THE

RIVULIS
DRIP GUIDE

1
INTRODUCTION TO
DRIP IRRIGATION
GROW
THE 6 KEY CONSIDERATIONS BEYOND
IN DEVELOPING YOUR
IRRIGATION SYSTEM www.rivulis.com
THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE

DISCLAIMERS
This booklet, the information and recommendations included therein regarding your choice and operation of Rivulis products,
including the applicable Rivulis drip irrigation system, and regarding other farming related procedures (the “booklet”) are
designed and rendered for information purposes only and to the best of Rivulis’ knowledge and experience. The content is
provided for the purpose of offering an introductory overview of drip irrigation and related agricultural issues. It is therefore not
an exhaustive guide, and this booklet should be used in conjunction with other sources.
Rivulis has used commercially reasonable efforts to ensure that its own product information, including data sheets, schematics,
manuals and brochures are correct in all material respects. That being said, any information should be verified before making any
decisions and all information in this booklet is provided on an “as is” and “as available” basis, without warranties of any kind either
express or implied. For the sake of clarity, the booklet includes public information and other materials provided by third parties
which Rivulis has not independently verified; all of which is provided on an “as is” and “as available” basis, without warranties of
any kind either express or implied.
Except for the specific product warranties, available from the local Rivulis office of your area, Rivulis hereby disclaims all
warranties, express or implied, including without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability, reliability, title, fitness for a
particular purpose, and non-infringement. Applicable law may not allow the exclusion of certain warranties, so to that extent,
such exclusions may not apply.
Please note further that in light of the numerous variances of every farm, growth, climate, regional differences, etc., the booklet
cannot be deemed as an exhaustive guide of every consideration that must be considered when choosing the suitable product
for you and when taking other farming related decisions included in the booklet. As always, you should consult with a local
irrigation consultant for your specific needs.
As some of our products are not available in all regions, please contact your local authorized Rivulis dealer for additional details
and irrigation solutions. Rivulis reserves the right to change, edit and/or modify the booklet from time to time, as well as any of
its products’ specifications and designs without any notice.
Please note that all applicable safety regulations and means must be applied when using, storing, installing, operating,
maintaining, and troubleshooting of Rivulis products, their components and any other product or equipment referenced within
this booklet. Without derogating from the generality of the aforesaid, at any installation, use, maintenance and troubleshooting
of any of Rivulis products you and any of your employees, affiliates and partners must implement strict safety procedures
regarding, inter alia, electricity, machinery and the use of hazardous materials.
Some chemicals and fertilizers mentioned in this booklet are dangerous and their use is subject to local laws/regulations. To
learn about the health and environmental hazards and the required safety means related to such materials – refer to the safety
data sheets of such materials.
Any information provided by Rivulis in this booklet about the chemical or fertilizer treatment or chemical materials (including
safety information and handling recommendations), is provided as a general service only. Rivulis is not a treatment material or
fertilizer manufacturer and cannot guarantee that this information is sufficient, complete or accurate and cannot notify you in
case of changes in any handling guidelines. Therefore, prior to use, you must carefully learn about the hazards related to and the
safe performance and use of such treatments and materials, including by reading the relevant material safety data sheets (MSDS),
and consult with applicable professionals. Using such materials is at your own risk.
All guidelines mentioned in the booklet regarding the use of such materials are subordinate to the instructions of the
manufacturer of such materials and to applicable safety and environment laws.
As Rivulis only manufactures irrigation products, descriptions, guidelines, and recommendations included in this booklet, not
specifically linked to the use of its products, including ones related to chemical treatments, fertilization, salinity management,
etc, are provided to you as a general service only. Rivulis cannot guarantee the completeness, accuracy, and sufficiency of such
information and therefore does not guarantee and will not be responsible, for any yield results, crop loss, equipment loss, etc.
resulted from using this information. You solely bear the responsibility of using this information and for handling your farm and
soil.
There are hazards associated with working with farm and irrigation equipment. The user must comply with all relevant safety
measures of all equipment and materials. For example, protective clothing, shoes, and eye protection must be used as required.
Electrical installations must only be made by licensed professionals and according to local laws and regulations.
This booklet may be translated into various languages. However, in the case of doubt or variance, the English version prevails.
Rivulis reserves all intellectual property to this booklet. No part of this booklet may be reproduced without the prior written
permission of Rivulis.

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The complete set

This book is one of four books written to help you to get the most out of your irrigation system.
Download the books and view our interactive knowledge hub at:
www.rivulis.com/knowledgehub, or scan the QR code:

Introduction to drip irrigation Overview of drip irrigation Design Maintenance

systems & components – Installation
The 6 key considerations in from water source to emitter Startup
developing your irrigation system

Edition: February 2023

© 2023, Rivulis Irrigation Ltd, all rights reserved.
Reproduction, duplication, sale or rent of this booklet in any form is prohibited without the written consent of Rivulis
Irrigation Ltd.
RIVULIS and other marks, logos, branding features and service marks used and displayed in this guide are trademarks,
registered and unregistered, of Rivulis Irrigation Ltd.

