11 Optical

CHAPTER
Networks

SHE
TA nn this c h a p t e r w e describe t h e a d v a n c e s in optical n e t w o r k i n g t h a t m a d e
possible t h e explosive g r o w t h of c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s of t h e 1990s. We
also p o i n t out t h e directions in w h i c h optical n e t w o r k i n g is likely to evolve.
T h e b a n d w i d t h of c o p p e r cables d e c l i n e s rapidly to 100 M H z over a 1-km
distance, before signal r e g e n e r a t i o n is r e q u i r e d . By contrast, a n optical fiber
h a s a b a n d w i d t h of 25,000 GHz over a distance of several t e n s of k i l o m e t e r s .
T h a t capacity is already u s e d in several w a y s .
Cable TV fiber distribution n e t w o r k s utilize a b a n d w i d t h of a b o u t 1 GHz.
Optical links h a v e i n c r e a s e d LAN s p e e d s to 1 Gbps, a n d 100 Mbps E t h e r n e t
links to t h e d e s k t o p are n o l o n g e r u n c o m m o n .
T h e capacity of t e l e p h o n e a n d data b a c k b o n e n e t w o r k s i n c r e a s e d b y sev­
eral orders of m a g n i t u d e from DS-3 (45 Mbps) links in 1990 to OC-48 (2.5
Gbps) SONET fiber links in 1997. T h i s is still a t i n y fraction of t h e 25-THz
fiber b a n d w i d t h . T h e r e a s o n for t h e limit is t h a t electronic m o d u l a t o r s today
h a v e a m a x i m u m s p e e d of 2.5 Gbps. T h a t s p e e d will s o o n i n c r e a s e to 10 Gbps.
By 1997 c o m m e r c i a l d e n s e wave-division multiplexers (WDM) o v e r c a m e
t h e electronic s p e e d limit b y t r a n s p o r t i n g forty 2.5-Gbps c h a n n e l s o n t h e s a m e
fiber, increasing total link capacity to 100 Gbps. C o m p a n i e s h a v e a n n o u n c e d
WDM p r o d u c t s capable of c a r r y i n g 16010-Gbps c h a n n e l s . T h u s v e r y h i g h - s p e e d
WDM links are b e i n g d e p l o y e d .
T h e next wave of p r o d u c t s will i n c l u d e optical cross-connects (OXCs) t h a t
allow c o m b i n i n g links into "lightpaths" e n t i r e l y in t h e optical d o m a i n . T h i s is
similar to h o w SONET p a t h s are c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g digital cross-connects or
switches. T h e advantage of OXCs is t h a t n o p r o c e s s i n g is r e q u i r e d . M o r e o v e r
t h e lightpaths in s o m e cases are t r a n s p a r e n t to higher-level protocols.
 Optical Networks
542

T h e next a d v a n c e will o c c u r w h e n OXCs c a n b e reconfigured quickly, at

least o n t h e t i m e scale of a c o n n e c t i o n . T h i s will a u g u r t h e c r e a t i o n of v e r y
h i g h b a n d w i d t h - o n - d e m a n d services.
Data traffic will soon b e larger t h a n voice in b a c k b o n e traffic, a n d this
will p r o m o t e t r a n s p o r t solutions t h a t b y p a s s t h e time-division m u l t i p l e x i n g
s t r u c t u r e of SONET. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of statistical multiplexing, t h e flexibility of
packet switching in a c c o m m o d a t i n g m u l t i p l e t y p e s of traffic, a n d t h e l o w e r cost
of high-speed r o u t e r s c o m p a r e d w i t h circuit switching will lead to a m i g r a t i o n
from IP a n d ATM p a c k e t s over SONET to p a c k e t s over optical fiber directly.
T h a t point in t i m e will m a r k t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e decline of TDM-based circuit-
switched s y s t e m s in today's t e l e p h o n e s y s t e m .
F u r t h e r out in t h e future are p u r e l y optical n e t w o r k s . T h e s e are a l r e a d y
s e e n today in e x p e r i m e n t a l LANs a n d access n e t w o r k s . However, optical p a c k e t
switching is still s o m e w a y s away.
We b e g i n w i t h a s t u d y of t h e k e y c o m p o n e n t s of a n optical n e t w o r k tech­
nology starting w i t h a n optical l i n k in section 11.1 a n d WDM in section 11.2. We
describe optical cross-connects in section 11.3 a n d discuss s o m e of t h e r o u t i n g
a n d path-selection p r o b l e m s t h a t this t e c h n o l o g y poses.
Section 11.4 is d e v o t e d to optical LANs, b o t h single-hop a n d m u l t i h o p . We
will see h o w q u e s t i o n s of p e r f o r m a n c e in t h e s e n e t w o r k s are similar to t h o s e
w e studied in C h a p t e r s 9 a n d t h o s e t h a t w e will a d d r e s s in C h a p t e r 12.
Section 11.5 considers MAN a n d WAN WDM n e t w o r k s a n d q u e s t i o n s of
routing for t h e s e n e t w o r k s . We c o n c l u d e w i t h a discussion of future optical
networks.

11.1 OPTICAL LINKS

We view a n optical link as consisting of a transmitter, a fiber, a n d a receiver,

as in t h e top of Figure 11.1. T h e i n p u t bit s t r e a m is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n electrical
i n p u t signal (Data IN). T h e t r a n s m i t t e r c o n v e r t s this i n p u t signal into a n optical
signal u s i n g a particular m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s c h e m e for
digital t r a n s m i s s i o n is on-off keying, or OOK. In OOK a laser is t u r n e d o n for a
1 bit a n d t u r n e d off for a 0 bit. T h u s a bit s t r e a m of I s a n d Os is c o n v e r t e d into
a s e q u e n c e of light a n d d a r k (no light) pulses. T h e m o d u l a t e d optical signal
propagates over t h e fiber a n d r e a c h e s t h e receiver, w h e r e it is d e m o d u l a t e d
into a n electric signal (Data OUT) from w h i c h t h e i n p u t bit s t r e a m is recovered,
possibly w i t h error.
11.1 Optical Links
543

Data IN Transmitter Fiber Receiver Data OUT

J~LTLJl_n_ β ι 1 ο

Τ R ^
O IQ Ο
ΊΓ
ID-^—•• IQ Ο

11.1 A link of rate BT and length LT can b e built b y a series-parallel connection of

FIGURE Βτ/Β χ L /L links each of rate Β and length L.
T

As a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m , a l i n k is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a pair of n u m b e r s
(B, L ) . H e r e Β b p s is t h e bit rate a n d L k m is t h e m a x i m u m distance of t h e
fiber for w h i c h t h e error rate is b e l o w a specified a m o u n t . For optical links,
this bit error rate or BER is o n t h e o r d e r of 1 0 ~ . We m a y t r a n s m i t Β b p s
12

over a distance of 2L k m w i t h two (B, L) l i n k s in series: at t h e r e c e i v e r of t h e

first link, t h e original bit s t r e a m is r e g e n e r a t e d (with s o m e error) a n d u s e d to
m o d u l a t e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r of t h e s e c o n d link. (If e a c h link's BER is 1 0 ~ , t h e
12

series c o n n e c t i o n BER is of t h e s a m e order.)

Suppose w e w a n t to b u i l d a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m t h a t c a n t r a n s m i t B T

b p s over a distance of LT k m u s i n g (B, L) optical links. We c a n a c h i e v e o u r a i m

w i t h BT/B parallel s y s t e m s , e a c h s y s t e m consisting of LT/L links in series, as
s h o w n in t h e b o t t o m of t h e figure. T h u s , w e n e e d (Βτ Χ LT)/(B Χ L) optical
links. H e n c e , as a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e value of a l i n k t h a t c a n t r a n s m i t
Β b p s over L k m is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e bit r a t e - d i s t a n c e p r o d u c t Β χ L. If a link
h a s a Β χ L p r o d u c t twice as large as a n o t h e r link, t h e n o n e s h o u l d b e willing
to p a y twice as m u c h for it since o n l y half as m a n y are n e e d e d .
Link p e r f o r m a n c e is affected b y t h e limitations of its t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s :
transmitter, fiber, a n d receiver.

11.1.1 Transmitter
T h e t r a n s m i t t e r is a m o d u l a t e d s o u r c e of light. A l a s e r diode is t h e light
source. (For short distances a n d relatively l o w bit rates, a c h e a p e r light-emitting
diode or LED m a y suffice.) T h e laser, w h i c h s t a n d s for light amplification b y
 Optical Networks
544

s t i m u l a t e d e m i s s i o n of radiation, w a s i n v e n t e d in 1958. We briefly describe t h e

laser m e c h a n i s m . W h e n a n e l e c t r o n d e c a y s from o n e e n e r g y state to another,
t h e excess e n e r g y is s o m e t i m e s e m i t t e d as a p h o t o n of light. T h i s p r o c e s s is
called spontaneous emission. T h e w a v e l e n g t h of t h e e m i t t e d p h o t o n is i n v e r s e l y
proportional to its energy,

1.24
M m ,
W (eV)
g

w h e r e h is Planck's constant, a n d c is t h e s p e e d of light. T h e e n e r g y W d e p e n d s

g

o n t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e laser diode. For t h e gallium a r s e n i d e alloys u s e d in

laser diodes, t h e w a v e l e n g t h s λ cover t h e r a n g e 0.8 to 1 . 7 μ η ι suitable for
t r a n s m i s s i o n over optical fibers.
Light amplification is a c h i e v e d as p h o t o n s m o v e b a c k a n d forth b e t w e e n
two parallel mirrors, triggering forced or stimulated emission. Ideal laser light
is formed w h e n g r o u p s of p h o t o n s are all in t h e s a m e phase, or c o h e r e n t .
T h e s e two p r o p e r t i e s of amplification a n d c o h e r e n c e create t h e laser's highly
directional, p u r e color b e a m .
In a s e m i c o n d u c t o r laser, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e
injected c u r r e n t . By c h a n g i n g this c u r r e n t according to t h e signal b e i n g trans­
mitted, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light is m o d u l a t e d . T h e receiver d e m o d u l a t e s this
light a n d recovers t h e signal. In digital t r a n s m i s s i o n , t h e light is t u r n e d o n or
off. In analog t r a n s m i s s i o n , t h e light is m o d u l a t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y .
T h e t r a n s m i t t e r ' s limitations are d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p o w e r PT of t h e light
source, its c o h e r e n c e , a n d its m o d u l a t i o n b a n d w i d t h , t h a t is, t h e m a x i m u m rate
at w h i c h t h e light source c a n b e t u r n e d off or on. Laser diodes h a v e a n o u t p u t
p o w e r of 10 m W a n d a m o d u l a t i o n b a n d w i d t h of 3 GHz.

