SYLLABUS Definition of mineral, Importance of study of minerals, Different methods of study of minerals [Advantages of study of minerals by physical properties. Role of study of physical properties of minerals inthe identification of minerals. Study of physical properties of folowing common rock forming minerala, Feldsper, Quartz, Flint, Jasper, Olivine, Augite, Hornblende, Muscovite,Biotite, Asbestos, Chlorite, Kyanite, Gornet, Tele, Calcite, Study of ether common economies minerals such as Pyrite, Hematite, Magnetite, Chlorite, Galena, Pyrolusite, Graphite, Magnesite, and Boux! Petrology : Definition of rock, Geological classification of rocks into igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Dykes and sill, Common structures and textures of igneous. Sedimentary ond metamorphic rocks. Their distinguishing features, Megascopic and microscopic study of granite, Dolerite, Basclt, Pegmatite, Laterite, Conglomerate, Sand stone, Shale, Limestone, Gneiss Schist, Quartzite, Marble and slate. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Study of different structures like folds, faults ond joints Physical properties of minerals. ‘Advantages of study physical Properties in identification of different minerals Uses and special properties of minerals Rock classification Engineering Properties of various rocks Utes of various rocks. SAK RRS Origin or occurrence of different rocks INTRODUCTION ‘Atolid substance which fin organic and homogeneous in naturally with defined atomic structure ond chemical composition Is called at @ mineral. Inthe process of survival every living organism ls dependent on minerals ether clrecty (or inivecty Minerals ore the source for varlous materials and metas, which explains its unique importance in hen ‘Abranch of geology which deals with study of rock is known as petrology. The study of rock Is one cof the most importont studies from Civil engineering point of view as it helps in selection of rocks for specie purpose bated on thelr engineering ond physical properties, This unit gives vs brief Ides of +, properties of various rocks. t also explains vs about classification of rocks. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN ScannerENGINEERING GEOLOGY [INTU-HYDERAR 20 1G) HYD ERALS, DIFF R; N OF MINERAL, IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF MIN DIFFER, ai wETnOns, OF STUDY OF MINERALS, ADVANTAGES OF STUDY OF MERA BY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES O14. Define # mineral. Explain about rock-forming minerals and Ore forming minerals, Ans: A mineral is defined as x naturally occuring homogenous material which has a definite atomic str chemical composition, Minerals are formed by inorganic process. They possess uniform physical prope ‘common studied minerals and their identification are classified as follows, ture ang ties. The () Rock Forming Minerals ‘Therm forming minerals are mostly used for extracting valuable metals and few types of economic miner tichare useful because of theirphysical properties, They are further easified into metallic and non-metal, minerals. The rock forming minerals ae abundantly availble with over 1600 mineral species, Due toh, scarcity and inherent value, the economie minerals such as gold, silver, platinum, copper, are important. These minerals are mostly studied for ther use in various purposes such as fo road metal, concrete aggregates etc. The rock forming minerals are considered to bea great importance because to their physical properties such as strength, durability and appearance. Gi) Ore Forming Minerals lead, zine ete. vundation rocky ivi engineering ‘The mincrals that can be treated for ore extraction are commonly referred as ore forming minerals. These ‘minerals are formed mainly due tothe geological process and exis in isolated, small and localised rot masses, All the ore minerals consist of metallie mineral along with worthless minerals which are called ss fangue. When a mineral deposit has sufficient metallic mineral presence ini it is called as an ore depose Hence ore deposit and gangue are collectively called as an ore. Metals like titanium, manganese, aluminium, trom el. are abundantly availabe. Scare metal occurs in rocks a they replace rock forming minerals by ‘tomic substitution. The mineral is said to be an ore mineral when the gangue can be easily separated from ‘the mineral and concentrated for smelting. (22, What is meant by streak of mineral? How is it useful in mineral identification? Give suitable ‘example. What is its relative importance in mineral identification? Ans: \ Streak of Mineral and its Importance ‘The phenomenon which describes the colour ofthe mineral powder i termed asthe streak of a mineral, The computation of streak is done with the help of streak plate over which an unknown mineral i rubbed. This streak Plate ts an unglazed porcelain tile, which is used inthe laboratory for testing the streak of| he mineral powder obtained after rubbing the mineral ove the steak differs from its body mineral colour. When the obtained st i dificult identity the mineral. The steak is lighter than the body colour of mineal in case ofthe dark eoloceed minerals having not-metallic lustre, The steak testis not recommended forthe minerals which ae harder than the Streak plate The steak tests very useful in denifying and distinguishing the metale minerals which ae idente 1 in appearance. These can be identified from their obiained streaks, Examples ral, streak plate is useful in identification, only if reakis either white or pale body colour, then it 1. The minerals like “Hematite” and “Galena” ate of same colour but their respective steaks are of different colours. It is because, hematite produces bh lood red colour and palena produces lead gray colour, 2, Translucent minerals usually gives undiagnostic white sueak and opague mineral gives black streak 3. The pyrite which is of brassy yellow colour produces steak of black colour 4 ‘The calcite which is found in various colors, shapes and varieties produces streak of only white cotour. $. ‘The minerals like graphite and molybdenite have simi lar physical properties but th their sueaks. As graphite produces black steak and th re molybdenite produces WARAWIC: XeroxPhotoc © scanned with OKEN ScannerNIT:2: Mineralogy and Petrology 21 Discuss different methods of ~ a. of study of (hy Odo oral inv bi ' minerats in bite, When the minerals are rubbed or heated th ans! Mow, 9), 0449 sive acharacte ellwhich scaled he study of mincrals is important as every ‘ddr, 1 i clasified 28 arsenal, sulfurous pineal as ts 08 client composition and atomic and argillaceous odour mine. Hence. # mineral ean he identified by the (Feet fawn metho, The minerals can also be characterised on cindy of Phystenl Properties the sensation of touch as grea o 8 5 greasy, soapy For the recognition of minerals, simple tess are tough and harsh. conducted, The physical properties which help in (i) Tenacity the identification of minerals are as follows, The degree of cohesion is called as tenacity wo te ani is classified asset, malleahle, eve When the minerals absorb certain ee wavelengths of light by a (ky Fluorescence colour. The presence of impur The property of minerals of exhibiting titanium, haematite, manganese ete., can different. colour (distinct from their own provide different colours for a colourless colour) cn exposure to sunlight and mineral ultraviolet light is called as fluorescence (0) Streak Colourless flourite shows blue or purple isthe colour ofthe mineral powder, which Sokgur when exposé fo efarictet He is obtained when the mineral is rubbed () Phosphoreseence against an unglazed porcelain plate Minerals glow and emit lisht, when they are (0. Lustre exposed to electrical radiation or ultraviolet * light. This pioperty of minerals is called pitta re caaemmens este tlectivehy{ory as phosphorescence and is exhibited by mineral surface is called as lustre. The * diamond and sphalerte Gifferent types of lustre include metallic, (m) Magnetism @ © oO & submetallic, adamantine, vitreous, pearly, silky, resinous, greasy and earthy lustre Hardness ‘The resistance of a mineral with respect to abrasion or scratching is called as hardness, Diamond is the hardest mineral, while tale is the weak mineral. Habit The different sizes and shapes of the crystals and the structure exhibited by the crystal aggregates and crypto-crystalline masses, is known as habit. The different habits that ‘@ mineral exhibits are accicular, fibrous, foliated, sladed, tabular, columnar, granular etc. Cleavage When the minerals break along the smooth surfaces of weak bonding planes, itis called as cleavage. When-it breaks irregularly, it is called as fracture. Mica, zalena, calcite and flourite show perfect cleavage, whereas quartz show no cleavage. Fracture Irregular breaking of minerals is called fracture, Conchoidal, even, uneven, hackle are some of the common fractures. di) Minerals such as magnetite and pyrthotite ‘are the common types which possess magnetic property. Study of Chemical Properties Minerals have a definite chemical composition and crystalline structures. The properties of minerals that are based on chemical composition are as follows, (ay (b) © Isomorphism