Pugmarks are the marks which are left by different animal’s species while they are

walking, running, or moving from one place to another place. Pugmarks refer to the
footprints of most animals’ species. “PUG” also means foot in Hindi. Pugmarks of
some animals are denoted by some different terms. Pugmarks denote “paw print” of
most feline animals for e.g. like dog, cat, etc. Herbivore footprints are called as
hoofmark. Some of the herbivore animals are like cow, goat, buffalo etc. Mostly the
footprints of tigers are termed as pugmarks. Every animal species has different type
of pugmark and this factor can be used for their identification purpose. Through
pugmark it is not only possible to identify the animals, but also identify its sex
whether it is male or female, age, and its size is also possible to identify accurately.
Report on the development of non-invasive, robust, and cost-effective technique
through which it is possible to identify the sex of Amur tigers from snow print . This
all can be identified by a well-trained investigator. Identify the wild animal species on
the basis of their pugmark and hair morphology is also possible. This study may be
helpful to many different agencies which are engaged in controlling illegal trade of
wildlife such as poaching and its derivatives towards better management of wildlife.
In this study pugmark was evaluated by shape and measurement . Different
investigator uses different type of method and procedure for the study of pugmark of
different species to finding out different information through their pugmark such as
sex age etc. The Development of the technique to make individual animal
identification by their tracks basically mountain lion and large animals from the
collected pugmarks with measurements from acetate tracings of two to six tracks
from each rear foot of nine mountain lions Felis concolor for the study. This
technique can be used to improve population studies of mountain lions and other
large animal. From the perception, it is deciphered that the pugmarks are
indistinguishable which implies that pugmark are diverse of various species, no two
pugmarks were same. It was likewise discovered that fore foot and hind foot of same
creature species demonstrated distinctive trademark which were not same. Through
pugmark we can recognize the particular species as well as distinguish climate it is
fore foot or hind foot of the particular creature. Pugmark connotes character.

Due to increase in criminal cases against animal, especially in rural areas and
remote areas, it has become very important to study the pugmark of the animal in
forensic aspect to reduce the crime against the animal. Like footprint of human
frequently found at crime scene in same manner pugmark are also been found at the
crime scene. Through pugmark we can also track rogue animals which may be
danger to humans or to others animals’ species. Pugmark play very important role in
identifying a given specific animals species. Pugmark can give valuable information
regarding the animal involved in the crime. The pugmarks of different animal are
different they are not same. Each of the pugmark has its own unique individual
characteristic and class characteristic which help in differentiating from other groups
of animals .Pugmark can also be examined in forensic science as it can provide
reliable data of presence of different species in the area of study, population of the
species, sex ratio, etc
Importance of Pugmarks in Wildlife Forensics

Wild animals can be difficult to spot because of their instinctive behaviour to avoid
humans. However, the presence of wild animals often can be determined by their
pugmarks in snow, sand, or soft mud. Whenever an animal moves through the jungle
over a suitable ground, leaves mark or impressions it called as pugmarks (paw
marks). In simple terms, pugmarks refer to the footprints of almost all the animals.
Every individual animal species have distinct pugmarks and numerous features
contained in it can be used to support the identification of an animal. Many people
have learned to read wildlife pugmarks with a remarkable skill for hunting purposes.

In wildlife forensic, pug marks have significant importance and considered as

valuable evidence. These pugmarks are easy to discover indirect evidence of an
animal presence. The keen observation of these pugmarks can tell a lot about the
animal’s sex, age, size, health conditions, and the time and direction in which the
animal had moved. The scientific examination, identification, and comparison of pug
marks from crime scenes can link with a suspect and a victim.

Nature of pug marks:-

Pugmarks are produced under the following circumstance:

1. The impressions of the pug may be caused in mud, dust, sand, and snow or
similar surfaces. These impressions will be depressed or three-dimensional
type and these are known as sunken pug mark impressions. These type of
pug marks are most commonly found.
2. If the pug mark is produced by deposition of material like dust, dirt, blood,
colored powdery substance, etc., on hard and smooth surfaces, giving rise to
a two-dimensional print, which is called surface pug mark.
3. Pugmarks may also be produced by lifting dust or liquid material in which
case a negative print will be left on the surface.

