Electrochimica Acta 404 (2022) 139773

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electrochimica Acta
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/electacta

In situ TEM studies of electrochemistry of high temperature

lithium-selenium all-solid-state batteries
Baiyu Guo a,1, Jingzhao Chen a,1, Zaifa Wang a,1, Yong Su c, Hui Li a, Hongjun Ye a,
Liqiang Zhang a,∗, Yongfu Tang a,b,∗, Jianyu Huang a,c,∗
a
Clean Nano Energy Center, State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, PR China
b
Hebei Key Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, PR China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, Hunan 411105, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Lithium sulfur (Li-S) battery has very high theoretical specific capacity, which is a potential "beyond
Received 7 November 2021 lithium" energy storage technology for electrical vehicle and grid energy storage applications. However,
Revised 18 December 2021
the poor electronic conductivity of sulfur has plagued the performance of Li-S battery. This prompts the
Accepted 19 December 2021
research in lithium selenium (Li-Se) battery, in which the electronic conductivity of Se is more than 25
Available online 22 December 2021
orders of magnitude higher than that of S. Herein, we have investigated the electrochemistry of Li-Se
Keywords: all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) at different temperatures using in situ transmission electron microscopy
In situ TEM (TEM) technique equipped with a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) heating device. We found that
MEMS different from liquid electrolyte, polyselenides were absent during discharge and charge of Li-Se ASSBs.
High temperature Moreover, we revealed that the discharge products of Li2 Se cannot be decomposed at room temperature.
Li-Se ASSBs However, Li2 Se was decomposed easily at high temperatures because of increased Li+ ion conduction,
indicating conclusively that it is the Li+ ion conductivity rather than the electronic conductivity that dic-
tates the performance of Li-Se ASSB. Our studies provide not only new understanding to the Li2 Se elec-
trochemistry, but also an important strategy to boost the performance of Li-Se ASSBs for energy storage
applications.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction velopment of new high energy battery systems is still a research

High energy density, long cycle life and low cost are the fu-
ture direction of electric vehicle batteries [1–4]. Li-S battery has
very high energy density (2567 W h kg−1 ), high volume specific
capacity (3467 mA h cm−3 ) and low cost, which is considered to
be the most promising candidates for next generation high energy
density battery system [5–8]. However, Li-S batteries still have sev-
eral technical bottlenecks: (1) The low conductivity of sulfur leads
to poor rate performance [9,10]; (2) The polysulfide shuttle ef-
fect causes short cycle lifetime [11,12]. These problems have ham-
pered the commercial application of Li-S batteries. Therefore, de-
Abbreviations: TEM, Transmission Electron Microscopy; MEMS, Micro-
electromechanical System; ASSB, All Solid State Battery.
∗
Corresponding authors at: Clean Nano Energy Center, State Key Laboratory
of Metastable Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao
066004, PR China.
E-mail addresses: lqzhang@ysu.edu.cn (L. Zhang), tangyongfu@ysu.edu.cn (Y.
Tang), jyhuang8@hotmail.com (J. Huang).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
hotspot.
Selenium, a congener of sulfur, has been introduced as a cath-
ode material for high energy density lithium-ion batteries [13–18].
As a new battery system with high volume energy density, Li-Se
battery has arose significant interests in the battery community.
It has a theoretical volumetric specific capacity of up to 3254 mA
h cm−3 , and the electronic conductivity of selenium (1 × 10−3
S•m−1 ) is much higher than that of sulfur (5 × 10−28 S•m−1 )
[11,14]. Li-Se battery has potential applications in areas where vol-
ume is limited, such as mobile phones and electric cars. However,
the practical use of Li-Se battery is impeded by the technical chal-
lenges such as the low selenium utilization, poor cyclic perfor-
mance and low Coulombic efficiency due to lithium polyselenide
shuttling between the electrodes, producing Li2 Se on the anode
surface, and the sluggish decomposition of Li2 Se [19–23]. There-
fore, understanding the formation of the lithium polyselenides in-
termediates in the Li-Se batteries becomes a major research focus.