11.1.2 Receiver
Modulated light from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is l a u n c h e d into t h e fiber. At t h e distant
e n d of t h e fiber t h e receiver c o n v e r t s t h e optical signal into a n electrical signal
a n d d e m o d u l a t e s it to recover t h e m o d u l a t i n g signal—the i n p u t data at t h e
transmitter.
Tb d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a 1 or 0 is t r a n s m i t t e d d u r i n g a specific bit t i m e
r e q u i r e s several operations: p h o t o detection, amplification, filtering, a n d de­
cision. Photo d e t e c t i o n is d o n e b y a photodiode, w h i c h c o n v e r t s t h e r e c e i v e d
optical signal into electric p h o t o c u r r e n t . T h e amplifier c o n v e r t s t h e p h o t o c u r -
r e n t into a voltage signal at a usable level. T h e low-pass filter r e d u c e s t h e noise
i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e amplifier b y cutting off frequencies b e y o n d t h e b a n d w i d t h of
11.1 Optical Links
545

t h e i n p u t data signal. T h e decision circuitry i n c l u d e s a n equalizer to restore t h e

data pulse s h a p e a n d a t i m i n g extractor, a n d it c o m p a r e s t h e p r o c e s s e d signal
w i t h a t h r e s h o l d to decide w h e t h e r a 1 or 0 bit is received.
T h e voltage signal o n w h i c h this decision is b a s e d is c o r r u p t e d b y t h r e e
noise sources: t h e p h o t o d e t e c t o r shot noise, t h e p h o t o d e t e c t o r d a r k c u r r e n t ,
a n d t h e amplifier t h e r m a l noise.
T h e p h o t o c u r r e n t is n o t a d e t e r m i n i s t i c process, b u t a shot noise process.
It is t h e s u m of a s e q u e n c e of i m p u l s e s t h a t coincide w i t h t h e r a n d o m arrival
t i m e s of t h e p h o t o n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e optical signal. ( T h e arrival t i m e s h a v e
a Poisson distribution.)
T h e dark current is t h e p h o t o c u r r e n t p r o d u c e d e v e n w h e n n o e x t e r n a l light
is i m p i n g i n g o n t h e photodiode. D a r k c u r r e n t is c a u s e d b y t h e s p o n t a n e o u s
t h e r m a l excitation of e l e c t r o n s in t h e photodiode. Typical v a l u e s of d a r k c u r r e n t
range between 1 and 5 nA (nanoamps).
T h e thermal noise is a w h i t e noise p r o c e s s p r o d u c e d b y t h e amplifier. Its
p o w e r is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e b a n d w i d t h of t h e low-pass filter a n d h e n c e to t h e
bit rate B .
T h e t h r e e noise s o u r c e s are i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d so t h e i r effect is additive:

{i } total = (i )shot
2 2
+ (i )dark
2
+ (i )
2
thermal,

w h e r e {i ) total is t h e v a r i a n c e of t h e total noise, a n d t h e t e r m s o n t h e right are t h e

2

v a r i a n c e s of t h e t h r e e individual noise c o m p o n e n t s . In practice, t h e t h e r m a l

noise d o m i n a t e s t h e o t h e r two noise sources.
Because of t h e noise, t h e r e c e i v e r m a k e s e r r o r s in d e t e c t i n g t h e signal.
Errors are m e a s u r e d b y t h e bit e r r o r rate (BER), w h i c h is a function of t h e
signal-to-noise ratio

Average signal e n e r g y p e r bit

SNR =
.
Receiver noise p o w e r

Receiver p e r f o r m a n c e is m e a s u r e d b y its sensitivity. By c o n v e n t i o n , this is t h e

m i n i m u m received optical p o w e r P n e e d e d to a c h i e v e a BER of 10~ , at a
R
9

specified bit rate B . In general, t h e larger t h e SNR, t h e s m a l l e r t h e BER. As a

r u l e of t h u m b , in o r d e r to a c h i e v e a BER of 10~ , w e n e e d SNR > 6.
9

T h e signal p o w e r is given b y t h e average p h o t o c u r r e n t , I h , w h i c h is

p

proportional to t h e r e c e i v e d power, I h=R χ P . H e r e R is t h e r e s p o n s i v i t y

p R

of t h e photodetector. T h u s t h e average e n e r g y p e r bit is

Iph x
τ = Ink
— =R X
p
Β Β
 Optical Networks
546

w h e r e Τ = 1/5 is t h e bit t i m e . For example, if Β = 100 Mbps, t h e n Τ = 10 χ

1 0 ~ = 10 n s ( n a n o s e c o n d s ) . We c a n i m m e d i a t e l y see t h a t SNR is p r o p o r t i o n a l
9

to PR a n d i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to Β (or B if w e take n o i s e p o w e r p r o p o r t i o n a l
2

to E).
For gallium a r s e n i d e photodiodes, R = 1 a m p / W for w a v e l e n g t h s λ ~ 0.8 —
1.5 μ ι η . For example, if PR = 1 ( - 3 0 dBm), t h e n t h e average p h o t o c u r r e n t
is a b o u t 1 μ A ( m i c r o a m p ) .
In s u m m a r y , t h e larger t h e bit r a t e B, t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e c e i v e d p o w e r PR
n e e d e d to m a i n t a i n a specified BER. T h e r e c e i v e d p o w e r is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e
t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r a n d t h e characteristics of t h e fiber.

11.1.3 Fiber
As t h e optical signal p r o p a g a t e s over t h e fiber, it gets distorted d u e to a t t e n ­
u a t i o n a n d dispersion. A t t e n u a t i o n is t h e r e d u c t i o n i n p o w e r i n t h e optical
signal, a n d d i s p e r s i o n is t h e s p r e a d i n g of a p u l s e of light. At a n y given b i t rate,
t h e distortion, a n d h e n c e t h e e r r o r rate, i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e l e n g t h of t h e fiber.

Attenuation
T h e a t t e n u a t i o n of a fiber is e x p r e s s e d i n decibels p e r k i l o m e t e r ( d B / k m ) .
Tb explain w h y t h e s e u n i t s are a p p r o p r i a t e , w e first s h o w t h a t a t t e n u a t i o n is
e x p o n e n t i a l in t h e fiber l e n g t h . C o n s i d e r a n optical fiber p r o p a g a t i n g a b e a m
of light. Suppose t h e p o w e r of t h e b e a m l a u n c h e d into t h e fiber is Ρχ. As t h e
b e a m travels along t h e fiber, s o m e of its p o w e r is dissipated. S u p p o s e t h a t after
traveling I k m of fiber, t h e p o w e r in t h e b e a m is P(l). Ρ (J) is p r o p o r t i o n a l to Py.
We d e n o t e b y a(l) t h e a t t e n u a t i o n factor, t h a t is, P(l) = α(Ζ)Ρτ· T h e p o w e r i n t h e
b e a m after \\ + h is P(l\ + h), w h i c h m a y b e e x p r e s s e d i n different ways,

P(h + h) = a(h + l )P 2 T = a(h)P(h) = α(/ι)α(Ζ )Ρτ. 2

T h e first e q u a l i t y follows directly from t h e definition of a(l). T h e s e c o n d

expression is o b t a i n e d b y w r i t i n g P{1\ + h) as t h e p o w e r P f e ) a t t e n u a t e d b y
l\ k m of fiber. We c o n c l u d e t h a t

a(Zi + l ) = *(Ii) x a C 2 ) ,
2

from w h i c h it follows t h a t a(l) m u s t b e of t h e form

a(f) = e- , al
I > 0.
11.1 Optical Links
547

Attenuation coefficient, A

dB/km _
Τ Fiber attenuation Rayleigh Vibrational absorption
4 Q
' scattering
A «0.6 / λ dB/km
4

Wavelength, λ

Low-loss window Minimum-loss window

a t / = 1.33jum at / = 1.55/im

11.2 Attenuation in all-glass fiber is m e a s u r e d in d B / k m . There are two low-loss

FIGURE windows near 1.3 and 1.55 μπι.

Since a(l) < 1, w e m u s t h a v e a > 0. By modifying t h e e x p r e s s i o n for a, t h e

function a(l) c a n b e r e w r i t t e n as

α(ϊ) = 1 0 ~ $ .

T h e a t t e n u a t i o n after L k m is s u c h t h a t

so t h a t t h e a t t e n u a t i o n in decibels is e q u a l to A m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e distance L in
k m . T h u s , A is t h e a t t e n u a t i o n of t h e fiber in decibels p e r kilometer.
T h e a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient A of t h e fiber d e p e n d s o n t h e fiber m a t e r i a l
a n d also o n t h e w a v e l e n g t h λ of t h e light. Figure 11.2 s h o w s A for a n all-glass
fiber as a function of λ, m e a s u r e d in μτη or m i c r o n s .
T h e figure indicates two different physical c a u s e s of a t t e n u a t i o n , Rayleigh
scattering a n d vibrational absorption. T h e r e are t w o "windows" of w a v e l e n g t h s
w h e r e t h e a t t e n u a t i o n is at a m i n i m u m . O n e of t h e s e w i n d o w s is at 1.33 μ ι η ,
a n d its a t t e n u a t i o n is 0.4 d B / k m . T h e o t h e r w i n d o w is at 1.55 μτη, a n d its
a t t e n u a t i o n is 0 . 2 5 d B / k m .
T h e w i d t h of e a c h of t h e s e w i n d o w s t r a n s l a t e s into a n e n o r m o u s b a n d ­
width. For instance, t h e w i n d o w a r o u n d 1.55 μτη h a s a w i d t h of 2 0 0 n m
 Optical Networks
548

( n a n o m e t e r ) (1 n m = 10 m ) . T h e r a n g e of frequencies of light carried

9

in this w i n d o w goes from c/(k + 200) n m to c/k, w h e r e λ ^ 1.45 μ ι η , t h a t

is, from (3 χ 10 )/(1.65 χ 1 0 " ) = 1.818 χ 1 0 Hz to (3 χ 10 )/(1.45 χ Κ Γ ) =
8 6 14 8 6

2.068 x l O Hz. Therefore, this w i n d o w covers a r a n g e of frequencies of about

1 4

25 x l O Hz or 25,000 GHz. For all practical p u r p o s e s t h e b a n d w i d t h of a n

1 2

optical fiber is u n l i m i t e d .
Tb utilize this b a n d w i d t h , however, r e q u i r e s m o d u l a t i n g t h e laser trans­
m i t t e r at v e r y high speeds. Tbday's electronics limit t h e s p e e d to 2.5 Gbps. T h e
limit is likely to increase to 10 Gbps. A m u c h b e t t e r a p p r o a c h to utilizing t h e
b a n d w i d t h is offered b y wave-division multiplexing (WDM), discussed later.
We c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m usable l e n g t h of a n optical fiber from
its a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient A if w e k n o w t h e t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r Ρτ a n d t h e
receiver sensitivity PR. Tb d e t e r m i n e t h a t m a x i m u m length, w e u s e t h e formula
expressing t h e received p o w e r P(L) after L k m in w h i c h w e set P(L) = PR, a n d
we solve for L. This gives L = ^ l o g p£. 10

It is c o n v e n i e n t to express Ρτ a n d PR in dBm. By definition, a p o w e r ρ in

watts is equal to P(dBm), w h e r e

P(dBm) : = 1 0 l o g 1 0
P

1 mW
With this definition, we c a n rewrite t h e formula for t h e m a x i m u m usable l e n g t h
L as

L = - { P ( d B m ) - P (aBm)}.
T R (11.1)
A

We illustrate t h e u s e of formula (11.1). Suppose PR = —45 d B m (about 3 χ 1 0 ~ 8

W) at a rate of 1 Gbps a n d a BER of 1 0 ~ . Suppose next t h a t t h e a t t e n u a t i o n is

12

A = 0.2 d B / k m . Finally, s u p p o s e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p o w e r Ρτ is 1 m W (0 dBm).

T h e n t h e m a x i m u m fiber l e n g t h is

L = — { 0 - ( - 4 5 ) } = 225 k m ,
0.2
so t h a t t h e Β χ L p r o d u c t of this link is 225 Gbps χ k m .
A n o t h e r w a y to u s e t h e formula (11.1) is to express t h e p o w e r loss as

P ( d B m ) - P*(dBm) = A ( d B / k m ) χ L ( k m ) .
T

Besides a t t e n u a t i o n in t h e fiber, t h e m a i n c a u s e s of p o w e r loss b e t w e e n trans­

m i t t e r a n d receiver are t h e coupler b e t w e e n t h e source a n d t h e fiber, t h e splices
b e t w e e n sections of fiber, a n d t h e c o u p l e r b e t w e e n t h e fiber a n d t h e receiver.
T h u s , if t h e light b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n d t h e receiver goes t h r o u g h two
couplers, Ν splices, a n d L k m of fiber, t h e n t h e p o w e r loss is given b y
11.1 Optical Links
549

A ( d B / k m ) χ L ( k m ) + 2 χ C(dB) + Ν χ S(dB),

w h e r e C is t h e p o w e r loss at a c o u p l e r (in dB) a n d 5 is t h e p o w e r loss at a splice.