Written by Matt Clift

Photography coordination and additional content by Romeo Dragan.
Many thanks to Eyal Ben-David, Rafi Golan, Zvika Golan, Avishai Schneider, and the extended team involved in the
development of the Rivulis Drip Guides. The author also wishes to acknowledge legacy company information which
served as additional source material for this guide.

I N T R O D U C T I O N T O D R I P I R R I G AT I O N 3
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CONTENTS

Introduction to drip irrigation

Growing more with irrigation 6
Defining irrigation 7
Drip irrigation today 8
The Rivulis story 11

The 6 key considerations in developing your irrigation system 12

Consideration 1: Your crop 14
Consideration 2: The climatic conditions of your farm 16
Evapotranspiration (ET) 18
The crop coefficient (Kc) 19
Putting it together 19
Consideration 3: Your fields 26
Factors you need to define (in relation to irrigation) 28
The farm map 30

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Consideration 4: Your soil 32

Field capacity 34
The range of soils 35
Consideration 5: Your water source 38
How much water do you have? 39
Where does your water come from? 40
Digging deeper – what’s in your water? 41
Salinity 44
pH 45
Consideration 6: Your energy 48
Diesel and electric pumping costs 50
Moving forward 52

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GROWING MORE WITH IRRIGATION

The four growth levers that determine yield size and quality:

NUTRITION

YIELD SIZE CLIMATE /

GENETICS & QUALITY LIGHT

WATER

Except for protected cropping (greenhouses), unfortunately you can’t control the sun.

That leaves you three growth levers that you can control to improve your yield…
and one of those is water – i.e. irrigation!
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Defining irrigation
Let’s start with simple definition of irrigation:
The application of water to a crop, beyond what is provided by naturally by rain.

Irrigation falls into two main categories

Non-pressurized irrigation Pressurized irrigation

Canal/surface systems that flood the fields. Water is delivered, under pressure, via piping to water
High volume water application, less frequently. emission devices.

Low efficiency – only 60% efficiency of water use

(Food and Agriculture Organization – FAO)

Poorer
agronomic
results.
Pressurized irrigation is either:

Sprinkler/spray irrigation Drip irrigation

Water is sprayed via a nozzle or a spinner. Water discharges from a drip emitter.

Flows rates generally range Application rates are low

from 20 l/h (5 gph) for a micro-sprinkler, (generally 0.5–4.0 l/h (0.13–1.0 gph) per drip emitter)
through to thousands of liters per minute for a and are frequently applied.
gun irrigator.
The most efficient irrigation method –
Moderate efficiency – 90% efficiency of water use (FAO)
75% efficiency of water use (FAO)
Best agronomic performance.

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Drip irrigation today

Drip irrigation as we know it today came into being in the mid-20th century.

As the technology developed, and as growers saw the results, the popularity of drip irrigation grew
exponentially.

Today, 7% of the world’s irrigated crops are irrigated by drip irrigation.

Global irrigation methods Drip 7%

Sprinklers 21% Flood 72%

And while it is 7% overall, in multiple regions/crops, drip is now the most prominent irrigation method.

“The almond industry has invested heavily in sophisticated irrigation systems, with 99% of orchards using drip irrigation
and the majority of growers using technology that measures and controls water stress in almond trees to accurately match water
application to the plants’ needs.”
Almond Board of Australia

“Israel’s avocado crop, number 10 in global avocado production, is 99% reliant on drip technology.”
Forbes

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DEFINING DRIP
IRRIGATION
We will sum up what drip irrigation
is by what it does:

1 2 3
It applies water The water application is: Often fertilizers and
directly to the plant chemicals are applied
a. at a low volume
root zone via drip through the water
b. over a long period of time
emitters. delivery.
c. frequently applied.

The opposite – flood irrigation – has water being applied over the entire field at a high volume, with large
time intervals in between, and it is only water, not fertilizers or chemicals.

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Crop
uniformity –
consistent water delivery
to each plant at each
dripper is designed to
emit a specified flow of
water
Not impacted
by wind –
unlike sprinklers and sprays,
you can irrigate even in
high wind conditions while
maintaining irrigation and
crop uniformity
Operational benefits –
provides the ability to
operate machinery while
irrigating at the same time
10 THE RIVULIS DRIP GUIDE
Crop quality – Fertilizer Water savings –
does not cause water savings – irrigating directly to the
damage to foliage and fertilizer is injected directly root zone and less loss
vegetables as water into the system and is to evaporation
is applied at/below delivered directly to the
ground level root zone, providing more
efficient fertilizer use
Why farmers
choose drip
irrigation Doesn’t irrigate the
interrows –
interrows can make up 60% of the
field. Sprinkler and flood irrigate
the interrows, which, in addition
to the loss of water, encourages
weed growth that may require
herbicide treatment
Unlock land – Light and flexible –
provides the ability to easily change crops and fields each
irrigate on sloping terrain season using seasonal drip systems,
and irregular shape blocks and multi-use subsurface systems
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The Rivulis story

Drip irrigation is a close to our hearts as we have been developing the technology and use of drip irrigation
for over 55 years.