When chemical composition varies in only ‘one mineral structure, this phenomenon is called isomorphism. Isomorphic series area group of minerals possessing isomorphism. Polymorphism When the minerals have same crystal strate, ‘but different chemical composition, these specific compounds are called polymemhs ‘and the phenomeaon is called polymorphism Pseudomorphisin When the chemical composition and crystal steweture of two aninrals ae same, Pat the erystal fortn corresponds to another ‘when one mineral is replaced henomenon is called mineral, ie. by another, this p pseustomorphist © scanned with OKEN Scanneraa ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (JNTU HY DERE: Oi) Stedy of Optic The properties of mineral are enti using ncroscope. The mineral properties wich a cole cerang shape ric can he studied by using polarized light and under cromed nicole, The different pica prope, inchade imerforence entonrs, optic sign, inlerference figures, twinning. extinction, siertion ey gy chemical competion and eryetal structure of every mineral in ditinct and unique, prves a cle identtcaten ‘fw mineral, when polarized light is paed theengh thin mineral sections Cv) Analysts of Noray When # beam of X-ray ts made to fall on a crystal material, the rays get diffracted. When these diffracteg ‘are taken on x photographic plate, they result in a series of lines ina symmetrical pattern. This diffesceg series of lines ae different for different minerals. Hence, the minerals can be identified using this met, ihich prives accurate results reqertien Physical Properton 1 New of te ; ‘minernt | Ferm | Colour [Seat] tare _| Fracture | Cleavage | Hardon | Coachot- Cryer | Coton or] nige |Witeomn | Comeboe | i are massive white, Men uneven and Two wot 2. Feldspar | ‘Tabular | “hE | white | vitreous | SP" | cleavage at 6 oy uneven | right angles 04. Colour is a valuable hint but also may be misleading in mineral identification. Explain this with sultable examples, Ans: Coteer 4s & light dependent property of any object. The light which cannot be absorbed by mineral exh colour Minerals which are noticeable ate recognised to exist. There are some minerals which frequently occur Characteristics colour and are easy to identify from the other colours. Following are some cases where colours may mislead in mineral identification, 1. Allochromatic Mineral Inthis\ype of mineral, colour may occur intwo.or more depending upon the nature of impurity and composition of minerals, bs Non-metallic minerals such as, calcite, quartz, tourmaline, fluorite ete 2. Pseudochromatic Mint ‘The nature of this mineral isto show false colour, This phenomenon occurs due to reflection and refraction by inclusions of umpurstes at different locations on a mineral surface. 3. Play of Colours When the minerals are exposed to light it leads to the development of series of prismatic colours. The colours of the mineral chanyes due to rapid hich is caused by the interference of reflected light from numerous cleavage surfaces. Example : Diamond, Change of Colours Colour changes withthe rate of sation and their in a larye space unless itis preceded over the other colour. Example : Labradorite : is relatively very less. Every colour tries wo acquire 5. Aridese Minerals exhibit rainbow colours either on interior oF exterior surface. This situation oxcur due to reflection from inclusions. This called as Inidescence, Examples ; Limonite, hematite ete WARNING KeroxiPhotocopying of this book is» CRIMINAL ect. Anyone found guilty is IABLE to lace LEGAL proceedings. © scanned with OKEN ScannerMinoralogy and Potrology jute — “98 she proents oF changing of original colour of the mineral 10 some secondary colour on the Age of mineral ve to oxidation i eferred to pstaish aample : Romite, chaleo pyrite et. Colour isa valuable property in some eases to gy te mineral example: ‘The following table illustrates the identific gine Fase. the colour Mineral Colour Gra ‘Shinning black Pyrite Brass yellow Emerald Green Magnetite | Black Quartz Coloutless (or) white Cakeite White (ot colourless Flint Yellowish brown Gypsum, Colourless (or) white Table ot —__ 5. With suitable example, explain the physical properties of minerals. Nov/bec.16,(R13), 0 OR Discuss about study of minerals by physical properties. Dec.19, (R18), 04a) OR Describe in detail about the physical Properties of minerals. Ans: MaylJunet9, (R15), 4 For answer refer Unit-2, Q3, (Topic: Study of Physical Properites). 22 ROLE OF STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS Q6, List out the various physical properties for the mineral identification. Explain the special and diagnostic physic: properties for the identification of mineral. OR Explain the role of study of physical properties in Identifications of minerals. ‘Ans: Sept-24 (R10), 30) The various physical properties for mineral entifiation are as follows, —__. 23 Degree of Transparency 0 (2) Form or habit or structure () Colour (0) Steak (i) Lustre wo Fracture Cleavage (g) Hardness ) ‘The identification of minerals can also be easly done due to thie special properties. Specific gravity Forexamplethe smonthor soapy touch s exhibited by tale ) ii) Graphite and galena marks black colour on paper. Similarly praphitepyrolusite makes the fingers soft and black in colour Minerals such as a realgar orpiment, arsenopyrite possess garlic odour when heated. co) Minerals such as caleite possess flourescence Flourite exhibit blue or purple colour in ultravoilet light. Some minerals such as diamond and sphalerit glow under electrical radiation, which js termed as phosphorescence. w) Few minerals also possess polarity and are attracted to magnet, such as pyrrhotite and magnetite. wi (wii) Lodestone is a type of magnetite that acts like a natural magnet, ‘Minerals also possess distinct physical properties. () For example, when 2 mineral possesses a pale colour, vitreous lustre, no cleavage, not opaque and having medium density it is identified as quartz, These qualities are only possessed ty quartz and no other mineral. Hence, such diagnostic o¢ distinguishable physical properties help in the identification of minerals. Some physical properties ean become diagnostic physical property depending on the property possessed BY the mineral (x) For example. quartz does not show any streak ani fractiys BU itis mot @ diagnostic physical property. whereas streak is the diagnostic property for WetMatite, pyrite ete., and fracture is considered {9 be distinguishable property for opal jaspct 8ts. Hence, different physical properties are W he considered individually for distinguishing ond identifying a mineral SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scanner= a ENGINEERING GEOLOGY [JNTU-HYDERARA ~o) Q7. Give the importance in the civil engineering point of view, (0) Colour and tustre (b) Structures of silicates (c) Hardness (4) Cleavage and fracture. Ans: (a) Colour and Lustre or the identification of mineral, colour and Iu first observations, Minerals exhibit distinct coloy through out the body, Minerals having constant colour are called “iiochromatic’ and minerals which do ny have constant color are called ‘allochromatic’, The colour of a mineral also depends on the crystal structure ality of mineral is called as lustre. Some minerals exhibit 9 unique lustre characteristics, which ification. They’are usually elassifid into metallic and non-metallic lustre. Non-metallic hse clude pearly. silky, pre are th (b) Structure of Siticates ‘Therock forning minerals are mostly composed of oxygen and silicon, inthe form of $0, tetrahedron. Wher, = 1,2... Thus, every silicate mineral contains SO, tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons are arranged in differen forms Which are categorised as follows, (i) Nesoilicates ‘The SO, tetrahedrons occur as an independent unit in ease of olivine, zircon, gamets ete. (ii) Sorositicates The $0, tetrachedron occur in pairs in ease of melilite, idocrase ete (iii) Inositicates, The $0, tetrahedrons occurs as chains, usually single chains in ease of pyroxenes and double chain in amphiboles. Cyctosilieates The §O, tetrahedrons oceuras ring in 3, 4, oF 6 tetrahedra, in case of beryl, iondieite, tourmaline etc. (8) Phytlosticates ++ The SO, tetrshedeons occuras sheets in case of mica, chlorite, tal (vi) Tectosilicates, The $0, tetrahedron occur a three dimensional framework, in ease of quate, feldspar, zeolites, et. (©) Hardness The resistance offered by differen minerals always have adistnet character, hence hardness helpful in mineral ‘demtification, The resistance offered by mineral i tested on moht’s scale of hardness. Hardness depends upon the alone structure of the mineral, the more orderly packed the more is the hardness (@) Cleavage and Fracture All the crystalline minerals have cleavage. The orientation of broken surface ofa mineral is represented by cleavage and fracture. This is due to the arrangement of atomic structixe of dierent minerals. The cleavage is classified according to the degtee of perfect breakage as excellent, good, imperfect or poor in case of mica, calcite and apatite respectively, Fra rarely used as many minerals break iteegulacly o¢ eshibit similar ‘kind of fractures. The different fractures