T h e power budget analysis of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n link is t h e c o m p a r i s o n of this
p o w e r loss w i t h t h e total acceptable loss P-r(dBm) — P^(dBm).
T h e formula (11.1) for t h e m a x i m u m usable l e n g t h of a fiber also applies to
t h e m a x i m u m usable l e n g t h of a coaxial t r a n s m i s s i o n line. ( T h e formula also
is u s e d to c o m p u t e t h e r a n g e of a cellular radio b a s e station.) T h e values for
t h e a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient, t r a n s m i t t e d power, a n d t h e r e c e i v e r sensitivity for
coaxial cable are of course different from t h o s e for a n optical link. Typically, a
m i c r o w a v e t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h a bit r a t e of 100 Mbps c a n inject a p o w e r of 1 W into
t h e coaxial cable, so t h a t PT = 30 dBm. This t r a n s m i t t e r p o w e r is significantly
larger t h a n t h a t t r a n s m i t t e d in a n optical fiber. A m i c r o w a v e r e c e i v e r c a n b e
m a d e v e r y sensitive a n d r e q u i r e s o n l y PR = —75 d B m for a BER of 1 0 ~ . T h u s 12

a m i c r o w a v e receiver r e q u i r e s m u c h less signal p o w e r t h a n a n optical receiver

to achieve t h e s a m e BER. T h e a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient of a coaxial cable a r o u n d
100 MHz is a b o u t 30 d B / k m , m u c h larger t h a n t h a t for optical fiber. Using t h e
formula t h e n s h o w s t h a t t h e m a x i m u m usable l e n g t h for t h e coaxial cable is
3.5 k m . T h i s results in a Β χ L p r o d u c t of 0.35 G b p s x k m , a b o u t t h r e e orders
of m a g n i t u d e less t h a n t h e 225 G b p s x k m p r o d u c t for t h e optical fiber of t h e
example. Recalling o u r earlier discussion, w e c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c
value of t h e optical link is t h r e e o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e larger t h a n t h a t of t h e
c o p p e r link.
T h i s c o m p a r i s o n shows t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t a d v a n t a g e of fibers over c o p p e r
is d u e to t h e i r m u c h l o w e r a t t e n u a t i o n over a large r a n g e of frequencies.
F o r m u l a (11.1) also explains t h a t r e d u c i n g t h e a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient b y a factor
of 10 i n c r e a s e s t h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h b y t h e s a m e factor, w h e r e a s i n c r e a s i n g t h e
t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r or d e c r e a s i n g t h e p o w e r r e q u i r e d at t h e r e c e i v e r b y a factor
of 10 h a s a m u c h s m a l l e r i m p a c t o n t h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h .
W h e n t h e received p o w e r d r o p s to t h e value of t h e r e c e i v e r sensitivity, t h e
i n p u t bit s t r e a m is r e g e n e r a t e d a n d u s e d to m o d u l a t e t h e optical signal of t h e
next t r a n s m i t t e r in series, as s h o w n in Figure 11.1. T h u s r e g e n e r a t i o n serves
to amplify t h e optical signal power, w i t h a gain PT — PR, w h i c h is a b o u t 30 to 45
dB. Regeneration r e q u i r e s c o n v e r s i o n from t h e optical to t h e electric d o m a i n .
T h e bit rate of a n optical signal t h a t c a n b e amplified b y r e g e n e r a t i o n is l i m i t e d
b y t h e m a x i m u m b a n d w i d t h of electronic amplifiers, w h i c h is a few GHz.
Optical amplifiers c a n i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r of t h e optical signal w i t h o u t
c o n v e r t i n g first into a n electric signal. E r b i u m d o p e d fiber amplifiers (EDFA)
are n o w practical so t h e n e e d for (electronic) signal r e g e n e r a t i o n is r e d u c e d ,
a n d t h e b a n d w i d t h - d e l a y p r o d u c t is i n c r e a s e d . However, t h e gain of p o w e r
amplifiers is n o t g r e a t e r t h a n r e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e decisive a d v a n t a g e of EDFAs
 Optical Networks
550

is t h e i r e n o r m o u s b a n d w i d t h . T h e y h a v e a p a s s b a n d of 35 n m v e r s u s t h e 200
n m fiber b a n d w i d t h , w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e overall b a n d w i d t h from 25,000 to 5,000
GHz. Wave-division multiplexing is t h e only m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e t h a t m a k e s
u s e of this b a n d w i d t h .
T h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s of optical links h a v e b e e n u s e d to date. We s u m m a r i z e
t h e characteristics of t h e transmitter, receiver, a n d fiber u s e d in e a c h g e n e r a ­
tion. T h e first g e n e r a t i o n u s e d a n AlGaAs ( a l u m i n u m gallium a r s e n i d e ) l a s e r or
LED as t h e optical p o w e r source providing PT = 1 m W at a w a v e l e n g t h of 0.85
μτη; m u l t i m o d e fibers (with a core d i a m e t e r of 50 μτη c o m p a r e d w i t h 8 μτη for
single-mode fibers) w i t h a n a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient A = 2.5 d B / k m ; a n d silicon
PIN diodes or a v a l a n c h e p h o t o d i o d e s (APD) as detectors w i t h a sensitivity of
Ν = 300 p h o t o n s p e r bit for BER = 1 0 " . 9

Receiver sensitivity expressed as N, t h e average n u m b e r of p h o t o n s re­

ceived p e r bit, c a n b e c o n v e r t e d into r e q u i r e d receiver p o w e r PR b y t h e formula

PR = NBhv = 2 χ Ι Ο " χ Ν χ 7
m W % 7 x 1 0 " 5 χ mW.
1 4

λ μτη

H e r e Β is t h e bit rate in b p s . PR is o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g (Ν χ B), t h e average

n u m b e r of p h o t o n s p e r second, b y t h e e n e r g y (hv~) of e a c h p h o t o n at t h e
f r e q u e n c y ν = c/λ. For instance, if t h e receiver n e e d s 300 p h o t o n s p e r bit, t h e n
its sensitivity is e q u a l to 7 χ 1 0 ~ B mW, w h e n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n rate is Β b p s .
14

T h e s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n optical link u s e d lasers w i t h PT = 1 m W in t h e low-

loss w i n d o w of 1.3 μτη, single-mode fiber w i t h a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient A = 0.4
d B / k m , a n d InGaAs ( i n d i u m gallium a r s e n i d e ) PIN or APD diodes as detectors
w i t h a sensitivity of Ν = 1,000 p h o t o n s p e r bit for a BER of 1 0 ~ . T h e third 9

g e n e r a t i o n u s e s lasers w i t h PT = 1 m W in t h e m i n i m u m - l o s s w i n d o w at 1.55
μτη, single-mode fiber w i t h a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient A = 0.25 d B / k m , a n d w i t h
a receiver similar to t h a t of t h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n .
T h u s t h e principal a d v a n c e from o n e g e n e r a t i o n to t h e next is t h e r e d u c t i o n
in a t t e n u a t i o n coefficient. First-generation links are u s e d w h e r e t h e distance
b e t w e e n t r a n s m i t t e r a n d receiver is short, so t h a t t h e small d i s t a n c e - b a n d w i d t h
p r o d u c t is n o t a limitation. (For v e r y s h o r t distances, c o p p e r coaxial cable m a y
b e sufficient.) Third-generation links are u s e d for long distances.

Dispersion
T h e top of Figure 11.3 s h o w s t h a t a n a r r o w p u l s e r e p r e s e n t i n g a 1 s p r e a d s
as it travels d o w n t h e fiber, w i t h a s p r e a d d e s i g n a t e d b y σ . Tb u n d e r s t a n d
τ

h o w dispersion limits t h e b a n d w i d t h - d i s t a n c e product, s u p p o s e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r

t u r n s t h e source of light o n for Τ s e c o n d s to r e p r e s e n t a 1 a n d t u r n s it off for
11.1 Optical Links

Impulse input
at transmitter Dispersed output at receiver

113 A narrow pulse representing a 1 spreads as it travels down the fiber. The
FIGURE dispersion should be less t h a n one-quarter of the bit time, T/4, to prevent
errors.

Τ s e c o n d s to r e p r e s e n t a 0. ( Τ = 1/B is t h e bit time, w h e r e Β is t h e bit rate

in bps.) T h u s , t h e t r a n s m i t t e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n p u t bit string b y a succession
of light ( a n d dark) pulses. Tb r e c o v e r t h e bits, t h e r e c e i v e r m u s t distinguish
t h e p e r i o d s w h e n t h e light is o n from t h o s e w h e n it is off. C o n s e q u e n t l y , as
t h e p u l s e s r e p r e s e n t i n g I s spread, t h e y overlap e p o c h s t h a t r e p r e s e n t 0s; t h e
dispersion will n o t confuse t h e r e c e i v e r if t h e pulse s p r e a d is less t h a n T / 4 . In
t h a t case, as s e e n in t h e b o t t o m p a r t of Figure 11.3, t h e r e c e i v e r will see a 0
b e t w e e n two I s as a small p e r i o d w h e n t h e light is off. However, if t h e p u l s e
s p r e a d σ is larger t h a n T / 4 , t h e n t h e r e c e i v e r m a y n o t b e able to distinguish
τ

t h e 0s a n d t h e I s .
T h e p u l s e s p r e a d is e q u a l to aL, w h e r e α is a c o n s t a n t t h a t d e p e n d s o n t h e
fiber. C o n s e q u e n t l y , if t h e p u l s e s p r e a d is to b e less t h a n 1/45, t h e n aL < 1/4B,
t h a t is,

1
BxL< —.
4a

T h u s , dispersion limits t h e b a n d w i d t h - d i s t a n c e p r o d u c t . T h i s dispersion limit,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a t t e n u a t i o n limit, d e t e r m i n e s t h e m a x i m u m u s a b l e l e n g t h
of t h e fiber at a given bit rate. T h e dispersion limit d e p e n d s o n t h e fiber
( t h r o u g h t h e coefficient a). We will explain t h e physical c a u s e of this limit
for t h e following t y p e s of fibers: s t e p index, g r a d e d index, a n d single m o d e .
 Optical Networks
552

Cladding
Refracted ray Reflected ray index = (1 -Δ)η

« 1 ^ ^ Core
index = t]

VL4 In a step-index fiber, light rays propagating at angles less than 0 are reflected C

FIGURE into the fiber.

Figure 11.4 shows a step-index fiber. It consists of a cylindrical core m a d e of

a m a t e r i a l w i t h refractive index η s u r r o u n d e d b y a cladding m a d e of a m a t e r i a l
w i t h refractive index (1 — Α)η. For all-glass fiber, η % 1.46 a n d Δ ^ 0.01. T h e
s p e e d of light i n a m a t e r i a l w i t h refractive index η is e q u a l to c/η, w h e r e
c = 3 χ 1 0 k m / s is t h e s p e e d of light i n a v a c u u m . T h u s , t h e s p e e d of light
5

in glass is a b o u t 2 χ 10 k m / s . 5

For t h e step-index fiber, t h e pulse s p r e a d c a n b e c o m p u t e d to b e

2 σ τ = ^ Μ _ 1 1 . ^ Γ ΐ , 2 ΐ % ^ Δ .

c [cos0 J c c |_2 J c
Since t h e pulse s p r e a d s h o u l d b e less t h a n 1/4E, dispersion places t h e limit

c 3 χ 10 5

Β χL< = = 10 M b x k m .
2ηΑ 2 χ 1.46 χ 0.01

T h i s s t r i n g e n t limit, w h i c h is worse e v e n t h a n t h a t of coaxial cable, l e d

r e s e a r c h e r s to design a different t y p e of fiber w i t h a m u c h h i g h e r limit. T h e s e
fibers h a v e a graded-index (GRIN) profile illustrated i n Figure 11.5. I n s u c h a
fiber, t h e refractive index d e c r e a s e s c o n t i n u o u s l y a w a y from t h e fiber center,
as s h o w n b y t h e parabolic profile o n t h e right in t h e figure. T h e p u l s e s p r e a d
for a GRIN fiber c a n b e c o m p u t e d to b e

α = ^ Α \
τ

8c

In o r d e r to k e e p σ < 1 /4B, w e m u s t t h e n h a v e
τ

Β χ L < — - ^ 4 Gbpsxkm,
11.1 Optical Links
553

Longer paths
are faster Index

11.5 In a graded-index (GRIN) fiber, modes that have longer paths travel faster,
FIGURE resulting in lower dispersion than in step-index fibers.

w h i c h is t w o orders of m a g n i t u d e b e t t e r t h a n t h e 10 M b p s χ k m limit for step-

index fiber.
Step-index a n d graded-index fibers are called multimode b e c a u s e light trav­
els in several different m o d e s in t h e s e fibers. T h e resulting d i s p e r s i o n is called
modal dispersion. W h e n t h e core d i a m e t e r of a step-index fiber is less t h a n 8
μτη, Maxwell's e q u a t i o n s i m p l y t h a t o n l y o n e m o d e c a n p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h t h e
fiber. Such fibers are called single-mode fibers. T h e r e is n o m o d a l dispersion in a
single-mode fiber. However, t h e r e is material dispersion d u e to t h e fact t h a t light
from t h e laser is c o m p o s e d of different w a v e l e n g t h s , w h i c h travel at different
speeds.
Material dispersion is c o m p u t e d as follows. Let D(k) b e t h e l i n e a r m a t e r i a l
dispersion of t h e fiber, e x p r e s s e d in p s / k m . n m . D(k) is t h e difference in travel
t i m e s in p i c o s e c o n d s (1 p s = 1 0 ~ s) for light rays w i t h w a v e l e n g t h s t h a t differ
1 2

b y 1 n m , p e r k m of fiber. Suppose t h e s p e c t r u m of t h e l a s e r source h a s a w i d t h

of σχ, c e n t e r e d at λ . T h e n t h e p u l s e s p r e a d
0

σ =L χ D(ko) χ σχ.
τ

I n o r d e r to achieve σ < 1/4E, w e m u s t h a v e

τ

BxL< ——\ » -———-—-—-—— = 250 G b p s x k m .

