GEOGRAPHY

SUPER EBOOK

CLIMATE
Distribution of Temperature
The regions to the North of the Tropic of Cancer 23½° N have continental
type of climate i.e., very hot in summer and cold in winter.
The regions to the South of the Tropic of Cancer 23½° N which are nearer
to the equator, have a range of 25°C to 27°C average temperature during
the entire year.
The Indian coastline has an equable or maritime type of climate due to
the moderating effect of the sea.

Rainfall
The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds.
The North-Eastern and some parts of Western India receive 400 cm of
rainfall annually.
In the interior of the Deccan plateau and East of the Sahyadris, the
rainfall is low.
The rest of the India receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to
the Himalayan regions.

winds in Summer and Winter

The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air
pressure in the Northern part of India.
The local wind Loo is the striking feature of the hot weather season,
which is a gusty, hot, dry wind blowing during the day over the North and
North-Western India.
Winter season is influenced by the North-East trade winds, which blow
from land to sea.
The Northern plains act as the inflow gate of cyclonic disturbances from
the West and the North-West.
Monsoon and its mechanism
India has a tropical monsoon type of climate.
The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low
pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience high
pressure comparatively.
The position of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts in
summer over the Ganga plain, which attracts winds from Indian ocean
and known as South-West monsoon.

Factors responsible for having monsoonal type climate in India :

1. Location : Location plays an important role in having monsoon type
climate in India. During summer location of ITCZ shifts over Ganga plains
which attracts monsoon winds.
2. Indian Ocean : Monsoon wind blow toward India from Indian ocean get
moisture from ocean and bring rainfall in South Asia.
3. Mountains : The Himalayan mountains located in North acts as barrier for
monsoon winds. Winds collide with mountain and cause rainfall in the
Southern part of Himalayas. Apart from Himalayas western ghats also
acts as barrier and cause rainfall in Western slopes. Similarly Garo, Khasi
Joyantia hills of North-East are also responsible for monsoonal rainfall in
North-East India.
Seasons
Summer (March-May)
India's mainland experiences scroaching heat during these months and hence
low pressure prevails over this region, while high pressure prevails over
surrounding seas.

This season is also known for localized thunderstorms which brings light rain
often accompanied by hail. These thunderstorms are known as Kaal Baisakhi in
West Bengal, Assam (Good for tea cultivation).

In Kerala and Karnataka, when summer season is towards the end, pre
monsoon showers are experienced. These showers are known as mango
showers or April rains as they help in the early ripening of mangoes. In South
India (Karnataka) another pre-monsoon showers called 'cherry blossoms' are
beneficial for coffee plantation.

Characteristics of hot dry season are as follows:

1. This season is marked by dry weather and excessive heat.
2. The whole of tropical India, South of Himalayas, experiences very high
temperatures.
3. The range of temperature is very high in the interior.
4. The range of temperature is low over the coastal regions as they
experience equable climate.
5. In this season, the Sun shines directly above the Tropic of Cancer.
Seasons
Rainy Season or the South-West Monsoon (June-September)
During these months, areas with low pressure attract the South-East
trade winds coming from the Southern Hemisphere.
After deflection at the equator, they cross towards the Indian sub-
continent and get moisture from the Arabian Sea. The winds are named as
South-West monsoon because they come to India from the South-West
direction. Kerala is the first state which experiences onset of monsoon.
Due to the triangular shape of the Peninsular India, the monsoon winds
divide into two branches-Arabian sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch.
Arabian sea branch of Indian monsoon brings moisture from Arabian sea
and cause rainfall from windward side of Western ghats and Western part
of India.
Bay of Bengal branch of Indian monsoon brings moisture from Bay of
Bengal and cause rainfall over North-East India and Indo-Gangetic plains.
The Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon merge over the
North-Western part of Ganga plain Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan get rainfall in the end of the June and first
week of July.
Aravalli range is situated in the parallel to the direction of Arabian sea
branch of monsoon that's why Rajasthan get no or less monsoon rainfall.
Seasons
Season of Retreating Monsoon or the North-East Monsoon (October-
November)
The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.
The low pressure conditions over North-Western India get transferred to the
Bay of Bengal by early November, which causes the occurrence of cyclonic
depression. Cyclonic depressions, generally cross the Eastern coast of India
causing heavy and widespread rainfall

The Cold Season (December-February)

A feature of the cold weather season over the Northern Plains is the
inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the West and the North-West. It is
the dry season due to influence of North-East trade winds which blow
from land to sea.
The winter rainfall in North-West India is the main feature of the cold
season. This light rainfall is very useful for the rabi crop, especially wheat.
The variation in the winter temperatures North of the Tropic of Cancer,
which goes on decreasing as one moves North and South of the Tropic of
Cancer, which goes on increasing as one moves towards South with an
average of 20°C
GEOGRAPHY
SUPER EBOOK

SOIL
RESOURCES
Types of soil
Alluvial Soils
These originate from the transported alluvium brought by the rivers and they
support. the maximum share of agricultural products and a major part of the
population. These soils vary from light to dark in colour. In upper course of
river alluvium is more coarse than lower course of river.
They are rich in potash and humus, but deficient in phosphorus and nitrogen
and also very fertile, give better response to irrigation and manuring. They are
good for both Rabi and Kharif crops. Rice, wheat, jute, sugarcane, millets,
pulses etc., are common crops grown in alluvial soils.

Distribution The areas, where they found Brahmaputra plain and the deltas of
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

These soils can be divided into two types:

1. Young Khadar Soils- These soils are newer alluvium of sandy pale brown
composition found in the lower areas or valley bottoms, which are flooded
every year.
2. Old Bhangar Soils- These soils consist of older alluvium and are of clayey
composition and dark in colour. These soils are coarse in nature and
contain kankars, pebbles and gravels.

Black Soils
Black soils are formed by the weathering and erosion of volcanic origin rocks.
These are also known as regur or black cotton soils as cotton is important crop
grown in black soils of India. They retain moisture and become sticky when wet
and get cracked when dry. Due to this characteristic it is also known as self-
ploughed soil.
Thus, these are very useful in areas where irrigation is not possible.

These soils are rich in lime, iron, potash, magnesium carbonates and calcium.
They are deficient in phosphates, nitrogen, humus and organic matter. High
fertility and retentivity of moisture the black soils are widely used of several
important crops like cotton, sugarcane, wheat, tobacco, rice, jowar, millets,
oilseeds like linseed and sunflower and fruits and vegetables.