are classified into uneveneven, hackly andl conchoidal fractures, The abi of crals docs not depend! on the crystal or atomic structure, Fracture ean Q8. Discuss the following physical properties for mineral identification, (2) Form (b) Specific gravity/density (c) Degree of transparency, WARNING: KeroxIPhotocepying ofthis book is a CRIMINAL off: Anyone found ity is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. © scanned with OKEN Scanneryz Meat sn vagy pa rr clei ee aes oa eae ans erm ° Fermine Hemiaton form isthe rs observation made na hand specimen. Form ialso known shit need hence ie de na hand specimen. Form i alo known as habit a ies ee the common mode of occurence of the mineral. The form of a mineral depends Siotainiar pet ee Same minerals may exhibit aileenttype of frm and diferent minerals 0 Ariype of forms. Some ofthe types of form are lamellar, tubular, fibrous, granular, columnar, pedal forms ee tubular, fibrous, Spee Gravity Density Yar the identification of minerals, specific gravity is also necessary. It depends onthe chemical composition and atoric structure of mineral, The mineral tested for specific gravity must not be a weathered mineral, as weathering causes decomposition and disintegration which varies the specific gravity of the mineral. The natalie forms possess more specific gravity than the amorphous forms. The specific gravity of minerals, varies fom 1.1 to 22.84, The lightest being amber and the heaviest being platniidium. Specific gravity helps inthe identification Of mineral of which the inferred properties are same, for example caleite and barytes have similar lustre, cleavage, crystal structure and hardness, but they can be identified by measuring their specific gravity. The common rock forming minerals have specifi gravity varying from 2.5 035, whereas the coramon ore forming minerals have specific gravity of more than 3.5 and very few have specific gravity less than 2.5. (Degree of Transparency Transparency is the property of a mineral to allow light to pass through it. Depending upon the transparency, minerals ae classified as transparent, translucent and opaque. Ths property depend on the amount of resistance oflight offered by the mineral. The transparency is due to the chemical composition thickness and impurities cof minerals. Rock forniing mineral are opaque, but they exhibit transparency when made into thin sections, ‘whereas metallic ore minerals are opaque and do not exhibit transparency even when they are made into thin sections. Hence, te identification of rock forming and metallic oe minerals is easy. The transparency of rocks arestudies by taking a thin and sharp edge against a bright light. Irthe mineral is translucent it will be observed atthe margins 03, Write short notes: (i) Fracture and cleavage in minerals. (li) Role of streak in mineral identification. March (181,048) Fracture and Cleavage in Minerals For answer refer Unit-2, Q7d). (Role of streak in mineral identification : . Q2. What are the different methods of study of minerals? Describe In detail the physical Properties of minerals for identification of minerals with examples. Ans: Marcha (R10, 3 For answer refer Un Oto, For answer refer Us , 03 and Q6. of minerals with suitable examples. Ht, Describe the physical propert Ans: ow, R12, 8) For answer refer Unit-2, Q2 and Q3. ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR EN' EERING STUDENTS: © scanned with OKEN Scannerof ENGINEERING GEOLOGY [INTU-HYDERARAn, 2.2 STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE FOLLOWING COMMON nop, FORMING MINERALS : FELDSPAR, QUARTZ, FLINT, JASPER, OLIVINE, Auore MORNALENDE, MUSCOVITE, PIOTITE, ASBESTOS, CHLORITE, KY ANTE’ GARNET, TALC, CALCITE, 012. Write the physics! properties, uses, chemical composition «f the following minerals, (0) Quartz {b) Magnetite (©) Gametand (4) Tale Ans: The tale shows the physical properties uses, chemical composition ofthe following minerals: ‘Name ofthe Physical Properties Form | Colour mineral Ly Tustre Fracture | Cleavage [itis ‘Conchoidal (2) Quare | Costs [Colourless or | nite | vinous Joreven and | Absent 7 (>) Magnet [FM tron black [Black | MEME. Juneven | Absent 6 Distinct vi oe (c) Gamet Crystals or | Red White ere eoeeonee Absent 6Sto7S ee resinous | to subcon- choidal White or le coloured Present (d) Tale Foliated me Ww rear! Inev ae (green, yel- vie | Pearly ere (one set) s low or grey) Special Pr mornin] Z ‘Chemical Composition Dest | teow] Cm | Trem | | | Gravity) Met Teme |@) Goa speak | Qoneinvednopdatea 2.65) | along thin Dorsess piezoelectric | of glass, ceramics, silica wool, |edees propery, ferrosilicon and refiactoree. i) Quart erystalalso_| Gi) Quartz is uiized as anabrasive, | have the ability 10 filler and fas. in metallurgy, contol the pPesmatic faces of | (inPiezoetectrc ropenty i used wo | | ras | «5 18) ‘iron ore mineral. a. | + a | ~ —— | pe ee je (ii) The varieties of garnet ie, X's calcium, magnesium » te Wansparent and flawless are used | ferrous iron Y = ferric | oa, aluminium, | | ‘chromium, | tunic and electecal porcelain | Gi Talefswcd ering, | oper and rubber. | guilty is UABLE to fa LEGAL proceedings. © scanned with OKEN Scannerr wnt _q:mineralogy’and Petrology se the physical properties and uses a Nemical composition of the following minerals, ia) Meroline feldspars (ny cateite (@) Bawnite (a) Pyrie: ans } pe ible shown the physical properties, uses, el {composition ofthe following mineral, Q14. Write the physical chemical composition of the minerals, (a) Flint (b) Jasper {c) Olivine (a) Augite. Ans: ‘The table shows the chemical composition of the properties, uses a following physical properties, uses following minerals i | i rf i i a : a [aL [uy | pt Ee afadas far foe (Eb fe f}- ]- I 3 3 I i i u F Pip {Rie ja |d Ht i el’ | P lit ‘GE ee r | Pores a Tp) Le Piaf tify fb lat if i [A [oe el Pt | ileal; ft il fl at 814} re LB ie | | ———_—_—_, Q15, State the physical prop . ! } iH Ht Hi | beta composition of the following 4 (a) Muscovite $ i Biotito Lint Ty) a SPECTRUM ‘ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scanner28 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY [JNT! NYDER AA, Ans: 7 Ans: The table shown the physical properties, wes, The table shown the physical proper chemical composition of the following minerals. chemical eomposition ofthe following min. | i Hi < ef i, q i . if i : ! # ‘ ij ft ise SICAL PROPERTIES ‘AL PROPERTIES a fo) je] ip] « I t i fai 1 i ' bogl Hela i SWE HE PELE out group of miners yl fd ft fod dy etude a rat minerals having simita structure and sim chemical con cstion. Because ofthis similar props also possess similar optical and phys! ‘most common and important groups! als are as follows, Mica group Pyrorene group 3._ Amphibole group none found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedl™™ ———————————————— Q16. State the physical properties, uses and chemical composition of the following minerals, silicate mi fa) Chlorite 1 (b) Kyanite 2 {c) Hornblende. © scanned with OKEN Scanner| cil wnt Mineralogy’and Petrology 7 inet group «Olivine eroiny Mien Group ‘he similst properties of the minerals, which ene mien OUD Atomic Structure 0 phylosilicate structure, chemical Composition w 11 the minerals have a common radical $4) Oy (OW F),) ‘mika ma (Al a Tosca Properties (a) Hardness: 2-3 (0) Only asingle set of cleavage (o None of the mineral is opaque lartscerasioneae cee (9 Every mineral have pearly lustre (0 Uneven fracture, 1 Pyroxene Group, ‘The common properties which exhibits in proven gr00p 3, () Atomic Structure Single ei (@ Chemical Composition Common radical of pyroxene group is [ @ Physical Properties (@) Hardness: 5-6 () Two sets of prismatic cleavage (©) Nearly opaque (@ Medium density m (©) Vitreous lustre (Uneven fracture. 4. Amphibole Group ‘The common properties of minerals in amphibole ‘Boup are as follows, Atomic Structure * Double ctisin silicate structure. {Chemical Composition Minerals in amphibole group can be représented bya general formula. 444 (Si,0,,),(OH), Where, x= Ca, Na, Mg, Fe”, Fe” and Al 29 (li) Physieal Properties (a) Hardness: 5-6 (b) Two sets of prismatic cleavage (6) Newly opaque (8) Medium density (6) Vitreous ste (9) Even toxneven facture 4. Garnet Group ‘The common properties of minerals in garnet group are, (Atomic Structure eso silicate structure (i) Chemical Composition General formula is [R"R™(Si O),] Where, R” > Calcium, magnesium, ferrous iron ‘Where, R""> Ferric iron, aluminium, chromium (Gti) Physical Properties (a) Hardness: 65 -7.5 (&) Cleavage is absent in this group, (©) Translucent transparency (6) High density (©) Vitreous tustre (8 Conchoidal to subconchoidal fracture, 5. Olivine Group ‘The minerals in this group have common properties as follows, © Atomic Structure Neso-silicat structure. (1) Chemical Composition General formula representing chemical composition is (R, . (Si O,)] Where, R, —> divalent magnesium or ferrous ion. Physi (@) Hardness 6.5 (b) Cleavage is absent (©), Nearly opaque transparency (Medium density (©) Dull lustre (Even to uneven fracture, a) Properties ‘The other group of minerals are feldspar group, feldspathoid group and epidote group. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scanner80 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY [JNTU HYDER Aaa of minorals basod on n thelr phy (010. How do you dintingulsh the following pairs (a) Magnotite and Magnosite {b) Olivine nnd Fotdspare {e) Tale and Biotito, Magnesite w fe Gi) ] Colour tron black Cid) | Streak: Mack iy) | Lanstre : Metallic to dull (vy) | Fracture : Uneven Form: Massive, fibrous or granular, Colour | Whi Streak : White Aust colourless, grey, brown oF yetlow, jeous or earthy. idal or uneven Practure : Con (i) | Cleavage : Absent (vii) | Hardness : 6 Cleavage : Absent Hardness : 3.5 10.4 (iti) | Density : High (5.2) (viii) | Density : Medium (3.0 - 3.2) of transparency : Opague_| (ix) [Degree of transparency : Opaque i) Feldspars spars. [Form Massive Gi) | Colour ; O11 Git) | Streak : White (ivy | Lustre : Vitreou Form: Tabular teen Colour : White, grey, pink or green Streak : White or pale body colour Lustre : Vitreous, (v) | Pructure : Conehoidal Fracture : Even to uneven (vi) | Cleavage : Good Cleavage : Two sets of cleavage at right angles (vii) | Hardness : 6.5 t0 7 Hardness : 6 w ) | Density : Medium(3.2 - 3.5) Degree of transparency (ix) ix) | Degree of transparency : Translucent along wit aatapnicta ve Ueslieenl (ix) | Degree of transpaency : Translucent along with edges. Density : Medium (2.5 = 3.0) (©) Tale and Biotite @ [Form Form ; Irregular foliate mass Gi)_ | Colour: White or Colour : Dark green, brown to black (ii). Streak : White (iii) | Streak : Grey (iv) | Lustre : Pearly iv) | Lusize : Pearly o splenlent (y)_ | Fracture : Uneven (9) | Fracture : Uneven (vi) ] Cleavage : Present (vi) | Cleavage : Perfect basal (vii) 1 (vii) | Mardness : 2.5 t0 3 (vili) | Density : Med Degree of iransps ix) | Dewtee of transparency : Transparent to transhaent 19 opauie (ix) WARHIIG: KoronIPhotocopying of this book iso CRIMINAL act, Anyone found gullty ls LADLE to Tace LEGAL proceeding © scanned with OKEN Scannery and Petrology on jort notes on, — scale of hardnoss (c) Cleavage angle, (b) Cleavage sets ans: (oy Mobr’s Seale of Hardness Hardness is the property of the mine andness cnn be menstired as py Frinral and is measured with the Frineral with respect For determination of relative hardness, th ender oftheir nereased hardness, These mineral frineral represents the Mohr's scale of hardnes ‘The minerals are arranped in numbers from 110 10, Ni while number "10° represents the ranged in order, with their correspon she mineral or any other material to resist seratch of indentation. For minerals ne hardness or relative hardness, Absolute hardness ist P of a diamond impregnator, The relative hardness refers to the hardnews of a of known hardness, mineral is tested with a set of ten minerals which are arranged in Is (10 Numbers) used for determining the hardness of any unknnwn nber “I"represents the mineral with lowest hardness ral with the highest hardness, ‘The Mohr's scale of hardness, with minerals ing hardness is tabuted below. Mohr's Hardness Minerals Absolute Hardness ©,,(O1)) ' 2 Gypsum (Ca $0,.211,0] 3 3. Calcite (CaCO,) 9 4 Fluorite (CaF, 21 5. Apatite (Ca,(PO,), (OW, Cl, F)} “a 6 Feldspar [K. Al. $i,0,] 2 7. ‘Quartz (SiO, 100 8. Topaz (Al, $i 0,(O1, F),) 200 9. Corundum (A1,0,) 00) 10. Diamond (C) 1600 ‘The numbers given to the minerals (1-10) donot bear any relationship between each other. A higher Mohe’s tardness number simply refers 10 a mineral comparatively harder than the previous one. ‘The relative hardness of the unknown is determined by initially scratching it with talc and successively seratching it with minerals of increasing hardness till the surface of the testing mineral get scratched. For simplicity purpose, the minerals are tested by basic materials abundantly available in nature such as, fingernail (hardness = 2.5), copper coin (hardness = 3.5), broken glass piece (hardness = 5.5) and a pen knife (tardness = 6.5) Precautions For obtaining the correct hardness of a mineral, the following precautions should be followed: 1. The testing of mineral should be done on the side, which is fresh and even, 2. The surface to be tested should be plane and regular. Irregular and rough surfaces does not show scratches clearly. 3. Very sharp point of minerals should not be used for testing. (0) Cleavage Sets “The number of parallel planes along which the mineral under consideration is weak and may break are known 4 cleavage sets, Different number of cleavage sets occur in different minerals based on their atomic structures. However, for a particular mineral, the cleavage character will be strictly definite i., if a mineral exhibit only one set of cleavage then all the available specimens of r/s/s that mineral will have a single set of cleavage. Based on Is, the cleavage is described as, the atomic structure of miner (i) Basal (i) Prismatic ii) Rhombie iv) Octahedral () Dodecabedral SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS: © scanned with OKEN ScannerENGINEERING GEOLOGY IINTU-HYDERABAD, 32 Oo Bel ryone cleavage set For example, the muscovite mg, Snag ake git ma Prismatic minerals possess two cleavage sets, The most common ciamrle of miner is octave sets is feldspar. 1 exhibits cleavage in two mutually perpendicular directions. oa ra 1 cloned while the other cleavage set is less developed. Proxenes and ameliorate eel Rhombic or cubic minerals are the minerals which contain three sets of cleavage ses. Examples include ‘The minerals which exhibit four cleavage sets comes under this category. Fluorite being the best and most terran (beam ‘These group includes all the minerals which have six sets of cleavage. Sphalerite is an example of mineray Soe wl eu hin aan so Cleavage angle is defined as the angle made between cleavage sels. The angle is measured with the help of an instrument called goniometer or with the help of microscope. The cleavage angle is different for different erystals ‘and hence it is an important factor considered for identification of minerals. For instance, consider the case of the pyroxenes and amphiboles. Both these mineral groups have two Prismatic cleavage sets but they comprises of different cleavage angles. The cleavage angles of pyroxenes are 93° ‘and 87°, while in case of amphiboles, cleavage angles are noted as 126° and $4°. Forealcte crystal, cleavage anges, are 105° and 75°, The cleavage angles of above crystals are shown in figures. WARNING: XeroxiPhotocopying ofthis boe [ | sr” 93 igure (1): Cleavage Angles in Pyroxens Group r —— / Ast nay,/ ~N “ Figuo (3: Clonvage Anges in Amphibol RUMINAL act, nd guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL procecdieg* © scanned with OKEN ScannerAns: ypes of Peactires Following are the types of finctures, (i) Bven incite Gi) Uneven fine (ii). Conchoidal finctune (iv) Hackl (©) Splimory fracture fy Even Fracture In this type of Fincture, the surface r of fincture is Nat or plane, Uneven Pract ‘The surface of fracture is rough with fineture. (ii) Conchoidal Fracture 11s a typical type of fracture exhibited by the breakage of minerals with different shapes and sizes, Large number of minerals exhibit an uneven concave or convex and curved fractures. These type of fractures are shown by quartz, minerals and natural glass. (iy) Hackly In this type of fracture, sharp and jagged contours involve on the surfac copper exhibit this type of fracture. (©) Splintery Fracture In fibrous mineral aggregates, splintery fracture is commonly observed. woodstick, elevations of minerals. Native It resembles the fracture of a uss the physical properties of sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Ans: Aprit8, (R16), 8 Temes [foo] tome] Seon | tare [trace [torres | Cowve | Srcte | Groat ] Oma | Oo own! eet | Sr | cee amie [Cyaan | ooo wd [wren] Soba [Gocmea [36-0] rwtea —]3841 [mmm | Unto om | Roary mare son [vate | yew | rte thas sds tant sores, | wah” | storanead we Store| stone trees. | town | tem ecrete | Fon at cocoset freon —_| Tae [omaty [baw | Gvonen | wate [meen [as-4 [tom [1-43 | Tormat | os, | Penryn sone [tow [ae texewten | ce Gergen ss 22. Give the physical properties of Mica. Ans: ‘The common minerals of mica group are: 1. Muscovite 2. Biotite. ‘The physical properties of muscovite and biotite are: For answer refer Unit-2, Q15(a) and (b), Now Dec.-16, (R13), Q5(a) ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN ScannerEERING GEOLOGY [JNTU-HYDERAR Ap) on. ENGIN G25. Comparethephyslestproperts.chemieal [ARS ine ahysical propia composition, made of formation anduses | TN a oe minal of the following minerals. (i) Quartz and Calcite, (i) Augite and Homblende. Ans: rch 2 4. 