run length that can be achieved while maintaining uniformity.
The diameter of the tube also determines what size of connector to use. It also has an impact on the
maximum pressure.
Note that there are three different diameters:
Nominal diameter – this is the industry terminology used to

identify each specific drip tape/drip line. In general, the nominal
diameter is the inside diameter for tapes and thin wall drip lines.
Conversely, it is generally the outside diameter for heavy wall drip
lines. Not all manufacturers align to the same terminology, and the
cut-off between thin wall and heavy wall may vary. Therefore, you
should check the internal diameter and outside diameter to
confirm.
Internal diameter (ID) – the diameter of the tube within the tube.
The Internal Diameter is the most important for hydraulic design, as
this is the area that the water has to flow through.
Outside diameter (OD) – the diameter of the tube including the

wall of the tube itself (the wall thickness).
A note regarding connectors
- For tubes with connectors that are inserted into the tube (e.g. heavy wall barb fittings), the fitting needs
to fit the ID of the tube.
- For tubes with connectors that fit around the tube, the fitting needs to fit around the OD of the tube.
Connector naming is not always consistent. Often it matches the nominal diameter name of the product
category, but not always. Check.
Wall thickness
The thickness of the plastic of the tube itself. For Rivulis, this is expressed generally as mil (thousandths of an
inch), even in metric markets. Some manufacturers express the thickness in mm. Therefore, below is a helpful
mil–mm table for nominal diameters.
Mil Millimeters Your choice of wall thickness is determined by three factors:

4 0.10
5 0.13 - The type of dripper that can be used – some drippers require
a minimum wall thickness. For example, the Rivulis D5000 PC dripper
6 0.15
requires 13 mil wall thickness as a minimum, whereas the Rivulis D1000
8 0.20
dripper can be manufactured in 5 mil wall thickness tube.
10 0.25
12 0.30 - The maximum pressure – combined with diameter, wall thickness
15 0.38 is the major determinant of the maximum pressure that can be
operated in the tube.
25 0.64
35 0.89 - Resistance to damage – quite simply, heavy wall thickness will
40 1.02 provide greater protection against damage. The table below provides
45 1.14 a summary of thicknesses and recommended use.
47 1.19
Thickness (mil) Recommended use

Well-cultivated soils where chewing insects are minimal.
4–6
Almost always for single season only. Often used for sweet potatoes, onions, and lettuce.
Provides additional strength, making this one of our most popular tapes for strawberries,
8
melons, and vegetable crops.
A good solution if you have heavy soil and insect problems. Often used for beans, corn,
10
melons, and vegetable crops.
If you are looking to re-use your tape or grow for multiple seasons, then 12 mil tape
12 is a minimum requirement. You will also find 12 mil in sugarcane, cotton, and other
subsurface applications, although thicker is more common.
15 A very good thickness for deep subsurface applications for row-crops.
If you are using your drip tape/drip line for multiple seasons, with retrieval and re-
18–30
installation, 18–30 mil provides the strength required for many of these applications.
For installation into the permanent application installations. This is the most common
30–45
thickness for orchards and vineyards.

OD
OD = Outside Diameter
WT = Wall Thickness
ID = Inside Diameter
WT
Handy calculations
ID ID = OD – (2 x WT)
WT = (OD – ID) / 2
OD = ID + (2 x WT)
Emitter spacing
Emitter spacing is simply the distance between the drip emitters. This can be as close as 10 cm (4”), and as far
as 1 m (40”) or more.
Two considerations are the soil type and the crop. Regarding the crop, consider the plant density and the
root structure.
A handy rule of thumb – the freer draining the soil, the closer the emitter spacing needs to be.
Therefore, in sand, you would

want a relatively close emitter
spacing. On the other hand,
in clay, the water will move
further laterally, allowing you Clay
to use wider drippers. Loam
Sand
Knowing your soils enables you to choose the right dripper flow rate (flow per dripper) and spacing (distance
between drippers) for your crop. Getting this combination right is important to:
• ensure all plants receive water and nutrients at their root zone
• minimize leaching of water and nutrients through the soil profile
• avoid over-watering or under watering, which leads to poor crop uniformity.
It is a common (wrong) belief that applying more water will cause it to spread further laterally. Generally, this
is not the case, especially in sandy soils. By applying dye through a drip irrigation system and then cutting
away the soil, we can see how water moves in the soil with different flow rates and spacing.
Application 1: Drip line: 1 l/h (0.26 gph)