Distribution They are found in most parts of the Deccan plateau region
(Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh) where
volcanic rocks of Deccan trap are found. As it is mainly found in these
moderate rainfall and temperate regions, thus this soil does not get leached.

Red Soils
These soils are formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. Red colour is due to the presence of high iron content. The
colour varies from chocolate brown to yellow as percentage of iron varies.
These are rich in potash and iron, but lack in lime, magnesia, phosphate,
nitrogen and humus. They are suitable for cultivation of wheat, rice, cotton,
sugarcane, pulses, tobacco and oilseeds. These soils become productive with
the use of suitable fertilisers and irrigation.

Distribution They are found in parts of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Eastern Rajasthan.

Laterite Soils
These soils are formed by leaching under conditions of high temperature and
heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. Leaching is the process by
which the nutrients of the top soils are washed away, thereby making the top
soil infertile. They are red in colour due to the presence of iron ore. Laterite
soils are rich in iron and aluminium compounds, but poor in lime and silica due
to leaching. They are acidic in nature and not capable of retaining moisture.
They are suitable for cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber and coconut.

Distribution These are found on the higher reaches of Western Ghats and
Eastern Ghats, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Odisha and
Kerala as well as in Meghalaya and Assam.

Soil Erosion
It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as winds,
water, etc.

Causes of Soil Erosion

1. Wind- Soil erosion by wind on broad flat lands which are subject to a
windy dry season for part of the year. The upper soil surface becomes
loose and susceptible to wind erosion due to lack of moisture.
2. Men, Plants and Animals- Man's activities like construction work,
ploughing and cutting of trees cause soil erosion. Overgrazing by animals
and uprooting of plants also result in dismantling the soil.
3. Running Water-The prime factor of soil erosion is running water.
Indirectly, soil erosion helps in soil forming because from wherever the
soil is removed, it is deposited elsewhere. However, it disturbs the
agricultural pattern and should be prevented.
Ways of soil erosion by running water :
Splash Erosion In this the soil disintegrates under the impact of heavy
drops of rain or hailstones as in case on convectional rainfall.
 Splash Erosion In this the soil disintegrates under the impact of heavy
drops of rain or hailstones as in case on convectional rainfall.
Sheet Erosion In this, due to heavy rains, a surface film of water carries
away the even surface layer of the topsoil as it moves. For example,
Himalayan foothills and the North-Eastern parts of the peninsular India.
Gully Erosion or Rill Erosion In the absence of any vegetation, the flow of
storm water flows with force downhill, developing into a channel flow,
cutting steep sided valleys as it runs off. Gullies change the agricultural
land into bad land, where no cultivation is possible. For example, Chambal
ravines.
4. Overgrazing- Due to overgrazing by animals, wind erosion occurs as in
the absence of vegetation, soil is directly exposed to the wind.

Soil Conservation
Soil conservation is an effort, made by man to prevent soil erosion to retain the
fertility of soil. Soil is our most precious resource. It is important to our
national economy, as productive soil ensures prosperity in agriculture,
industrial development and general economic development. Several measures
have been adopted by the Government to prevent soil erosion. Some of the
measures by which soil erosion can be prevented are as follows:

Adopting Sustainative Farming Techniques

Contour bunding, terrace farming, cover cropping, mixed farming, crop rotation
etc. are some of the sustainative farming techniques by which we can
conserve soil.

To Check Overgrazing
Overgrazing of forests and grassland by animal grazing, especially by goats
and sheep should be checked. Separate grazing grounds should be provided.
Constructing Dams and Barrages
Much of the soil erosion by floods can be checked by constructing dams or
barrages over such rivers. This would check the speed of water and thereby
save soil from erosion.

Afforestation
The best way to prevent soil erosion is to increase area under forests.
Indiscriminate felling of trees must stop.
GEOGRAPHY
SUPER EBOOK

NATURAL
VEGETATION
Importance of Forests
Forest play an important role in human life and maintaining ecosystem.
Forests have following importance's :
(i) Maintain Ecosystem Forests are primary producers they are at the
beginning of food chain. Thus, they support all wildlife.

(ii) Act as Climate Control Forests control the climate of a region. They
moderate the temperature and help in bringing rain as well as purifying air.

(iii) Prevent Soil Erosion Roots of the trees hold soils and prevent it from
erosion.

(iv) Provide Food and Shelter Forest provide food and shelter not only to
wildlife but also to human beings. Many tribes are dependent on forest for their
livelihood.

(v) Industrial and Medicinal Use Forest are valuable for timber, furniture,
medicines, etc.