However, the Rivulis name is quite new – 2014 in fact!

But our legacy starts back in 1966. Rivulis is built upon the legacy of four pioneers in drip irrigation:
T-Systems (USA), Roberts Irrigation (USA), Plastro (Israel) and Eurodrip (Greece).

While being humble, we are proud to say that Rivulis (and its legacy companies):
• developed the world’s first no-drain dripper for pulse irrigation – HydroPCND
• developed the world’s first slit outlet drip tape to prevent soil suck-back – T-Tape
• developed the world’s first insect repellent drip line and tape solution – Rivulis Defend
• today has the widest range of drip line and tape options of any irrigation company in the world.

With a legacy dating back to 1966, we have amassed a wealth of expertise on how to achieve the best
results using drip irrigation. Our intention with these drip irrigation booklets is to share with you the keys for
success for your crop.

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THE SIX KEY CONSIDERATIONS

IN DEVELOPING YOUR IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Installing a drip irrigation system requires the evaluation of six key areas of your farm.

We start by talking about your farm, as there is no point talking about features such as pressure
compensating vs no-drain drip lines, or disc vs screen filters, until we evaluate your farm.

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What are the big six?

Crop: Climate: The field:

What crop are you What is the seasonal rainfall, and What shape? What slope?
growing? what is the irrigation requirement
to make up the difference to meet
the water requirement for your
specific crop?

The soil: The water source: Energy:

What type of soil and What is it (well, reservoir, etc.) What energy source do you
how well does it hold and how much water volume have, what is the price, and what
water? do you have access to? restrictions do you have?

These outputs are critical to know because:

1. you can determine the right components you need (see Book 2)
2. the outputs make the basis for much of the information that you will need to provide to a hydraulic
design engineer to design your irrigation system (see Book 3).

Let’s go …

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CONSIDERATION 1:
YOUR CROP

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Some irrigation manufacturers will say that you can irrigate every crop with drip. Well, technically you could
grow almost anything with drip. But the economics don’t always stack up. So we will stick with what we
know works.

Below is a table of crops that have a proven track record with drip irrigation, both from an agronomic and a
commercial perspective.

Suitable crops for use with drip irrigation in open field applications

Seasonal crops Seasonal crops Mid-term crops

(high-value) (commodity) (~5 years)

• Peppers/ capsicums • Cotton (seed and lint) • Sugarcane

• Brassicas • Sugar beet • Alfalfa/lucerne
• Strawberries • Corn/maize • Pineapple
• Beans (runner) • Sunflower • Asparagus
• Melons • Soybean • Berries
• Potatoes • Sorghum (blueberries,
• Carrots • Rice raspberries, etc.)
• Eggplants • Bananas
• Onions
• Lettuces
• Hemp Long-term crops
• Tomatoes
• … and most other
• Grapes (wine and table)
vegetables Landscape
• Nuts
• Citrus
• Olives • Turf
• Coffee • Ornamental trees
• Pomes (apples & pears) and bushes
• Avocados

Suitable crops for use with drip irrigation in protected cropping applications:

Short answer – almost all crops, with a few exceptions where micro-sprinkler irrigation is more suitable.

As protected cropping is a unique subject, for the purposes of this book we will keep primarily with open-
field irrigation.

KEY OUTPUTS - CROP What crop type will be grown? Will there be rotation crops?

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CONSIDERATION 2:
THE CLIMATIC
CONDITIONS
OF YOUR FARM

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With the crop type in mind, the next step is to look at your climate and in particular, the water
required to grow the crop in your specific climate.

When we talk about climate, we will talk mainly about precipitation and evaporation (since this is a book on
irrigation), but here’s a few other climate-related considerations:

• Temperatures – each crop has a range for photosynthesis efficiency. Further, some temperatures will
stunt or even kill crops.

On the other hand, a number of crops require a period of cold temperature to transition from vegetative
to reproductive growth stage (vernalization).

Furthermore, you must consider frost-free days.

Temperature is a big consideration of what you can grow, and when.

• Seasons – to a degree, this could be integrated with the temperature and the “when” of above. But in
addition to temperature, you consider the amount of daylight hours, and wet/dry seasons, etc.

• Wind – wind can be necessary or destructive – it depends. Wind is important for pollination for beets,
corn, spinach, etc. Too much wind can cause lodging.

The above topics could warrant a book unto themselves. However, as there are plenty of resources on these
topics, let’s talk about the key matters in relation to irrigation.

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Evapotranspiration (ET)

With the knowledge of the specific crop you will grow, you need to determine its water requirement.

A plant’s water requirement is measured by evapotranspiration, which is primarily determined by climate

factors (solar radiation, temperature, humidity, and wind).

Evapotranspiration (ET)
= the total quantity of water that is:

used by the crops for transpiration,

including evaporation from the plant itself

io n
ir

at
plus sp
tran

e v ap oration
lost through evaporation from the soil surface.

Rule of thumb for the late stages of crops –

ET is generally 10% evaporation and 90% transpiration.