6) © Quart and Calcite For answer refer Unit2, Q12(a) and QI3(b) Gi) Augite and Hornbende, Q14(A) and QU6(0. O24. Write the physical properties of the For answer refer Unit. following () Calcite (ii) Feldspar. Ans: @ Calcite For answer refer Unit-2, Q13(b). Gi) Feldspar For answer refer Unit-2, Q13(a) & QU8(b), Topic: spar. Q25. Write the physical properties of the following minerals? (2) Hombiende (b) Pyrite {c) Bauxite, Ans: Dee. (RE), sa) (a) Hornblende For answer refer Unit-2, Q16(c). (b) Pyrite For answer refer Unit-2, Q13(d), (©) Bauxite For answer refer Unit 213%), 24 STUDY OF OTHER COMMON ECONOMICS MINERALS SUCH AS PYRITE, HEMATITE, MAGNETITE, CHLORITE, GALENA, PYROLUSITE, GRAPHITE, MAGNESITE AND BAUXITE Q26. Give the physical properties, occurence | Q2% and uses of the following ore minerals, (a) Hematite (b) Galen: WARNING: Xerox/Photocopyi td ser (ais an ncaa ona (i Meaty nd ig at sored std ea (aay [eM anda wily 1478 as Table Porter ese ete Laaégny | ght Properties, uses and chemical composition of the following minerals, (a) Pyrolusite (b) Graphite © scanned with OKEN Scannerr 35 et =| onl. seoniant one rw |. can | ston | oe a —e < eam ne ea « é es | z) => —] ae f} zg) oS] etree me | ene] ona | seme fas | ne ri 1 I #1 = ‘uno asia =| 3 g\ oF Ele RAE © scanned with OKEN Scanner ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS25 az. PETROLOGY ~ DEFINITION OF ROCK = GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS INTO IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC Rocks . Define rocks. What are the propertics of building stones and explain them In detail? Ans: Rocks Rocks may be defined as hard and natural aggregates which consist of mineral grains cemented by permanent honds. The ri ks are classified based on the geological formations as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, These geologically formed rocks subjected to varying temperature, wind, rainfall etc., they are affected considerably and buried into soil WARNING: Xerox/Photocopyi ‘The various propertics of building stones are, 1. Structure 2. Strength 3. Hardness 4. Water absorption S. Weathering 6. 7. Specific gravity 8. Workability. Structure Broken stone should not look faded and its uniform texture should be free from cavities, Patches of soft material and cracks. Strength The stones should possess high strength and durability for resisting the weather effects. The compressive strength of building stones should lie between 60-200 N/mm?. Hardness The building stones should possess sufficient hardness which can resists the development of cracks on its surface, due to any sudden blow or load. ‘Water Absorption The water absorption for any type of building stone should ranges between 1-10% of its total dey-weight, when immersed in water for 24 hrs. Weathering The building stone should be able to resist the ‘wear and tear due to the weathering action. Fire-resistance ‘The building stone should not disintegrate easily on heating and it should be able to withstand the ‘maximum heat produced through fire. Specific Gravity ‘The specific gravity of the stones ranges between 23-2.5, ENGINEERIN & 2a. Give the An Classifica formation, physical chi toe Sqeetey shure ~Workabitity es. 6 GEOLOGY [INTUMYDERAR Ap, sing ofthe building sen i deability of stone shot! sting and res Cuttin he ecanomical a “classification of racy logical formant? asod on geo! ea ryateat characteristics and chor, charactoristics. tion of tock of tock based on geolop acteristics and chaste rere as fallow. "| The classi Geological Formation ones ave Sedimentary Examples Examples 1, Granite 1. Limestone 1. Gres 2 Trapand bask 2 Kankar Dates 3: Serpentine 3. Mooram 3. Maite 4, Syanite Ape 1. Igneous Rocks ‘The stones obtained from the igneous rocks xe used for various engineering works, like bridges, dams etc, Their specific gravity ranges from 25, ‘These rocks are very hard and difficult to work Their compressive strength ranges from 75-199 ‘N/m. The water absorption capacity ofigneos rocks is less than 19 Sedimentary Rocks The stones obtained from the sedimentary ros are applicable for various engineering works lke flooring, paving, decorative purpose, etc. Theis specific gravity ranges between 2-3. These stones are strong but soft which makes them dificult to cut, They are irregular and have a porous structure. Its compressive strength is 50 N/mm. Metamorphic Rocks ‘The stones obtained from the metamorphic rks serve various purposes like decorative purpo Aooring, roofing ete, Their specific gravity sane from 2.5-3. They are soft rocks which can bestt easily. Their compressive strength is betwee? 75-200 Nimm, this book is @ CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings: © scanned with OKEN Scanneral Vormation ks are elas of Roeks nssified a fattows, © split into a number of tayers, they are classified as xamples: Limestone mathe, shale, san ream inne ulstone ete of Rocks one Whi Examples: Granite, Top, ete Votiated Rocks, When a rock is subjected to uniform ‘These are wstally seen in the fin Unstratified rocks ate Me Nom stratified ic. they da not have the various layers for splitting sitess from all sides, resulting in deformation in one plane or direction. ot oF Varin minerals in Creat MelmenTi rocks, Rock i flited mainly due tothe self + Slate ete eyamph i Chemleal Characteristies The chemical charactetistics oF rocks are classified as follows, Argillaceous: ae A sedimentary rock formed with elay (ALO, These (pe of reeks are hn we HOH #88 iia constuent i eed a aritareous rock 3, Silicious Rocks The sedimentary rock formed with silica (Si0,) n° its principal constitu ywn as silicious rock. These tre hard and diable rocks, which usually earn et i Examples: Quartz, Gi 3. Calearious Rocks Basalt ete, These type of sedimentary rocks are formed from caleium carbonate (CaCO,) sits principal constituents They are used in the manufacturing of building stone and lime. ‘ Examples: Limestone, Marble ete. 030. Explain in briefly about occurance of rocks and sholl structure of the earth. Ans: Occurence of Rocks. (Igneous Rocks Igncous rocks occur in nature making earth's crust itself; They are the most abundant rocks and are also known as primary rocks. They are generally formed at high temperatures duc tothe solidification of magma or Lava, i) Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary rocks are produced out of primary rocks due to the action of weathering over them. They are also known as secondary rocks. The sedimentary rocks are therefore originated totally due to weathering on rocks, In water bodies such as lakes and seas, the sedimentary rocks occurs in layers and are arranged naturally in chronological manner. The older rocks are present at bottom while the younger rocks takes the position attop. (ii) Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are produced due to the several actions such as increased temperature, pressure ete, over the pre-existing rocks. The pre-existing rocks may be igneous, sedimentary or sometimes metamorphic. The metamorphic rocks when originated from igneous rocks are known as ortho metamorphic rocks and when they are produced through sedimentary rocks, they ae called as parantetamorphie and remetamosphic rocks respectively. Shell Structure of arth ‘The Shell sructure of earth mainly consists of three parts namely crustmantle and core, The core is again sub-divided as outer core and SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN ScannerENGINEERING GEOLOGY (INTU-HYDERARAG, a8 The crust form the outermost solid part of the earth ind amps of ml " ne iatien desing fnoimatey to depth 38 kn, The rast sa fce fs smeties calle as Hihonrier. Tesi contig water and are called me lk ‘ovenns. These water bodies when considered with resp isk as hydragph The second part ofthe earth's trctre Fe manthe sepa : a The mantle extne om neyo 3 ton depo appx) 2898 kv alo he ai ety ‘he earth. The mantle comprises oF ulin basic rock's til in metal, ‘The mantle is then followed by core, Mantle and core are separated with each other by another layer eatey “Gutenbery discontinnity”. The core contains only liquid matter and is the part of earth ste we fom wh ‘mang eritinates, This part of earths stivctre i aso called as “Pynosphere™, The core reaches from a depth of 245, ‘on to depth of 6370 km (centre of the eatth), The outer and inner core are separated by a layer called “Lehi, "The inn nature unlike core which comprises of liquid matter, ‘core is solid ‘of shell structure of earth is shown in fi surface Figure: Shell Structure of Earth Q31. Explain the forms of igneous rocks Ans: (a) Forms of Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed due to emission of hot lava or magma. The different forms of igneous rocks are as follows, 1. Forms of intrusive igneous rocks 2. Forms of extrusive igneous rocks 1. Forms of Intrusive Igneous Rocks The intrusive igneous rocks are formed due to solidification of magma below the surface of the earth Depending on the relation of an igneous body with the view of related country rocks, the different forme of intrusive rocks are, (i) Concordant and (ii) Discordant. w Cc ‘The fort is said to be concordant when an igneous body is parallel 10 or occurs along the bedding planes of country rocks. The following ae te important concordant forms, phacoliths,lopolihs ecole etalk \cordant Phacoliths Phacoliths are concordant igneous rock. Spaces occur when thick sedimentary stata are folded along the érests and troughs. These spaces and readily occupied if magmstc introns get retieve to them. The mage wai TEGAT proceeds © scanned with OKEN ScannerTopetith Lopolith isa basin or saucet-shaped concordant intrusive igneous body having large size. The top of lopotith iefat whereas bottom is convex downwards, ts thickness is approximately: fo 1. of the diameter sccotith: 10 20 Lace is small igneous boy formed when the viscous magma is injected atone a being plane, TH evan rushes up the owing rocks sit cannot spread eal. Hikes up more athe place where itreaches the feakding plane and gradually reduces along the bedding plane. Laccalith isthe reverse of lopolith, asthe top of Iaccofit ones upwards and the bottom i Mat. ee eee ° (ii) Discordant ‘The form is said to be discordant when an igncous body cuts across the bedding planes of surrounding rocks. The following are the important discérdant forms, Voleanic necks, Batholiths and Dykes. & Voleanie Necks ‘Voleanie necks are the igneous bodies that seal the openings and channels of ancient voleanoes. The shape of voleanic necks may be eylindrical or elliptical in shaped and vary in diameter, Volcanic necks are filled with crystalline rock or fragmentary material or both, These are also known as voleanic plugs & Batholiths Batholiths occur in mountain regions having side slopes which are away from each other. They extend to very large depths. These are very large in dimension. 