The polyselenides problem may be circumvented by the implemen-
tation of the Li-Se ASSBs, as it was reported that no lithium pol-
yselenides intermediate was formed during discharge in the Li-Se

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139773
0013-4686/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Guo, J. Chen, Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 1. Characterization of the pristine Se@CNT. (a) A TEM image. (b, c) HRTEM images. "t-C" in (b) marks turbostratic carbon, and the yellow-dashed line denotes the
interface between t-C and Se. (d) The FFT pattern. (e-g) Image and elemental mappings of CNT and Se. (h) A low-loss EELS spectrum.
ASSBs. It is suggested to be a one-step reaction: 2Li + Se → Li2 Se,
which has been demonstrated by in situ TEM [24]. In addition,
solid electrolytes for practical application of Li-Se battery are more
safe than conventional organic liquid electrolytes [25,26], as well
as address the shuttle effect of polyselenides in liquid electrolyte
[27,28]. However, it is hard to master over the electrochemistry of
Li-Se ASSBs because of the sluggish decomposition of the discharge
products Li2 Se [29]. Indeed, the electronic conductivity and ionic
transport of both Se and Li2 Se become more significant in affect-
ing the Li-Se ASSBs performance, therefore a careful master over
the evolution of Li2 Se has become highly demanded, to figure out
which factor affects the precipitation and decomposition of Li2 Se.
2. Experimental
2.1. Synthesis of Se@CNT
An anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) template deposited with
CNTs was immersed in a molten selenium at 270 °C for 30 min to
infiltrate selenium into the hollow of the CNTs. The excess of se-
lenium covering the surface of the carbon-coated AAO membrane
was removed by heating the sample at 250 °C. The AAO membrane
was etched away with hydrofluoric acid (HF) before the selenium
nanoconfined in a CNT reaction vessel (Se@CNT) was obtained.
2.2. Li-Se nanobattery for in situ TEM observation
The Se@CNT sample was ultrasonically dispersed with ethanol
and attached to a tip-flattened aluminum (Al) rod with conduc-
tive silver epoxy as a cathode. Li metal scratched on the microelec-
tromechanical systems (MEMS) was used as an anode. The native
Li2 O layer formed on the surface of the Li metal was used as a
solid electrolyte for Li+ ions transportation. The Li-Se nanobattery
was built up on the TEM-STM (scanning tunneling microscopy)
holder (Pico Femto F20), then conducted the study of the nanobat-
tery in the TEM.
2
Electrochimica Acta 404 (2022) 139773
3. Results and discussion
To understand the electrochemistry of Li-Se battery, we con-
ducted in situ studies on a Li-Se ASSB at high temperatures in a
TEM (FEI, Titan G2, 300 kV). The experimental setup is illustrated
in Fig. S1 (Supporting Information). The TEM sample holder is inte-
grated with a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) heating chip
comprising of a heating circuit and an electric circuit for in situ bi-
asing, enabling high temperature battery studies [30]. Lithium was
attached to the MEMS device as anode, Li2 O naturally formed on
the surface of lithium metal was used as a Li+ ion conductive solid
electrolyte, and Se infiltered in a CNT (Se@CNT) was glued to an Al
rod by using silver epoxy and used as cathode. The typical mor-
phological and structural characterizations of Se@CNT are shown
in Fig 1. TEM observation illustrates that the diameter of the pris-
tine Se@CNT is approximately 250 nm (Fig. 1a). High resolution
TEM (HRTEM) image and the corresponding fast-Fourier transfor-
mation (FFT, Fig. 1b–d) reveal that the Se@CNT exhibits crystalline
structure, and the Se and CNT maintain an intimate contact. The
Se@CNT was characterized by high-angle annular dark-field scan-
ning transmission electron microscope (HAADF-STEM), energy dis-
persive X-ray (EDX) elemental mapping (Fig. 1e–g) and electron
energy loss spectroscopy (EELS, Fig. 1h), which verify the Se core
and carbon shell structure of the Se@CNT.
Fig. 2 shows time-resolved TEM images of the morphological
evolution of a Li-Se ASSB during discharge (Fig. 2a–c) and charge
(Fig. 2d, e and Movie S1) at room temperature. A hollow CNT was
filled with Se (Fig. 2a), and the corresponding selected area elec-
tron diffraction (SAED, Fig. 2f) indicates polycrystalline Se with a
hexagonal structure (JCPDS 65–18,761). The SAED of the pristine
Se can be indexed as (022), (012), (011) planes of Se. To initi-
ate the discharge reaction, a negative potential was applied to the
Se@CNT cathode, and a reaction front (marked by red arrowheads)
was observed at 1532 s (Fig. 2a–c). After lithiation, SAED of the
reaction products shows diffraction rings that can be indexed as
(111), (200), (220), (311) planes of face-centered-cubic Li2 Se (JCPDS
B. Guo, J. Chen, Z. Wang et al. Electrochimica Acta 404 (2022) 139773

Fig. 2. Time-lapse structure evolution of a Se@CNT nanowire cathode upon (a–c) lithiation and (d, e) delithiation. The red arrowheads in (b)-(e) mark the reaction front.