The rate of evapotranspiration is not static.

It fluctuates daily, with trends across seasons.

Solar radiation, temperature and wind speed increase ET.

Humidity decreases ET.

In general, we work with a standardized measurement being the reference evapotranspiration rate (ETO ).
FYI, the standardization is based upon a reference crop of vegetative grass.

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The crop coefficient (Kc)

The other half of the equation for plant water requirement is the crop coefficient (Kc).

This is a multiplier for a given crop used to predict water use at different growth stages.

1.20
75% 100%

1.00 C D
(Kc) mid
50%
20% (Kc) end
Crop coefficient (Kc)

0.80
(Kc) dev

0.60
E

0.40 (Kc) ini

A B
An example crop
0.20
coefficient chart
Crop
Initial development Mid-season Late-season
0

Time of season (days or weeks after planting)

Putting it together

Once you know the evapotranspiration rate (ETO ), you multiply it by crop coefficient (Kc ).
The outcome will be your plant’s water requirement.

Plant water requirement = ETO x Kc

Simple right? Let’s walk through the steps.

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Step 1. Determine your reference evapotranspiration (ETO)

Before planning your crop and irrigation system, you will need to review historical evapotranspiration data.

Reminder: Look at the full date sets of growing periods, not just isolated dates.

When your crop is planted, you will use real time evapotranspiration data to make daily and weekly water
schedules, but for planning, we use historical data.

In both cases, ETO information is readily available from government meteorological agencies. However, for
more accurate data, you may use your own weather station or evaporation pan method. The weather station
method uses the Penman-Monteith equation to calculate evapotranspiration based on weather readings. If
you are interested in the latter, google “Class A Evaporation Pan”, and keep in mind that you then need to use
a pan coefficient to reach ETO.

An example of government evapotranspiration data (source www.bom.gov.au)

Evapotranspiration Calculations
Trangie Research Station - December 2022 daily calculations
Date Evapo- Rain (mm) Max Min Max Rel MinRel Average Solar
transpiration 0900-0900 Temp Temp Hum (%) Hum (%) 10m Wind Radiation
(mm) Speed (MJ/sq m)
0000 -2400 (m/sec)
01/12/2022 5.6 0.4 27.6 15 90 31 3.36 22.85
02/12/2022 6.6 0 28.4 11.5 85 27 3.55 29.02
03/12/2022 6.5 0 28.9 12 85 26 2.89 29.87
04/12/2022 6.5 0 31.5 14.7 79 26 2.47 28.13
05/12/2022 8 0 34.3 13.3 84 22 4.42 25.61
06/12/2022 7.1 0 28.8 12.4 80 16 3.39 30.29
07/12/2022 4.3 0 27.2 11.5 94 25 2.69 13.17
08/12/2022 6.4 4.8 22.9 11.8 97 22 5.33 31.1
09/12/2022 5.8 0 25.2 7.3 80 25 3.68 25.3
10/12/2022 6.4 0 31.1 8.6 91 23 2.09 30.46
11/12/2022 8.3 0 35.6 12.8 84 16 3.73 28.14
12/12/2022 6.2 0 25.6 22.1 85 27 6.42 18.24
13/12/2022 6.7 1.6 26.5 6.7 85 21 3.67 31.05
14/12/2022 6.7 0 23.5 7.9 84 20 5.3 31.09
15/12/2022 6.2 0 23.8 6.2 83 20 3.68 31.04
16/12/2022 6.3 0 27.1 6.4 76 19 2.62 30.94
17/12/2022 7.3 0 28.7 12.6 71 21 3.69 30.96
18/12/2022 7.3 0 28.3 12.4 71 23 4.3 29.84
19/12/2022 7.5 0 28.6 11.9 74 20 4.25 30.91
20/12/2022 7.5 0 28.8 11.6 65 11 3.55 30.84
21/12/2022 7.5 0 30.3 13.5 65 14 3.68 27.79
22/12/2022 4.3 0 27.4 18.3 91 41 3.71 13.3
23/12/2022 4.8 2.6 31.2 17.3 97 37 2.51 17.16
24/12/2022 6.2 1.2 33.7 16.1 100 29 2.91 22.5
25/12/2022 7.3 0.2 35.9 14.9 100 23 2.41 30.08
26/12/2022 8 0 36.7 21.7 68 24 2.99 28.72
27/12/2022 8.7 0 35.9 18 61 9 3.18 31.28
28/12/2022 8.7 0 35.2 18.4 69 22 3.85 31.01
Totals: 188.7 10.8

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Step 2. Determine your crop coefficient (Kc)

As stated earlier, the crop coefficient is dependent on the crop and stage of growth.
It is a form of multiplier to calculate how much water a crop needs at each point of the season.

There are numerous sources of Kc available – online, industry agriculture bodies, etc.

Kc data is based on numerous years of crop research, but it has to be adapted to the local variety and
conditions.