Low flow rate drippers at 20 cm (8”) spacing
Close spacing Water applied: 0.5 l (0.13 gal)
Low water application
Water movement:
Spread: 18 cm (7”)
Depth: 29 cm (11.5”)
Application 2: Drip line: 8 l/h (2 gph) drippers
High flow rate at 50 cm (20”) spacing
Wide spacing Water applied: 2.0 l (0.5 gal)
High water application
Water movement:
Spread: 23 cm (9”)
Depth: 60 cm (24”)
Rohan Prince. Using dye to show water movement below drip irrigation. Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. Government of Western Australia. (2016)
In the above test, you can see in Application 2 that using higher flow drippers and wider spacing
between drippers only results in a 5 cm (2”) wider spread of water, despite applying four times the
volume of water!
Additionally, there was significant water loss through the soil profile. The root zone of a tomato plant (for
example) is only 25 cm (10”) deep, meaning that all water movement below this point for this crop is lost
water and nutrients.
In this example, most of the water in Application 2 using the high flow, wide distance system was lost and
passed the root zone. If closer spacing and lower flow drippers were used, the water (and fertilizers) would
be applied more efficiently.

Dripper spacing with SDI
To maximize the capillary movement through the soil, drippers need to be closer together in subsurface
than on surface because of the downward water movement in the soil profile.
Closer dripper spacing in SDI ensures a fully wetted line across the crop, which leads to uniformity.
Close dripper spacing = full “wetted” pattern Demonstration of spacing that is too wide.
There are dry patches between the drippers
The benefits of close dripper spacing are numerous
When irrigating, you want water to move laterally, not deep down through the soil profile where it is either
lost (including any fertilizers added) or is harder for plants to uptake. By keeping emitters spaced at close
intervals, water moves laterally quicker, ensuring a continued wet strip along the row.
In addition, more emitters per meter (per foot) provide greater protection against crop loss if an emitter
becomes blocked. Closer dripper spacing also makes it easier to leach accumulated salts both below and to
the edge of the bed.
Flow rate Ultra-low flow drippers
Flow rate is the volume of water that passes In recent years, drip tapes have been launched
through the dripper during a given unit of time. with ultra-low flow rate drippers. These new
drippers can emit very small volumes of water
Some drippers emit 8 liters (2 gallons) of water per with flow rates as low as 0.25 liters (0.067 gallons)
hour, and some low flow rate drippers emit 0.25 per hour.
liters (0.067 gallons) of water per hour.
The use of ultra-low flow drippers enables
The combination of flow rate per emitter and longer irrigation durations, agronomic benefits,
spacing determines the total water application while minimizing leaching of valuable water and
per meter (per foot). Therefore, the decision goes fertilizers.
hand in hand – the closer the spacing, the lower
the flow rate that is required per emitter for the
same water application per meter (per foot).
Filtration
Low flow drippers have many benefits. However, do keep in mind that in general, the lower the flow of the
dripper, the higher the risk of clogging. Lower flow drippers often require greater filtration protection.