The different species of animals, especially the large carnivores that are traditionally
tracked with the help of pugmarks are divided into two broad categories:

1. The members of the ‘Dog family’ or the ‘Canidae’ that typically move and hunt
in packs often walking long distances in a file. In the members of this family,
the claw marks are usually noticeable in front of the toe pads. As compared to
the heel pad the toes are larger which helps them to run down the prey and
the gap between the top of the heel pad and the two middle toes is evidently
more than what is found in cats (hyenas is an exception). The front points of
the two middle toes occur side by side (aligned).
2. The members of the ‘Cat family’ or the ‘Felids’ that lead a solitary existence,
depending on stealth for hunting down prey. They are acceptable climbers
 and some like the leopards take their hunt to a tree for abstaining from
poaching by different carnivores. The claws or nails are hardly ever visible,
the soft heel pad is comparatively larger (to encourage stealth) and the middle
toes are put nearer to the pad. The middle toes of the felids are at different
levels, especially for the hind paws.

Mostly the large carnivores leave the soft padded four-toed pugmarks in the jungle.

Pugmarks of Sloth Bear, Elephant, Fox & Tiger:-

 In the case of sloth bear tracks, the pug marks appear flat due to the
presence of flat sole in their limbs.
 In the case of elephants, the size of the pugmark itself reveals the elephant’s
footmarks.
 In fox, the pug marks are very close to the median line, creating an
impression of rope walking.[2]
 In tiger’s, pugmarks comprise of a pad and four-toes. A fifth toe is commonly
called the dewclaw, which is put high on the front limbs only and it does not
contact the ground. At the rear end, the pad is 3-lobed.

Significance of Pug Marks:-

Pugmarks of wildlife species are important evidence in the forensic analysis of

species. The significance of pugmarks is discussed below.

(1) Determination of Sex using Pug mark Measurements:

The sex of animal species can be determined by measuring the length and width of
full pug mark, pad, and toe and some other distinct features. Example, Tiger- The
pugmarks of mature males are usually larger than that of the females. The pugmarks
of a male nearly fit into a square whereas the pugmarks of a female nearly fit into a
rectangle. The shape of toes in a male is more rounded while in the case of females
they are elongated.

(2) The age of Pugmarks can be calculated by looking at the dust and soil
depositions. When pugmarks are fresh, then the wall of the soil, sand, or dust
surrounding the imprints of toes and pads are intact and almost perpendicular, and
the bases of imprints of pugmarks are smooth flat. With time, depending on whether
pugmarks were in a shelter or an open spots, the actions of the rays of sunlight, the
rate of airflow, the dewdrops of the night, the dust deposited on the pugmarks and
the movement of invertebrates, the walls of the pugmarks get cracks and the pile of
earth that took the weight of the animal also begins to fill up with dust deposits and
other droppings.
(3) Animal Movement Patterns (Gaits):

Different animals move differently depending on their body mechanics and

behaviour. A few animals like deer and cats spend the majority of their time walking.
Other animals like coyotes and foxes are intended for trotting. Numerous other
animal species have their particular hopping, loping, or bounding movement patterns
that are unique to that one specific animal species. These gait patterns are a major
key for how trackers interpret the behaviour and even foresee future activity of
animals just by contemplating trail patterns. Notwithstanding, these will also help you
more strongly to recognize what animal made the trail.

(4) Identification of Animal Species based on Pugmark Analysis:

“Every individual animal has its distinct pugmark.”

This principle is used for identification purposes. Pugmark plays a major role in
identifying a given specific animal in terms of sex, age, or size as well as the total
accuracy of the given individual species. Humans have difficulty in carrying out this
task because not every footprint left by the animal is the perfect one. The
abnormalities or deformities in a particular paw become relevant and hence, it
narrows downs the search. In the manual method of identification, a series of
measurements of pugmarks are noted and compared with the available data.

Digital pugmark technology (DPT) is a new age technology for the identification of
animals based on their pugmarks. This method is used for estimating the specific
individual species using a statistical approach. Each animal leaves a particular set of
pugmarks while walking

(5) Study of Wildlife Population (Census) / Pugmark-based population monitoring:

The population of the remaining rare animals in the forests needs to be protected. An
animal footprint is the unique identity of the animal world. There are several
techniques available to study animal behaviour. This method is a safe and brilliant
way to spot the presence of an animal in a place. The main objective of the wildlife
census is to find out the density of the population of the species and to procure basic
data for its management.

(6) The pugmark is also helpful in estimating time when an animal moved and
direction in which the animal traveled. The major problem with pugmark impressions
based on the identification of species includes is an undetectable footprint on hard
surfaces and sometimes these footprint sites are often contaminated by the
presence of other animals. Undetectable pugmarks and erosions by the other
animals in pugmarks analysis are the major limitations in the field of wildlife
forensic. If pugmarks analysed skilfully and lawfully, they can provide reliable data.
In wildlife forensics pugmark study is conducted to investigate the wildlife crimes
and to track the rogue animals which are considered dangerous to mankind. The
animals are also tracked in order to save them from any kind of threat and
endangerment from human beings.