An example of summary Kc information provided by the FAO

Crop factor (Kc) for seasonal crops (average figures)

Crop Initial Crop development Mid-season Late and harvest
Bean (green) 0.35 0.70 1.00 0.9
Bean (dry) 0.35 0.75 1.1 0.5
Cabbage 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Cotton 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Cucumber 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Eggplant 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
Groundnut 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Lettuce 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Maize (sweet) 0.40 0.80 1.15 1.0
Maize (grain) 0.40 0.75 1.15 0.70
Melon 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Onion (green) 0.50 0.70 1.0 1.0
Onion (dry) 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Pea (fresh) 0.45 0.80 1.15 1.05
Pepper 0.35 0.75 1.05 0.90
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Spinach 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Squash 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Sorghum 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Sugar beet 0.45 0.80 1.15 0.80
Sugar cane 0.45 0.85 1.15 0.65
Sunflower 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.55
Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80

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An example of summary Kc information provided by the FAO (continued)

Crop factor (Kc) for permanent crops

Crop Young Mature
Banana 0.50 1.10
Citrus 0.30 0.65
Apple, cherry, walnut 0.45 0.85
Almond, apricot, pear, peach, pecan, plum 0.40 0.75
Grape, palm tree 0.70 0.70
Kiwi 0.90 0.90
Olive 0.55 0.55
Alfalfa 0.35 1.1

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Step 3. Calculate your crop’s water requirement

ETO x Kc = crop water requirement

An example – growing tomatoes:

ETO for the day is 4.4 mm (0.17 in).
It is mid-season, therefore the Kc is 1.15:
• ETO x Kc = water requirement
• 4.4 x 1.15 = 5.06 mm (0.17 x 1.15 = 0.20 in) water requirement

However, what if you did not irrigate the two days before
io n

ir (no rainfall)?
at

sp
precipi tran
tatio
e v ap oration

n
In that case, you sum the ETO data from the last irrigation
event.
For the example, let’s presume two days:

drip
irrig
• (ETO x days since last irrigation event) x Kc = water
atio
n requirement
• 5.06 mm (0.20 in) x 2 days = 10.1 mm (0.40 in) required

How to convert mm to cubic meters per hectare

Multiply the mm water application rate by 10.

This number is the m3 of water per hectare that you need to apply.

E.g. 5.06 x 10 = 50.6 m3 water per hectare to apply

How to convert inches of precipitation to gallons, cubic feet, or acre-feet per acre

Multiply the inches water application rate by 27,154 to obtain gallons per acre.
Multiply the inches water application rate by 3,360 to obtain cubic feet per acre.
Divide the inches water application rate by 12 to obtain acre-feet per acre.

E.g. 0.2 inches x 27,154 = 5,430 gallons per acre

E.g. 0.2 inches x 3,630 = 726 cubic feet per acre
E.g. 0.2 inches / 12 = 0.017 acre-feet per acre

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Step 4. Offset rainfall

Rainfall/effective precipitation (Pe) is used to offset the irrigation requirement.

During the season, this is a straightforward calculation based on rainfall events. However, it is also a factor
when planning your irrigation system, although nature is impossible to predict with certainty, so factor in a
buffer.

Effective rainfall

The question is how much rainfall is sufficient to deduct from your scheduled irrigation plan.

As a general rule of thumb, effective rainfall is when there is a minimum of 5 mm (0.2 in) precipitation in a
day. Below this amount of rain is generally not considered ‘effective’, and not sufficient enough to deduct
from your irrigation planning.

Step 5. Calculate your irrigation requirement

You now have the data required to calculate your irrigation requirement.

Once you have the data, you will multiply by the farm size. This will help develop your irrigation plan, but for
the hydraulic design, what you are looking for is the largest irrigation volume amount in the season, as this
is the volume of water that the system needs to be able to apply (i.e. the maximum volume it will need to
deliver). If your system cannot deliver this amount of water when needed, you will lose yield.

Metric - Example US - Example

Stage Flowering Stage Flowering
ETo 6 ETo 0.23 in
Kc 0.75 Kc 0.75
Water requirement (mm) (6 x 0.75) = 4.5 Water requirement (in) (0.23 x 0.75) = 0.17
Less rainfall (Pe) 0 Less rainfall (Pe) 0
Irrigation requirement (mm) 4.5 Irrigation requirement (in) 0.17
Irrigation volume of water required (m3/ha) 45 Irrigation volume of water required (gal/ac) 4,616
Irrigated farm size (ha) 100 Irrigated farm size (ac) 100
Total irrigation volume required (m3) 4,500 Total irrigation volume required (gallons) 461,600

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Caution! Beware of averages.

The graph below shows the variance between the average water requirement and the peak water demand.

A common mistake is using average water requirement as a guide for your irrigation system. However if you
do this, during peak water demand periods, there is a deficit of water, which leads to yield reduction … often
at the most critical time!

Peak water demand

Variance
between peak
& average
Average
water demand

The final irrigation design needs to be based on the peak water requirement, not the average water
requirement.

Reduced deficit irrigation (RDI)?

The above works when you want the most bountiful, large crop. But that is not always the case. Think of
table grapes, where you could want large full grapes, vs wine grapes, which are more concentrated. Here
you want reduced deficit irrigation, which requires a different formula. As this a more specific subject, read
more about RDI in our vineyards brochure.