Types of Forest in India

Tropical Evergreen Forests
These are found in areas where the annual temperature is 25°C to 27°C
and rainfall is more than 200 cm. These are found on hill slopes of
Western Ghats (parts of Maharashtra), Karnataka and Kerala, the Eastern
Himalayas (Terai region) and North-East India: Lushai, Khasi, Jayantia and
Garo known as Assam hills and also in Andaman and Nicobar islands.
The species of trees in these forests are rosewood, sheesham, gurjan,
toon, bamboo, jamun and cane.
Tropical Evergreen Forests
These are found in areas where the annual temperature is 25°C to 27°C
and rainfall is more than 200 cm. These are found on hill slopes of
Western Ghats (parts of Maharashtra), Karnataka and Kerala, the Eastern
Himalayas (Terai region) and North-East India: Lushai, Khasi, Jayantia and
Garo known as Assam hills and also in Andaman and Nicobar islands.
The species of trees in these forests are rosewood, sheesham, gurjan,
toon, bamboo, jamun and cane.
These forests are economically less important because they are dense
and inaccessible and found in mixed stand. However, rosewood, gurjan
and sheesham are used for furniture making.
Deciduous Monsoon Forests
These are found in the areas where average temperature is about 27°C
with average rainfall between 150 cm to 200 cm.
These forests are found in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Assam and parts of Andaman and Nicobar
islands. The main species of deciduous trees are sal, teak, sandalwood,
mahua, kheir, palas, mango, neem, jackfruit, semul and myrobalan.
Trees like sal, teak, etc., are important for furniture, railway sleepers,
construction, etc. Sandalwood is used for making perfumes, oils and
handicrafts, while bamboo is useful for building construction and
handicrafts, etc. The most expensive furniture are made from this wood.
Desert and Semi-Desert Vegetation
It is found in the area of average temperature of 25°C to 27°C and with a
rainfall of less than 25 cm. It is found mainly in Kutch, Saurashtra, South-
West Punjab, Rajasthan and dry parts of the Deccan. Vegetation mainly
consists of babul (acacia - arabica) which is used for medicinal purposes.
 Scrub and thorn forests are found in the North-Western part of country,
Rajasthan, Western Haryana, Kutch and Western Punjab.
The trees of this vegetation have adapted the dry climatic condition. As
due to lack of moisture the trees growing here have very small leaves and
long plant roots penetrating deep into the soil and spreading in a radial
pattern in search of water. Leaves are small and thick to minimise loss of
water.
Mountain Forests
These are found in the areas of average temperature less than 20°C or
cool areas at an altitude of 1500 m to 3300 m and get 150 cm to 250 cm
rainfall. These are found in the temperate zone of the Himalayas, from
Kashmir to Assam at varying altitude, as well as in the Nilgiri and
Annamalai hills at an elevation 1000 m to 1500 m.
The species of trees found here are chirpine (important for resin and
turpentine) silver fir (important for making paper, matches, packing
cases, etc) eucalyptus, deodar (important for making railway sleepers and
construction purposes) oaks, laurel, bamboo, poplass birch, walnuts and
elm.
Tidal or Mangrove or Littoral Forests
These are found in and around deltas with average temperature of about
26°C to 29°C and get heavy rainfall more than 200 cm. Tidal forests
occupy a large area of the Sunderban delta, Eastern coast, Mahanadi
delta, Godavari, Krishna and in the Andaman islands.
The species of trees found here are sundari, (imnportant for making boats
and boxes) gurjan and hintal.
Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the indiscriminate felling of trees or destruction of
natural vegetation for human purpose
Reasons for deforestation
It is the consequence of indiscriminate cutting down of the trees due to
Jhooming (slash and burn) practices to clear the forests for cultivation
and construction purposes.
The uncontrolled cutting down of trees by timber merchants for the
purpose of trade.
Due to rapid population growth and the demand for more food, forest
have been cleared.

Forest Conservation
To revitalise our forest cover, systematic preventive measures have been
taken.
These are as follows
Van Mahotsava Programmne
It was started in 1950 and under this, all government organisations are
supposed to plant trees in the months of July and August.
Afforestation
Afforestation refers to the plantation of trees in the areas which were under no
trees earlier. This programme has been proposed to plant trees in Rajasthan,
Western Uttar Pradesh and Kutch desert to prevent soil erosion.
Irrigation
Well Irrigation
Well Irrigation is the oldest method of irrigation. A well is a hole, dug in the
ground to obtain the underground water. It is generally carried out in the
places where the soil is soft and easy to dig.
Well Irrigation is practised in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Irrigation

Advantages of Well Irrigation

(i) Simplest and cheapest method.
(ii) Can be dug anywhere where the soil is soft.
(iii) Oxen kept for ploughing of field can be utilized for drawing water from the wheel at no extra cost.
(iv) By using pumps and tube wells, water can be lifted from great depths. About canals and tanks
Disadvantages of Well Irrigation:
(i) It is difficult to dig wells in the hilly regions and in the rocky areas of Southern Peninsula.
Due to uneven distribution of underground water resources in different areas, wellsdo not function effectively.
Owing to excessive withdrawal of underground water and lowering of water table, the conventional wells dry up.
 Irrigation
Tube Wells
Tube wells are deeper wells from where the water is lifted from a great depth of 20 m - 30 m by using power
pumps.
The tube wells can be drilled in places which have the following conditions:
(i)Availability of plenty of water.
(ii) Soft soil, level land and fertile area.
(iii) Availability of cheap electricity at a regular basis to run tube wells.
Advantages
(i) It is able to irrigate a larger agricultural land. (ii) Large amount of underground water is easily available.
(iii) It is reliable during dry season when the surface water dries up since the tube well is drilled deeper up to the
permanent water table.
(iv) A good amount of water can be pulled out in a short period of time.
(v) They have played important role in the Green Revolution.
 Irrigation
Tube Wells
Disadvantages of Tube Well Irrigation:
(i) Irrigation is not possible if the groundwater is brackish.
(in) It requires cheap and cost effective power which is not available in most of the states.
(ill) Irrigation is not possible if the underground water level is low.
(iv) Excessive use of tube well leads to lowering of groundwater level.
Tube well irrigation is mainly prevalent in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
 Irrigation
Canals
Canal irrigation is mainly concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
Water Resources
Since Digging is difficult in the rocky and uneven surfaces of land , canals are practically absent in the
southern peninsular region.
There are two types of Canals in India:
(i) Inundation Canal (ii) Perennial Canal
Inundation Canal are those Canals which are taken out directly from the rivers withoutary regulating systems
like barrage or dam. This type of canal provides water for irrigation only during the rainy season and at times of
flood. Since the level of water drops after the rainy season is over, the canal dries and has a very limited use.
Perennial Canals are those Canals which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a dam barrage
across the river. These Canals help to irrigate large areas and can draw water throughout the year.
Today in India most of the canals are Perennial . Canal irrigation is practiced in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh.
 Irrigation

Uttar Pradesh has constructed a large number of canals to

irrigate around 3,091 thousand hectares of land which is about
30.91% of the total canal irrigated area of the country.
 Irrigation
Advantages of Canal Irrigation:
(i) The perennial canals provide constant supply of water and save the crops from drought situations.
(ii) Canal irrigation has proved to be a boon to the sandy areas of Rajasthan which are yielding good agricultural
crops. (iii) Canal irrigation has converted Punjab and Haryana into 'the Granary of the country.
(iv) Canals carry a lot of sediment brought down by the rivers which get deposited in the agricultural fields and
add to the fertility of the soil.
(v) Although the initial investment for constructing a canal is high but it is quite cheap in the long run.
Disadvantages of Canal Irrigation:
(i) During rainy season, many canals overflow and flood the already cultivated areas.
(ii) In areas where the water is excessively flowing in fields, it raises the ground water level and results in
bringing the alkaline salts to the surface, thereby making the field unfit for agriculture or unproductive.
(iii) Due to waterlogging, the capacity of soil to absorb water reduces and thus ruins the standing crops, stored
grains, etc. (iv) Canal irrigation is suitable mainly in plain areas.
 Irrigation
Tank Irrigation comprises an important source of irrigation mainly in the southern part of the country.
Tank Irrigation is one of the oldest irrigation systems in India.
It is mainly carried out in the rocky plateau region of South India where the rainfall is highly seasonal and
uneven. Tank Irrigation is practiced in Andra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh.
Tank irrigation is mainly prevalent in South India due to the following reasons :
(i) Due to hard rocks, non-porous and rocky surface the water doesn't penetrate through the layers of the soil.
There is no loss of water through seepage.
(il) The Deccan terrain is uneven with many natural depressions which facilitate the construction of tanks.
Advantages of Tank Irrigation:
(i) It is inexpensive as there are mostly natural depressions.
(ii) It is highly beneficial in the uneven rocky plateau of Deccan since rainfall is seasonal.
(iii) Since wells and tube wells cannot be dug in the rocky surface of the Deccan Plateau, tanks are easily
constructed.
 Irrigation

