RM Course Pack

BVIMR SNAPSHOT
Established in 1992, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Institute of Management and

Research (BVIMR), New Delhi focuses on imbibing the said values across various stakeholders through
adequate creation, inclusion and dissemination of knowledge in management education. The institute
has over the past few years emerged in the lead with a vision of Leadership in professional education
through innovation and excellence. This excellence is sustained by consistent value enhancement and
initiation of value-added academic processes in institute’s academic systems.
Based on the fabulous architecture and layout on the lines of Nalanda Vishwa Vidyalaya, the institute
is a scenic marvel of lush green landscape with modern interiors. The Institute which is ISO 9001:2015
certified is under the ambit of Bharati Vidyapeeth University (BVU), Pune as approved by Govt. of
India on the recommendation of UGC under Section 3 of UGC Act vide its letter notification No. F. 9
– 16 / 2004 – U3 dated 25th February, 2005.
Strategically located in West Delhi on the main Rohtak Road, BVIMR, New Delhi has splendid layout
on sprawling four acres of plot with 'state-of-art' facilities with all class rooms, Library Labs,
Auditorium etc., that are fully air-conditioned. The Institute that has an adjacent Metro station
“PaschimVihar (East)”, connects the entire Delhi and NCR.
We nurture our learners to be job providers rather than job seekers. This is resorted to by fostering the
skill and enhancement of knowledge base of our students through various extracurricular, co-curricular
and curricular activities by our faculty, who keep themselves abreast by various research and FDPs and
attending Seminars/Conferences. The Alumni has a key role here by inception of SAARTHI Mentorship
program who update and create professional environment for learner’s centric academic ambiance and
bridging industry- academia gap.
Our faculty make distinctive contribution not only to students but to Academia through publications,
seminars, conferences apart from quality education. We also believe in enhancing corporate level
interaction including industrial projects, undertaken by our students under continuous guidance of our
faculty. These form the core of our efforts which has resulted in being one of the premier institutes of
management.
At BVIMR, we are imparting quality education in management at Doctorate, Post Graduate and Under
Graduate levels.
1
PROFILE OF COURSE INSTRUCTORS
Dr. Nisha Nandal
She is a faculty in the area of Marketing & General Management subjects. She has been inthe education
sector for more than 6 years. She has taught graduate and postgraduate programmes at Sushant
University & CBS group of Institutions in Delhi and NCR region. Her teaching interests range from
Marketing, Advertising, Consumer Behaviour, Services Marketing, Entrepreneurship & Project
Management. She has two book and more than 15research papers to her credit in the renowned Journals
such as Scopus, ABDC, WOS &UGC-CARE. She believes that knowledge is light and for the
betterment of society it should be shared as much as possible.
Dr.Pankaj Saini
He is working as assistant professor with Bharati vidyapeeth institute of management and research. He
has qualified UGC NET and also done Masters in business administration, bachelors in business
administration, graduate diplome in international business. He has an industry experience of five years
as Buisness Development Executive in import export department and more than 13 years of teaching
experience.
Ms. Jahnavi Patky
She is a research scholar at the Indian Institute of Management Rohtak in the area of Organizational
behaviour and human resource management. She represented India in the BRICS Youth summit 2018
held in South Africa. She has five research articles, two book chapters, and ten conference articles in
her name. Her topics of interest are work engagement, learning, and spirituality.
2
COURSE OUTLINE BBA –IV Sem
Course Title Research Methodology
Course Code 403
No.of credits 3 as per syllabus-(Expected no. of hours-40)
Department Management
Course Leader Dr. Nisha Nandal
Email: nisha.nandal@bharatividyapeeth.edu
pankaj.saini@bharatividyapeeth.edu.
Jahnavi.patky@bharatividyapeeth.edu
Faculty Dr. Nisha Nandal, Dr.Pankaj Saini,Ms. Jahnavi Patky

Phone No. 011-25285808
Course type Core Course
Offer in Academic year 2023-2024 , BBA-4th Sem
Course Overview
The primary objective of this course is to develop a research orientation among the students and to acquaint
them with fundamentals of research methods. Specifically, the course aims at introducing them to the basic
concepts used in research. It includes discussions on research sampling techniques, research designs and
techniques of analysis. Research Methodology is a hands‐on course designed to impart education in the
foundational methods and techniques of academic research in social sciences and business management
context. Research scholars would examine and be practically exposed to the main components of a
research framework i.e., problem definition, research design, data collection, ethical issues in research,
report writing, and presentation. Once equipped with this knowledge, participants would be well‐placed
to conduct disciplined research under supervision in an area of their choosing. In addition to their
application in an academic setting, many of the methodologies discussed in this course would be similar
to those deployed in professional research environments.
Course Objectives:
The primary objective of this course is to develop a research orientation among the scholars and to acquaint
them with fundamentals of research methods. Specifically, the course aims at introducing them to the basic
concepts used in research and to scientific social research methods and their approach. It includes discussions
on sampling techniques, research designs and techniques of analysis. Some other objectives of the course are:
 To demonstrate an understanding of the role of research in business management.
 To identify different information sources for the collection of data and literature reviews.
 To explain the concepts behind scientific inquiry and the procedures for carrying it out.
 To familiarize the learners with the key concepts in sampling techniques and instruments for data
collection.
 To develop basic understanding of conducting surveys and reporting the research.
 To aware about the ethical issues in conducting applied research.
3
Content of course
Unit-1 (9 hours)
Meaning, definition and objectives of research, motivations for research, types of research,
Importance of research in managerial decision making, research in Research in functional /
business areas. Qualities of a good researcher
Unit-2 (10 hours)

Steps in research process, Defining the research problem, Problem formulation and statement,
framing of hypothesis Research design: Meaning, characteristics, importance of research design.
Development and designing of tools of data collection Designing of research projects – research
proposal.
Unit-3 (8 hours)
Census and sample survey. Need and importance of sampling, Data collection – Primary and
secondary sources of data, methods of collecting primary data - interview, observation,
questionnaires, schedules through enumerators, surveys. Advantages and Limitations of different
methods of data collection. Use of secondary data, precautions while using secondary data.
Unit-4 (9 hours)
Meaning, importance and steps involved in processing of data. Statistical tools and techniques for
analysis of data. Analysis and Interpretation of data –Interpretations of results, Concept of
Univariate, Bi-variate and multivariate analysis of data.
Unit-5 (9 hours)
Importance of research reports, types of reports, Format of a research report, Precautions in
writing a research report. Plagiarism and its types. References and Bibliography. Dissemination
of research results. Ethical issues in conducting research
4
EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR INTERNAL ASSESSMENT (Marks 40)
Component Description Weight Objective
First Internal First internal would be of Marks 40 based Marks To evaluate student’s
on first three units 1, 2 & 3 which would 15 cognitive skills (Think,
be further reduced to weigh age of Marks read, learn, remember,
10 reason, and pay
attention) for first half
of the course.
Second Internal Second internal will be of Marks 40 based Marks To evaluate student’s
on last three units which would be further 15 cognitive skills (Think,
reduced to weight age of Marks 10 read, learn, remember,
reason, and pay
attention) for rest half of
the course.
Two CES There would be a class test /quiz/cases study Marks To recall their subject
( Quiz or class test for which individual assessment will be 10 learning .
or / Case study or done .
PPT)
Class participation & Class notes and involvement of students will be (As per To encourage and enhance
attendance checked by faculty during semester. policy ) class participation
MOOC Course There would be a MOOC related to HR subject Optional To give them exposure
, students need to submit Grade sheet along for of global contents
with certificate and one page write up of key subject through technological
learning learning and evaluate
their cognitive skills
(Rationale for Evaluation)
Internals: 50%
Externals: 50%
Total : 100%
Internal Assessment Mapping