A note about nominal flow-rates
For non-PC drippers, a nominal flow rate is published, which is the flow-rate at a specific pressure. As
discussed earlier in the non-PC vs PC section, non-PC drippers have a different flow rate dependent on
pressure. Therefore, you need to know what pressure the flow rate was calculated at to determine the
nominal flow.
In Rivulis, non-PC drip line flow rates are calculated at 1 bar (14.5 psi) pressure at the dripper.
Note: In the USA, thin-wall drip line flow rates are calculated at 0.7 bar (10 psi) pressure.
For PC drip lines, the pressure is irrelevant as the dripper is designed to emit the same volume of water,
regardless of pressure (within its operational pressure range).
Drip tape flow rates are generally calculated at 0.55 bar (8 psi) pressure, although some publish flow rates at
0.7 bar (10 PSI), so make sure you check apples–apples. See the next section.
Drip line product naming
Drip lines express their flow-rate as the flow per drip emitter.
For example, the product Rivulis D1000 16/8/1.0/0.3 is:
• 16 mm diameter
• 8 mil wall thickness
• 1.0 l/h (per drip emitter)
• 0.3 m drip emitter spacing.
In US measurements, the product Rivulis D900 5/8”/8/0.26/12 is:
• 5/8” diameter
• 8 mil wall thickness
• 0.26 gph (per drip emitter)
• 12” drip emitter spacing.
Drip tape product naming
Unlike most drip lines that publish the flow per hour of each dripper, drip tapes have historically, and still
today, presented the flow per 100 m/hour (metric) and flow per 100 ft/minute (USA). Therefore, Rivulis T-Tape
product naming is as follows.
Metric
508-30-340
Specifies the series and Specifies the thickness Specifies the spacing Specifies the flow rate per
the diameter of the tape: of the tape: 8 thousandths between emitters: 30 cm 100 m of tape per hour
500 series, 5/8” (16 mm) of an inch (0.20 mm) @ 0.55 bar: 340 l/h per 100 m
Calculating the flow per dripper for T-Tape
Step Formula Example using 508-30-340
Calculate how many drippers 1/[dripper spacing in meters] 1/0.3 = 3.33

per meter
Expand to how many drippers [drippers per meter] x 100 3.33 x 100 = 333
per 100 m
Divide by the flow per 100 m [total flow per 100m]/ [drippers per 100 m] 340/333 = 1.02 l/h per emitter
for the flow per dripper (nominal 1 l/h per emitter)
10 0 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

US measurements
508-12-450
Specifies the series and Specifies the thickness Specifies the spacing Specifies the flow rate per
the diameter of the tape: of the tape: 8 thousandths between emitters: 12’’ 100 ft of tape per minute
500 series, 5/8” of an inch @ 8 PSI multiplied by 100:
0.45 gallons/min per 100 ft
Calculating the flow per dripper for T-Tape
Step Formula Example using 508-12-450
Calculate how many drippers per 1 ft/[dripper spacing in inch] 1 (ft)/12 (inch) = 1
foot
Expand to how many drippers per [drippers per feet] x 100 1 x 100 = 100
100 ft
Divide by the flow per 100 ft for [total flow]/[emitters per 100 ft] = 0.45/100 = 0.0045 gpm/emitter
the flow per dripper [flow in gpm/emitter]
Multiply by 60 for the flow [gpm/emitter] x 60 0.0045 x 60 = 0.27 gph/emitter

per hour
O V E R V I E W O F D R I P I R R I G A T I O N S Y S T E M S & C O M P O N E N T S 101
Important: The flow rate of standard T-Tape is calculated at 0.55 bar (8 psi) pressure.
Most other drip lines, and even some drip tapes, use a different pressure to calculate the flow rate.
To ensure the comparison is ‘apples–apples’, use the table below to match the flow per emitter by matching
the flow rate of 0.55 bar/8 psi (top row) to the flow rate of the comparative drip line/tape.
Metric
Emitter flow rate (l/h)

0.25 0.33 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 2.00
Based on nominal pressure of 0.55 Bar
Flow rate (l/h) per emitter @ 0.80 bar 0.32 0.42 0.62 0.89 1.20 1.47 2.31
Flow rate (l/h) per emitter @ 1.00 bar 0.37 0.49 0.70 1.00 1.35 1.65 2.58
US measurements
Emitter flow rate (gph)

0.07 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.20 0.27
Based on nominal pressure of 8 PSI
Flow rate (gph) per emitter @ 12 PSI 0.09 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.25 0.33
Flow rate (gph) per emitter @ 15 PSI 0.10 0.16 0.19 0.20 0.29 0.37