Pugmark Formation

The process of pugmarks are formed when they are compressed against the surface
on which an animal is walking.

When an animal walks on wet soil, snow, sand, mud or any other similar surface, the
pugmarks formed are three dimensional in nature and are called sunken pugmark
impressions. They are the most encountered types of pugmarks.

If the animal walks on any hard surface or smooth surface, the pug marks formed on
those surfaces are due to presence of dust, dirt or blood on the paws and they
produce two-dimensional impressions. These marks are called surface pugmarks.

Pugmarks can also be lifted by dust or any liquid which may leave negative pug
impressions on the surface.

Most Encountered Pugmarks For Examination

Every animal leaves their pugmarks but the most encountered pugmarks are from
the large carnivores which can be broadly categorised into canidae and felidae
families.

Canidae Family

Canidae family is also called the ‘Dog Family’. They usually move and hunt in packs
and often walk miles. The characteristics of their pugmarks are:

 The claw marks are visible in front of the toe pads.

 The toes are larger than the heel pads and help them to run down the prey.
 The gap between the top of the heel pads and the toes is large.
 The front points of the two middle toes occur side by side (hyena is an
exception).

Felidae Family

This family is also known as ‘Cat Family’. They lead a solitary existence that
depends on stealth for hunting down the prey. They are excellent runners and
climbers. The characteristics of their pugmarks are:
  The claws are hardly visible in front of the toes.
 The soft heel pads are comparatively larger.
 The gap is small between the heel pads and toes.
 The middle toes are present at different levels, especially in the hind paws.

Certain characteristic features of pugmarks of different animals:

 Elephants- The size of the pugmark is very big which makes it obvious of the
elephant’s footprints.
 Sloth Bear– The pugmarks are flat due to their flat soled feet.
 Fox-Their pugmarks are very close to median line, creating the impression of
rope walking

Information Revealed Through Pugmark Examination

Pugmarks alone can state the whole profile of animals that includes the species,
age, gender, movement, population, etc.

Species Determination

It is based on the principle that ‘every individual has its unique pugmark’. The
abnormalities and deformities in a particular paw makes the mark distinct and narrow
down the search. But it is quite a difficult task for human beings as the number of
animals present on earth is huge and the pugmarks left by them are not always
clear. Digital Pugmark Technology (DPT) is a new generation animal identification
technology based on the pugmark impressions that uses a statistical approach.

Age Determination

The pugmarks of adult animals are larger than the baby animals. For example in
tigers- the pugmarks of adult tigress are compact whereas the cub’s pugmarks are
quite spread. The length of toes in adult tigress is smaller as compared to their cubs.

Pugmark Age Determination

The age of the pugmark can be determined by observing the conditions of the dust
and soil. The fresh pugmarks on soil, dust or any other such surface shows intact
perpendicular walls and the base of the prints are flat and smooth. With moving time
and natural phenomena such as sunlight, rainfall, storms, etc. the conditions of
pugmark also changes.

Sex Determination
The pugmarks are distinct for the males and females of the same species. The male
pugmarks are usually smaller as compared to that of females. The female pugmarks
fit into a rectangle whereas the male pugmarks nearly fit into a square. The female
pugmarks are elongated but the male pugmarks are slightly round.

Animal Movement

Depending upon the body mechanics and behaviour the distinct movement of
different animals can be determined. Some animals walk, run, hop, lope, etc. and
each move makes a gait pattern which is distinct for each animal species.

The gait pattern determination gives a key for elucidating the behaviour of the animal
and their future activities.

Population Determination

Animal footprint study is one of the fundamental techniques to determine the

population of an animal species in a particular area. This method is the safest to spot
the presence of an animal population. It also states the population density of animals
in the area. It is one of the crucial methods in declaring that a particular species is
endangered or not.

Limitations Of Pugmark Examination

Nothing is spared by the law of nature i.e., progressive change. The natural
phenomena of heat, rainfall, storms, etc changes the nature of the pugmarks which
can imitate false identification. The presence of negative pumarks also limits the
proper forensic analysis. Undetectable pugmarks and erosions by other animals also
challenge the identification. Therefore, keen and thorough analysis is required to get
accurate results.

Pugmarks are important evidence in wildlife crime investigation. They alone explicate
a lot of information regarding the animal that includes- the species, age, sex,
movement, behaviour, population, direction and time of movement, etc. But the
identification process is a challenging one because there are a number of animal
species present on earth with unique behaviours .

This makes the identification course a difficult task for human beings. Technologies
like DPT have made it quite easier to study these pug marks but more developed
and advanced similar techniques are required for acquiring the desired results.
Appropriate and careful examination is mandatory for the accurate analysis in wildlife
forensics.