Parameter Marks CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
Class Participation/ 1 1
10 2 2 2 2
Attendance
1 1
PPT 5 - - 1.5 1.5
Case study - -
discussion or 5 2.5 2.5 - -
assignment /projects
Internal End Term
20 4 4 3 3 3 3
Exam
Internal 40 8 8 7 7 5 5
End Term (Univ) 60
5
Recommended/ Reference Text Books and Resources:
Text Book Kothari, C. (2009). Research Methodology (2 ed.). Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.
Course Reading 1. Cooper & Schindler: Business Research Methods McGraw-Hill Education,
Aaker, Kumar, Day - Marketing Research. Wiley.
2. Gupta Kirti, Research Methodology - Tools and Techniques, Nirali Prakashan.
3. Bajpai, N. (2010). Business Statistics . Chennai: Pearson.
4. Chawla, D., & Sondhi, N. (2011). Reserch Methodology: Concepts and Cases . NEw
Delhi :
5. Nargundkar, R. (2008). Marketing Research . New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited .
6. Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., Adhikhari, A., & Griffin, M. (2013).
Business Research Methods (8 ed.). Delhi: CENGAGE Learning.
Program outcomes:
On the successful completion of this program the students will be able to

PO1 Demonstrate an understanding of management concepts, theories, models and key business terms.
PO2 Communicate effectively with various stakeholders of business
PO3 Apply Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively
PO4 Provide optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management
PO5 Make sound business decisions.
PO6 Identify entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and managing a
business enterprise.
PO7 Collaborate with others in the organizational context, manage resources and lead them in the
pursuit of organizational goals
PO8 Investigate the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge, methods
and in turn make data driven decisions
PO9 Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may have an
impact on the business
PO10 Identify the need for and engage in lifelong learning in the field of business management
PO11 Develop effective and diverse teams
PO12 Create sustainable and ethical business policies
Course Outcomes
CO1 Develop understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision
making
CO2 Explain key research and summarize the research articles and research reports
CO3 Have basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures
CO4 Design questionnaires and administer simple survey based projects.
CO5 Describe sampling methods, measurement scales and instruments, and appropriate uses of each
Students will be able to write an effect research proposal that spells out a project they will conduct.
6
CO-PO MAPPING MATRIX
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 1 3 2
C02 3 2
C03 3 2
C04 3
C05 3
Where 1- LOW MAPPED, 2- MEDIUM MAPPED, 3- HIGHLY MAPPED
Rationale for Mapping Program Outcomes and Course Outcomes:
CO1 & PO1 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision
making will help learners in understanding of management concepts, theories, models and
Mapped at 1 key business terms. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO1 has been kept at medium.
CO1 & PO 2 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Communicate effectively with various stakeholders of business. Hence alignment of CO1
with PO2 has been kept at zero.
CO1 & PO 3 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Apply Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively.
Hence alignment of CO1 with PO3 has been kept at zero.
CO1 & PO 4 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will help
Mapped at 3 learners in Provide optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management. Alignment of
CO1 with PO4 has been kept at high.
CO1 & PO5 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will help
Mapped at 2 learners in Make sound business decisions. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO5 has been kept at medium.
CO1 & PO6 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Identify entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and
managing a business enterprise. . Hence alignment of CO1 with PO6 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Collaborate with others in the organizational context, manage resources and lead them in
the pursuit of organizational goals. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO7 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Investigate the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge,
methods and in turn make data driven decisions. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO8 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may
have an impact on the business. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO9 has been kept at zero.
CO1 & P010 Developing understanding on different applications of research for managerial decision making will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Identify the need for and engage in lifelong learning in the field of business management.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Develop effective and diverse teams. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO11 has been kept
at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Create sustainable and ethical business policies. Hence alignment of CO1 with PO12 has
been kept at zero.
CO2 & PO1 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will not help learners in
Mapped at 0 understanding of management concepts, theories, models and key business terms. Hence alignment of
CO2 with PO1 has been kept at zero.
7
CO2& PO2 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will not help learners in
Mapped at 0 Communicate effectively with various stakeholders of business. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO2 has
been kept at zero.
CO2& PO3 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports making will not help
Mapped at 0 learners in Apply Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively. Hence
alignment of CO2 with PO3 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Provide optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management. Alignment of CO2 with
PO4 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Make sound business decisions. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO5 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Identify entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and managing a business
enterprise. . Hence alignment of CO2 with PO6 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Collaborate with others in the organizational context, manage resources and lead them in the pursuit of
organizational goals. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO7 has been kept at zero.
CO2& PO8 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will help in Investigate
Mapped at 3 the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge, methods and in turn make data
driven decisions. Hence Alignment of CO2 with PO4 has been kept at high.
CO2& PO9 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will not help learners
Mapped at 0 in Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may have an impact
on the business. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO9 has been kept at zero.
CO2& PO10 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will help in in Identify
Mapped at 2 the need for and engage in lifelong learning in the field of business management. Hence alignment of CO2
with PO10 has been kept at medium.
CO2& PO11 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports lain key research and
Mapped at 0 summarize the research articles and research reports making will not help learners in Develop effective
and diverse teams. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO11 has been kept at zero.
CO2& PO12 Explaining key research and summarize the research articles and research reports will not help learners
Mapped at 0 in Create sustainable and ethical business policies. Hence alignment of CO2 with PO12 has been kept at
zero.
CO3 & PO1 Having basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures will not help learners in
been kept at zero.
CO3 & PO3 Having basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures will help in Applying
Mapped at 3 Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively. Hence alignment of CO3
with PO3 has been kept at high.
Mapped at 0 Provide optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management. Alignment of CO3 with
PO4 has been kept at zero.
CO3 & PO5 Having basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures will not help learners in Make
Mapped at 0 sound business decisions. Hence alignment of CO3 with PO5 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Identify entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and managing a business
enterprise. . Hence alignment of CO3 with PO6 has been kept at zero.
organizational goals. Hence alignment of CO3 with PO7 has been kept at zero.
8
CO3 & PO8 Having basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures reports will not help in
Mapped at 0 Investigate the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge, methods and in turn
make data driven decisions. Hence Alignment of CO3 with PO4 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may have an impact on
the business. Hence alignment of CO3 with PO9 has been kept at zero.
CO3 & PO10 Having basic awareness of data analysis-and hypothesis testing procedures will help learners in Identify
with PO10 has been kept at medium.
Mapped at 0 Develop effective and diverse teams. Hence alignment of CO3 with PO11 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 Create sustainable and ethical business policies. Hence alignment of CO3 with PO12 has been kept at
zero.
CO4 & PO1 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in
CO4 & PO2 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in
been kept at zero.
CO4 & PO3 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help in Applying
Mapped at 0 Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively. Hence alignment of CO4
CO4 & PO4 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Provide
Mapped at 0 optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management. Alignment of CO4 with PO4 has
been kept at zero.
CO4 & PO5 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Make
Mapped at 0 sound business decisions. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO5 has been kept at zero.
CO4& PO6 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Identify
Mapped at 0 entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and managing a business enterprise.
. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO6 has been kept at zero.
CO4& PO7 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in
organizational goals. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO7 has been kept at zero
CO4& PO8 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will help learners in Investigate
Mapped at 3 the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge, methods and in turn make data
driven decisions. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO8 has been kept at high.
CO4& PO9 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in
Mapped at 0 Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may have an impact on
the business. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO9 has been kept at zero.
CO4& PO10 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Identify
CO4& PO11 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Develop
Mapped at 0 effective and diverse teams. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO11 has been kept at zero
CO4& PO12 Designing questionnaires and administering simple survey based projects will not help learners in Create
Mapped at 0 sustainable and ethical business policies. Hence alignment of CO4 with PO12 has been kept at zero.
CO5 & PO1 Describing sampling methods, measurement scales and instruments, and appropriate uses of each will
Mapped at 3 help learners in understanding of management concepts, theories, models and key business terms. Hence
alignment of CO5 with PO1 has been kept at high.
9
CO5 & PO2 Describing sampling methods, measurement scales and instruments, and appropriate uses of each will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Communicate effectively with various stakeholders of business. Hence alignment of CO5
CO5 & PO3 Describing sampling methods, measurement scales and instruments, and appropriate uses of each will
Mapped at 0 not help in Applying Information Technology applications for managing the business effectively. Hence
alignment of CO5 with PO3 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Provide optimum solutions to problems in the field of Business Management. Alignment
of CO5 with PO4 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Make sound business decisions. Hence alignment of CO5 with PO5 has been kept at zero
Mapped at 0 help learners in Identify entrepreneurial opportunities and leverage the knowledge in starting and
managing a business enterprise. . Hence alignment of CO5 with PO6 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 2 help learners in Collaborate with others in the organizational context, manage resources and lead them in
the pursuit of organizational goals. Hence alignment of CO5 with PO7 has been kept at zero
Mapped at 0 help learners in Investigate the multidimensional business problems using research based knowledge,
methods and in turn make data driven decisions. Hence alignment of CO5 with PO8 has been kept at zero.
Mapped at 0 help learners in Understand the contemporary issues and changes in the macro environment that may have
an impact on the business. Hence alignment of CO5 with PO9 has been kept at zero.
Hence alignment of CO5with PO10 has been kept at zero.
CO5& PO12 Describing sampling methods, measurement scales and instruments, and appropriate uses of each will not
Mapped at 0 help learners in Create sustainable and ethical business policies. Hence alignment of CO5 with PO12 has
been kept at zero.
Unit Contents Sessions COs Teaching Cognition Evaluation