On-line drippers
As mentioned previously, on-line drippers are often used in protected cropping applications where they are
connected to a tube and a peg. However, there are exceptions.
In some open field applications, on-line drippers are inserted. However, this is increasingly rare as it requires
additional labor to install the drippers.
The Katif PC is one exception, as it does not have an outlet that connects to the tube. It is for specialized
applications where it is preferred to insert a dripper into the tube.
In most cases, on-line drippers will be used in protected cropping applications where precision irrigation
is required, as plants receive 100% of their water and nutrients from the dripper. In these applications, you
need to consider outlet types, opening and sealing pressure, and the peg that you will use.
On-line dripper outlet types
Multifunction port
Straight conic-barb outlet (conic + barb) enabling a multifunction port

that can be used standalone without tube, direct to 3 x 5 mm tube,
or connected to tube using branching adapters.
Barbed side outlet (SOL)
A unique Rivulis solution incorporating a side outlet that enables

the tube to wrap around the gutter, which in turn keeps it out of
the way of workers in greenhouses in tube and peg applications.
For applications that do not use a tube and peg, the side outlet
delivers the water closer to the plant’s roots, reducing evaporation.
Opening and sealing pressure options
Greenhouses are precise, and often use precise pulse irrigation where they are operated (opened and
closed) multiple times per hour, and just for a few minutes.
In these applications, you must keep the water in the pipes to have precise pressure ranges for opening
and closing.
Supertif offers five different dripper types, each with different sealing, opening and working pressure
ranges.
SEALING START OPEN WORKING PRESSURE RANGE

Supertif-PCND-H-MOP 2.0 m 6.0 m 10.0 - 35.0 m

Supertif-PCND-MOP 1.8 m 7.0 m 11.0 - 35.0 m
SEALING WORKING PRESSURE

Supertif-PCND-H 3.5 m RANGE 12.0 - 35.0 m
SEALING
Supertif-PCND 1.5 m WORKING PRESSURE RANGE 7.0 - 35.0 m
Supertif PC WORKING PRESSURE RANGE 6.0 - 35 m
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 25 30 35

Pressure (m)

Supertif-PCND-H-MOP 3 PSI 8.5 PSI 14 - 50 PSI

Supertif-PCND-MOP 2.5 PSI 10 PSI 15.5 - 50 PSI
SEALING WORKING PRESSURE

Supertif-PCND-H 5 PSI RANGE 17 - 50 PSI
SEALING WORKING PRESSURE RANGE

Supertif-PCND 2 PSI 10 - 50 PSI
WORKING PRESSURE RANGE

Supertif PC 8.5 - 50 PSI
1.5 2 3 3.5 4.5 5 5.5 6.5 8.5 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 28 36 43 50

Pressure (PSI)

Pegs
One dripper can feed either one, or up to four pegs. The below diagram provides a guide to this
selection, and the type of peg that is suitable.
How many pots per dripper?
Considerations:
Crop value - high value crops should have one dripper per pot.
Total flow required - if you have multiple pots per dripper, you need to ensure that
each pot still receives enough water.
Single
Pot Per Multi-Pot
Dripper
Connect Using Single Hose Connect Using Manifold & Flow

Stabilizer Pegs – SnaPeg or BarPeg Equalizing Pegs –
DripPeg or Polytif
Flow equalizing pegs helps each plant receive

the same amount of water, through an
equalizing mechanism in each peg.
Flushing manifold
Drip laterals need periodic flushing to expel contaminant build-up.
Flushing is the opening of the end of a drip lateral to expel contaminants. To achieve adequate flushing, a
high velocity flow of water is required.
Flushing regimes are discussed in detail in Book 4 – Maintenance, but the installation of a flushing manifold
needs to be decided when designing your irrigation system.
In a manual (non-flushing) manifold system, the flushing is done manually through the opening of each drip
lateral.
In a flushing manifold system, all drip laterals are connected to an end flushing manifold, which has a valve
that vents to atmosphere. Flushing is as simple as opening the flushing manifold valve to expel debris from
the drip system. Even this valve can be automated.
In times of labor challenges, it makes sense to also automate the maintenance of drip line cleaning (flushing)
as much as possible.
To achieve the high velocity required for flushing, not all laterals of a block are opened at once. They are
opened as sets to allow the higher velocity. This point is also explored further in Book 4.
Flush Valve Laterals
Zone 1
Mainline
Flushing Manifold
System
Submain
Flush Zone 2
manifold Valve