Disadvantages of Tank Irrigation:

(i) In the absence of rainwater during dry season, the tanks become dry and fail to provide water for irrigation.
(ii) Due to deposition of sediments, the tanks get silted up soon and de-silting is necessary for maintaining the storing
capacity of tank.
GEOGRAPHY
SUPER EBOOK

MINERAL AND
ENERGY
RESOURCES
Iron Ore
Uses
(i) Used in airplanes, beams used in the construction purposes.
(ii) Manufacturing automobiles, trains, trucks, etc.
(iii) Manufacturing metallurgy products, magnets, etc.
(iv) Used in appliances and surgical instruments in the form of steel.
(v) Radioactive iron is used in medicine as tracer element.

Types of iron ore

The iron is usually found in the form of magnetite which has 72.4% iron,
hematite with 69.9% iron, goethite with 62.9% iron, limonite or siderite with
48.2% iron.

Distribution
Karnataka : It ranks first in the production of iron ore. The major iron ore
fields are
(i) Hospet in Bellari district, (ii) Bababudan hills, (iii) Kalahandi and Kamangudi
in Chickmaglur district. It is also found in Chitradurga, Shimoga and Tumkur
districts.
Chhattisgarh : It occupies second place contributing about 22.2% of the total
out put. The major fields are Bailadila in Bastar. Dalli, Rajhera in Durg district,
Rajgarh, Bilaspur and Sarguja districts.
Orissa : It is found in Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, Cuttak and
Sundargarh.
Jharkhand : It is the fifth largest producer of iron ore. Main fields are in
Noamandi and, Singhbhum, Gurmahg-hani and Badampahar. Other fields are
Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Santhal , Pargana and Ranchi.
Goa : It occupies forth place in production of iron ore.
Bauxite
Uses
Aluminium is extracted from bauxite. It is lightweight, strong and rust-
resistant metal.
Aluminium is used in aircraft, automobiles, shipping industry and
household appliances.
Because aluminium is a good conductor of electricity, it is used in the
electrical industry

Distribution
The largest integrated aluminium plant is located at Renukoot in Uttar
Pradesh. It gets its supply of bauxite from Amarkantak Plateau and Ranchi.

Main deposits of bauxite in India are located in the following states:

Maganese
Uses
(i) It makes steel tough and hard and is rust resistant.
(ii) It is used in manufacture of chemical and electrical equipments.
(ii) It is used to manufacture coloured glass.
(iv) It is used in chemical industries for manufacturing bleaching powder.
(v) It is used in dry cell batteries.

Distribution
Orissa : It produces 33% of manganese production. Reserves are found in
Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Koraput districts. Some manganese is also
found in Bolangir and Sambalpur districts.
Madhya Pradesh : It produces 20.6% of India's production. It is found chiefly
in Balaghat and Chhindwara districts.
Jharkhand : It is found in Singhbhum district.
Maharashtra : It is found in Nagpur and Bhandara districts. Maharashtra
produces 23% of total production of India.

Copper
Uses
(i) Since copper is a good conductor of electricity, it is used for making electric
wires.
(ii) It is also used in automobiles and in defence industries.
(iii) It is alloyed with nickel and iron to make stainless steel.
(iv) It is alloyed with aluminium to make duralumin.
(v) When it is alloyed with zinc, it is called brass and when alloyed with tin, it is
called bronze.
Distribution
The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum district in Jharkhand,
Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in
Rajasthan.

Minor producers of Copper are Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh),

Chitradurg and Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil
Nadu).

Conventional Sources
Coal (Distribution)
(i)The major resources of Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal, are
located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro
are important coalfields.

(ii)The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.

(iii)Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Coal (Advantages)
Cheap compared to other fossil fuels
Coal is safe to store and transport
Independent of weather and climatic conditions
Coal (Disadvantages)
Can be radioactive
High carbon emissions
Non renewable
Petroleum (Distribution)
Mumbai High is an offshore oil field located 176 km off Mumbai shore in
the Arabian Sea. Mumbai High is called so because of the height of the
syncline of the rock structure in which the oil has been struck.
It is the most productive oil field and has a reserve of 5 crore tonnes of
oil. 
Digboi oil field in upper Assam is the biggest oilfield in India.

Petroleum (Advantage)
It has a high density. One kg of oil can generate 10,000 kcal of energy.
Petroleum is liquid in form and can be transported through pipes or
vehicles.
It is used as a fuel. Its by-products that are used a fuel include diesel,
gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene and LPG.
Petroleum (Disadvantages)
Petroleum is a non-renewable source of energy. Hence, its availability is
limited. Because of ever increasing demands, petroleum resources are
fast depleting.
Extracting and burning of petroleum generates greenhouse gases that
contribute to environment pollution and global warming.
Because of petroleum’s limited supply and high demand, the cost is high.
Natural Gas (Distribution)
More than three-fourths of India’s natural gas comes from Mumbai High, the
rest is produced in Assam, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Tripura.

Natural Gas (Advantage)

It is an environment friendly fuel as it is made up of methane which
results in less carbon emission.
It is easier to preserve the fuel as it can be stored and transported
through pipelines, cylinders or in tankers on land and sea. 
It is cheaper fuel than diesel or gasoline.
Natural Gas (Disadvantages)
Leaks in natural gas are extremely dangerous. Such leaks may result in
explosion and fire. Leakage of natural gas can have serious
consequences as methane is more dangerous than carbon dioxide.
The natural gas is s fossil fuel and hence is a non-renewable source of
energy. 
The infrastructure requiring the setting up the production process and
distribution of gas is very expensive.