(Hrs) Number Methodol Level Tools
ogy
1 Introduction to Research Methodology

PPT and Understa
Meaning, definition and objectives of research, Discussi nd CES
on (class test
motivations for research, types of research,
9 CO1 or
Importance of research in managerial decision assignmen
making, research in Research in functional / t or end
business areas. Qualities of a good researcher. term)
10
2 Research process
Steps in research process, Defining the research Flip class

problem, Problem formulation and statement, or End
Framing of hypothesis Research design: Meaning, Term
characteristics, importance of research design. CO3 PPT and Analyze internal)
Development and designing of tools of data 10 case
collection Designing of research projects – study
research proposal.
3 Sampling & Data collection
Census and sample survey. Need and importance
of sampling, Data collection – Primary and
PPT and Flip class
secondary sources of data, methods of collecting
case or End
primary data - interview, observation, 8 CO4 & study Analyze Term
questionnaires, schedules through enumerators, CO5 internal)
surveys. Advantages and Limitations of different
methods of data collection. Use of secondary data,
precautions while using secondary data
4 Processing and Analysis of Data
Meaning, importance and steps involved in 8 CO3
processing of data. Statistical tools and 9 PPT and Evaluate End Term
techniques for analysis of data. Analysis and case internal
Interpretation of data –Interpretations of study
results, Concept of Univariate, Bi-variate
and multivariate analysis of data
5 Report writing 9 CO2 PPT and Create Flip class
Importance of research reports, types of reports, Format of a research Think – or End
report, Precautions in writing a research report. Plagiarism and its types. Pair – Term
References and Bibliography. Dissemination of research results. Ethical Share internal)
issues in conducting research. (TPS)
Session Plan
Lesson Plan
Lec. Num. Unit Title Details Book with Page No. Learning Outcome
1 UNIT- ONE Meaning C R Kothari (Chapter 1- Pg 1
Introduction to & definition of Research no. 1- 2)
Research
Methodology
2 Objectives and motivation C R Kothari (Chapter 1) 1
of research
3 Types of Research Zikmund (7th Edition) 1
4 Importance of research in Cooper and Schindler(8th 1
managerial decision Edition) Chapter 1 pg (14-
making 19)
5 Research in functional C R Kothari pg 2-4 1
areas
6. Qualities of a good C R Kothari pg 2-4 1
researcher
7 UNIT- TWO Research design- Zikmund (7th Edition) 2
Research process Meaning, characteristics Chapter 4- Pg no 52-73;
11
and importance Cooper and Schindler (9th
Edition) Chapter 3 pg-52-
80)
8 Problem formulation 1
and statement, Framing
of hypothesis
9 Different types of Cooper and Schindler(8th 1