Pressure gauges & flow meters
These devices go hand in hand for monitoring.
Pressure gauges
Regardless of the drip system type, operating

pressures need to stay at the original specifications as
per the hydraulic design.
Pressure increases or decreases indicate a problem,

e.g. leak, break, blocked filter (see Book 4 –
Maintenance).
Pressure gauges should be installed on the mainline

both before and after the filter.
Pressure should also be checked in key sections of the

system, including at field control. This can be done
with a portable pressure gauge with a pressure check
needle.
Ensure there is pressure at the end of the drip lateral.
Rivulis Pressure Indicators are a simple solution to easily see if there is pressure the end of the drip lateral,
which is particularly useful for when the drip laterals is buried on under plastic mulch.
The flag indicates the pressure of the tube. The green flag model is for tape and thin wall pressures, and
the yellow flag model is for medium-heavy wall pressures.
Flow meters
At a minimum, install a flow meter on the main supply line to measure the total water volume being
distributed to the field.
Similar to pressure gauges, in addition to system monitoring, you are looking for fluctuations that could
indicate system problems.
Flow meters can be simple propeller (mechanical) flow meters, through to advanced ultrasonic flow meters.
The obvious advantage of an ultrasonic flow meter is that there are no moving parts to break, wear-out,
etc., combined with very reliable accuracy. However, there is a significantly higher price-tag, so you need to
determine if it is worth the extra expense.
Propeller flow meters need to be installed on a pipe that is straight and has an upstream unobstructed
length of pipe at least eight times its diameter in length.
On the other hand, some (not all) ultrasonic flow meters do not require any straight piping before or after
the meter. As always, check the specification requirements for each model.

Crop monitoring
In addition to monitoring the irrigation system, in the end, it is the crop that matters. Rivulis offers two crop
monitoring solutions.
Manna Irrigation
Manna Irrigation is a powerful online tool that provides an irrigation recommendation –

how much to irrigate, each day.
It is a sensor-free, cloud-based software that provides irrigation recommendations,

crop monitoring maps, and irrigation planning tools.
Discover more, including a free trial at manna-irrigation.com.
Rivulis ReelView
Rivulis ReelView provides agronomic satellite imagery of your crops direct to your phone.
ReelView can help you spot small problems before they become big ones.
VEGETATION INDEX
0 1 Potential problem
Low High
to investigate.
PLANT WETNESS VARIABILITY
Potential problem
Dry Wet to investigate.
Find out more about Rivulis ReelView at www.rivulis.com/reelview

Available in selected geographies only. Terms and conditions apply – https://www.rivulis.com/docs/ReelviewTOS.pdf
or get started right away at
O V E R V I E W O F D R I P I R R I G A T I O N S Y S T E M S & C O M P O N E N T S 10 9
Frost protection systems
In the development of your drip irrigation system, active frost protection should be a consideration if you
have a climate and crop risk. Frost protection is achieved by sprinklers, so out of the scope of this book, but
as a frost protection system generally integrates into your overall irrigation system, we will provide a high-
level overview.
Types of frost
Spring frost is the most observed and reported

in agriculture. It is common in temperate
countries and damages deciduous crops like
vineyards, apples, cherries, kiwi, and blueberries.
These crops are naturally adapted to

cold winters and can withstand subzero
temperatures for long periods of time. The
dosage of cold is required so that they shed
their leaves in winter and go into dormancy.
Once they bloom and leaf out, they gradually
become vulnerable to frost. The farther away
they are from dormancy and deeper into spring,
the more sensitive they become to frost, and
the heavier the damage. In recent years, due to
climate change, frosts can occur even during
the month of May (Northern Hemisphere),
where in many places the crops are well on
their way towards summer, leaving them totally
unprepared and ill-equipped.