2. Forms of Extrusive Igneous Rocks ‘The extrusive igneous rocks are formed due to solidification of extruded lava over the earth's surface. The different forms of extrusive igneous rocks are as follows, & Lavaflowsand — # Pyroclasts & Lava Flows ‘When volcano is erupted, lava flows on the surface. The shape of lava flows is similar to sills. Depending ‘on the surface appearance, lava flows are divided into two types. Block lava and Ropy lava. Block Lava Ropy Lava [Block lava is less mobalized @_ | Ropy lava is mobalized to a great extent. (i) | The surface ‘of block lava is rough and] (i)_| The surface of ropy lava is smooth and shining. irregular Tip |In block lava flow, the vesicles are more | (ii) [In ropy lava flow, the vesicles are few and ‘numerous, spherical and small irregular. Pyroclasts “The rock fragments propel out atthe time of eruption of volcano. These thrown out rock fragments are now as pyroclasts 032. Describe the classification of igneous rocks. Ans: owt (R19, He) Classification of Igneous Rocks Following are the different types of classification of igneous rocks, i) Classification based on silica percentage (Gi) Classification based on silica saturation (iii). Classification based on depth of formation, (Classification based on Silica Percentage ‘The chemical composition of rock is expressed in terms of different oxides such as SiO,, Al,O,, Fe,O,, FeO, MgO and CaO, In Igneous rocks, silicon dioxide is always predominant, Silica percentage serves as ‘an appropriate basi for the classification of igneous rocks, as itis also responsible for the formation of different minerals and their relation. When silica content is greater than 66%, the igneous rocks are called acidic igneous rocks, When silica content is 52-66%, the igneous rocks are said to be intermediate igneous rocks. When the silica content is 45%-52%, the igneous rocks are called as basic igneous rocks. When the ilica content is less than 45%, the igneous rocks are called as ultrabasic igneous focks. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scanner40 Ww ii) 33. Ans: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY [JNTU-HYDERABA, ‘Classification based on Silica Sat For the formation of saturated minerals or Unsaturated minerals, the sifica content of the Parent magmi is responsible, Rased on silien content ofthe parent magma, there are fur type ‘of mineral associations. They are, (a) AF the parent magma is very rich in silica, then the saturated minerals are formed and the remaining quantity of silica erystallizes as free quartz. The resulting rocks will possess quartz and saturated minerals like feldspars. Such rocks are known as over saturated igneous racks. If the parent magma has enough silica, then the saturated minerals are formed. ‘The resulting rock will not possess any'free quartz and unsaturated minerals. Such rocks are known as saturated rocks. (©) the parent magma is slightly less in silica, "then the saturated minerals are formed and the remaining quantity of silica erystallizes as unsaturated minerals. The resulting rocks will possess both saturated and ‘unsaturated minerals. Such rocks are known as undersaturated rocks. If the parent magma is highly inadequate in silica, then the unsaturated minerals are formed inthe resulting rocks. The resulting rocks will not possess any free quartz and saturated minerals. This are also known as under saturated rocks. If quartz and unsaturated minerals co- exist, then igneous rocks are known as doliomorphic rocks. Classification based on Depth of Formation Based on depth of formation, jgneous rocks are divided into three types. Plutonic rocks, voleanic rocks and hypabyssalrocks. 4 Plutonic rocks are the igneous rocks formed under high pressure at great depth in the carth’s crust. 4% Volcanic rocks are the igneous rocks formed ‘on the earth’s surface. 4 Hypabyssal rocks are the igneous rocks formed at shallow depths under moderate pressure and temperature Describe the classification of Sedimentary rocks. (oy @ © Based on the mode of formation, texture ay structural features sedimentary rocks are classified into two types, WARNING: KeroxIPhotocopyin 1. Detrital Rocks and 2, Non-detrital Rocks. 1. Detrital Rocks Detrtal Rocks are als@ called as clastic rocky, these rocks are formed ftom pre-existing rocyy by petforming the processes like weathering ayy erosion, transport, deposition and diagenesis Based on average grain size, texture and structiy, features the elastic rocks are further classified as follows, rocks are subedi (i) Gravels (ii). Sands Git) Sits Gv) Clays Based on the Predominance of sediments, clastic ided into three types. They are a, follows, @ a «they are (i) Rudites (i) Arenites Lutites. Non-Detrital Rocks Non-detrital rocks are also called as Non. clastic rocks. These racks are formed either by operation of simple chemical processes (or) by accumulation of hard part of organisms by their compaction and consolidation. These rocks are homogenous in nature, fine grained in particle size and different in chemical composition. Non-detrital rocks are further classified into two ‘groups they are, Chemically formed rocks }) Organically formed rocks Chemically Formed Rocks During weathering of rocks, some of the ‘constituents are drain and taken away in the form ‘of solution. Due to precipitation or evaporation of these aqueous solution the dissolved matter comes ‘outas solid material like rock. These resulting cock is known as chemically formed rock. Based on their chemical composition, these rocks are sub-grouped into following types, (2) -Siliceous deposits (0) Phosphatic deposits (© Ferruginous (@)_Evaporites and (©) - Carbonate deposits Organically Formed Rocks Organisms like plant and animals contribute directly or indizeetly in the formation of organic deposits. These rocks are sedimentary deposits and are formed with the aetive relation of plats andl animals. the formation is due to plants thea fate known as phytogenie and ifthe formatise oF organic deposits is due to animals, then they ate called as zoogenie. Based on the chemical composition pf 0 Tocks, organic deposits ar (9) Carbonate rocks (8) Cana ©) Phosphati deposits (Gi (©) Fesiginen dep (©) Micelisnou teria "Wis UABLE to face LEGAL procoedig® © scanned with OKEN Scanneree ynit-2: Mineralogy and Petrology |, What are metamorphi > rocks a9. Wig how do they form? Wree’ Characters of metamorphic rocks?” Ans? Armmorpie Rocks ‘Metamorphic racks are defined asthe new tock rom the metamorphism process. Met ” !amoephism is rede ess where the existing tock re chanel amar conditions of high pressure and temperature wmipcted with depths several thousand metres tela these Formation of Metamorphic Rocks ‘Metamorphic Rocksare formed by metamorphism of igneous and sedimentary rocks; which ene Srertions that are cither physical, chemieal or both fhosial changes are the changes formed inthe texture TPyve old rocks, whereas chemical changes form the formation of new minerals; consequently giving rise to metamorphic rocks. ample () Ametamorphic rock called Gneiss is formed ‘when granite (i.c., Igneous rock) metamorphosed. (i) A metamorphic rock called Tale schist formed when Peridolite (j.e., Igneous rock) is metamorphosed. Gi) Ametamorphie rock called quartzite is formed when sandstone (i:e., Sedimentary rock) is metamorphosed. Characters of Metamorphic Rocks Following are the characters of metamorphicrocks Minerals such as staurolite, andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite and garnets are the products of metamorphism. These are found only in metamorphic rocks and are not very common ‘minerals. (i) Lineation foliation, schistosity, gneissosity and slaty ‘cleavage are some structures and textures, which are the features of the metamorphic rocks. Naturally, ‘marbles and quartzites are free from these characters ts they are mainly composed of equidimensional minerals, The rest of these textures and structures except slaty eleavage occur when parent rocks possess platy or prismatic mierals, (ii) Normally, metamorphic rocks are formed of coarse grained minerals, But sometimes, the textures and structures of parent igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks are retained by the socks, Such characters are known as palimpset textures and struc Q35. Define a rock. Give an account of geological classification of rocks. Add a note on the distinguishing megascopic features of different groups of rocks. Give two examples of rocks for @ ich group. 