research design Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
151 & Naresh Malhotra
(6th Edition)
10 Advantages and Cooper and Schindler(8th 1
importance of research Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
designs 151
11 CES-1
12 Measurement – types Cooper and Schindler(8th 1
and errors in Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
measurement. 151 & Naresh Malhotra
(6th Edition)
13 Development and Cooper and Schindler(8th 1
designing of tools of Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
data collection – 151 & Naresh Malhotra
Attitude measurement (6th Edition)
Scales
14 Research Process Cooper and Schindler(8th 2
Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
151 & Naresh Malhotra
(6th Edition)
15 Designing of research Cooper and Schindler(8th 1
projects – research Edition) Chapter 6 pg 146-
proposal, Pilot surveys 151 & Naresh Malhotra
(6th Edition)
16 UNIT 3: Census and sample survey Cooper and Schindler(8th 2
Sampling and Edition) Chapter 6 pg 151-
Data Collection 155; William G. Zikmund
(7th Edition) Chapter-7 Pg
109-115
17 Sampling meaning, 2
process
18 Need and importance of 2
sampling
19 Types of sampling non- Cooper and Schindler(8th 2
probability sampling Edition) Chapter 6 pg 151-
technique 155
20 Case Study I- Cooper and Schindler(8th 2
Exploratory design Edition) / Naresh Malhotra
(6th Edition)
21 Data Collection methods: Cooper and Schindler(8th 3
Observation Edition) Chapter 13 pg
399-413
22 Primary data collection- Cooper and Schindler (9th 3
Surveys Edition) Chapter 13 pg
12
242-270
23- 24 Methods of Primary data Cooper and Schindler(9th 3
collection Edition)
25 Advantages and Cooper and Schindler(9th 3
Limitations of different Edition) Chapter 14 pg
Methods 356-385; William G.
Zikmund (7th Edition)
Chapter-10 Pg 197-220)
26 Use of secondary data, Cooper and Schindler(9th 3
precautions while using Edition) Chapter 10 pg
secondary data, 283-300; William G.
Limitations of different Zikmund (7th Edition)
data collection methods Chapter-8 Pg 135-153
27 Unit-4 Meaning, importance Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Processing and and steps involved in Edition) Chapter 15 pg
Analysis of Data processing of data. Use 454-456; William G.
of statistical Zikmund (7th Edition)
tools and techniques for Chapter-19 Pg 452-470
analysis of data.
28 Processing of data- Cooper and Schindler(9th 4

Meaning, importance, Edition) Chapter 15 pg
steps involved in data 454-456; William G.
processing: Editing Zikmund (7th Edition)
Chapter-19 Pg 452-470
29 Analysis of Data Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Edition) Chapter 15 pg
454-456; William G.
30 Interpretation of Data Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Edition) Chapter 15 pg
454-456; William G.
31 Univariate analysis, Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Edition) William G.
32 Bivariate analysis - Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Essential ideas of Edition) William G.
Multivariate analysis of Zikmund (7th Edition)
data,
33 Unit-5 Reporting Importance of research Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
of research reports Edition) Chapter 21 pg
Types of research reports 604-644; William G.
Chapter-25 Pg 597
34 Importance of written and Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
oral presentation, Edition) Chapter 21 pg
604-644; William G.
Chapter-25 Pg 599
13
35 format of a good research Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
report Edition) Chapter 21 pg
604-644; William G.
Chapter-25 Pg 599
36 Precautions in writing a Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
research report Plagiarism Edition) Chapter 21 pg
and its type 604-644; William G.
Chapter-25 Pg 599
37 References and Cooper and Schindler(9th 4
Bibliography Edition) Chapter 21 pg
Dissemination of research 604-644; William G.
results. Ethical issues in Zikmund (7th Edition)
conducting research. Chapter-25 Pg 599
38-40 CES-2
41-42 Revision class
Academic Resources
JOURNAL/ARTICLE: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342096138_Analysis_of_trade_integration_of
_SAARC_Nations
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344457754_A_Study_of_Causality_Co-
Integration_Effects_of_the_Monetary_Policy_Rates_on_the_Emerging_Stock_Ma
rket
MOOCS: https://www.coursera.org/learn/research-methods
https://www.class-central.com/tag/research%20methods
https://www.openlearning.com/accounts/login/?force=1&redirectTo=/courses/en
rol/?activationCode=&course=courses/introduction-to-research-
methodology&inviteData=&cohortName=&redirected=True&enrol=1
WEBSITE LINKS FOR https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/2317618/mod_resource/content/1/BLO
READING: CO%202_Research%20Methods%20The%20Basics.pdf
http://www.sociology.kpi.ua/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Ranjit_Kumar-
Research_Methodology_A_Step-by-Step_G.pdf
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Research_methodology_resources
http://rmit.libguides.com/researchmethods
https://study.com/academy/lesson/research-methodology-approaches-techniques-
quiz.html
14
INDEX
INDEX Page No.
Unit-1 Introduction to Research Methodology 17-33
Unit-2 Research process 34-69

Unit-3 Sampling and Data Collection 70-91
Unit-4 Processing and Analysis of Data 92-108
Unit-5 Reporting of research 109-123
Case Studies 124-126

MCQ’s 127-135
Internal and External papers 136-144
Research paper 145 onwards
15
Unit – I
16
Introduction to Research Methodology
Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search
for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific
investigation. Several social scientists have defined research in different ways.
In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined

research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing
to extend, corrector verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of
theory or in the practice of an art”.
According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”. It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody (kothari, 1988), research comprises “defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizingand
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses”.
Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its
further advancement. It is an attempt to pursuetruth through the methods of study, observation,
comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for knowledge, using objective and
systematic methods to find solution to a problem.
Objectives of Research
The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific procedures.
In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not
yet been discovered. Although every research study has its own specific objectives, theresearch
objectives may be broadly grouped asfollows:
 To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research
studies);
 To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a
situation (i.e., descriptive research studies);
 To analyze the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research
studies); and
 To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e.,
hypothesis-testing researchstudies).
17
Research Approaches
There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative approach and qualitative
approach. The quantitative approach involves thecollection of quantitative data, which are put
to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes
experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research. Meanwhile, the qualitative
approach uses the method of subjective assessment of opinions, behaviour and attitudes.
Research in such a situation is a function of the researcher’s impressions and insights. The
results generated by this type of research are either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which cannot be put to rigorous quantitative analysis. Usually, this approach uses techniques
like in-depth interviews, focus group interviews, and projective techniques.
Types of Research
There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows.
1. Descriptive Versus Analytical
Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of differenttypes. The main
objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the time of
study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive research studies in
social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report what is
happening or what has happened. Majority of theex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as the
consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability ofthe
researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by them
to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative
methods. Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available
facts or information, and analyze them to
make a critical evaluation of the subject.
2. Applied Versus Fundamental
Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an

immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organization, or the society
is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain
conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.
On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a
theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
18
research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning
some natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing
on human behaviour also fall under the category of fundamental research.
Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some pressing
practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a broad base of
application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative
Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available statistical and
econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes correlation,
regressions and time series analysis etc,.
On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more
specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type
of qualitative research is ‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons forcertain
human behaviour. The main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives
and desires of human beings by u s i n g in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed
in such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association tests,
and other similar projective methods.
Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioral sciences, which

aimat discovering the underlying motives of human behaviour. Such research helps to analyze
the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain manner, besides
contributing to an understanding of whatmakes individuals like or dislike a particular thing.
However, it is worth noting that conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a
difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced
expert researchers is important.
4. Conceptual Versus Empirical
The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting
the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation
or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system.Such research is data based, which
often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or observation.
Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is important to
first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the production of
desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first formulates a working
19
hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she
formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would manipulate the
variables, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus characterized
by the researcher’s control over the variables under study. In simple term, empirical research
is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables influence the other
variables in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or empirical
studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.
5. Other Types of Research
The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned type of
research. They vary in terms of the purpose ofresearch, or the time required to complete it, or
may be based on some. Other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may either be in the
nature of one-time or longitudinal time series research. While the research is restricted to a
single time-period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-periods in the latter
case. Depending upon the environment inwhich the research is to be conducted, it can also be
laboratory research or field-setting research, or simulation research, besides being diagnostic
or clinical in nature. Under such research, in-depth approaches or case study method may be
employed to analyze the basic causal relations. These studies usually undertake a detailed in-
depth analysis of the causes of certain events of interest, and use very small samples and sharp
data collection methods. The research may also be explanatory in nature. Formalized research
studies consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be verified. As regards to
historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are utilized to study past
events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups of the past or any remote
point oftime.
Research has also been classified into decision-oriented and conclusion-oriented categories.
The decision-oriented research is always carried out as per the need of a decision maker and
hence, the researcher has no freedom to conduct the research according to his/her own desires.
On the other hand, in the case of Conclusion- oriented research, the researcher is free to choose
the problem, redesign the enquiry as it progresses and even change conceptualization as he/she
wishes to. Operations research is a kind of decision-oriented research, where in scientific
method is used in providing the departments, a quantitative basis for decision-making with
respect to the activities under their purview.
1.4 Importance of Knowing How to Conduct Research

The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:
i. The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers and enables
them to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’
to objectively observe the field;
20
ii. The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize the research
findings with confidence;
iii. The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools that help him/her
to make the observations objectively; and
iv. The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate research and make
rational decisions.
Qualities of a Researcher
It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and
foremost, he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the ‘articles of faith’ of the
scientific methods of research. This implies that a researcher should be a social science person
in the truest sense. Sir Michael Foster cited by (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) identified a
few distinct qualities of a scientist. According to him, a true research scientist should possess
the following qualities:
First of all the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates in unison with
the theme which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge must be truthful with
truthfulness of nature, which is much more important, much more exacting than what is
sometimes known as truthfulness. The truthfulness relates to the desire for accuracy of
observation and precision of statement. Ensuring facts is the principle rule of science, which
is not an easy matter. The difficulty may arise dueto untrained eye, which fails to see anything
beyond what
it has the power of seeing and sometimes even less than that. This may also be due to the lack
of discipline in the method of science. An unscientific individual often remains satisfied with
the expressions like approximately, almost, or nearly, which is never what nature is. A real
research cannot see two things which differ, however minutely, as thesame.
A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and revealing itself
through various ways. A scientific researcher must be keen and watchful to notice such
changes, no matter how small or insignificant they may appear. Such receptivity has to be
cultivated slowly and patiently over time by the researcher through practice. An individual
who is ignorant or not alert and receptive during his research will not makea good researcher.
He will fail as a good researcher if he has no keen eyes or mind to observe the unusual changes
behind the routine. Research demands a systematic immersion into the subject matter by the
researcher grasp even the slightest hint that may culminate into significant research problems. In this
context, Cohen and Negal cited by (Selltiz et al, 1965; Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) state that “the
ability to perceive in some brute experience the occasion of a problem is not a common talent among
men. it is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to difficulties where less gifted people pass by
21
untroubled by doubt”.
Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of

courage, which reflects the courage of a steadfast endurance. The process of conducting
research is not an easy task. There are occasions when a research scientist might feel defeated
or completely lost. This is the stage when a researcher would need immense courage and the
sense of conviction. The researcher must learn the art of enduring intellectual hardships. In
the words of Darwin, “It’s dogged that doesit”.
In order to cultivate the afore-mentioned three qualities of a researcher, a fourth one may be
added. This is the quality of making statements cautiously. According to Huxley, the assertion
that outstrips the evidence is not only a blunder but a crime (Thompson, 1975). A researcher
should cultivate the habit of reserving judgment when the required data are insufficient.
Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
Research in Functional /Business Areas

Relevance of Research in Business
While many business ideas blossom into successful businesses, there are many others that did
not move beyond the business plan or offering memorandum. And among those that get funded
and started, many fail eventually. While there can be many reasons for business failures, often
these were due to flaws in the business concept or the business model that rendered them
vulnerable to the difficulties encountered. Recognizing the relevance of research in business
planning has become even more crucial in the current economic scenario with funding getting
difficult as banks, other financial institutions and venture capitalists are bound to put business
22
propositions through a most rigorous assessment process. Research indicates that many
ventures fail on account of market and industry factors. Yet, very often we come across
ambitious entrepreneurs starting ventures without having researched the market and industry
to determine the viability and sustainability of the business concept. The significance of
research stems from the fact the success of a business does not depend only on the
entrepreneur's perspective on the service or product offered. It also depends greatly on what
the customers want or need. Here arises the need of research.
Various major functional areas in business
1. Marketing
2. Finance and Accounts
3. Human resource
4. Production/operation
Marketing
Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating,

and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that
benefit the organization and its stockholders. Marketing managers attempt to get the right
goods or services to the right people at the right place at the right time at the right price, using
the right promotion technique.
This may be accomplished by following the marketing concept, Which

is based on consumer orientation, goal orientation, and systems orientation. The marketing
manager must work within an internal environment of the organization and understand the
external environment over which he or she has little, if any, control. The primary variables
over which the marketing manager has control are distribution, price, promotion, and
product/service decisions. The unique combination of these four variables is called the
marketing mix.
Marketing research plays a key part in providing the information for managers to shape
the marketing mix. Marketing research has grown in importance because of management’s
focus on customer satisfaction and retention. It also is a key tool in proactive management.
Marketing research should be undertaken only when the perceived benefits are
greater than the costs.
A marketing research study can be described as programmatic, selective, or evaluative.