KEY OUTPUTS – CLIMATE

Water consumption per growing stage (mm (in)/day-stage)

Peak consumption required (m3 (gal)/day)

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CONSIDERATION 3:
YOUR FIELDS

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As we zoom out, we need to look at the block, field and farm configuration.

Some definitions

Since some terms are interchanged, below is how we will define each:

Block – each area of crop where the irrigation is controlled by a valve (i.e. you can turn off
the water to this area).

Field (sub-area) – a combination of blocks for one area of cropping, normally segmented
from other fields by a space.

Farm – the combination of all fields – the entire farm.

In short, what you are making is a topographical survey of your entire farm.

Of course, if you are planning your farm, there are many more factors to consider than just irrigation. This can
range from wheel spacing of harvesters/tractors to cropping density, etc.

However, your irrigation system is a critical part of the planning.

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Factors you need to define (in relation to irrigation)

What is your total area, and do you have enough water?

Take your peak water demand calculation per hectare and multiply by the farm size.
Do you have enough water available to meet peak demand?

Location of fields – piping and distribution planning to get the water to the fields,
and also consideration of distances from water source and pump shed.

Slopes – what slopes are there for each block and across the farm?
This will impact the type of drip irrigation you can use, as the pressure of the water increases
as elevations decrease across the field.

Fixed items – obstacles that should be considered, along with field and service roads.

Row length and direction – for each block, what is the length of the row, which in turn is the length
required of each drip irrigation lateral? Each drip irrigation line has a specific length that it can operate
at while maintaining uniformity. If this length is too long, you may consider using a sub-main in the
middle of the block – having the drip laterals center-fed, which halves the distance required for each
drip lateral.

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Row spacing and lateral spacing –

• Row spacing = the distance between each plant row
• Lateral spacing = the distance between each drip lateral.
This sometimes may be the same as the row spacing, but it varies.

The example below is a drip lateral for every second plant row. Therefore, row spacing of 5m (16.4 ft) and
lateral spacing of 10m (32.8 ft).

Row A

Lateral A 5 m (16 ft)

Row B

10 m (32 ft)
Row C
5 m (16 ft)
Lateral B
Row D

Block planning – how will you split the irrigation zones (blocks) for best hydraulic performance,
and also agronomic considerations (e.g. different soil types)? More information on block planning
is in Book 3.

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The farm map

A good design needs a detailed farm map.

The three most common methods of mapping are:

• Satellite imagery such as Google Earth
• Ground survey
• Drone survey.

Satellite imagery may not provide the required accuracy for projects where there are sensitive elevation
differences. In these cases, either drone or ground survey are required.

500

400

300

200
764

764

764

764

74 73 72 71 70 69
Topographic

A checklist for your map Location of obstacles

contour lines

Water source 209

000

Your field map should include the following:

Map direction

W E

£ Topographic contour lines Row direction

68

208

£ Field boundaries
900

£ Row directions Field boundaries

Existing roads

£ Water source location

£ Existing roads 208
800

£ Location of obstacles
£ Map direction (orientation) 74 73 72 71 70 69 68

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KEY OUTPUTS – FIELDS

Crop spacing (m)

Total cropping area (ha)

Row distance (m) and direction

Plan and location of fields and blocks,
and how they relate to critical infrastructure
Row direction and slopes (%)

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CONSIDERATION 4:
YOUR SOIL

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Your soil type will determine:

Irrigation intervals – frequent because water leaches quickly, or less frequent as the soil retains
the water for longer?

Irrigation volume per hour – do you need to apply volume of water slowly as the soil infiltration
is slow and you need to avoid run-off?

Dripper spacing – how far will the water move laterally through the soil ?

Let’s start with discussing field capacity, saturation, and permanent wilt point.

Saturation Field Capacity Permanent Wilting Point

All pores filled with water. Large pores are drained by Plants cannot remove
No air pockets. gravity. This is the upper adequate water to survive.
limit of storable water in
the soil.

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Field capacity

Field capacity is the amount of water that remains in the soil after it has been drained by gravity. For most
crops, field capacity or slightly below, is the optimum soil moisture condition for the vegetative growth
stages.

As an irrigation system is designed to replace the water used by the crop since the last irrigation, field
capacity is a method so you can know that this replenishment has been achieved.

What is your field capacity?

You will need a tensiometer.

Step 1: Saturate the soil until your tensiometer reads 0cb.

Step 2: Wait a few days … without rain.
Step 3: Remeasure the same area. The measurement on the
tensiometer is your field capacity.

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The range of soils

The illustration below shows the size variance of particles from gravel through to clay.

Diameter 2.0 0.2 0.05 0.002

(mm)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Most agriculture applications have soil that ranges between sand (light) and clay (heavy).

Water moves very differently depending on the soil – clay content. As the illustration below shows, water
application in soils with high clay content moves slowly and with greater lateral movement, compared to
soils with a high sand content.