Hydel Power
Bhakra Nangal Dam
This project is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan governments.
The Bhakra dam is the second highest dam in India. Gobind Sagar is the name
of the reservoir of the Bhakra dam. With a storage capacity of 9.3 billion cubic
meters, it is the third largest water reservoir in India.
The Bhakra Dam: It is the second highest and the third largest water reservoir
in India.
The Nangal Dam: It is constructed at Nangal at river Satluj in Punjab. It
supplies water to Bhakra irrigation canal.
Bhakra Canal System: It irrigates the lands of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The aim of the project Bhakra Nangal project are: 
1. Provides water for irrigation 
2. Generate hydro-electricity 
3. Prevent flooding from Sutlej-Beas rivers
Hirakud Dam
This dam is built across the river Mahanadi. It was one of the earliest
multipurpose river project that started after independence. Its construction
was completed in 1953. It is the longest major earthen dam in Asia. The dam
also forms the biggest artificial lake in Asia. There are two observational
towers on the dam at each side. One is Gandhi Minar and the other is Nehru
Minar.
Benefits of the Hirakud Dam
The dam helps control floods in the Mahanadi delta ad irrigates 75,000 sq.
km of land.
The project provides irrigation to the ‘kharif’ and ‘rabi’ crops in districts of
Sambalpur, Bargarh, Bolangir and Subarnpur. 
The dam can generate upto 307.5 MW of electrical power through its two
power plants at Burla and Chiplima.
Moreover, the project provides flood protection to 9, 5000 km2 of delta
area in districts of Cuttack and Puri.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
Solar (Advantages)
1. It is a renewable source of energy which can be harnessed in most of the
areas of the world.
2. It can be used for diverse purposes like producing electricity in areas
without access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited
clean water supplies and to power satellites in space.
3. Solar energy systems do not require a lot of maintenance.
Wind (Advantages)
1. It generates the Electricity.
2. It is an air pollution-less process to generate electricity.
3. Economical and less place consuming Energy.
Nuclear (Advantages)
1. A large amount of energy is produced per unit mass.
2. Nuclear power plant produces less atmospheric pollution than thermal
power plants, if the nuclear fission reaction is performed properly.
3. Small amount of nuclear fuel can run a nuclear power plant over a long
period of time. There is no need of inserting the nuclear fuel in the
nuclear reactor again and again in a short period as in case of thermal
power plant.
Biogas (Advantages)
1. It is a cheap, safe and renewable source of energy.
2. It can be used for domestic lighting, cooking, street lighting as well as
small scale industries.
3. It burns with a blue flame and without smoke.
Generation of Wind Energy
1. Windmills are used for generating electricity. The blades of the wind mill
rotate due to the force of the wind. This rotational motion of the blades is
used for driving a number of machines such as water pumps, flourmills
and electric generators.
2. Several windfarms are installed in a definite pattern in clusters called
‘wind farms’. Wind farms are generally installed in coastal regions, open
grasslands and hilly regions. The Indian wind programme is the fifth
largest in the world.
3. In India, largest wind farm cluster is located from Nagarcoil to Madurai in
Tamil Nadu. Important wind farms are also located in the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Lakshadweep and Maharashtra.

Generation of Tidal Energy

1. The tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
2. During high tide, the sea water flows into the reservoir of the barrage and
turns the turbine which in turn produces electricity by rotating generators.
3. The reverse process takes place during the low tide. The sea water stored
in a barrage reservoirs flows out into the sea. During this process, the
flowing water turns the turbines.
4. In India, the prospective site for exploiting tidal energy are Gulf of Kutch,
Cambay and Sunderbans. Other suitable sites are located near
Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Generation of Geothermal Energy
1. The extremely high temperatures in the deeper geothermal reservoirs are
used for the generation of electricity.
2. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high
pressure.
3. When water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped that causes the
water to turn into steam. The steam spins the turbine which then rotates a
generator and produces energy.
4. The steam cools off in the cooling tower and condenses back to water. The
cooled water is then pumped back again under the surface of the earth to
begin the process again.

Generation of Nuclear Energy

1. Nuclear fission is the process in which a large nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei with the release of energy.
2. Nuclear fission produces heat which is then used for heating water and
producing steam.
3. The steam turns the turbine which in turn is used to run generators
resulting in the production of electricity.
4. Two main types of reactors used to generate electricity are the
pressurised and boiling water reactors. In the former, because the water is
pressurised, it does not boil.
5. This heated water is circulated through tubes in generators which then
turns the turbine.
6. In boiling water reactor, the water is boiled due to the heat produced by
nuclear reaction and turns into steam to turn the turbine.
7. Water is reused in both systems
Generation of Biogas
1. A digester tank is placed underground
2. It then receives the dung-water mixture through inlet pipe while the other
side discharges the slurry through an outlet pipe
3. In the digester tank, there is a gas outlet which is controlled by a pipe.
4. As a result, it emits biogas which is used for cooking and lightening.
5. Animal dung, plant and kitchen wastes are decomposed by bacteria in
biogas digester
 GEOGRAPHY
AGRICULTURE
Importance
Agriculture is the most significant source of income
for the central and state governments. The
government of the country has substantial revenue
from rising land revenue. Also, the movement of
agricultural goods helps generate revenue for the
Indian railways, which helps the government in
revenue generation.
problems
(i) Uncertainty of rainfall,
(ii) uneconomic size of holdings,
(iii) illiteracy and ignorance,
(iv) outdated implements,
(v) inadequate irrigation facilities,
(vi) soil erosion,
(vii) poor quality of seeds, and
(viii) lack of scientific approach.
reforms
Land reforms.
Tenancy reforms.
Regulation of higher rents.
Provision of credit to rural farmers.
Subsidies e.g Urea subsidy.
Food security act 2013.
Public distribution system.
Minimum support price and Procurement pricing
system.
Types of Farming
subsistence Farming
Subsistence farming is characterised by small and
scattered land holdings and use of primitive tools, like
hoe and digging sticks by family members. As the
farmers are poor, they do not use fertilizers and high
yielding variety of seeds in their fields.
Types of Farming
Commercial Farming
Commercial farming is the farming method in which
plant and livestock production is practiced with the
intention of selling the products on the market.
Types of Farming
Extensive Farming
Extensive farming methods are those in which more of
the agricultural area is brought under cultivation to
increase the overall production. Intensive methods of
farming are practised in densely populated regions.
The extensive methods of farming are practised in
moderately populated regions.
Types of Farming
Plantation Farming
Plantation farming is the practice of clearing a large
parcel of forest land and planting the desired crops in
huge numbers on the cleared land. This type of
farming helps in increasing the production of the
desired produce and makes it easier to control the
cultivation.
Types of Farming
Mixed Farming
Mixed farming is one in which crop production is
combined with livestock rearing. Livestock enterprises
complement crop production to provide a balance of
farming and a productive system.
Agriculture Seasons
rabi
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from April to June.
kharif
These crops are sown at the commencement of the rainy season in June
and harvested in the autumn season in the beginning of November.
Zayad
Agricultural crops which are grown in the short duration between Rabi and
Kharif crop season, mainly from March to June, are called Zaid crops.
Rice
Climatic Conditions
Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions which
have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water.
The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop
ranges from 21 to 37º C.
soil requirements
Rice grows on a variety of soils like silts, loams and gravels. It can also
tolerate alkaline as well as acid soils. However, clayey loam is well suited to
the raising of this crop. River valley and delta areas are suitable for the
cultivation of rice.
methods of cultivation
Broadcasting method:
Seeds are sown broadcast by hand. This method is practised in those areas
which are comparatively dry and less fertile and do not have much labour to
work in the fields. It is the easiest method requiring minimum input but its
yields are also minimum.
Dibbling method:
It means dropping of seeds along with ploughing.
Transplantation method:
This method is practised in areas of fertile soil, abundant rainfall and plentiful supply of
labour. To begin with, seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared. After 4-5
weeks the seedlings are uprooted and planted in the field which has already been
prepared for the purpose. The entire process is done by hand. It is, therefore, a very
difficult method and requires heavy inputs. But at the same time it gives some of the
highest yields.