Programmatic research is done to develop marketing options through market segmentation,
market opportunity analysis, or consumer attitude and product usage studies. Selective
research is used to test decisional alternatives. Evaluative research is done to assess program
23
performance.
The Internet has had a major impact on the marketing research industry. The use of Internet
surveys has increased dramatically because they can be quickly deployed, cost significantly
less, are readily personalized, have high response rates, and provide the ability to contact the
hard-to-reach respondent. Most importantly, as Internet participation by households has
increased, identical online and offline surveys have been shown to produce the same business
decisions.
Functional areas are teams of employees who have similar skills and expertise. Management is
the ‘brain’ of your business operations. Functional management is focused on the execution of
a specific organizational task within functional areas, through organizing and leading an
organization’s talent. Functional managers have a high level of technical knowledge and skills
relative to the area they manage and focus their efforts on achieving best practices. There are
five main functional areas of management:
Human Resource Management
Human resource development or personnel management or manpower management is

concerned with obtaining and maintaining of a satisfactory and satisfied work. It is a specialized
branch of management concerned with ‘man management’.
The recruitment, placement, induction, orientation, training, promotion, motivation,

performance appraisal, wage and salary, retirement, transfer, merit-rating, industrial relations,
working conditions, trade unions, safety and welfare schemes of employees are included in
personnel management. The object of personnel management is to create and promote team
spirit among workers and managers.
Production Management
Production management refers to planning, organization, direction, coordination and control of

the production function in such a way that desired goods and services could be produced at the
right time, in right quantity, and at the right cost. Some authors treat material, purchase and
inventory management as part of production management. Production management involves
the following functions:
 Product planning and development,

 Plant location, layout and maintenance,
 Production systems and machines,
 Management of purchase and storage of materials,
 Ensuring effective production control.
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Office Management
Office management can be defined as, “the organization of an office in order to achieve a
certain purpose and to make the best use of the personnel by using the most appropriate
machines and equipment, the best possible methods of work and by providing the most suitable
environment.’’
The main topics of office management are; office accommodation, layout and environment,
communication, handling correspondence and mail, typing and duplicating, record
management and filing, indexing, forms and stationary and machines etc.
Financial Management
Financial management can be looked upon as the study of relationship between the raising of
funds and the deployment of funds. The subject matter of financial management is: capital
budgeting cost of capital, portfolio management, dividend policy, short and long term sources
of finance. Financial management involves mainly three decisions pertaining to:
 Investment policies:
It dictates the process associated with capital budgeting and expenditures. All proposals to
spend money are ranked and investment decisions are taken whether to sanction money for
these proposed ventures or not.
 Methods of financing
A proper mix of short and long term financing is ensured in order to provide necessary funds
for proposed ventures at a minimum risk to the enterprise.
 Dividend decisions
This decision affects the amount paid to shareholders and distribution of additional shares of
stock.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS DECISION MAKING
Businesses perform research for a variety of purposes, including acquiring vital information
about their consumers and business clients. Management's primary duty is to make decisions,
and without the assistance of study and analysis of the current situation, as well as future
forecasting, decisions may be ineffective. As a result, research can help you make better
decisions. Based on research, management may make sound and well-informed judgments.
Basics of Business Research in Decision Making
When it comes to substantial structural changes or new product lines, business research is a
vital role in a business's decision-making process. This is due to the fact that it is generally
easier for businesses to replicate previous achievements than it is to build an entirely new
25
technique. Even the most innovative organizations rely on extensive knowledge of consumer
desires, market trends, and management practices when developing a business plan. A smart
business manager must be able to recognize some of the research's limitations and depend on
his own experience or intuition to guide decisions in some situations.
Importance of Research in Business Decision Making
Businesses conduct research to determine the effectiveness of their advertising. For example,
a dairy manufacturer would wish to know how many individuals saw its most recent television
commercial. The dairy company may discover that the longer the television ad runs, the more
people become aware of its advertising. If few individuals have seen the ads, the corporation
may elect to display them at other times.
Because of research, a company can make well-informed decisions. During the research
process, the company will be able to gather information about critical business areas, analyze
it, develop a strategy, and distribute business information. Reports presented to top
management frequently include information on customer and employee preferences, as well as
all accessible channels for sales, marketing, finance, and production. These details are used by
management to select the optimal plan. At all stages and phases of business operations, research
is required. Initial research is required to determine whether entering the given type of business
would be lucrative and whether there is a market for the proposed product.
Management makes use of these details to determine the best strategy. Research is a necessity
at all stages and phases of business operations. Initial research is needed to evaluate whether
getting into the given kind of business would be profitable and whether there exists a demand
for the proposed product.
Concerning the employees, properly conducted research can provide vital facts about their
satisfaction quotient, the difficulties they face, and how problems related to workplace
relationships can be addressed. An analysis of the results would allow management to make
changes to improve the overall effectiveness of the organization and its personnel. Workers can
be trained and guided to meet the demands of the organization. This would benefit both
personal and professional development while also increasing overall organizational
effectiveness.
Research is important for managerial decision-making. All strategic business sectors are
researched and appraised before developing approaches for more efficient procedures. All
businesses usually have many ways of doing an activity. Through proper research, the
organization will be able to pick the most effective, productive, and profitable one. Research
could possibly be applied to marketing, production, finance, IT, and Human resources.
Research can answer questions for various problems, from getting a grip on industry trends,
identifying new products to produce and deliver to the market, or deciding on which site to
locate an outlet, to better understand what it needs to fulfill customer demands. Research can
also help evaluate if a product is accepted in the market. Research aids expansion into new
markets.
Research helps in testing the potential success of new products. Businesses have to understand
what kinds of products consumers would like before they market them. For example, a
restaurant may conduct focus groups in the beginning to test different varieties of burgers.
26
Small groups of consumers will most likely participate in the focus groups. The focus group
could be used to determine which burgers clients prefer. Ultimately, the company may test the
burgers through surveys with larger groups of people.
The above points state the importance of research in business decision making. Research is
required to collect information and figures about a company's consumers, staff, and
competitors. Businesses can make better managerial decisions based on these figures. Research
is important at every stage of the planning process, from market and competitor analysis to
determine the size of your market, industry trends, who your main competitors are, and what
their proposal is, to analysing buyer behaviour and learning what customers require to be able
to buy from you.
Information for decision-making, what can go wrong?
Bias: data and information may reflect one aspect of a situation but not others. Bias may arise by
accident or deliberate manipulation of the data or information. Bias may arise from faulty problem
specification, research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation - that
is at any stage of the research process. It can be very difficult to detect and prevent as we all have
inadequate understandings which bias our research. Recognising, and as far as possible reducing, bias
is a critical research skill and a major explicit and implicit focus of this module.
Recording and editing: recording, transcription, and editing errors may be introduced at the
observational stage, during recording, collating, and analysis.
Selection: data and information selected may not be relevant to the decision for which the information
is required. Information for one decision-maker may be data to another (depending upon the decisions
they are concerned with.
Time: if each step takes too much time, then the whole process may not deliver information to the
relevant decision-makers in time to be used in decision-making.
Analysis and interpretation: particular problems may arise in analysis and interpretation, such as the use
of an inappropriate analysis technique leading to invalid interpretation.
WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH?
The primary goals of the research are to inform action, collect evidence for theories, and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a field of study. This article discusses the
importance of research and the numerous reasons why it is important for everyone, not just
students and scientists.
Understanding the importance of research may seem obvious, but many people avoid it like the
plague. However, whether a person is a member of a research institution or not, conducting
research is not only important—it is mandatory.
As the fundamental source of human progress, the Internet has played a critical part in human
evolution. To this day, research, whether scientific or non-scientific, is the primary means of
proving theories worldwide. It allows us to understand more about various things in-depth and
pushes us to think beyond the box. The research process has changed, as have the approaches.
However, the value of research has only grown over time. We've jotted down six reasons for
conducting research.
27
6 Reasons Why Research is Important
 It's a tool for gaining knowledge and making learning more accessible.
 The importance of research can be visible if we see it as the only means of proving
theories.
 Through research, we can gather updated information and to-the-point data.
 By differentiating between valuable and vague data, it creates credibility.
 It helps us succeed in business.
 It Is a Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities.
 Research is a tool to Acquire Knowledge Effectively
All professions and nonprofessional’s, including students and professors, must conduct
research. It is also crucial for aspiring and experienced authors, both offline and online.
Nonprofessional’s who value learning will benefit from performing research since it will
provide them with world information and skills to help them survive and enhance their lives.
Finding an intriguing topic to talk and/or write about among experts and scribes, on the other
hand, should go beyond personal experience. The purpose of conducting research can include
determining what the general public wants to know or what researchers want people to realize
or consider. As a result, research is critical to knowledge generation and vice versa.
A factual proposition in a person's mind is frequently described as knowledge. It essentially