Winter frost: Tropical and subtropical

crops also require frost protection.
Crops like avocado, litchi, mango,
berries, citrus, etc. are being cultivated
outside their natural habitat. These
crops are all evergreen and are not
equipped to deal with subzero
temperatures. Furthermore, in recent
years, countries with relatively warm
climates have experienced extreme
frosts during winter. One night or
even less of exposure to subzero
temperatures for these tropical and
subtropical crops can mean total
destruction. Unlike deciduous crops
where frost damages the annual
production, in evergreen trees, the frost
damage can impact multiple years and
even lead to total loss.
Active frost protection
Frost protection can be achieved using latent heat. The principle is that when water freezes, it releases heat
to its environment. For any substance or material, a solid state is always in a lower energy level. Moving
water from a liquid state to a gas state means raising it to a higher energy level, therefore requiring the use
of energy. The same goes the other way around. The transition of water from liquid to solid means reducing
the energy level. The excess energy that is being released actually radiates to the environment as heat. Latent
heat is how water can save your plantation or vineyard from frost.
Solid Liquid Gas
Add 80 calories
Add 540 calories
Melting Add 100 calories Evaporating
Water vapour
Warming
Ice O°C 100°C
Freezing O°C 100°C Condensing

Cooling
Remove 80 calories Remove 100 calories Remove 540 calories
Latent heat of fusion - 80 calories Latent heat of vaporisation - 540 calories
The use of sprinklers for frost protection is one of the most well known, efficient, and reliable methods of
frost protection. There are different methods, but the principles are universal.

A minimum application rate of 3.0 mm/h (0.12 in/hr) is required. This is enough to provide protection at
temperatures as low as -3˚C (26.6˚F).
Another 0.5 mm/h (0.02 in/hr) is required for every additional drop of one degree celsius (1.7˚F).
For example: if the temperature is -4.0˚C (24.8˚F),

the minimum application rate will be 3.5 mm/h (35 m3/hour/hectare) (0.14 in/hr, or 62 gpm/acre).
We divide sprinkler frost protection to 3 methods:
Overhead full cover
Targeted individual protection
Under-tree protection
Frost protection relies on much of the infrastructure that you install for your irrigation system, so it needs to
be a consideration upfront.
For more information regarding frost protection, please see our dedicated book for
active frost protection methods. https://www.rivulis.com/crop/frost-protection/.
Conclusion
This book has gone over the various components of your irrigation system. We will look at how the decisions
from this book, along with the outputs of Book 1, lead through to the hydraulic design, installation, and
startup in Book 3.

THE
RIVULIS
DRIP GUIDE
GROW
BEYOND
www.rivulis.com
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THE

2 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

The complete set

Introduction to drip irrigation Overview of drip irrigation Design Maintenance

Edition: February 2023

Written by Matt Clift

4 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Hydraulic control valves, check valves and air valves 48

6 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

The two questions – next steps 55

Mainlines and submains 62

Fertigation & chemigation 68

Drip emission – drip tapes/drip lines and online drippers 77

8 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Drip tape/drip line or on-line drip emitters 85

10 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Frost protection systems 110

THE BIG PICTURE

Main control Secondary Flushing

Main control head

Drip laterals Flushing manifold Drip laterals Online drippers

12 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

MAIN CONTROL HEAD

2. provides the primary filtration (primary filter)

3. provides mainline pressure control (valve)

4. monitors the systems (flow meter and pressure gauges)

5. injects fertilizers and chemicals (fertigation and chemigation injection).

SECONDARY CONTROL HEAD

Activates the block (field valve)

Provides additional protection (backup/secondary filter and air valve)

Secondary (backup) filtration

14 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

16 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

The water source

What is important to note is that your

For example, if you source water from a

The aeration should occur before the

1. Balance the water use required of the pump system.

Settling ponds need to be cleaned periodically (from the bottom).

18 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Pre-pump protection – suction strainers

They function as the water intake for the system and

A number of suction strainers, including Rivulis suction

20 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Pre-pump protection – pre-filtration strainer

The screens are designed to provide protection only

22 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Selecting the right pump

1. the required flow rate (m3/hr) (gpm)

In addition to the pump discharge and pressure, you need to consider:

1. the type of pump, e.g. centrifugal pump – horizontal

3. Pump water capacity

Static water level 1. Pump Type

24 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

Pump discharge (flow)

High level formula to determine flow:

Convert mm to m by dividing mm by 1,000. 8.5 mm = 0.0085 m

Multiply the m x 10,000. 0.0085 x 10,000

Calculate how much water is required for the

Multiply the m3/day/hectare by the total cropping

= Total pump output required m3/day 11,050 m3/day

Calculate the flow requirement per hour,