4D(Xo) χ σ / 4 χ 1 (ps/km.nm) χ l(nm)
T h e m a t e r i a l dispersion limit of 250 G b p s x k m a s s u m e s s o m e typical v a l u e s
for λο = 1.33 μτη.
Figure 11.6 s u m m a r i z e s o u r discussion of optical fibers. It s h o w s t h e m a x ­
i m u m r e p e a t e r l e s s distance for fibers as a function of t h e bit rate, w i t h o u t t h e
u s e of optical amplifiers. T h e m a x i m u m distance is s h o w n for t h r e e different
t y p e s of fiber: s t e p index, g r a d e d index, a n d single m o d e . T h e limits o n t h e
 Optical Networks
554

L(km)

1.55 quantum limit Single mode

0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 B(Mbps)

The m a x i m u m repeaterless distance as a function of bit rate, for three

FIGURE generations of optical fiber.

distance are d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e a t t e n u a t i o n limit a n d b y t h e dispersion limit.

(In practice, for single-mode fibers t h e a t t e n t u a t i o n limit is m o r e i m p o r t a n t ;
for m u l t i m o d e fibers t h e dispersion limit is m o r e i m p o r t a n t . ) Also s h o w n is
t h e theoretical m a x i m u m distance a s s u m i n g a typical t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r a n d
t h e m i n i m u m theoretical receiver sensitivity for οη-off k e y i n g . T h i s m i n i m u m
sensitivity is called t h e quantum limit for OOK. In addition, t h e figure s h o w s
s o m e values ( d e n o t e d b y small circles or boxes) a c h i e v e d b y e x p e r i m e n t a l or
commercial systems.

11.1.4 Subcarrier Multiplexing

In OOK t h e laser is directly m o d u l a t e d b y t h e data s t r e a m . Subcarrier multiplex­
ing or SCM, illustrated in Figure 11.7, is a n o n d i r e c t m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e . SCM
is v e r y practical, similar to c u r r e n t radio or TV broadcast, t h e chief difference
b e i n g t h a t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n m e d i u m is optical fiber i n s t e a d of free space.
In t h e s y s t e m envisaged in t h e figure, Ν analog or digital b a s e b a n d signals
m o d u l a t e different local m i c r o w a v e oscillators at different RF s u b c a r r i e r fre­
q u e n c i e s , fi, . . . T h e electrical signal obtained b y a d d i n g t h e m o d u l a t e d
subcarriers n o w m o d u l a t e s a single laser. ( T h e w o r d subcarrier is u s e d to dis­
tinguish t h e local oscillators from t h e lightwave "carrier.") At t h e receiver, direct
11.1 Optical Links
555

AMP + BPF

Κ-/
AMP+LPF
LO#l /,

— ΛίΛ Tunable L O ^
LO#N/„

Copper coax
Fiber to
distribution to
the curb
500 subscribers

11.7 In subcarrier multiplexing, several signals modulate different RF (radio

Y^J ^™'
1
frequency) subcarriers. The s u m of those subcarriers modulates one laser. At
the receiver, a signal is recovered b y mixing with the appropriate subcarrier.
Fiber to the curb uses subcarrier multiplexing.

d e t e c t i o n is followed b y " d o w n c o n v e r t i n g " to IF ( i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y ) or to

baseband.
T h i s s c h e m e c a n b e u s e d to c o m b i n e t h e s e p a r a t e distribution s y s t e m s
of cable TV, t e l e p h o n e , a n d data n e t w o r k s into a single fiber. S u p p o s e t h e total
b a n d w i d t h available to m o d u l a t e t h e lightwave c a r r i e r is 500 M H z . A TV signal,
after digitizing a n d c o m p r e s s i o n , m a y r e q u i r e a bit rate of 2 Mbps. T h u s 250
TV c h a n n e l s w o u l d r e q u i r e 500 M b p s or o c c u p y a b a n d w i d t h of 250 MHz. T h i s
w o u l d leave a b o u t 250 MHz for a c c o m m o d a t i n g voice, data, a n d o t h e r services.
Cable TV c o m p a n i e s are u p g r a d i n g t h e i r r e s i d e n t i a l c o p p e r distribution p l a n t
b y fiber w i t h s u b c a r r i e r multiplexing. T h e plan, called fiber to the curb, is
illustrated i n t h e b o t t o m right of t h e figure. T h e optical fiber is b r o u g h t to
a residential n e i g h b o r h o o d (curb), d e m o d u l a t e d , a n d t h e electrical signal is
amplified a n d distributed via s h o r t c o p p e r coaxial cable to 500 subscribers.
Each subscriber m u s t a d d e q u i p m e n t (TV set-top box) t h a t will d e m o d u l a t e
t h e subcarriers. O t h e r subscriber r e c e i v i n g e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as TV sets a n d
p h o n e s , r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d . (See t h e discussion o n cable TV i n section 5.7.)
T h e u s e of SCM for cable TV distribution is l i m i t e d b y two p o w e r factors.
T h e distribution s y s t e m forms a t r e e t e r m i n a t i n g at η l e a v e s at t h e curb. T h u s ,
neglecting losses, t h e p o w e r r e c e i v e d at e a c h leaf is 1 / n t h t h e p o w e r i n s e r t e d
at t h e h e a d e n d . Second, t h e s u m of t h e p o w e r s of t h e Ν s u b c a r r i e r s h a s to
b e l i m i t e d to t h e m a x i m u m p o w e r of a single subcarrier, to r e d u c e d e l e t e r i o u s
intermodulation.
 Optical Networks
556

11.2 WDM SYSTEMS

T h e direct a n d n o n d i r e c t m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e s c o n s i d e r e d above m o d u l a t e
a single lightwave carrier. Since t h e electronic m o d u l a t i o n b a n d w i d t h of a
laser diode is a r o u n d 3 GHz, t h e s e s c h e m e s u s e o n l y a t i n y fraction of t h e
200-nm low-loss w i n d o w s (25,000-GHz b a n d w i d t h ) c e n t e r e d at 1.55 μ η ι . Wave-
division multiplexing or WDM m a k e s m u c h b e t t e r u s e of this b a n d w i d t h . WDM
divides t h e w i n d o w into η c h a n n e l s c e n t e r e d at different w a v e l e n g t h s or light
"colors," λ ι , . . . , λ„. Light of e a c h w a v e l e n g t h is g e n e r a t e d b y a s e p a r a t e laser
a n d m o d u l a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h e Ν m o d u l a t e d lightwaves are c o m b i n e d
t o g e t h e r a n d t r a n s p o r t e d over t h e s a m e fiber. At t h e receiver, a filter selects
t h e desired c h a n n e l or wavelength, t h e lightwave signal is d e m o d u l a t e d , a n d
t h e m o d u l a t i n g signal is recovered.
C o m m e r c i a l wave-division multiplexers (WDM) c o m b i n i n g u p to 16 wave­
l e n g t h s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d in 1996, 40-channel s y s t e m s w e r e available in 1998,
a n d 80- a n d 128-channel multiplexers are e x p e c t e d in 2000. Since WDM e q u i p ­
m e n t c a n b e u s e d w i t h existing fibers, t h e capacity of t h o s e links c a n i m m e d i ­
ately b e i n c r e a s e d from 2.5 to 100 Gbps.
Figure 11.8 depicts a WDM link. T h e t r a n s m i t p o r t i o n c o m p r i s e s η laser
t r a n s m i t t e r s (T), o n e for e a c h of η wavelengths, λ*. T h e η m o d u l a t e d lightwaves
are c o m b i n e d (multiplexed) b y a passive coupler, amplified, a n d l a u n c h e d into
t h e fiber. T h e fiber c o m p r i s e s several spans, e a c h t e r m i n a t e d b y a n optical
amplifier.
T h e amplifier c o m p e n s a t e s for t h e loss in signal s t r e n g t h over o n e s p a n a n d
e x t e n d s t h e l e n g t h of WDM links w i t h o u t c o n v e r s i o n to t h e electrical d o m a i n .
T h e b a n d w i d t h of optical amplifiers today is l i m i t e d to a b o u t 5,000 GHz. T h e

11.8 A WDM link consists of a transmitter with a multiplexer (MUX), a fiber

FIGURE
of m a n y spans terminating at an optical amplifier, and a receiver with a
demultiplexer (DEMUX).
11.3 Optical Cross-Connects
557

n u m b e r of s p a n s t h a t c a n form a single link, before signal r e g e n e r a t i o n is

required, is l i m i t e d b y t h e distortion i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e fiber n o n l i n e a r i t i e s a n d
t h e amplifier noise.
At t h e e n d of t h e link t h e r e c e i v e d light signal is amplified a n d d e m u l t i ­
plexed. T h i s is d o n e b y passively splitting t h e signal into η copies ( e a c h w i t h
1 / n t h p o w e r ) a n d t h e n passing t h e ith c o p y into a filter t u n e d to t h e ith wave­
length. T h e filter o u t p u t is t h e n p r o c e s s e d to r e c o v e r t h e ith data signal.
T h e n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s t h a t c a n b e m u l t i p l e x e d is l i m i t e d b y t h e
stability a n d wavelength-resolving ability of t u n a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d receivers.
Tbday, laser tunability p e r m i t s typical c h a n n e l spacings of 0.5 to 1.0 n m (60 to
120 GHz), a n d t u n a b l e receivers c a n resolve 100 c h a n n e l s .
WDM offers protocol transparency since e a c h w a v e l e n g t h is m o d u l a t e d
i n d e p e n d e n t l y . So if WDM a n d optical amplification are u s e d over a link
b e t w e e n a pair of e n d nodes, t h e signal c a r r i e d b y e a c h w a v e l e n g t h c a n s u p p o r t
its o w n signal format a n d protocol a n d n e e d n o t c o n f o r m to a n y p a r t i c u l a r
c o m m o n protocol. T h u s o n e w a v e l e n g t h m a y c a r r y a n a l o g TV signals, a n o t h e r
m a y c a r r y SONET, a n d a third m a y c a r r y IP packets.
A l i m i t e d form of t r a n s p a r e n c y is a c h i e v e d e v e n w h e n t h e r e is c o n v e r s i o n
from optical to electric d o m a i n p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e m o d u l a t i n g signal c a n b e
r e c o v e r e d from t h e transition t i m e s b e t w e e n 0s a n d Is, as in on-off k e y i n g
a n d FM. In this a p p r o a c h t h e WDM signal is demultiplexed, t h e optical signal
in e a c h w a v e l e n g t h is c o n v e r t e d to electrical, t h e 0-1 t r a n s i t i o n t i m e s of t h e
electrical signal are recovered, followed b y r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e optical signal
w i t h i n c r e a s e d p o w e r a n d r e m u l t i p l e x i n g of t h e different w a v e l e n g t h signals.
This is called bit-level or digital transparency. T h e c o n v e r s i o n is t r a n s p a r e n t to bit
rates, for instance, b u t t h e p h a s e , frequency, a n d analog i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d
in t h e i n c o m i n g optical signal is lost. Note t h a t in this a p p r o a c h t h e r e g e n e r a t e d
optical signal m a y b e at a different w a v e l e n g t h t h a n t h e i n c o m i n g signal, t h a t
is, t h e a p p r o a c h p e r m i t s w a v e l e n g t h conversion.
Protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y is m o s t effectively u s e d in n e t w o r k s t h a t c a r r y het­
e r o g e n e o u s traffic. But p r e s e r v i n g protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y over a n e t w o r k p a t h
w i t h two or m o r e links r e q u i r e s t h e capability to c o n n e c t W D M l i n k s w i t h o u t
c o n v e r s i o n to t h e electrical d o m a i n . T h i s is a c h i e v e d b y optical cross-connects.