(f–h) SAEDs corresponding to the nano cathode shown in (a), (c) and (e), respectively. The circles in (a), (c) and (e) mark the locations where the SAEDs were taken. (i)
Low-loss EELS spectra from the pristine, discharge product and charge product, respectively. (j, k) HRTEM images of the discharge product (from the green rectangle in c).
(k) The image of IFFT from (j), showing the crystalline planes of Li2 Se. (l) FFT from the boxed region in (j).

23–00,721, Fig. 2g). HRTEM image and the corresponding inverse
fourier transform (IFFT) from the discharge products confirm the
reaction product being crystalline Li2 Se (Fig. 2j–l). This result indi-
cates the direct conversion from Se to Li2 Se without the formation
of polyselenides during the discharge process, which is consistent
with the previous report [24]. When a reverse potential was ap-
plied, no apparent morphological variation of the discharge prod-
ucts was observed after charging for 3004 s at room temperature
(Fig. 2d, e), and Li2 Se did not decompose under an applied bias
voltage of 8 V (Fig. 2e). The result was also confirmed by another
set of data. After charging Li2 Se for 11705s, the SAEDs still indicate
that Li2 Se was polycrystalline (Fig. S2 and Movie S2). EELS spec-
tra of the pristine, discharged and charged products are shown in
Fig. 2i. The low-loss spectrum from the pristine Se@CNT nanowire
shows a major plasmon peak at 20 eV, a broad decaying peak at
about 40 eV, and another peak at 57 eV (blue profile in Fig. 2i)
which corresponds to the Se-M4,5 edge. After lithiation, the ma-
jor plasmon peak at 20 eV of Se splits into two peaks at 14 and
19 eV, with another peak at 60 eV (green profile in Fig. 2i), sug-
gesting the transition of Se into Li2 Se. After delithiation, the low-
loss spectrum (red profile in Fig. 2i) exhibits similar feature to that
of the discharged products, suggesting that Li2 Se was not decom-
posed during charge at room temperature.
These results indicate that the discharge products of Li2 Se was
hard to be decomposed in the Li-Se ASSBs at room temperature,
which may be attributed to the low ionic conductivity of the Li2 Se.
Operating Li-Se batteries at high temperatures may improve the
ionic conductivity of Li2 Se, thus facilitating the decomposition of
Li2 Se [31]. In this context, we conducted the lithiation and delithi-
ation of Se@CNTs at 50 °C, 100 °C, 200 °C and 300 °C, respectively
(Figs.S3-S6, Supporting Information). All the discharged products
were Li2 Se, and the Li2 Se could not be decomposed at 50 °C,
10 0 °C and 20 0 °C, regardless of whether a voltage was applied
or not. However, Li2 Se can be decomposed at 300 °C with bias-

3
B. Guo, J. Chen, Z. Wang et al.
Fig. 3. In situ cycling of Li-Se ASSBs. (a–c) Lithiation of the Se@CNT at 100 °C. (d–f) Heating Li2 Se@CNT at 100 °C, 200 °C and 300 °C, respectively, without applying a
voltage. (g–i) Delithiation of the Li2 Se@CNT at 300 °C and at a positive potential. (j–l) Local magnification of the boxed regions in (a), (f) and (i), respectively. (m–o) The
SAEDs acquired from the circled regions in (c), (f) and (i), respectively.
ing (Fig. S3, Movie S3 and Figs. S4, S5, Supporting Information). At
100 °C, lithiation of the Se@CNT cathode became easier and faster
than that at 50 °C (Fig. 3a–c and Movie S4). A noteworthy vol-
ume expansion, that even ripped the CNT (Fig. 3b, c) was observed
when the Se reacted with Li+ ions. To decompose the discharge
product Li2 Se, the temperature was raised to 300 °C. However, no
apparent morphology variation was observed with continued heat-
ing without bias (Fig. 3d–f), and the result was also confirmed by
another set of data (Fig. S7 and Movie S5), indicating that heating
to 300 °C without bias did not decompose Li2 Se. We speculate that
Li2 Se cannot be decomposed because of lacking of an electric field.