refers to facts derived from objective observations and/or research findings that the human
brain has processed. It can be obtained in various ways, including reading books and articles,
listening to experts, watching documentaries or investigative shows, undertaking scientific
experiments, and connecting with others. Facts gathered during research can be cross-
referenced with other sources to guarantee their integrity and authenticity.
It's used to prove theories

Just like our brain development needs research, theoretical proofs need research, too. To
understand the importance of research, we should realize that our life revolves around theories,
and if we remove research from the equation, we can see that our lives are nothing but a mess.
Moreover, we research a point of view where we do not have to keep things to ourselves, and
instead, we do it to inform humankind about what change our theory might bring. The primary
purpose of all the research has kept us connected.
Provides the latest information

Knowledge is one of the core reasons human beings have desired since the start of the human
race. Being more knowledgeable powerful has made us addicted to the latter. And this is true
as well. The countries with the most knowledge base are the ones that have shown development.
However, there can be other reasons for doing research. With the help of tools and certifications
like CIRS, we can get these skills very fast and with the lowest efforts. Anyone can become a
researcher who will be certified and recognized by the AOFIRS. An opportunity of a lifetime.
Research builds credibility

Research provides a strong basis for you to construct your thoughts and beliefs on. You may
talk confidently about something you know to be correct. When you've done your homework,
it's far more difficult for someone to find flaws in what you're saying. Your study should
concentrate on the most reliable sources. Your research should be focused on the best sources.
28
If your “research” consists of opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When
your research is good, though, people are more likely to pay attention.
Helps succeed in business

A business, like any other technical work, demands a lot of energy. A successful business
cannot be done without solid proves and case studies. That being said, it makes research the
foremost step before doing any business. The percentage of companies turning unsuccessful
without proper research involved is near 90%. So, it is always better to do appropriate research
in every way before jumping into any business. Businesses prosper because they had sensible
owners who researched their product, and the market needs before launching it. Only if we pay
attention to these nit-picks of a company and see the importance of research decision-making
will there be a higher chance to find, gauge, and seize opportunities.
R&D might also help you gain a competitive advantage. Finding ways to make things run more
smoothly and differentiate a company's products from those of its competitors can help to
increase a company's market worth.
Means to Find Gauge and Seize Opportunities Research

Research helps people build their potential and attain objectives with different opportunities.
These could include gaining jobs, scholarships, education subsidies, projects, commercial
cooperation, and budgetary travel. Research is vital for those who are seeking a job or brighter
pastures.
Through this procedure, the unemployed will boost their chances of discovering potential
employers through employment posts or agencies, but they may advise them if employment
opportunities are authentic. Without investigation, unscrupulous head hunters who may be
involved in illegal recruitment and/or trafficking might be the exponent of the creepy and yet
hopeful jobseeker or migrant worker.
Qualities of a Researcher
It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and
foremost, he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the ‘articles of faith’ of the
scientific methods of research. This implies that a researcher should be a social science person
in the truest sense. Sir Michael Foster cited by (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) identified a
few distinct qualities of a scientist. According to him, a true research scientist should possess
the following qualities:
1. First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates in unison with
the theme which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge must be truthful with
truthfulness of nature, which is much more important, much more exacting than what is
sometimes known as truthfulness. The truthfulness relates to the desire for accuracy of
observation and precision of statement. Ensuring facts is the principle rule of science, which
is not an easy matter. The difficulty may arise dueto untrained eye, which fails to see anything
29
beyond what it has the power of seeing and sometimes even less than that. This may also be
due to the lack of discipline in the method of science. An unscientific individual often remains
satisfied with the expressions like approximately, almost, or nearly, which is never what nature
is. A real research cannot see two things which differ, however minutely, as the same.
2. A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and revealing itself
through various ways. A scientific researcher must be keen and watchful to notice such
changes, no matter how small or insignificant they may appear. Such receptivity has to be
cultivated slowly and patiently over time by the researcher through practice. An individual
who is ignorant or not alert and receptive during his research will not make a good researcher.
He will fail as a good researcher if he has no keen eyes or mind to observe the unusual changes
behind the routine.Research demands a systematic immersion into the subject matter by the
researcher grasp even the slightest hint that may culminate into significant research problems. In this
context, Cohen and Negal cited by (Selltiz et al, 1965; Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) state that “the
ability to perceive in some brute experience the occasion of a problem is not a common talent among
men… it is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to difficulties where less gifted people pass by
untroubled by doubt”.
3. Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of