Note that the sandy soil illustration shows just 24 hours to reach the depth of 183 cm. It takes 48 hours,
double the time, for the water to reach this depth with the clayey soil.

Large Pore Space Small Pore Space

Gravitational Pull Capillary Action
Sandy Soil Clayey Soil
Depth

15 min 30 cm (1 ft)

60 cm (2 ft) 4 hours

40 min 90 cm (3 ft)
24 hours
122 cm (4 ft)
1 hour
152 cm (5 ft)
24 hours 183 cm (6 ft) 48 hours

Sand Clay
Water spread and penetration time and distance in sandy and clay soils. David Whiting (2011)

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As you want the water to stay around the root zone, more sandy soils require shorter irrigation times, with
closer dripper spacing. It is the opposite for more clayey soils, where the challenge is a slower infiltration rate
into the soil.

The soil type also impacts on the field capacity, wilting point and available moisture.

Percentage of water content by soil type

Sandy
Well
Loamy Sandy loam +
Soil type Sand Loam Clay loam Clay structured
sand loam organic
clay
matter
Field capacity 9% 14% 23% 29% 34% 30% 38% 50%
Permanent
2% 4% 9% 10% 12% 16% 24% 30%
wilting point
Available
7% 10% 14% 19% 22% 14% 14% 20%
moisture
The available moisture is the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

To recap the information above, we have two major areas of consideration in relation to irrigation.

Soil infiltration (intake)

• The more sandy the soil, the less the water will move laterally (width), so drippers will need
to be closer together.

• The more sandy the soil, the faster the water will move down and risk being lost outside
of the active root zone. Irrigation should be shorter and more frequent.

• As the intake of heavy soils is slower, if the application is too high, the soil does not have
enough time to take in the water and run-off will occur. Slower, longer irrigation is required.

Soil moisture tension

• The heavier the soil, the more difficult it is for plants to extract the available water.
Therefore, a higher water content is required

• As heavier soils retain their water for longer, you irrigate less frequently.

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Other soil considerations

Sandy soils
• Have a greater risk of suck-back where the soil is ingested into the dripper.
In this case, you should consider an anti-siphon (AS) dripper (see Book 2).

Heavier soils
• Can be more difficult for installation and retrieval, especially if buried.

KEY OUTPUTS – SOIL

Your soil type(s) will impact the volume of water to apply per hour, and emitter spacing.

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CONSIDERATION 5:
YOUR WATER SOURCE

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How much water do you have?

Drip requires a constant and reliable water source as you usually irrigate multiple times per week.

Remember, your water source needs to be able to deliver the peak water requirement. Your crop’s average
requirement may be 4 mm (0.16 in)/day. However, most crops will have a peak water requirement due to a
combination of high growth stage and hotter/drier climate. This could be 8 mm (0.31 in)/day, for example.
The system needs to be able to deliver the water for the peak day, not the average.

Once you know what your peak water requirement is, then you need to work out if you have that amount of
water. This availability may be impacted by government/water authority restrictions. If you design a system
that needs more water than what you have available, the system will be unable to deliver when you need it
most.

The three factors you need to consider

Max flow rate (m3/hr) (gpm)

Max total volume available per season/year
Are there any restrictions on when you have access
to the water (e.g. available hours)?

+ a very important factor – cost!

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Where does your water come from?

Surface water (reservoirs, channels, rivers, etc.)

Your water is in general

coming from one of two places

Groundwater (water from underground)

Generally, surface water will have more organic matter. Conversely, groundwater will have less organic matter.
But groundwater has increased probability of containing iron, manganese, calcium, bicarbonates, and sand.
Each of these require different treatment methods (see Book 4 – Maintenance).

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Digging deeper – what’s in your water?

Do a water test. Without it, you are gambling on assumptions.

For drip irrigation, you will be looking at what physical elements are present and the water’s chemical
properties.

Physical Water

Inorganic Dissolved minerals

Sand and other foreign particles Although these generally don’t clog an irrigation
system, they can settle, they can lead to bacterial
Can cause clogging growth, and they can precipitate when exposed to
air or chlorine (especially iron and manganese)

Salinity

Organic
Does not impact the drip irrigation system
components directly, but will influence salinity
Algae, slime, plants, and other living organisms
management and crop choice

Can cause clogging pH

Further, organic matter can grow in the system The pH of the water can increase clogging risk
via precipitation. pH can also be optimized via
chemigation

Keep in mind:

There are different standards around the world to

measure water. Ensure that the lab you obtain results
from are in a common standard, and to the same
standard as whoever is making the irrigation design.

Surface water changes during the season, whereas

groundwater remains relatively constant.

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An example of irrigation water test results.

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The Rivulis Water Quality Questionnaire

Below is the questionnaire that the Rivulis design

team uses to assess your water quality.

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Salinity

Expressed as the total amount of dissolved salts in the water, salinity is measured by the ability to conduct
electricity (electric conductivity).

The indicator used is ECw. In most cases, if the ECw is less than 700 μs, you won’t have major problems.

Helpful hint: If the salinity is reported as parts per million, convert to ECw by dividing ppm by 640.