Therefore, when a reverse bias voltage was applied at 300 °C, de-
composition of Li2 Se was initiated (Fig. 3g–i, l). At 2950s, decom-
position of Li2 Se was almost complete (Fig. 3i, l and Movie S6). The
result was repeatable (Figs. S6 and S8, Supporting Information). in-
dicating that it is the synergistic effect of electric field and heating
that causes the decomposition of Li2 Se in the Li-Se ASSBs.
The structure and chemical composition of the discharged and
charged products were analyzed by SAEDs (Fig. 3m–o). The SAED
indicates that the pristine Se was converted to polycrystalline Li2 Se
(Fig. 3m). SAED proves that Li2 Se wasn’t decomposed (Fig. 3k, n)
when the heating temperature was increased from 100 to 300 °C
without applying voltage (Fig. 3d–f). After charging at 300 °C for
4
Electrochimica Acta 404 (2022) 139773
2950s (Fig. 3g–i), the SAED indicates that a new diffraction ring
that can be indexed as (101) plane of Li2 O2 (JCPDS 09–0355)
(Fig. 3l, o) emerged. The formation of Li2 O2 may be attributed to
the reaction of Li+ ions with O2 residue from the TEM column, and
the Li+ ions were apparently originated from the decomposition of
Li2 Se. However, phase transformation from Li2 Se to Se, which was
reported in liquid organic electrolyte [11,32], was not observed in
our experiments, which was possibly caused by the rapid decom-
position Li2 Se followed by instant evaporation of Se, and the nan-
otube almost empty (Fig. 3l, o).
Temperature affects significantly extent of lithiation of the Li-Se
ASSBs. When lithiated at a bias voltage of −0.2 V at room temper-
ature, the volume expansion of Se@CNT was approximately 60%,
that was far less than that at 100 °C (volume expansion 104%, Fig.
S9), which indicates that increasing temperature could result in
a complete reaction between Se and Li, in which the volume ex-
pansion is higher than 104%. Therefore, temperature is essential to
govern the extent of lithiation of Se, in turn the capacity of the
Li-Se ASSBs.
In a final note, high temperature promotes the lithiation of
Li2 Se@CNT cathode in the Li-Se ASSBs. The decomposition of Li2 Se
discharge products at high temperature should be attributed to the
improved Li+ ion conduction in the Li-Se ASSBs. This result indi-
B. Guo, J. Chen, Z. Wang et al.
cates that the ionic conductivity dictates the reversibility of Li2 Se.
Our results thus provide important clue towards high performance
Li-Se AASBs for energy storage applications.
4. Conclusion
The electrochemistry of Li-Se ASSBs at different temperatures
was studied using in situ TEM technique equipped with a MEMS
heating device. We show that polyselenides were not formed dur-
ing the electrochemical reaction in Li-Se ASSBs, which differs en-
tirely from liquid electrolyte Li-Se batteries. Furthermore, we re-
vealed that similar to Li2 S, the discharge products of Li2 Se cannot
be decomposed at room temperature even though the electronic
conductivity of Se is 25 orders higher than S. However, Li2 Se was
decomposed entirely at high temperatures, proving unambiguously
that it is the Li+ ion conductivity rather than the electronic con-
ductivity that dictates the decomposition of Li2 Se. Our studies not
only reveal new Li2 Se electrochemistry, but also provide an impor-
tant strategy to improve the performance of Li-Se ASSBs for energy
storage applications.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships
with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influ-
ence our work, there is no professional or other personal interest
of any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that
could be construed as influencing the position in, or the review of,
the manuscript entitled.
Credit authorship contribution statement
Baiyu Guo: Investigation. Jingzhao Chen: Investigation. Zaifa
Wang: Visualization. Yong Su: Writing – review & editing. Hui Li:
Writing – review & editing. Hongjun Ye: Writing – review & edit-
ing. Liqiang Zhang: Conceptualization, Visualization, Supervision.