7 Why | 41 arent (Rif, 6) Pocks, and 2 036, Define rock. Enumerate the geological classification of the sedimentary rocks. nN Sept -21 (R19), 08) For answer refer Unit-2, 028, Topic: Rocks, 029, Topic: Sedimentary and 033. 037. What is the sedimentary rock? Write the classification of sedimentary rock Ans: Apa.a8, (R18), 05 For answer refer Unit-2, 030 (ii) and 033, Q38, What are the metamorphic rocks? Ans: or 45,219). 400) For answer refer Unit-2, 030, Topic: Metamorphic Rocks. 39, Explain mode of formation of Metamorphic rocks. Ans: For answer refer Unit ‘of Metamorpic Rocks. 2.6 DYKES AND SILLS, COMMON STRUCTURES AND TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS, THEIR DISTINGUISHING FEATURES Explain the following intrusive igneous rocks, (a) Dykes Ans: Nowt5, (R13), Gale) 934, Topic: Formation ao, (b) Sills. (a) Dykes Dykes are the intrusive igneous rocks which are formed due tothe solidification of magma while itintrudes through different weak planes or zones such as discordant fractures, crevices, joints, cracks, shear zones etc. They occur generally 35 discordant, sheet like, vertical or inclined igneous rocks with narrow width and uniform thickness. Some times, effect of heat oF diffusion also ‘occurs along the sides for large sized dykes. The surrounding regions where such diffusion occur is called as “metamorphic aureole”. ply inclined or vertical dykes having great depths are mostly found in nature. Some dykes ‘may be long and thick, while some may be short ‘and thin considerably. Generally, many different dykes oceur parallel to each other or radially arranged and are know as swarm or system of dykes. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING ‘STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scanner42 Impor 4 eninecRING GEOLOGY LINTU-HYDERaR, Dy iy occur i places or areas where the ‘weathering process is inconsistent. This means Uhat the dykes pet weathered either more oes compared to the rocks lying in is surrounding The most common dykes is the dolerite dyke, Which is considerably hard and melanoctati. ant Considerations of Dykes from Civil Engineering Point of View 2 4 ) Dykes act as a barrier for the free flow of underground water, Hence the ground water Potential ata particular region varies due to the Presence of dykes. Generally, dykes are not prefered in the sites like ‘dam foundation as it causes the heterogeneity at the site Dykes are exclusively used for the construction of structure such as statues, sculptures, temples tc. due to their hard and durable nature Under favourable conditions, dykes may ‘contribute to the availability of oil ata region by accumulating it Sills Sills are also the intrusive igneous rocks which are formed as a result of magma penetration into bedding planes of country rocks. The penetration ‘and spreading of magma is dependent on the viscosity and temperature of magma and also the weight of overlying rocks. During the formation of sills, the magma that flows up, forces the overlying rocks to move upwards and ‘get spread along the weak bedding planes. Due to the concordant nature, sills, on consolidation. appears to be the bed themselves. Sills generally ate thin and have a uniform thickness. But, when they are present in large lengths, they have the tapering ends and hence appears lenticular. ills ‘and dykes are mostly found interconnected with each other. Sills and dykes, differs widely in their ‘magnitudes. They may occur either horizontally inclined or vertical. Vertical sills are rarely found and the sills available are generally horizontal or extremely inclined. Most oftenly, the lava flows and sill are difficult to differentiate as both ate of thin sheets Sills and lava flows can be easily distinguished by the following points. 1 In ease of sil, there is a baking effect on rock ‘on of both of sides, while the lava flow have the baking effect only on the lower side of the rock. ‘The surface of sll is nearly lat and parallel while the lava flows have an irregular surface. Lava flows do not give out minor intrusions into the overlaying rock structure while sills give but the minor intrusions. Cooling process duces me igh meek in ease of fava Mow the 2 process i apd prodeing fine graineg 5% rock. " sills is slow and pom and coarse graine rocks. Explain the structures and toxty State different type of texture of ig, Sentai OR a Describe In detail the common and texture of Igneous rocks. Mart. oR Fy Igneous Rocks. a Ans: ‘Textures of Igneous Rocks The texture ofa rock isthe mutual relation of diferent mineral constituents such as size, shape, arrangement. Depending upon the constituents fies textures are produced, which are categorize as fly. 0 7) (uy wy) Equigranular Texture In equigranular textures, most of the continey cexystals of rock are equal in size. The tye q texture ismostly exhibited in granite and flit, Hence these textures are also called as grass and felsitic textures, Granilic textures ae exane ‘rained or medium grained. Felsitic textures se rogranular (grains are microscopic crys, The texture which has fine grains but ex ricroscopic are called orthophyre texture Inequigr Inthe igneous rock, ifthere exists the diferess lar Texture in grain size, then the textures are terme inequigranular texture, Inequigranulartexzs ae of two types. (a) Porphyritic Texture These textures have large sized ens ‘embedded in fine grain mass. hiss fit classified as mega-porphyrtic and wis orphyritic, Poiktite Texture Poikltc textures have fine graineden35* embedded in large size grains. They further clasitied as ophiti. Directive Texture ‘These textures show the result of lw ofa ducing tock formation, This is further {into trachytoid and tachyti textures. Inter Growth Texture ‘The igneous rocks are formed when 86000 minerals crystallize, When the erstallia® curs, it results in ii (o) © scanned with OKEN Scanneryr ura: Mineralosy and Petrology ana Formed Me called interprow nace. Graphic and granophyric texts arrangement mel rntergranvlar Texture During the forthation of ieneous rock, s cxystals may form at an ently stage. Thic sramtencn Hs tls ange roids between the crystals, These voids an different minerals. Hence, this texture is called ergramula texture, When the voids are filed with glassy mass it is called as intersertal texture. ly in timitea cqroctures of Hencous Rocks ‘The formation of igneous rocks give noticeable age and forms which are developed in the body by ‘Ranson or intrusion ina large scale. These formations Ge ermed as structure rocks. These are classified as flows @ (i ‘Structures on Mobility of Magma {As the magma is highly viscous and mobile, a variety of structures are formed as follows, (a) Flow Structures The parallelism occurrence during the magma flow creates parallel bonds, layers ‘or streaks in the rock body. This is called as flow structure. Pillow Structure ‘The magma flow which causes bulbous, overlapping or pillow like surfaces in the rock body is called as pillow structure. It is formed from the mobile basaltic lava, (©) Ropy and Blocky Lava When the magma flow exhibits broken and fragmented appearance due to varied mobility, it is called as blocky lava. When the lava form causes smooth wrinkles on the upper surface rather than breakage, it is called ropy lava. Spherulitie Structure When the crystallization of saturated magma occurs due to thin mineral fibres arranged in a radial manner, itis called as spherulitic structure. (©) Orbicular Structure ‘When the igneous rock indicates bal like iregations having concentsic shells of different mineral, itis called as orbicular minerals. Structures due to Cooling of Magms Following are the structures formed due to the cooling of magma with respect to the environment. o) @ rr) ee (a) Jointing Struc When the magma cools it develop cracks or joints, Depending on the cracks an joints, the structures are classified. When the closely spaced horizontal sts of joints divide the rocks into sheets, then the strictures ae termed a8 sheet structure. When the rock is formed by mutually perpendicular joints, it is called as mural jointing as it exhibits cubical blocks ‘When the rocks are formed by drying and shrinking, it'creates a polygonal blocks or columns, which are called as columnar structure Rift and Grain These are two mutually perpendicular directions, which help in the quarrying oF igneous rock from the main body easily. The rift and grain weakness are formed at fluidal cavities due to orientation of minute eracks in minerals and create crystal stresses. (©) Vesicular Structure “These structures are formed duc to presence of cavities of various size and shape in cooled mass. This is due to presence of unescaped gases during crystallization ‘When these cavities are filed by seconding minerals of the specific shape and sizes, it is called as amygdaloidal structure. The secondary mineral is called as amygdaloid. ‘Miarolitie Structure ‘This type