113 OPTICAL CROSS-CONNECTS

Figure 11.9 depicts t h e functional a r c h i t e c t u r e of a reconfigurable optical cross-

connect (OXC), also called a frequency- or wavelength-selective switch. E a c h of
t h e Ν i n p u t fibers carries η WDM c h a n n e l s . After demultiplexing, t h e nN
 Optical Networks
558

Σλ,
Hi Σλ<·

OA

Σλ; Space-divsion Σλ;

switch

•0^
Ν

DEMUX MUX

OA = Optical Amplifer, F = Tunable filter

11.9 Architecture of an optical cross-connect with Ν input, output fibers. After the
FIGURE individual channels are demultiplexed and routed through the switch, they
are recombined.

individual c h a n n e l s are switched t h r o u g h a nN χ nN space-division switch.

T h e switch fabric p e r m u t e s t h e nN c h a n n e l s . T h e nN o u t p u t c h a n n e l s are
t h e n r e m u l t i p l e x e d into t h e Ν o u t p u t fibers.
T h e switch fabric functions like a crossbar discussed in C h a p t e r 12, except
t h a t t h e p e r m u t a t i o n of t h e nN c h a n n e l s m u s t satisfy t h e restriction t h a t two
c h a n n e l s of t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h m u s t b e r o u t e d to different o u t p u t fibers. T h e
figure does n o t s h o w t h e control m e c h a n i s m s t h a t configure t h e switch fabric.
T h e r e are variations o n t h e functionality. First, s o m e of t h e c h a n n e l s m a y
b e t e r m i n a t e d locally, a n d local c h a n n e l s m a y b e substituted. T h e switch m a y
n o t b e reconfigurable. T h i s yields a n optical add-drop m u l t i p l e x e r (ADM).
Second, wavelength conversion m a y b e possible, so at t h e o u t p u t of t h e
switch fabric, a c h a n n e l w i t h w a v e l e n g t h λ( m a y b e c o n v e r t e d into o n e w i t h
w a v e l e n g t h λ ·. T h i s will o v e r c o m e t h e restriction o n t h e p e r m u t a t i o n .
;

T h e r e are several w a y s of b u i l d i n g a w a v e l e n g t h converter. T h e m o s t

straightforward is to c o n v e r t t h e optical signal of o n e w a v e l e n g t h into a n
electrical signal a n d t h e n u s e t h e signal to m o d u l a t e a laser of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
w a v e l e n g t h . At p r e s e n t this is t h e least expensive a p p r o a c h . But t h e optical-to-
electric c o n v e r s i o n destroys protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y .
11.3 Optical Cross-Connects
559

DEMUX NxN switch MUX

11/10 The space-division switch uses a separate switching fabric for each wavelength.
FIGURE

O t h e r p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h e s are b a s e d o n optical gating a n d wave-mixing.

Gating e m p l o y s a n optical device w h o s e characteristic c h a n g e s w i t h t h e i n t e n ­
sity of t h e i n p u t optical signal. T h i s c h a n g e is m o n i t o r e d a n d u s e d to m o d u l a t e
a c o n t i n u o u s wave signal of t h e d e s i r e d w a v e l e n g t h . T h i s a p p r o a c h o n l y pre­
serves a m p l i t u d e a n d so d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e full protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y . Wave-
m i x i n g c o n v e r t e r s rely o n a n o n l i n e a r optical r e s p o n s e of t h e m e d i u m to t h e
p r e s e n c e of m o r e t h a n o n e wave. T h e m e c h a n i s m p r e s e r v e s p h a s e a n d fre­
q u e n c y as well as a m p l i t u d e , so it offers full t r a n s p a r e n c y .
T h e switch fabric itself o p e r a t e s e n t i r e l y in t h e optical d o m a i n a n d consists
of η s e p a r a t e fabrics, o n e for e a c h w a v e l e n g t h , as illustrated in Figure 11.10
for t h e case η = 4. T h e Ν c h a n n e l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h
are p e r m u t e d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g fabric. T h e individual fabrics m a y b e built
from 2 x 2 switching e l e m e n t s in a m o d u l a r m a n n e r d e s c r i b e d in section 12.3.
Cross-connects today u s e digital switching fabrics, so t h a t optical-to-electric
c o n v e r s i o n is first r e q u i r e d for e a c h c h a n n e l . T h i s d e s t r o y s protocol trans­
parency.
Optical cross-connects, w i t h or w i t h o u t w a v e l e n g t h conversion, p e r m i t
wavelength routing. A virtual lightpath c a n b e c r e a t e d t h a t s p a n s several links
 Optical Networks
560

j o i n e d b y cross-connects. A lightpath m u s t c a r r y t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h (in t h e

a b s e n c e of w a v e l e n g t h conversion). This is called t h e wavelength continuity
requirement. T h e situation is d e p i c t e d in Figure 11.11, w h i c h s h o w s a n optical
n e t w o r k e m b e d d e d in a digital n e t w o r k .
T h e optical n e t w o r k c o m p r i s e s six WDM links, 1, · · ·, 6, two cross-connects
OXC\ OXC2, a n d n o w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r t e r s . T h e OXCs a r e configured in s u c h
}

a w a y t h a t links 1,3, a n d 6 s u p p o r t lightpath a. T h i s m e a n s t h a t a signal c a n b e

t r a n s m i t t e d along a at t h e same w a v e l e n g t h . Similarly, l i g h t p a t h b is s u p p o r t e d
b y links 2 , 3 , a n d 4, a n d c b y links 5 a n d 6. Paths a a n d b m u s t b e s u p p o r t e d b y
different wavelengths, since t h e y b o t h s h a r e link 3. Similarly, a a n d c m u s t b e
s u p p o r t e d b y different w a v e l e n g t h s since t h e y s h a r e link 6.
Lightpaths are t h e c o u n t e r p a r t of SONET paths, described in C h a p t e r 5.
SONET p a t h s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h a n y c o n t i n g u o u s set of links. But t h e
w a v e l e n g t h c o n t i n u i t y r e q u i r e m e n t further restricts t h e lightpaths t h a t c a n b e
formed. We discuss later t h e resulting w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t p r o b l e m .
11.4 Optical LANs

11.4 OPTICAL LANS

Passive optical 1 : η splitters divide a signal into η parts, e a c h w i t h 1/nth

p o w e r of t h e original signal. Passive optical η : 1 c o u p l e r s p r o d u c e t h e s u m
of η different signals. T h e s e passive devices are s i m p l e a n d e a s y to m a i n t a i n .
We saw t h e i r u s e in cable TV distribution a n d passive optical n e t w o r k s of
section 5.4.

11.4.1 Single-hop LANs

Figure 11.12 illustrates two optical LANs. T h e star c o u p l e r o n t h e left c o m b i n e s
t h e signals from t h e four t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d splits it into four signals s e n t to e a c h
receiver. In t h e b u s a r r a n g e m e n t o n t h e right, t h e signal t r a n s m i t t e d b y e a c h
signal is c o u p l e d into t h e b u s . T h e signal o n t h e b u s is split to feed e a c h receiver.
T h u s t h e signals from all t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s are b r o a d c a s t to all t h e receivers.
E a c h station t r a n s m i t s o n o n e w a v e l e n g t h , b u t it r e c e i v e s all t h e w a v e l e n g t h s .
Two a r r a n g e m e n t s are possible. Either e a c h station h a s a t u n a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r
(laser) t h a t c a n b e t u n e d to t h e d e s i r e d w a v e l e n g t h , or it h a s a t u n a b l e receiver
t h a t c a n select t h e desired w a v e l e n g t h . T h e c o n v e n t i o n is to w r i t e F T or T T for
a fixed or t u n a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r respectively, a n d similarly FR or T R for receivers.
I n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s s h o w n in t h e figure, a fixed w a v e l e n g t h is assigned to e a c h
station for t r a n s m i s s i o n , so t h e s e are FT-FR stations. I n t h e figure, a different
w a v e l e n g t h is assigned to e a c h station. T h i s is clearly n o t n e c e s s a r y . Stations

coupler

11.12 Two single-hop LANs. The arrangements assume that the transmitters are
Ι α 11 Ρ F fixed and the receivers are tunable.
 Optical Networks
562

w i t h different w a v e l e n g t h s m a y t r a n s m i t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e ,
so in t h e o r y t h e total capacity is t h e s u m of t h e capacities o n all t h e w a v e l e n g t h s .
If station i w i s h e s to t r a n s m i t to station ; o n w a v e l e n g t h or c h a n n e l λ, it
m u s t m a k e sure t h a t ;'s receiver is t u n e d to λ a n d t h a t n o o t h e r station will
t r a n s m i t o n t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h . A protocol is t h e n n e c e s s a r y to c o o r d i n a t e
t h e receivers a n d t r a n s m i t t e r s .
Alternatively, t h e LAN could function like a n E t h e r n e t , w i t h n o coordina­
tion protocol. Collisions c a n occur, t h e y are sensed, a n d t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t h e n
b a c k s off for a r a n d o m a m o u n t of t i m e before retrying. Suppose t h e distance
b e t w e e n LAN stations is 5 k m , t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n rate is 1 Gbps, a n d t r a n s m i t t e r s
s e n d 1-Kb packets. T h e p r o p a g a t i o n t i m e is t h e n 10 ^ s (2 /xs p e r k m ) a n d t h e
packet t r a n s m i s s i o n t i m e is 1 ^ s . So t h e ratio a of t h e p r o p a g a t i o n to t h e t r a n s ­
mission t i m e is 10. As we saw in section 3.2.2, t h e efficiency of this s c h e m e is
1 / ( l + 5a) = 1 / 5 0 , w h i c h is v e r y low. So CSMA t e c h n i q u e s are n o t suitable for
optical LANs, u n l e s s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n times, i.e., t h e packets, are v e r y large.
If t r a n s m i s s i o n t i m e s are small, p r e t r a n s m i s s i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n protocols are
essential. Two a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d a n d analyzed. A fixed assign­
m e n t t e c h n i q u e is similar to TDM: a fixed frame d u r a t i o n is selected, divided
into slots, a n d e a c h slot is assigned to a source d e s t i n a t i o n pair (i,j) of stations.
Station i t h e n gets to t r a n s m i t to s t a t i o n ; d u r i n g t h e i r slot, in e a c h frame. (This
s c h e m e is u s e d in t h e T P O N s y s t e m of section 5.4.2.) T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n pro­
tocol for fixed a s s i g n m e n t s is simple. However, a fixed a s s i g n m e n t s c h e m e is
inefficient if traffic is b u r s t y .
T h e alternative a r r a n g e m e n t is to u s e a r e s e r v a t i o n s c h e m e . T i m e is again
divided into frames. Tb set u p a c o n n e c t i o n from n o d e i to j , i c o n t i n u o u s l y
b r o a d c a s t s a c o n n e c t i o n r e q u e s t message, while its receiver is t u n e d to listen
to fs a c k n o w l e d g m e n t . Node if idle, u s e s its t u n a b l e filter to poll across all
w a v e l e n g t h s looking for s u c h a request, a n d locks onto this w a v e l e n g t h if t h e
m e s s a g e is found. It t h e n s e n d s a n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t , w h i c h i is expecting. After
i receives t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t , a full-duplex p a t h is established, a n d t h e y c a n
exchange data. T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e LAN is affected b y t h e t i m e it takes
for a receiver to t u n e its wavelength, t h e d u r a t i o n of e a c h c o n n e c t i o n , a n d t h e
propagation delay. Rainbow-II is s u c h a n e t w o r k w i t h 32 1-Gbps n o d e s over a
distance of 10 to 20 k m .
M a n y o t h e r MAC protocols h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d a n d analyzed. S o m e proto­
cols n e e d a n additional control c h a n n e l for coordination protocols, a n d stations
m a y b e r e q u i r e d to c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r t h e c o m m o n control c h a n n e l .
T h e analysis of t h e s e protocols u s u a l l y p r o c e e d s b y b u i l d i n g a Markov-
c h a i n q u e u i n g m o d e l of t h e k i n d described in section 12.5. We give o n e exam­
ple. T i m e is slotted, data is in packets, w i t h o n e slot r e q u i r e d to t r a n s m i t o n e
11.4 Optical LANs
563

data packet. Packets arrive r a n d o m l y in e a c h station. A c o m m o n control chan­

n e l is u s e d b y e a c h station to r e q u e s t p e r m i s s i o n from a r e c e i v e r to t r a n s m i t
d u r i n g t h e n e x t slot. If p e r m i s s i o n is r e c e i v e d a p a c k e t is t r a n s m i t t e d , o t h e r w i s e
it is q u e u e d . T h i s protocol c a n b e m o d e l e d exactly as a n input-buffered switch
as described in section 12.8. If t h e q u e u e s at e a c h station are FIFO q u e u e s ,
t h e s c h e m e suffers from h e a d of line (HOL) blocking, and, w h e n t h e n u m b e r
of stations is large, u n d e r u n i f o r m traffic, t h e t h r o u g h t p u t is 58% as s h o w n
in section 12.8.1. If stations c a n look a h e a d into t h e q u e u e , t h e t h r o u g h p u t is
increased.