Yongfu Tang: Conceptualization, Visualization, Supervision. Jianyu
Huang: Conceptualization, Visualization, Supervision.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52022088, 51971245,
51772262, 21406191, U20A20336, 21935009), Beijing Natural Sci-
ence Foundation (2202046), Fok Ying-Tong Education Founda-
tion of China (No. 171064), Natural Science Foundation of Hebei
Province (No. F2021203097, B2020203037, B2018203297), Hunan
Innovation Team (2018RS3091).
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139773.
References
[1] M. Armand, J.M. Tarascon, Building better batteries, Nature 451 (2008)
652–657.
[2] Y.K. Sun, S.T. Myung, B.C. Park, J. Prakash, I. Belharouak, K. Amine, High-energy
cathode material for long-life and safe lithium batteries, Nat. Mater. 8 (2009)
320–324.
[3] P. Poizot, S. Laruelle, S. Grugeon, L. Dupont, J.M. Tarascon, Nano-sized tran-
sition-metal oxides as negative-electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries,
Nature 407 (20 0 0) 496–499.
[4] J.B. Goodenough, Y. Kim, Challenges for rechargeable Li batteries, Chem. Mater.
22 (2010) 587–603.
[5] X. Ji, L.F. Nazar, Advances in Li–S batteries, J. Mater. Chem. 20 (2010)
9821–9826.
Electrochimica Acta 404 (2022) 139773
[6] P.G. Bruce, S.A. Freunberger, L.J. Hardwick, J.M. Tarascon, Li–O2 and Li–S bat-
teries with high energy storage, Nat. Mater. 11 (2012) 19–29.
[7] M. Barghamadi, A. Kapoor, C. Wen, A review on Li-S batteries as a high effi-
ciency rechargeable lithium battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 160 (2013).
[8] S. Evers, L.F. Nazar, New approaches for high energy density lithium–sulfur
battery cathodes, Acc. Chem. Res. 46 (2013) 1135–1143.
[9] W. Cai, G. Li, K. Zhang, G. Xiao, C. Wang, K. Ye, Z. Chen, Y. Zhu, Y. Qian, Con-
ductive nanocrystalline niobium carbide as high-efficiency polysulfides tamer
for lithium-sulfur batteries, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018) 1704865.
[10] Z. Yang, Z. Zhu, J. Ma, D. Xiao, X. Kui, Y. Yao, R. Yu, X. Wei, L. Gu, Y.-.S. Hu,
H. Li, X. Zhang, Phase separation of Li2S/S at nanoscale during electrochemi-
cal lithiation of the solid-state lithium–sulfur battery using in situ TEM, Adv.
Energy Mater. 6 (2016) 1600806.
[11] Y. Cui, A. Abouimrane, J. Lu, T. Bolin, Y. Ren, W. Weng, C. Sun, V.A. Maroni,
S.M. Heald, K. Amine, De)lithiation mechanism of Li/SeS(x) (x = 0-7) batter-
ies determined by in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption
spectroscopy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2013) 8047–8056.
[12] Y. Song, W. Zhao, L. Kong, L. Zhang, X. Zhu, Y. Shao, F. Ding, Q. Zhang,
J. Sun, Z. Liu, Synchronous immobilization and conversion of polysulfides on
a VO2–VN binary host targeting high sulfur load Li–S batteries, Energy Envi-
ron. Sci. 11 (2018) 2620–2630.
[13] C.P. Yang, Y.X. Yin, Y.G. Guo, Elemental selenium for electrochemical energy
storage, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6 (2015) 256–266.
[14] A. Abouimrane, D. Dambournet, K.W. Chapman, P.J. Chupas, W. Weng,
K. Amine, A new class of lithium and sodium rechargeable batteries based on
selenium and selenium–sulfur as a positive electrode, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134
(2012) 4505–4508.
[15] Q. Cai, Y. Li, L. wang, Q. Li, J. Xu, B. Gao, X. Zhang, K. Huo, P.K. Chu, Free-
standing hollow double-shell Se@CNx nanobelts as large-capacity and high-
-rate cathodes for Li-Se batteries, Nano Energy 32 (2017) 1–9.
[16] J.T. Lee, H. Kim, M. Oschatz, D.C. Lee, F. Wu, H.T. Lin, B. Zdyrko, W.I. Cho,
S. Kaskel, G. Yushin, Micro- and mesoporous carbide-derived carbon–selenium
cathodes for high-performance lithium selenium batteries, Adv. Energy Mater.