Considerations

Each crop has a different tolerance to saline water. Choose a suitable crop for the water.
Well-drained soils have lower risk of salt accumulation than poorly drained soils.
As the soil dries out, the salt concentration consequentially increases, and therefore reduces
the moisture available to the plant.
When using drip irrigation, salts generally accumulate at the periphery of the wetted zone.
A plan to irrigate the wetted zone further from the plant may be part of your management plan.

Salinity management is discussed in detail in Book 4 – Maintenance.

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pH

This is the spectrum between acidity and alkalinity – below 7.0 is acidic, above 7.0 is alkaline.

Considerations

What pH water do you have and is it compatible with your crop choice?
If it is not compatible, can you chemigate via drip irrigation to adjust the pH?

Water characteristics and the risk factors that influence clogging

Below are the risk factors and their risk of clogging drippers. However, there are management options.
For now, it is good to know the risk factors. In Book 4 – Maintenance, we will go into how we can mitigate
various risks.

Relative clogging potential of irrigation water in drip irrigation systems.

Water Characteristics Minor Moderate Severe

Maximum suspended solids (ppm) < 50 50 - 100 > 100

pH < 7.0 7.8 - 8.0 > 8.0

Maximum TDS (ppm) < 500 500 - 2,000 > 2,000

Maximum Manganese (ppm) < 0.1 0.1 - 1.5 > 1.5

Maximum Iron (ppm) < 0.2 0.2 - 1.5 > 1.5

Maximum Hydrogen Sulfide (ppm) < 0.2 0.2 - 2.0 > 2.0

Maximum bacterial population (per ml) < 10,000 10,000 - 50,000 > 50,000

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Potential clogging test

Rivulis has a Potential Clogging Test available.

Within the kit, there are two tests – one for

groundwater and one for open water.
The tests contain a flow regulator, so the pressure does
not matter.

Groundwater test
1. Run water for three minutes.
2. A mini sand separator will show
the ppm of the sand in the water content.

Open water test

1. Select the screen to test.
2. Run the water.
3. The test has a built in pressure differential that
counts the time.
4. The time taken for the pressure differential is
the amount of time it will take for that screen
to clog.

The Rivulis Potential Clogging Test is connected

to the ISO standard for filtration performance
and is available from your Rivulis representative/
dealer.

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KEY OUTPUTS – WATER

Source

Type (e.g. reservoir, well)

Availability – max discharge (m3/h) (gpm)

Constraints (e.g. legal/government)

Understanding of key water quality elements

Physical – inorganic and organic matter

Chemical – dissolved minerals, minor elements, salt, acidity (pH)

Filtration test – guidance to the level of filtration that you will require

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CONSIDERATION 6:
YOUR ENERGY

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For some reason, energy use is not discussed enough.

Be careful: Too many systems cut corners in the system components to lower the upfront price, but make
the system more costly to operate. A common example is smaller mainlines that require higher pressure
to move the same volume of water, which equates to higher pump requirements, and subsequent energy
consumption.

Smaller diameter = Higher pressure & energy cost requirement

Larger diameter = Lower pressure & energy cost requirement

Our advice – balance your upfront installation cost only in consideration of what your operating cost will be
so you have the full picture. If something has a significantly lower upfront price, ask what the ongoing energy
consumption will be and make the “full picture” comparison.

Regarding energy, here are the questions you need to ask:

What is your What is the What is the Are there What is the
energy source current water cost of energy different cost for
– diesel, pressure (e.g. $/KWh)? energy costs installation (e.g.
electrical, solar? (static water that vary supply lines
level)? during the time of 3-phase
of day (e.g. power can be
night tariffs)? expensive)?

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Diesel and electric pumping costs

Regarding the choice between electric and diesel, you should calculate the operating cost using the
following formulas.

Flow (m3/h) x H (in m)

270 x Eff.
= HP
Eff: Pump efficiency factor. 0.61 is common for pumps used for irrigation
H: Pressure in meters
Flow: Cubic meters per hour

Flow (gpm) x H (feet) / 3,960 x Eff = HP

Calculate the expected operating cost.

Diesel
1. HP x 5.18 = l/h (1.37 gph) of fuel required
2. l/h (gph) of fuel required x the cost of fuel = cost per hour

Electric
1. HP x 0.746 = kWh required
2. kWh required x the cost of power (factor in different tariffs where necessary)

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An hourly cost is part of the picture, but you should look at the price of the total season, and ideally the
cost of multiple years, along with upfront costs. This is simply completed by multiplying the hours by the
expected duration of the season in addition to the upfront costs for the first season, and then adding the
running costs for subsequent seasons. As part of your overall decision, you should also consider ongoing
maintenance cost expectations.

KEY OUTPUTS – ENERGY

Energy source

Cost of the energy source ($/KWh), including variances due to different time of day tariffs

Cost of the connection

Static water level (m) (ft)

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Moving forward
You now have the key information of your crop, climate, field, soil, water source and energy. This is the
foundational information required to move forward to the next step – Product Choice, which is covered in
Book 2.

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BEYOND

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