11.4.2 Multihop LANs

T h e LANs of Figure 11.12 are single-hop, since e a c h station is o n e h o p a w a y
from t h e others. Single-hop LANs d o n ' t scale easily a n d r e q u i r e t u n a b l e re­
ceivers. A n alternative a r r a n g e m e n t is offered b y m u l t i h o p n e t w o r k s w i t h fixed
receiver a n d t r a n s m i t t e r w a v e l e n g t h s .
Figure 11.13 is a n e x a m p l e of a n 8-node shuffle network. E a c h n o d e t r a n s m i t s
a n d receives two w a v e l e n g t h s . Suppose λι is u s e d o n t h e u p p e r link a n d λ 2

o n t h e lower link. (Links are d i r e c t e d from left to right.) If n o d e 0 w a n t s to

t r a n s m i t a p a c k e t to n o d e 6, it c a n s e n d t h e p a c k e t via t h e r o u t e 0-4-1-6 or 0-5-
3-6. T h e links along t h e s e p a t h s u s e different w a v e l e n g t h s , so t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
a s s u m e s t h a t w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r s i o n is possible at e a c h n o d e . Note t h a t t h e
s a m e w a v e l e n g t h c a n b e u s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n t w o different h o p s . Shuffle
n e t w o r k s h a v e b e e n extensively analyzed.
We describe o n e s u c h s t u d y for a different realization of a shuffle n e t w o r k .
Consider Ν stations a n d a fixed n u m b e r W of w a v e l e n g t h s λ ι , · · · , λ ^ . E a c h
station h a s o n e i n p u t a n d o n e o u t p u t fiber c o n n e c t e d to a n OXC like t h e o n e

11.13 A multihop shuffle network. Each station transmits and receives on two fixed
S T wavelengths.
 Optical Networks
564

s h o w n in Figure 11.10. ( T h u s t h e i n p u t a n d o u t p u t fibers of t h e OXC w i t h t h e

s a m e n u m b e r attach to t h e s a m e station.) F u r t h e r m o r e , e a c h station is able to
p e r f o r m w a v e l e n g t h conversion.
T h e OXC h a s W switching fabrics. Each fabric h a s a fixed configuration. T h e
configuration of t h e fabric for w a v e l e n g t h λ( is described as a p e r m u t a t i o n m
of t h e set {1, 2, · · ·, N] of stations, so ni(m) = η m e a n s t h a t this fabric c o n n e c t s
t h e o u t p u t fiber from station m to t h e i n p u t fiber of station n.
Each station h a s a n a r r a y of W t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d receivers at w a v e l e n g t h s
λι, · · · , λ ^ . Data is transferred in fixed size packets. T i m e is slotted, a n d t h e
d u r a t i o n of o n e slot is t h e t i m e to t r a n s m i t o n e packet. Suppose π is t h e
p e r m u t a t i o n s u c h t h a t station i w a n t s to set u p a c o n n e c t i o n to station n(i),
for e a c h i. T h e r e is a p r e a s s i g n e d s c h e d u l e of w a v e l e n g t h s λΐ(ΐ), · · · , λΐ(τ) of
l e n g t h Τ d e p e n d i n g o n π s u c h t h a t e a c h station c a n t r a n s m i t o n e n e w p a c k e t
of data e v e r y Τ slots. This w o r k s as follows. D u r i n g slot 1, e a c h station t r a n s m i t s
its data at w a v e l e n g t h λί(ΐ), a n d d u r i n g slots 2 < t < T, e a c h station recirculates
at w a v e l e n g t h λ ^ ) t h e p a c k e t it received at w a v e l e n g t h λ ^ _ ΐ ) o n t h e p r e v i o u s
t i m e slot. T h u s at t h e e n d of t h e T t h slot, t h e original data p a c k e t s h a v e b e e n
permuted by

7Γι(Τ) ° ΤΓχ(Τ-Ι) Ο · · · Ο 7Ti(i).

If this p e r m u t a t i o n is e q u a l to t h e desired p e r m u t a t i o n π, t h e n e a c h p a c k e t c a n
t r a n s m i t a n e w data p a c k e t in slot Τ + 1.
T h e s c h e m e raises two questions. T h e first q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e r e is a
fixed set of p e r m u t a t i o n s , ττ(1), · · · , n(W), o n e for e a c h switching fabric, s u c h
t h a t a n y desired p e r m u t a t i o n π c a n b e realized b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e s c h e d u l e of
t h e s e fixed p e r m u t a t i o n s . T h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n is s i m p l e a n d elegant:
t h e r e always exist four p e r m u t a t i o n s t h a t g e n e r a t e t h e set of all N ! p e r m u t a t i o n s
over Ν stations. This m e a n s t h a t a shuffle n e t w o r k w i t h at least four different
w a v e l e n g t h s c a n realize a n y p e r m u t a t i o n , t h a t is, set u p a n y c o n n e c t i o n s
a m o n g t h e Ν stations.
T h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n is to d e t e r m i n e t h e t h r o u g h p u t of t h e n e t w o r k . T h e
n u m b e r of n e w data packets p e r slot t r a n s m i t t e d b y e a c h station for a per­
m u t a t i o n t h a t n e e d s t passes t h r o u g h t h e n e t w o r k is, of course, 1/r. So t h e
n e t w o r k t h r o u g h p u t c a n b e defined in t e r m s of t h e average n u m b e r of p a s s e s
r e q u i r e d to realize a n y p e r m u t a t i o n . For t h e case of u n i f o r m l y distributed traf­
fic, this average n u m b e r is 0 ( N log N) so t h e average t h r o u g h p u t p e r station is
0(l/(NlogN)).
This shuffle n e t w o r k w a s t e s b a n d w i d t h b e c a u s e it u s e s o n l y o n e wave­
l e n g t h in e a c h t i m e slot, e v e n t h o u g h a station is capable of u s i n g all W wave-
11.5 Optical Paths and Networks
565

l e n g t h s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . More elaborate s c h e m e s m a k e u s e of all w a v e l e n g t h s .

Suppose e a c h station c a n m a k e W s i m u l t a n e o u s c o n n e c t i o n s . Suppose also t h a t
as e a c h p a c k e t is recirculated, t h e station c a n assign it to a n y w a v e l e n g t h . (Of
course, different p a c k e t s in t h e s a m e t i m e slot are assigned different wave­
lengths.) T h e n t h e p e r station achievable t h r o u g h p u t is 1/(3 l o g ^ WN). For
W = 4, Ν = 64, this gives a p e r station t h r o u g h p u t of 1/12.
T h u s , b e s i d e s b e i n g scalable, shuffle n e t w o r k s a c h i e v e b e t t e r b a n d w i d t h
utilization t h a n single-hop n e t w o r k s . However, t h e y r e q u i r e m o r e elaborate
s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n a n d control.

11.5 OPTICAL PATHS AND

NETWORKS

Figure 11.11 illustrated t h e u s e of OXCs to create l i g h t p a t h s traversing several

links in a WAN, similar to SONET p a t h s . T h e n e t w o r k of t h e figure is a n arbitrary
m e s h . We discuss m a n a g e m e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e s e n e t w o r k s .

11.5.1 Static Wavelength

Assignment
F r o m t h e perspective of t h e e x t e r n a l n e t w o r k in Figure 11.11, t h e optical
n e t w o r k is e q u i v a l e n t to a n e t w o r k w i t h t h r e e logical links, a, b, a n d c. (Logical
links are defined in t h e s a m e w a y b y digital cross-connects as in Figure 5.6.)
By configuring t h e OXCs differently, t h e optical n e t w o r k c a n realize different
sets of logical links or lightpaths. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e p a t t e r n of traffic, o n e set
of lightpaths will b e b e t t e r t h a n another. T h i s suggests t h e q u e s t i o n of finding
t h e b e s t set of lightpaths. T h i s is s o m e t i m e s called t h e wavelength assignment
p r o b l e m . We s t u d y various versions of this p r o b l e m .
I b state m a t t e r s precisely, w e define a lightpath to m e a n a r o u t e t o g e t h e r
w i t h a fixed w a v e l e n g t h assigned to t h a t route. T h e n a set of l i g h t p a t h s is fea­
sible if two r o u t e s t h a t s h a r e t h e s a m e link are assigned different w a v e l e n g t h s .
T h u s , for example, in Figure 11.11, l i g h t p a t h s a a n d b m u s t b e assigned different
w a v e l e n g t h s b e c a u s e t h e y s h a r e link 3, a n d a a n d c m u s t b e assigned different
w a v e l e n g t h s b e c a u s e t h e y s h a r e link 6.
We describe t h e physical topology of t h e optical n e t w o r k as a directed g r a p h
G = (V, L, W), w h e r e V = {1, · · · N] is t h e set of vertices or n o d e s a n d L c V χ V
is t h e set of directed edges: (i,;) e L if a n d o n l y if t h e r e is a physical link or fiber
from n o d e i t o ; . Lastly, W is t h e n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s available o n e a c h link.
 Optical Networks
566

11.14 The NWC n u m b e r for the three routes is 2, but the SWA n u m b e r is 3.
FIGURE

Suppose w e are given a set of routes. ( T h e r o u t e s m i g h t b e derived from t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e overall traffic p a t t e r n . ) T h e static wavelength assignment
(SWA) p r o b l e m is to d e t e r m i n e a n a s s i g n m e n t of t h e given r o u t e s to wave­
l e n g t h s s u c h t h a t two different r o u t e s are assigned different w a v e l e n g t h s if
t h e y s h a r e a c o m m o n link. We a d o p t a slightly different v i e w p o i n t a n d t r y to
d e t e r m i n e t h e m i n u m u m n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s t h a t are n e e d e d to s u p p o r t
t h e given set of routes.
T h e SWA p r o b l e m t u r n s o u t to b e difficult: it is NP-complete. T h e r e is a
w e a k e r version of t h e p r o b l e m t h a t is easy. Suppose w e d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e wave­
length continuity r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a r o u t e m u s t b e assigned a fixed w a v e l e n g t h .
T h e n t h e m i n i m u m n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s t h a t o n e n e e d s is s i m p l y t h e max­
i m u m n u m b e r of r o u t e s t h a t traverse a single link. We c a n find this n u m b e r
easily: for e a c h link w e find t h e n u m b e r of r o u t e s t h r o u g h t h a t link a n d find
t h e largest n u m b e r . We call this t h e n o n - w a v e l e n g t h c o n t i n u i t y (NWC) n u m b e r
of w a v e l e n g t h s .
Clearly t h e NWC n u m b e r is s m a l l e r t h a n t h e SWA n u m b e r . Figure 11.14
s h o w s a n e t w o r k w i t h t h r e e links a n d t h r e e routes, e a c h of w h i c h t r a v e r s e s
two links. Since e a c h link s u p p o r t s t w o paths, t h e NWC n u m b e r is 2. However,
w i t h t h e w a v e l e n g t h c o n t i n u i t y r e q u i r e m e n t , e a c h p a t h m u s t b e assigned a
distinct wavelength, so t h e SWA n u m b e r is 3.
T h e g r a p h of Figure 11.14 c o n t a i n s loops. A g r a p h w i t h o u t loops is said to
b e acyclic. It is n o t difficult to see t h a t for acyclic graphs, t h e NWC n u m b e r is
t h e s a m e as t h e SWA n u m b e r . Also n o t e t h a t if w e are free to u s e w a v e l e n g t h
converters, t h e n t h e NWC a n d SWA n u m b e r s are t h e s a m e , b e c a u s e w e c a n
always c h a n g e t h e w a v e l e n g t h of a r o u t e o n a l i n k if a n o t h e r r o u t e t h r o u g h t h e
link h a s t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h .
T h e SWA p r o b l e m for a n e t w o r k w i t h loops is difficult to solve exactly, a n d
so o n e n e e d s to solve it u s i n g heuristics. O n e good h e u r i s t i c is t h e following
g r e e d y algorithm. We sort t h e given set of r o u t e s b y l e n g t h . We assign a
w a v e l e n g t h to t h e longest route. We go d o w n t h e list a n d assign t h e s a m e
11.5 Optical Paths and Networks
567

w a v e l e n g t h to a r o u t e p r o v i d e d it d o e s n o t s h a r e a link t h a t s u p p o r t s a n o t h e r
r o u t e to w h i c h t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h h a s a l r e a d y b e e n assigned. If w e c a n n o t
assign a n existing w a v e l e n g t h to a n y m o r e routes, w e assign a n e w w a v e l e n g t h
to t h e longest u n a s s i g n e d route. We p r o c e e d in this w a y u n t i l all r o u t e s h a v e
b e e n assigned.
If w e a p p l y t h e g r e e d y a l g o r i t h m (or a n y o t h e r a l g o r i t h m for t h a t m a t t e r )
to t h e SWA p r o b l e m , w e m a y e n d u p assigning m o r e w a v e l e n g t h s t h a n are
available. In this case, of course, it is n o t possible to s u p p o r t all t h e r o u t e s . T h i s
raises t h e q u e s t i o n of w h i c h r o u t e s to s u p p o r t . A good a p p r o a c h to formulating
this q u e s t i o n is to place it in a larger context t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e traffic b e t w e e n
n o d e s t h a t t h e n e t w o r k is i n t e n d e d to serve.
We b e g i n again w i t h a physical d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n e t w o r k as a directed
g r a p h G = (V, L, W). We are also given a set of possible r o u t e s R. Let A\ = 1 r

or 0, accordingly as link I is or is n o t i n c l u d e d in r o u t e r. Let z = 1 or 0, wr

accordingly as w a v e l e n g t h w is or is n o t assigned to r o u t e r. E a c h choice of t h e