5 (2015) 1400981.
[17] K. Han, Z. Liu, J. Shen, Y. Lin, F. Dai, H. Ye, A free-standing and ultralong-life
lithium-selenium battery cathode enabled by 3D mesoporous carbon/graphene
hierarchical architecture, Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015) 455–463.
[18] L. Liu, Y. Hou, X. Wu, S. Xiao, Z. Chang, Y. Yang, Y. Wu, Nanoporous selenium
as a cathode material for rechargeable lithium–selenium batteries, Chem. Com-
mun. 49 (2013) 11515–11517.
[19] B. Kalimuthu, K. Nallathamby, Optimization of structure and porosity of ni-
trogen containing mesoporous carbon spheres for effective selenium confine-
ment in futuristic lithium–selenium batteries, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6 (2018)
7064–7077.
[20] A. Eftekhari, The rise of lithium–selenium batteries, Sustain. Energy Fuels 1
(2017) 14–29.
[21] J. Jin, X. Tian, N. Srikanth, L.B. Kong, K. Zhou, Advances and challenges of
nanostructured electrodes for Li–Se batteries, J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017)
10110–10126.
[22] J. Zhang, L. Fan, Y. Zhu, Y. Xu, J. Liang, D. Wei, Y. Qian, Selenium/interconnected
porous hollow carbon bubbles composites as the cathodes of Li–Se batteries
with high performance, Nanoscale 6 (2014) 12952–12957.
[23] X. Wang, Z. Zhang, Y. Qu, G. Wang, Y. Lai, J. Li, Solution-based synthesis of mul-
ti-walled carbon nanotube/selenium composites for high performance lithi-
um–selenium battery, J. Power Sources 287 (2015) 247–252.
[24] Q. Li, H. Liu, Z. Yao, J. Cheng, T. Li, Y. Li, C. Wolverton, J. Wu, V.P. Dravid,
Electrochemistry of selenium with sodium and lithium: kinetics and reaction
mechanism, ACS Nano 10 (2016) 8788–8795.
[25] X. Gao, X. Yang, S. Wang, Q. Sun, C. Zhao, X. Li, J. Liang, M. Zheng, Y. Zhao,
J. Wang, M. Li, R. Li, T.K. Sham, X. Sun, A 3D-printed ultra-high Se loading cath-
ode for high energy density quasi-solid-state Li–Se batteries, J. Mater. Chem. A
8 (2020) 278–286.
[26] J. Liang, Q. Sun, Y. Zhao, Y. Sun, C. Wang, W. Li, M. Li, D. Wang, X. Li, Y. Liu,
K. Adair, R. Li, L. Zhang, R. Yang, S. Lu, H. Huang, X. Sun, Stabilization of al-
l-solid-state Li–S batteries with a polymer–ceramic sandwich electrolyte by
atomic layer deposition, J. Mater. Chem. A 6 (2018) 23712–23719.
[27] Y. Zhou, Z. Li, Y.C. Lu, A stable lithium–selenium interface via solid/liquid
hybrid electrolytes: blocking polyselenides and suppressing lithium dendrite,
Nano Energy 39 (2017) 554–561.
[28] Q. Zhang, L. Cai, G. Liu, Q. Li, M. Jiang, X. Yao, Selenium-infused ordered meso-
porous carbon for room-temperature all-solid-state lithium–selenium batteries
with ultrastable cyclability, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 16541–16547.
[29] X. Li, J. Liang, X. Li, C. Wang, J. Luo, R. Li, X. Sun, High-performance all-solid-s-
tate Li–Se batteries induced by sulfide electrolytes, Energy Environ. Sci. 11
(2018) 2828–2832.
[30] Z. Wang, Y. Tang, L. Zhang, M. Li, Z. Shan, J. Huang, In situ TEM observations
of discharging/charging of solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries at high tempera-
tures, Small 16 (2020) 2001899.
[31] X. Li, J. Liang, J. Luo, C. Wang, X. Li, Q. Sun, R. Li, L. Zhang, R. Yang, S. Lu,
H. Huang, X. Sun, High-performance Li–SeSx all-solid-state lithium batteries,
Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1808100.
[32] D. Lin, Y. Liu, Y. Cui, Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batter-
ies, Nat. Nanotechnol. 12 (2017) 194–206.