Japanese method:
This method includes the use of high yielding varieties of seeds, sowing the seeds in a
raised nursery-bed and transplanting the seedlings in rows so as to make weeding and
fertilizing easy. It also involves the use of a heavy dose of fertilizers so that very high
yields are obtained. The Japanese method of rice cultivation has been successfully
adopted in the main rice producing regions of India.
Distribution
Rice is a tropical plant. It requires high temperature of about 240C
with minor variation during sowing and harvesting. It requires 100cm
of rain. It is grown in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, western and eastern coastal strips,
Brahmaputra valley and Jammu and Kashmir.
wheat
Climatic Conditions
A 50 to 100 centimeters of rainfall is required for the cultivation of wheat.
Both the fertile alluvial and the mixed soil are ideal for the cultivation of
wheat. A temperature in the range of 14 degrees to 18 degrees Celsius is
needed for the cultivation of wheat.
soil requirements
Clay loam and loamy texture are the types of soil used for the cultivation of
wheat. For dry conditions, heavy soil with good drainage is preferred.
methods of cultivation
Broadcasting method:
Seeds are sown broadcast by hand. This method is practised in those areas
which are comparatively dry and less fertile and do not have much labour to
work in the fields. It is the easiest method requiring minimum input but its
yields are also minimum.
Drilling method:
A method of sowing seeds at regular intervals through a bamboo shaft
attached to the plough which make furrows
Distribution
The major wheat producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar and Gujarat.
Pulse
Climatic Conditions
Mild, cool and comparatively dry. It needs 20 to 25 Degree celcius.
Needs 50-100cm rainfall
soil requirements
Clay loam and loamy texture are the types of soil used for the cultivation of
pulse.
Distribution
Madhya Pradesh is a leading state in production of pulses in india followed
by Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
Sugarcane
Climatic Conditions
Grown in sub tropical region. It requires Hot and humid climate with a
temperature of 21 to 27 degree C and annual rainfall between 75 to 100 cm
soil requirements
Alluvial soil, Black Lava soil
Distribution
Uttar Pradesh as leading state, Maharashtra, karnataka and etc.
 Oil seeds (Groundnut)
It is a kharaif crop, requires 20 to 30 degree C temperature and 60-150cm
of rainfall. Gujrat, Maharashtra, Andhrapradesh, Telangana are the largest
producer

Oil seeds (mustard)

It is a rabi crop. requires sandy clayey soils. It also grow well in alluvial,
needs 15 to 25 degree C and 75 to 100 cm of rainfall. It cultivates in
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya pradesh and Gujrat.
cotton
A tropical crop requires 20 to 30 degree C and rainfall ranging 65 to 80 Cm.
Frost is not good for the growth of cotton plants. Black cotton soil is best
suited for the crop. Maharashtra is the largest producer of cotton in India.
Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Punjab, Karnataka are other
producers
Jute
A fibre crop, also known as golden fibre, Grows in Hot and humid condition
with 25 to 30 degree C and rainfall of 150 Cm and above.
Soil : Alluvial Loamy Soil.

West Bengal is a largest producer of jute in india. It produces about 4/5th of

total production. Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Tripura are other producers.
tea
An important beverages crop of india. Requires a moderate temperature of
25 to 35 degree C and well distributed rainfall of 150 to 250 Cm. Well drained
deep friable loamy soil which is acidic in nature is most suitable to the tea.

Assam is largest producer of tea in india. West bengal is another important

producing state. In southern India, tea is grown in Tamil Nadu, Kerla and
Karnataka.
COFFEE
Three main species of coffee are grown in India these are- coffee robusta,
coffee Liberica and coffee arabica. The coffee plant requires warm climate
with a temperature of 15-28 degree Celsius and rainfall between 150 to 200
cm. Direct sunlight can damage the crop hence it is planted in the shade of
other trees such as jackfruit. Rich, well drained loamy soil is required for
cultivation of coffee