{z } c o r r e s p o n d s to a w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t . If for a r o u t e r, z = 0 for all w,
wr wr

this m e a n s t h a t r o u t e r is inactive. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t active r o u t e s t h r o u g h

t h e s a m e l i n k m u s t b e assigned different w a v e l e n g t h s is e x p r e s s e d as

Σ A
ir wrz
< 1, for e a c h I e L, 1 < w < W. (11.2)
reR

N o w s u p p o s e w e are given a set of source-destination pairs Ρ C V χ V, a n d let

B = 1 or 0, accordingly as r o u t e r c o n n e c t s t h e s o u r c e d e s t i n a t i o n pair]? e P.
pr

Lastly, let x = 1 or 0, accordingly as r o u t e r is or is n o t d e d i c a t e d to p a t h p.

pr

We m u s t h a v e t h e physical restriction

Xpr 5 B , pr for eachp, r. (11.3)

Each choice of t h e x is a r o u t i n g a s s i g n m e n t , t h a t is, a n a s s i g n m e n t of source-

pr

d e s t i n a t i o n pairs to routes. T h e r o u t i n g a n d w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t s are j o i n t l y

constrained by

w
Σ x
P r
- Σ Zwr
' ^ or e a c
^ >
r 6 R
^ ·) 4

peP w=l

w h i c h says t h a t t h e n u m b e r of source-destination pairs assigned to a r o u t e r

c a n n o t exceed t h e n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s assigned to r. I n e q u a l i t i e s (11.2)
t h r o u g h (11.4) define t h e set of feasible w a v e l e n g t h - r o u t i n g a s s i g n m e n t s . We
c a n c o m p a r e different a s s i g n m e n t s from this set b y a r e v e n u e function. H e r e
is o n e example. T h e n u m b e r of p a t h s allocated to t h e s o u r c e - d e s t i n a t i o n pair
 Optical Networks
568

ρ is Στ pr- !f fp i t h e r e v e n u e g e n e r a t e d b y a p a t h t h a t serves pair p, t h e n t h e

x s

r e v e n u e - m a x m i z i n g a s s i g n m e n t is given b y

p,r

subject to t h e c o n s t r a i n t s (11.2) t h r o u g h (11.4). T h i s is a l i n e a r i n t e g e r p r o g r a m ­

m i n g p r o b l e m . T h e complexity of t h e p r o b l e m grows rapidly w i t h t h e size of
t h e n e t w o r k , a n d o n e n e e d s to resort to h e u r i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s t h a t find good
assignments.
This formulation a s s u m e s t h a t OXCs are configurable. In practice, t h e
configuration m i g h t b e c h a n g e d over t h e course of a d a y to m a t c h t h e c h a n g i n g
p a t t e r n of traffic, u s i n g a n optimization p r o b l e m similar to o n e p r o p o s e d h e r e .
Finally, a l t h o u g h t h e formulation h e r e a s s u m e s n o w a v e l e n g t h conversion, a
straightforward modification of t h e discussion will l e a d to a formulation t h a t
a c c o m m o d a t e s w a v e l e n g t h conversion.

11.52 Dynamic Wavelength

Assignment and Blocking
T h e SWA p r o b l e m is called "static" b e c a u s e w e are free to assign a n y wave­
l e n g t h to a n y route. Such a formulation is r e a s o n a b l e w h e n w e are designing a
WDM n e t w o r k for a target set of r o u t e s a n d t h e traffic carried b y t h e m . In a n
operational context, w e m a y w i s h to assign w a v e l e n g t h s to r o u t e s d y n a m i c a l l y .
Suppose a n optical n e t w o r k of t h e k i n d d e p i c t e d in Figure 11.11 offers a
service t h a t m e e t s r e q u e s t s for lightpath c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n n o d e s . Since
t h e lightpath p r e s e r v e s protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y , t h e service provides a clear
channel t h a t can b e u s e d for a n y p u r p o s e , i n c l u d i n g data t r a n s m i s s i o n at 2.5
Gbps. A c o n n e c t i o n , o n c e established, lasts a r a n d o m a m o u n t of t i m e — t h e
c o n n e c t i o n h o l d i n g t i m e . Conceptually, this service r e s e m b l e s o t h e r circuit-
switched c o n n e c t i o n s , like t h e t e l e p h o n e service. Of course t h e b a n d w i d t h
involved is so large t h a t t h e service w o u l d n ' t b e r e q u e s t e d b y e n d users, b u t
b y h o s t s s u c h as s u p e r c o m p u t e r s . T h e service could also b e u s e d b y n e t w o r k
access providers to trade "bulk" c o n n e c t i o n s over t h e b a c k b o n e n e t w o r k .
W h e n a c o n n e c t i o n c o m p l e t e s , t h e link-wavelengths along t h e l i g h t p a t h b e ­
c o m e available for r e a s s i g n m e n t to m e e t a n e w r e q u e s t . T h e n e t w o r k m a y b e
u n a b l e to m e e t a n e w r e q u e s t b e c a u s e it c a n n o t create a n e w l i g h t p a t h from t h e
u n a s s i g n e d link-wavelengths. T h e r e q u e s t is t h e n blocked. T h e b l o c k i n g proba­
bility suffered b y u s e r s of this service is t h e n a n a t u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e .
A n o t h e r m e a s u r e m i g h t b e n e t w o r k utilization. At first glance, e v a l u a t i o n of
11.5 Optical Paths and Networks
,,ιι^^^^ 569

t h e b l o c k i n g probability a p p e a r s identical to t h e e v a l u a t i o n s t u d y carried o u t

in sections 8.2 a n d 9.2 for circuit-switched t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k s . T h e r e is o n e
difference, however.
Suppose t h e physical optical n e t w o r k is as d e p i c t e d in Figure 8.6. If e a c h
link s u p p o r t s W w a v e l e n g t h s , t h e n in t e r m s of t h e figure e a c h link h a s W
circuits. N o w in t h e case of t h e t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k , a r e q u e s t for a c o n n e c t i o n
c a n b e m e t if a n d o n l y if t h e r e is a r o u t e c o n n e c t i n g t h e source a n d d e s t i n a t i o n
t h a t h a s o n e free circuit in e a c h link along t h e route. In t h e case of t h e optical
n e t w o r k , a r e q u e s t c a n b e m e t o n l y if in addition t h e r e is a c o m m o n free
w a v e l e n g t h in e a c h link along t h e route. Of course, if w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r s i o n
is possible at e v e r y link, t h e n t h e additional c o n d i t i o n disappears, a n d t h e
discussions in sections 8.2 a n d 9.2 a p p l y w i t h o u t c h a n g e .
If l i m i t e d or n o w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r s i o n is possible, t h e n t h e blocking
probability clearly m u s t b e greater, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n e t w o r k topology, p a t t e r n
of traffic, a n d r o u t i n g a l g o r i t h m e m p l o y e d . It is possible to c a r r y out t h e
analysis v e r y similarly to t h a t in section 9.2. Closed-form expressions c a n n o t b e
obtained except for special cases, a n d y o u h a v e to resort to n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d s
or simulation. As expected, t h e larger t h e n u m b e r of h o p s along t h e routes, t h e
g r e a t e r t h e probability of blocking w h e n w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r s i o n is n o t possible.
Two additional c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are w o r t h noting. First, e v e n if a n e w r e q u e s t
c a n n o t b e m e t from t h e available link-wavelengths, it m a y b e possible to m e e t it
if w e w e r e to reassign t h e l i n k - w a v e l e n g t h s of t h e existing r e q u e s t s . T h i s is t h e
s a m e distinction t h a t is m a d e regarding strict v e r s u s r e a r r a n g e a b l y n o n b l o c k i n g
switches in section 12.3. In practice, s u c h a r e a s s i g n m e n t is n o t carried o u t
except u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of link or n o d e failure.
Second, in practice it is u n l i k e l y t h a t u s e r s n e e d t h e full b a n d w i d t h of
a lightpath. Usually SONET m u l t i p l e x e r s aggregate lower-rate calls o n t o a
w a v e l e n g t h . If t h e s e lower-rate calls are i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y m u l t i p l e x e d onto a
wavelength, t h e n e a c h w a v e l e n g t h e n t e r i n g or leaving a n o d e (OXC) will n e e d
to b e c o n v e r t e d b a c k to t h e electrical d o m a i n for a d d i n g a n d d r o p p i n g t h e lower-
rate calls. T h e m u l t i p l e x i n g of t h e s e lower-rate calls into a w a v e l e n g t h is called
grooming. T h u s a n additional o p e r a t i o n a l decision is to g r o o m calls w i t h a n e y e
toward r e d u c i n g t h e n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h s t h a t n e e d to b e processed. T h e
u s u a l w a y of doing this is to identify a few n o d e s in t h e n e t w o r k s w h e r e s u c h
processing occurs, a n d to "back-haul" t h e traffic to t h e s e n o d e s .

11.53 Ring Networks

A l t h o u g h w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t c a n b e u s e d in WAN m e s h n e t w o r k s , its u s e
at p r e s e n t is in MAN ring n e t w o r k s . We c o n s i d e r t h e i r application in protection.
 Optical Networks
570 » ™ ^ ^

11.15 Lightpath protected switched ring. Protection switching operates on individual

TTGURE™ wavelengths.

Figure 11.15 depicts a n optical r i n g t h a t p r o t e c t s o n a p e r - c h a n n e l or wave­

l e n g t h basis, similar to a SONET dual ring. T h e n o d e s o n t h e rings a r e c o n n e c t e d
w i t h two sets of fibers. Each w a v e l e n g t h t h a t is a d d e d to t h e r i n g is divided
b y a splitter a n d t r a n s m i t t e d along t h e two p a t h s . At t h e w a v e l e n g t h - d r o p p i n g
switch, b o t h signals are c o m p a r e d a n d t h e s u p e r i o r signal is selected, h e n c e n o
p r o t e c t i o n signaling is r e q u i r e d . Each w a v e l e n g t h is p r o t e c t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
Each c o n n e c t i o n takes u p t h e e n t i r e r i n g capacity for o n e w a v e l e n g t h , so t h e
m a x i m u m n u m b e r of p r o t e c t e d l i g h t p a t h s is e q u a l to t h e n u m b e r of w a v e l e n g t h
c h a n n e l s . More elaborate p r o t e c t i o n s c h e m e s are u s e d .

11.5.4 Hierarchical Mesh

Networks
Very large WDM optical n e t w o r k s t h a t offer s w i t c h e d c o n n e c t i o n s are likely
to b e organized in a h i e r a r c h y to r e d u c e t h e r o u t i n g b u r d e n . A three-level
h i e r a r c h y is suggested b y Figure 11.16.
A Level 0 s u b n e t is a h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e LAN like o n e of t h e n e t w o r k s
c o n s i d e r e d in section 11.4. Each Level 0 s u b n e t is c o n n e c t e d to o n e Level 1
s u b n e t b y a single fiber. T h e Level 1 s u b n e t m i g h t b e a m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a
n e t w o r k . Each Level 1 s u b n e t is c o n n e c t e d to a Level 2 s u b n e t , o n l y o n e of
w h i c h is s h o w n in t h e figure. A Level 0 s u b n e t i n t e r c o n n e c t s several optical
terminals (OT).
A s u b n e t at a n y level c a n u s e a p r e a l l o c a t e d set of w a v e l e n g t h s (labeled
λ ) for c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t are confined to t h a t s u b n e t . T h u s two local c o n n e c ­
α

t i o n s w i t h i n two different s u b n e t s at a n y level m a y u s e t h e s a m e w a v e l e n g t h .