of structures similartoamygdaloidal structures, but the secondary mineral contain volatile components, which results in the enlargement of rock and form an unusual rare ‘mineral. When these rare minerals are present inlarge quantity inrock, itis called as miarolitie structure, Miscellaneous Structures Miscellaneous structures are classified as follows, (a) Reaction Structure ‘This structure is formed when hot magma reacts with the earlier formed minerals during crystallization. When the reaction completes, the original mineral disappears, ‘but when the reaction is incomplete, the mineral is surrounded by reaction product called as reaction rim, Nenolithie Structure (yy @ ow ‘When the foreign material arrange themself in magma in different patterns, they get segregated during crystallization, These steuctures are called xenolithie structures SPECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © scanned with OKEN Scannernt a er 44 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IINTU HYDERABAD, a Q42. Explain the Important textures and Structures of sedimentary rocks. Ans: ‘Textures of Sedimentary Rocks Sel sswhich 1 rocks poaeees varia tent are charncterized is follows, aw ai, wv) © w laced! on the Origin of Gains Sedimentary rocks show ¢ texture deper ste and nan-elastic composition of elastic ‘organic contribution, ns Depending upon the si ins in the sedimentary rock, the textures are eategorized as, (9) Coarse pai is> Simm) A (when the average pais (>) Medium grained! (wh size varies from 1 n the ay wm and S mim) (©) Fine grained (when the average prin size is < Imm). Rased on the Shapes of Grains Depending upon the shape such as rounded, Subrounded, angular and sub-angular, the sedimentary rocks have breecias and conglomerate textures. t depends upon the amount of transport And abrasion suflered during the formation. Based on the Packing of Grains The sedimentary rocks contain open-packed or Porous textures depending upon the degree of packing during the process of deposition. Based on the Fabric of Grains During the process of deposition, when the sediments are oriented at a preferred direction or oriented towards the longer axis, the sedimentary rock may possess elongated texture. The clongated sediments are arranged in the same direction asthe longer axis, Based on the Crystallization Trend Depending upon the nature of crystallization of ‘grains, the sedimentary rocks ate classified as crystalline granular texture and amorphous texture, Ne Structures of Sedimentary Rocks ‘Structures of sedimentary rocks are due to large scale features developed during the process of formation, They are classified as follows, ® WARWING: KeroxiPhotocopying of this bo Mechanical Structures ‘This ype of structures are mostly formed due to the clastic textures in sedimentary rocks, which is formed by physical process of the deposition ‘of sediments, The structure developed through mechanically are as follows, (8) Stratification The structure formed by the arrangement of different strata in the form of layers is called is» CRIMINAL i} 0 @ © © (e) Anyone found guilty Is UIAULE tofoce LEGAL ps ratification. The colour competion, ize nnd texture of different layers qq similar or different: The different layer form abeading planes which separates yar each other with any variation i The heds can be horizontal, inelined f tent, broken or overturned by the tectonie forces Lamination This type of structure is similar yy stratification, but the bed layers in it aye very thin I isthe character fine-grained sedimentary rocks, such ascly ‘nd shale, The different layers are called yy Inminae and are easly distinguishable die to colour difference. Cross Bedding, The arrangement of layers one above the other in an irregular oF inclined form in sedimentary rocks are called as cross bedding. When the ditection af flow varie, repeatedly, this structure is formed. It is also called as false or current bedding. The different common types of false bedding are as follows, 1. Tabular (the top and bottom layers are parallel and the middle layer is not parallel) 2. Lenticular (all layers ate extremely inregular) 3. Wedge shaped (all layers are complex, having defined sets of parallel layers), Graded Bedding When. the different layers of strata are formed according to the grain size (when the coarse grain form the bottom layer and the fine grains form the top layer) This type of formation of graded layers is called as graded bedding. This type of structure mostly occurs duc to landslides and earthquakes, Mud Cracks ‘These are the polygonal or iregutar cracks (0 the surface of exposed sedimentary layers, Rain Prints ‘The crater like depressions formed dus to faleain fallow the fine geain compacted Clays creates an imprint which are see on dried sediments, These structures fare irregular with small crater shaped depressions, Ripple Marks When the sedimentary weks are form erp structure of oF wind and wave action during jodings © scanned with OKEN Scanner a ad t ~FF ynir2: Mineralogy and Petrology — tionaqymmee ee 45 depo: ‘mmetical or asymmenical ww ‘wave Hike wndtatio mmetical | (a) Crystaliohlaetic Textare 8 are formed w re creates tipple mark structures SPCR During the metamorphisms of role, new textures ‘Thediferentstrictires such ae mud each tne impoved om the rock, which are called #8 rain prints and tipple marke indians ne crystalloblastic textures, This structure is mainly presence f sedimentary ns rica the the product of metamorphism, which ae further Vater evichainena, $a shallow lasted into oy chemin Stroctres 1. Pomphyrobatie terre (fine grained ‘ metamorphic rock with ioblastic crystals Most ofthe sedimentary toeks are formed by the 2. Gramablastic texture (equidimensional chemical process like precipitation, evaporation recrystallized mineral with fire grains). anderystallization. The different stctures formed | () _ Plaimpsest Textures dye to chemical process are classified as fallows, ‘The textures retained by parent rock, even afler (a) Concretionary Structures metamorphic effects is called as palimpsest ‘The sedimontaty Fok textures, It is also called as etict textures Sedimentary rocks made up of | structures of Metamorphic Rocks concretions of various shapes (rounded, clad sub-ounded, rough, smooth and stall ccos The different types of structures found in Of Hah oF walt) aed sn craeze® | metamorphic rock ate classified a5 Follows, the conereionary structures This is Rea, | (2 Cataelastic Structures classified into, Daring metamorpisn 9 fine rock mass is developed which is due to sever crushing a 1 Outi rt te oncom te Shearing effects. These effects are observed in a sh exes) rocks such as erush brecua, mylonite and slate 2. Pisoliti structures (the concretions are overa wide area Peanut shaped). (ii) Schistose Structure Sedimentary rocks like limestone and ‘The rock which possess parallel or sub-parallel ‘bauxite possess these type of structures. layers orhands of flaky, platy or rod like minerals (0) Nodular Structures ae termed schiots. His strate i ealed schistose structure and is weak in the dire ‘When the sedimentary rocks are developed ‘of parallelism, by irregularly shaped modules of chert, | (ii) Gnelssose Structure iran oxide, Iron carbonates and clayey During metamorphism, when the rock is Senate fey fem Dodialas etroetines subjected to high temperature, pressure and which indicates the deposition away from action of fluids, an alternate bands of platy and the place of formation. flaky minerals wth equidimensional and granular (©) Geode Structures minerals are formed. This type of structure is “The sedimentary rocks which are formed called gneissose structure and shows contrasting by chalcedony and inwardly projecting, colours, composition and textures. crystals like quartz, it forms the geode | (v) Maculose Structure structure which is due to erystalization of ‘The incomplete reeyrstallisation of minerals ‘quartz inside a cavity oF void. during tema metamorphism causes pe sd formations which are called on maculose (i) Organic Structures ceymial Ioemasions w i ructures, These structures are identified by the ‘The accumulation and compaction of the organic Srronrince of pats on tho rock, Another ps ee ere of maculose structure is Augen structure. Augen pee recalled ee ture is similar wo Maculore structure which is Salmarn hoodies | Stmeecee wen tarcaar 1.» Fossiliferous structure (presence of fossils | (y) Granulose Structure in rocks) ‘When the constituent mingrals are characterized 2. Stromatolitie structure (presence of algae by granular structure, it is called as granulose remains. structure, Marble and quartzite granulose 6" Explain the Important textures and ste which an be asi eed ies structures of metamorphic rock: feature. They are fish termed as granites. * st rock structure possess individual grains, which 1 are irregular in outline but are inter-locking, with lentures of Metamorphle Rocks negligible or no foliation. These structures are ‘The different textures of metamorphic rocks are developed on a large scale and are reterred as {2teporized as follows, tock cleavage, schistosity and foliation SPECTROM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 1 ‘ ‘ © scanned with OKEN Scanner