coffee is mainly produced in Karnataka (Coorg, and Chikmagalur) Kerala

(Kozhikode, palakkad and idukki) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri district, Madurai
and Coimbatore)
 GEOGRAPHY
MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES
Importance
It helps in modernizing agriculture, reduces heavy
dependence on agricultural income by providing jobs
in non-agricultural sectors. Industries help in creating
jobs and generating more income. Export of
manufactured goods expands trade and brings in
foreign exchange.
Classification of Industries
Raw material
Agro-based industries: These industries use plants and animal-based products as their raw
materials. Examples, food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products, and leather
industries.
Mineral based industries: Mineral-based industries are based on mining and use ‘mineral ore‘ as
raw material. These industries also provide to other industries. They are used for heavy
machinery and building materials.
Marine-based industries: Marine-based industries use raw materials from sea or ocean.
Examples, fish oil.
Forest-based industries: These industries use raw materials from the forest like wood. The
industries connected with forest are paper, pharmaceutical, and furniture.
Size
Small-scale industries: Small-scale industries have less capital and technology invested in them.
There is often manual labour noticed here. Example, Basket weaving, pottery, and handicrafts.
Large-scale industries: Largescale industries are the exact opposite of small-scale industries.
Here the capital invested is large and advanced technology is in use here. Example, Automobiles
and Heavy Machinery.
Ownership
Private sector: Private industries are businesses that are owned and
operated by an individual or group of individuals.
Public sector: Public industries are owned and managed by the
government. Example, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Joint sector industries: These industries are jointly operated by the state
and individuals. Example, Maruti Udyog.
Cooperative sector industries: Cooperative industries are operated by the
suppliers, producers or workers of raw material. Example, Amul India.
Agro-Based Industries
Agro-Based industries in general are those industries that have direct or
indirect links with agriculture.
Sugar Industry
India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place
in the production of gur and khandsari. The raw material used in this industry
is bulky, and in haulage its sucrose content reduces.
Distribution
There are over 460 sugar mills in the country spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with
Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar. This industry is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the
cooperative sector.
Problems with it
Major challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry. Due to which
it becomes less profitable.
Old and inefficient methods of production.
Transport delay in reaching cane to factories.
Baggase are not used properly. So there is wastage
Cotton Industry
This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and
workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing. The
industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes, mill stores,
packaging materials and engineering works. The handspun khadi provides large scale employment to
weavers in their homes as a cottage industry. India exports yarn to Japan. Other importers of cotton
goods from India are U.S.A., U.K., Russia, France, East European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
and African countries.
Distribution
The location of cotton textile industries states is due to the presence of black cotton soil, humid
climate, cheap labor, availability of capital, transport facilities, port facilities, power supply, and good
market.
Mumbai: Manchester of India.
Coimbatore: Manchester of South India
Kanpur: Manchester of Uttar Pradesh
Problems with it
Major challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry. Due to which it becomes less
profitable.
Old and inefficient methods of production.
Transport delay in reaching cane to factories.
Baggase are not used properly. So there is wastage
Silk Industry
The Indian silk industry is an integral part of Indian Textile Industry and is one
of the largest producers of silk in the [Link] has the monopoly of
producing Golden-Yellow Muga silk in the world. The silkworms are reared on
Mulberry trees.
Distribution
90% of natural silk produced in India is from the Mulberry silk.
92% of country’s Mulberry silk is produced in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu and Kashmir.
The silk industry is located only in the states of Karnataka, Assam, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Manipur and Meghalaya.
Problems with it
Import of cheap and alternative textiles from China and other Asian
countries.
Use of outdated manufacturing technology, primitive and unscientific
‘reeling’ and ‘weaving’ techniques, etc.
Poor knowledge of farm disease amongst the farmers.
Lack of new technologies and modern power looms is affecting the
growth of production.
Mineral based Industry
Mineral-based industries are main industries that get their raw materials from mineral ores.

Iron & Steel Industry (TATA Steel Rourkela)

Tata Steel Limited is an Indian multinational steel-making company, based in Jamshedpur,
Jharkhand and headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Favourable Factors
Near to the rivers Kharkai and Subarnarekha.
Near to the coalfields of Jharia.
Near to Sundergarh in Odisha and Singhbhum in Jharkhand for flux materials.
Cheap labour is available
Well-developed road and rail link to major cities.
Near to the Kolkata port.

BHILAI IRON AND STEEL PLANT

set up with the assistance of ussr, Located in Durg district of Chhattisgarh. Iron ore is obtained
from Dalli Rajhara mines (Chhattisgarh ) limestone from Nandini, managanese from balghat
mines in Madhya Pradesh while coal is obtained from Bokaro karagati and [Link] supply
from reservoir located at Tendula.
products are heavy rails, billets, rolled wires, structural beams and plates for shipbuilding
industries.
Mineral based Industry
Rourkela steel plant
located in Sundargarh district of chattisgarh. Iron ore frI’m Sundargarh and keonjhar(Odisha)
manganese from barajmda, limestone from bhirmitrapur, dolomite from baradwar while coal is
obtained from Jharia and Korba fields and electricity is obatained from hirakud project, water
supply from river Mahanadi
projects are hot rolled sheets, galvanised sheets and electrical sheets.

Vishakapatnam steel plant

located in vishakapatnam Andhra Pradesh. Iron ore is obatained from bailadila in
Chhattisgarh,limestone and dolomite from mines from Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Coal from
damodar valley
Products are liquid steel and saleable steel
Mineral based Industry
Petro Chemical
Petrochemicals are chemical products derived from petroleum. These
are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon,
acrylic etc.), polythene and other man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas
obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea).
[Mumbai is the largest centre of petrochemical industries in india]
reasons why petrochemical products are replacing traditional raw
materials. :
i. Petrochemical products are cheaper as compared to traditional raw
materials.
ii. Its raw materials are easily available.
Electronics
The electronics industry covers a wide range of products
from transistor sets to television, telephones, cellular
telecom, pagers, telephone exchange, radars, computers
and many other equipment's required by the
telecommunication industry.

Banglore has emerged as the electronic capital of india

 GEOGRAPHY
SUPER EBOOK

TRANSPORT
Importance of Transports
Transport is important because it enables communication, trade
and other forms of exchange between people, that in turn
establishes civilizations. Transport plays an important part in
economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air
pollution and use large amounts of land.
Modes Of Transports
Roadways
Roadways are the most commonly used means of transport in our country, especially for short distances.
Roadways are considered as the most important mode of transport as it has various benefits over other
means of transport. Roadways can be constructed at a much lower cost than that of railway lines.
Advantages
Construction of roadways is cheaper in comparison to other modes of transport such as railway lines.
Hence with less investment we can obtain efficient connectivity between two or more places.
Road transport provides employment to many people in multiple ways.
Roads are helpful in transporting and distributing perishable goods among people at their doorstep
which is not possible in case of railways.
Disadvantages
The ever rising prices of petrol and diesel have made road transport a rather expensive affair.
Roads are unsuitable for transport of bulky goods across the country. Railways are preferred for this.
Roads require maintenance which is unfortunately a widely ignored issue in India. Hence most of the
roads are in poor condition in the country which makes roadways dangerous to travel by.
Railways
It is a means of transport, on vehicles which run on tracks (rails or railroads). It is one of the most important, commonly used
and very cost effective modes of commuting and goods carriage over long, as well as, short distances.
Advantages
serve as chief mode of transport for both passengers and goods
it is a cheap mode of transport for bulky goods
forms a major employment sector giving jobs to lakhs of people
helps in agricultural development by connecting urban to rural areas.
Disadvantages
faces tough Competition with roadways as road transport can deliver goods at doorstep
poor maintenance causes accidents
incidents of robberies and loot make them unsafe for journeys
lack of cleanliness and hygiene on railway platforms is a major issue.