C o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n two Level 0 s u b n e t s c o n n e c t e d to t h e s a m e Level 1 sub-
11.5 Optical Paths and Networks
571

net can use the wavelengths labeled for this p u r p o s e . Lastly, c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n two Level 0 s u b n e t s t h a t m u s t p a s s t h r o u g h a Level 2 s u b n e t u s e t h e
w a v e l e n g t h s labeled k . T h e t h r e e sets of w a v e l e n g t h s k , λ&, a n d k are disjoint.
c a c

A n a r c h i t e c t u r e of this k i n d h a s b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d in a 20-wavelength WDM

testbed. T h r e e services w e r e offered: a fully t r a n s p a r e n t , s w i t c h e d l i g h t p a t h
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n two OUs, a 250-^s time-slotted service for l o w e r - b a n d w i d t h
applications, a n d a packet-switched l o w - b a n d w i d t h service for signaling.

11.5.5 Optical Networks

C u r r e n t n e t w o r k s u s e t h e h i g h - b a n d w i d t h optical links as bit w a y s w i t h a
SONET structure. T h i s creates protocol stacks of t h e form

a p p l i c a t i o n s / T C P / I P / A T M / S O N E T / f i b e r or a p p l i c a t i o n s / A T M / S O N E T / f i b e r .

T h e s e stacks involve several efficiency losses. IP or l a y e r 3 r o u t i n g is

expensive b e c a u s e of r o u t i n g table look-ups. T h i s c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y l a y e r
2 r o u t i n g u s i n g tag switching or MPLS. IP p a c k e t s are g r o u p e d into flows,
e n c a p s u l a t e d in tagged p a c k e t s t h a t are s w i t c h e d in h a r d w a r e at t h e link l a y e r
a n d t u n n e l e d along ATM virtual p a t h s . T h e flows m u s t c a r r y sufficient a m o u n t s
of traffic to m a k e good u s e of t h e l i m i t e d tag a d d r e s s space.
Carrying IP p a c k e t s over ATM i n c u r s t h e 10% o v e r h e a d of ATM h e a d e r s .
Proposals to place IP p a c k e t s directly in SONET s y n c h r o n o u s p a y l o a d en­
velopes e l i m i n a t e this o v e r h e a d . IP over SONET flows m u s t h a v e s p e e d s t h a t
m a k e efficient u s e of m u l t i p l e 155-Mbps SONET p a t h s .
 Optical Networks
572

A lightpath h a s s p e e d s of 2.5 Gbps (STS-48) or higher. W h e n flows r e a c h

this speed, it will b e c o m e e c o n o m i c a l to replace t h e SONET m u l t i p l e x i n g a n d
switching e q u i p l m e n t in favor of OXCs a n d lightpath routing.
Evolution from I P / A T M / S O N E T / f i b e r to I P / S O N E T / f i b e r to I P / f i b e r a n d
from ATM/SONET/fiber to ATM/fiber entails a simplification a n d r e d u c t i o n in
e q u i p m e n t costs. T h e p a c e of t h e evolution will b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r a t e of
increase of traffic a n d t h e a d v a n c e s in optical n e t w o r k i n g .

11.6 SUMMARY

Optical c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h a s revolutionized n e t w o r k i n g . T h e first optical links

d e p l o y e d in 1990 soon a c h i e v e d a bit rate of 2.5 Gbps. By 1998, wave-division
multiplexing i n c r e a s e d t h a t rate to 100 Gbps, a n d 1 T b p s (1,000 Gbps) s p e e d
will b e r e a c h e d in 2000. At t h e s e high speeds, electronic switching b e c o m e s
a bottleneck, w h i c h h a s s p u r r e d a d v a n c e s in optical switching in t h e form of
wavelength-selective switches (OXCs) a n d w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r t e r s . E x p e r i e n c e
from several testbeds confirms t h a t w i d e area optical n e t w o r k s c a n b e built
to offer p e r m a n e n t or switched-circuit c o n n e c t i o n s at v e r y high b a n d w i d t h s
a n d w i t h limited or full protocol t r a n s p a r e n c y . Such a service could lead to a n
active m a r k e t a m o n g b a c k b o n e n e t w o r k access providers, w h i c h could quickly
r e s p o n d to shifts in traffic p a t t e r n s .
C u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g y suggests a limit of 10 Gbps o n t h e achievable data rate
of a single c h a n n e l . Recent laboratory e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e a c h i e v e d r a t e s of 100
Gbps w i t h packet switching. T h e s e a m a z i n g rates are possible u s i n g soliton light
sources t h a t h a v e p u l s e s of p i c o s e c o n d ( 1 0 ~ sec) duration. If this t e c h n o l o g y
12

b e c o m e s c o m m e r c i a l l y viable, it will accelerate t h e creation of p u r e optical

networks.

11.7 NOTES

For a full discussion of t h e topics covered in section 11.1, see [G93]. A full
t r e a t m e n t of subcarrier multiplexing m a y b e found in [M95]. T h e effects of n o n ­
l i n e a r distortion a n d amplifier noise o n t h e scale of a WDM link are a n a l y z e d
in [TO98]. Advances in t u n a b l e lasers a n d filters are d e s c r i b e d in [CM98b].
Wavelength c o n v e r t e r s are r e v i e w e d in [So96]. Issues in t h e design a n d
p e r f o r m a n c e of optical n e t w o r k s u s i n g w a v e l e n g t h c o n v e r s i o n are r e v i e w e d in
[RM98].
11.8 Problems
573

Optical single-hop LAN protocols are t h o r o u g h l y d i s c u s s e d in [M92a]. T h e

complexity a n d p e r f o r m a n c e of protocols for star LANs of Figure 11.12 are an­
alyzed in [CZA93]. T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of Rainbow-II is d e s c r i b e d in [HKR96],
a n d its MAC protocol is a n a l y z e d in [JBM96]. T h e t r e a t m e n t of shuffle n e t w o r k s
is a d a p t e d from [BCB96].
Recent r e s e a r c h in optical n e t w o r k s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s of t e s t b e d s are pre­
s e n t e d in [JSAC96, JSAC98]. T h e discussion of p r o t e c t i o n switching is a d a p t e d
from [M98]. For a c o m p a r i s o n of a l g o r i t h m s for s p a n failure restoration see
[DGM94].
A t r e a t m e n t w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n optical n e t w o r k s is [A94]. A c o m p l e t e dis­
cussion of w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t , routing, a n d p e r f o r m a n c e is given in [RS97].
T h e SWA p r o b l e m w a s first f o r m u l a t e d in [CGK92]. It is a n N P - c o m p l e t e prob­
l e m m e a n i n g (roughly) t h a t t h e r e is n o a l g o r i t h m t h a t c a n find a solution in t h e
n u m b e r of steps t h a t is p o l y n o m i a l in t h e size of t h e p r o b l e m . Several different
variations of t h e w a v e l e n g t h a n d r o u t i n g a s s i g n m e n t p r o b l e m s are discussed
in [JSAC96, JSAC98], w h i c h also c o n t a i n several calculations of b l o c k i n g prob­
ability.
For a v e r y informative discussion of optical n e t w o r k t e c h n o l o g y see [G96].
For a discussion of t h e issues of w a v e l e n g t h a s s i g n m e n t , grooming, a n d future
optical p a c k e t n e t w o r k s w i t h i n t h e context of r i n g n e t w o r k s see [M99]. T h e 20-
c h a n n e l WDM local a n d MAN t e s t b e d is d e s c r i b e d in [KDD96]. Several ultra-fast
T D M n e t w o r k s b a s e d o n solitons are discussed in [JSAC96].

11.8 PROBLEMS

1. You w a n t to b u i l d a 1-Gbps l i n k as l o n g as possible w i t h o u t r e g e n e r a t i o n .

A s s u m e a t r a n s m i t t e r p o w e r of 1 m W a n d a r e c e i v e r sensitivity of —30 dBm
for a BER of 10 . T h e d i s p e r s i o n at 1.5 μτη is 20 p s / k m . n m , a n d t h e
9

a t t e n u a t i o n is 0.25 d B / k m . At 1.3 μτη, t h e dispersion is zero, b u t t h e

a t t e n u a t i o n is 0.5 d B / k m . W h a t w o u l d b e t h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h if y o u
choose (1) a w a v e l e n g t h of 1.5 μτη a n d single-mode, GRIN, or step-index
m u l t i m o d e fiber or (2) y o u c h o o s e a w a v e l e n g t h of 1.3 μτη? A s s u m e t h a t
t h e b a n d w i d t h of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal is a b o u t 1 GHz.
2. You w a n t to i n t e r c o n n e c t a s u p e r c o m p u t e r to a device at distance 500 m
a n d s p e e d of 1 Gbps. H o w w o u l d y o u do it? Would y o u prefer to u s e coaxial
cable or step-index m u l t i m o d e fiber?
3. Power t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a n optical fiber a t t e n u a t e s in p r o p o r t i o n to
distance. Suppose p o w e r is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h free space in a small b e a m
of solid angle θ for a distance L. W h a t will b e t h e p o w e r i n c i d e n t o n a
 Optical Networks
574

detector of area A, ignoring a n y a t t e n u a t i o n d u e to absorption of light b y

t h e a t m o s p h e r e ? W h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o u l d go into t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of receiver sensitivity? I n outdoor optical c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e a m b i e n t
sunlight will h a v e a significant i m p a c t o n receiver sensitivity. H o w w o u l d
y o u a c c o u n t for this in y o u r receiver m o d e l ?
4. Discuss t h e following assertions:
(a) Dispersion limits t h e (bit rate)x(length) product.
(b) A t t e n u a t i o n limits t h e length.
(c) Dispersion limits t h e bit rate.
(d) If t h e fiber is single m o d e , it still h a s dispersion.
(e) WDM i n c r e a s e s t h e bit rate b y r e d u c i n g dispersion.
5. This p r o b l e m explains h o w to calculate t h e BER in οη-off k e y i n g m o d u ­
lation. T h e receiver c u r r e n t , i(t), is i n t e g r a t e d over o n e bit d u r a t i o n . T h e
integral, N , is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e e n e r g y in t h e r e c e i v e d signal d u r i n g o n e
bit duration. T h e value of Ν d e p e n d s o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal. W h e n t h e
t r a n s m i t t e d signal is 0, t h e laser source is t u r n e d off, t h e received c u r r e n t
is s i m p l y noise, a n d Ν = No. W h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal is 1, t h e laser
is t u r n e d on, a n d Ν = N\. N\, No are Gaussian r a n d o m variables w i t h t h e
distribution

U n d e r 1, Ν = Ν~ λ Gauss { N σ }; b χ
2

U n d e r 0, Ν = N ~ Gauss {N , σ }.
0 0 0
2

T h u s Ν equals N\ w h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal is 1 a n d No w h e n t h e signal

is 0. T h e receiver c o m p a r e s Ν w i t h a t h r e s h o l d a n d declares t h a t 1 or 0 w a s
t r a n s m i t t e d accordingly as

Ν > ί ( Ν ι + N ) or Ν < -(Ν

0 λ + N ). 0
2 2

(a) Explain w h y Ni > N . Suppose t h a t σ is p r o p o r t i o n a l to Ni, i = 0, 1.

0
2

Sketch t h e probability distributions of No, N\.

(b) A s s u m e t h a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal is 1 or 0 w i t h probability 0.5. Sketch
t h e probability distribution of N , a n d t h e decision region (i.e., t h e
values of Ν for w h i c h t h e receiver declares 1 or 0).
(c) Show t h a t

BER = i [ P r o b { N ! < hff l + N ) } + Prob{N > ]-(Ν

0 0 λ + N )}].
0

Δ Δ Δ
6. Recall t h e definition of t h e NWC a n d SWA n u m b e r s in section 11.5.1. Show
t h a t for a n acyclic n e t w o r k t h e two n u m b e r s are t h e s a m e .