Airways
Airways are the fastest and very expensive mode of transport today. It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote
and distant areas especially where there are no roads and railways.
Advantages
1. It is the fastest and comfortable mode of transport.
2. It connects the far-flung and remote areas of the country.
3. The speed and ease with which aero planes can cross mountain barriers, sandy desserts, large expanses of water or
forests make the air transport indispensable.
Disadvantages
Air transport is costly.
The cost of aeroplanes construction and maintenance of aerodroms and control mechanism needs a capital expenditure.
Waterways
Any body of water over which boats travel can be called a waterway. But in a
stricter sense, waterways are those bodies of water that are wide and deep
enough for passage by freight-carrying vessels. The inland waterways of many
countries flow through major food-producing and industrial regions.
Advantages
The maintenance cost is less.
It is comparitively less expensive that the rail and road transport.
It is good for carrying heavy goods.
Disadvantages
Navigation becomes difficult during the monsoons.
The fear of ships sinking is always a concern.
It is a slow means of transport.
 GEOGRAPHY
SUPER EBOOK

WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Impact of Waste Accumulation
If wastes are allowed to accumulate and are not disposed carefully, then they
will not only affect our environment but will also affect our health.
1. When accumulated wastes are left opened and unattended, they begin to
decompose. This results in the growth and multiplication of number of
pathogenic bacteria, viruses and fungi which carry germs of various
diseases to human settlements.
2. Decomposition of wastes also produces various gases which pollute the
air around us.
3. During the rainy season, rainwater takes various decomposed wastes
containing pathogens to water bodies causing water pollution.
Spoilage of Landscape
1. Waste accumulation ruins the natural beauty of the landscape. Apart from
this, it also becomes the thriving ground for rats and other disease-
carrying germs.
2. Burning of coal, fuel or wood produces sulphur and nitrogen which react
with oxygen to form sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide, respectively. When
these gases react with water vapour, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are
formed. Precipitation of water along with these acids forms acid rain.
3. When monuments come into contact with acid rain, gypsum and calcium
are washed away leading to their corrosion. Examples: The Parthenon of
Athens, the Colosseum of Rome, the Taj Mahal of Agra
 Pollution
1. Pollution is caused by the introduction of harmful substance in the atmosphere.
It is caused by the addition of waste toxic chemicals or gases into the
atmosphere.
2. Accumulation of waste leads to pollution. Industries, household activities,
hospitals, restaurants and agricultural practices (such as the use of fertilisers)
are the main sources of pollution.
3. In open dumping, wastes are dumped in open spaces located far away from the
limits of the city. This kind of waste disposal is not safe and has many
limitations. The dumping of different types of wastes makes such dumping
grounds the breeding ground of mosquitoes and flies. When these wastes are
carried by rainwater to nearby lakes, rivers or ponds it results in water pollution.
4. Industrial wastes contain harmful chemicals such as lead and mercury. These
chemicals enter animal and human bodies by the food chain.
Health Hazards
1. Respiratory infections and irritation in the eyes, nose and throat. It
causes headaches, nausea, dizziness and allergic reactions.
2. Air pollution may also cause chronic respiratory diseases, lung cancer,
cardiovascular diseases and even damages the nerves, kidneys and liver.
3. Radiations are extremely dangerous for human health as they produce
harmful changes in the body cells and affect the genes.
4. When people are exposed to radiations, their offspring may also be
affected and gene mutations may be transmitted to future generations.
This is known as genetic variations.
5. When a person is exposed to radioactive pollution, damage may be
caused to the body organs. It may result in lung cancer, brain cancer,
thyroid cancer, sterility and reduced or defective eyesight
Effects of Waste Accumulation
on Terrestrial Life
Effects of waste accumulation on human health have already been discussed
above. Its effects on plants are
1. Nitrogen dioxide leads to the premature falling of leaves. It also affects
the growth of plants which result in low crop yields.
2. Ozone enters the leaves of plants through stomata. It then dissolves with
water within the plant and reacts with other chemicals damaging its
leaves. Plants weakened by ozone may become more susceptible to
various diseases, pests and droughts.
3. Peroxyacetyl nitrate causes premature falling and discolouring of leafy
vegetables.
Effects on Aquatic Life

When the quantities of harmful substances such as pesticides and insecticides

increase in the food chain of marine and aquatic organisms who are then
consumed by other living beings, it is known as the process of
biomagnification. The phenomenon of concentrated toxic deposition at the
higher trophic level in the food chain is known as bioaccumulation.
Effects on Animals and Birds

1. Animals may consume toxic materials or polythene bags from wastes.

This results in the spread of diseases among them.
2. The underground disposal of radioactive wastes may contaminate the
drinking water which may be harmful for plants, animals and humans.
3. Birds consuming agricultural wastes produce defective egg shells and
show increased mortality
Needs of Waste Management
Waste management reduces the effect of waste on the environment, health
and so on. Waste management helps to reduce the hazardous materials from
the environment thus preventing from spreading of hazardous diseases and
improving public and community health conditions.
Methods of safe disposal
Segregation
"Waste segregation" means dividing waste into dry and wet. Dry waste includes
wood and related products, metals and glass. Wet waste typically refers to
organic waste usually generated by eating establishments and are heavy in
weight due to dampness.
Dumping
The disposal of waste by discarding the garbage in low-lying areas of ground is
called dumping. The solid waste produced is disposed of by the dumping
method. Solid waste refers to everything that goes into the trash.
Composting
Composting is a natural degradation process in which biodegradable materials
are decomposed by microbes and converted into manure.
Needs for Reduce, Reuse & Recycle
Reducing, reusing and recycling waste helps save landfill
space by keeping useful materials out. The amount of energy
and natural resources needed to produce or collect the raw
materials and manufacture the product are reduced.
Methods for RRR
1. Contribution of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan towards waste disposal is to
adopt the 3Rs that is Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
2. Composting in the kitchen and yards. Food scraps and yard debris are
composted into fertilizers, replenishing the soil too.
3. By avoiding even single-use plastic and non-biodegradable material for
e.g. Food and drink containers.