courage, which reflects the courage of a steadfast endurance. The process of conducting
research is not an easy task. There are occasions when a research scientist might feel defeated
or completely lost. This is the stage when a researcher would need immense courage and the
sense of conviction. The researcher must learn the art of enduring intellectual hardships. In the
words of Darwin, “It’s dogged that does it”.
In order to cultivate the afore-mentioned three qualities of a researcher, a fourth one may be
added. This is the quality of making statements cautiously. According to Huxley, the assertion
that outstrips the evidence is not only a blunder but a crime (Thompson, 1975). A researcher
should cultivate the habit of reserving judgment when the required data are insufficient.
Significance of Research
According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better
than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”. It brings out the
significance of research, increased amount of which makes the progress possible. Research
encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of
an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature
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of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems.
Research assumes significant role in the formulation of economic policy for both, the
government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an
economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the
analysis of needs and desires of people, and the availability of revenues, which requires
research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the
consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision-making of
policy-makers, although in itself is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps
in the proper allocation of a country’s scarce resources.
Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of
an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of
statistical information, though not a routine task, involves various research problems.
Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts are engaged by the government these
days to undertake this work.
Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct
stages of operation:
 investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
 diagnosis of events that are taking place and analysis of the forces underlying them;
and
 the prognosis i.e., the prediction of future developments (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar,
1979).
Research also assumes significance in solving various operational and planning problems
associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research
and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market
research refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the
formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational
research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find
solution to business problems, such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the
optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the
manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with
the analysis of the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very
useful for business and industry, and are responsible for business decision-making.
Research is equally important to social scientists for analyzing the social relationships and
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seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing
things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses the practical utility for the social scientist
to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. The
research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge
for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.
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Unit 2
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Introduction
Research Process
Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively conducting
research. The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the
conduct of research:
Selection of Research Problem

Extensive Literature Survey
Making Hypothesis
Preparing the Research Design
Sampling
Data collection
Data Analysis
Hypothesis Testing
Generalization and Interpretation
Preparation of Report
 Selection of Research
The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or research statement,
then other activities would be easy to perform. So, for the understanding thoroughly the
problem it must have to discuss with colleagues, friend, experts and teachers. The research
topic or problem should be practical, relatively important, feasible, ethically and politically
acceptable.
 Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey

After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly connected
with the topics. The availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose
academic journals, conference and govt. reports and library must be studied.
 Making Hypothesis
The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The
hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis
narrows down the area of a research and keep a researcher on the right path.
 Preparing the Research Design

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to
prepare by the researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of
research design may be made, depend on the nature and purpose of the study. Daring R. Design
the information about sources, skill, time and finance is taken into consideration.
 Sampling
The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas
34
or universe. The sample may be of two types:
Probability Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
Data collection
Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must
be containing on facts which is from the following two types of researcher.
 Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following.
Experiment
Questionnaire
Observation
Interview
Secondary data collection: it has the following categories:
Review of literature
Official and non-official reports
Library approach
 Data Analysis
When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is the most technical job. Data
analysis may be divided into two main categories.
Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.
Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data presentation, Data
measurement
Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories.
Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions
 Hypothesis Testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts
or not? To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
 Generalization and Interpretation

The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of generalization
or to make & theory. Some types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher depends
upon on theory which is known as interpretation.
 Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his
mind the following points:
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Report Design in Primary Stages
The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and background followed by
acknowledgement. There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.
Main Text of the Report

It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and methodology of the research. It must
be divided into chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which summary of the
findings should be enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions to show the main
theme of the R-study.
Closing the Report

After the preparation of report, the last step in business research process contains of
bibliography, references, appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose
the information should more clearer.
Designing of Research Proposal Introduction of Research Proposal
You have a great idea that your company would benefit from, but there is just one problem.
Your great idea requires funding, and it is up to you to convince your company why they should
grant you the money needed. In order to do this, you immediately decide to write a research
proposal.
So, let's take a look at what a research proposal is. When someone is interested in obtaining
support for research, they often write a research proposal. These proposals are intended to
convince people that your ideas and projects are important. They strive to explain how you can
satisfactorily complete the project. A research proposal needs to let people know why the project
is a good and/or needed idea and that you understand what information and studies are already
out there. Keep in mind that the way the proposal is written is also important, as grammar,
structure, and content can make a difference in whether or not the proposal is accepted or
rejected.
While conducting a proposal, several questions need to be answered so that those you hope will
support your research, understand the significance and reason behind your work.
The following are some important questions to answer:
 What are you going to do?

 How much money do you need to complete your project?
 How long will it take?
 Why do you feel the project will help or benefit the sponsors?
 Why are you the one for the job?
 What are your qualifications?
 What will you do with the results?
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Components of research Proposal
Proposals for sponsored activities generally follow a similar format; variations depend upon
whether the proposer is seeking support for a research grant, a training grant, or a conference
or curriculum development project. The following outline covers the primary components of a
research proposal. Your proposal will be a variation on this basic theme.
1. Title Page: Most sponsoring agencies specify the format for the title page, and some provide
special forms to summarize basic administrative and fiscal data for the project. Titles are brief
but comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of the proposed work.
2. Abstract: The funder may use the abstract to make preliminary decisions about the proposal.
Therefore, an effective summary states the problem addressed by the applicant, identifies the
solution, and specifies the objectives and methods of the project. This summary should also
outline funding requirements and describe the applicant’s ability.
3. Table of Contents: Brief proposals with few sections usually do not need a table of contents.
Long and detailed proposals may require, in addition to a table of contents, a list of illustrations
(or figures) and a list of tables. If all of these sections are included, they should follow the order
mentioned, and each should be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals. The table of
contents lists all major parts and divisions, including the abstract.
4. Introduction (including Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of
Research): The introduction of a proposal begins with a capsule statement and then proceeds
to introduce the subject to a stranger. It should give enough background to enable an informed
lay person to place your particular research problem in a context of common knowledge and
should show how its solution will advance the field or be important for some other work. The
statement describes the significance of the problem(s), referring to appropriate studies or
statistics.
5. Background (including Literature Survey): Be sure to (1) make clear what the research
problem is and exactly what has been accomplished;
(2) to give evidence of your own competence in the field; and (3) to show why the previous
work needs to be continued. The literature review should be selective and critical. Discussions
of work done by others should lead the reader to a clear idea of how you will build upon past
research and also how your work differs from theirs.
6. Description of Proposed Research (including Method or Approach): The comprehensive
explanation of the proposed research is addressed to other specialists in your field. This section
is the heart of the proposal and is the primary concern of the technical reviewers. Remember as
you lay out the research design to:
 Be realistic about what can be accomplished.

 Be explicit about any assumptions or hypotheses the research method rests upon.
 Be clear about the focus of the research.
 Be as detailed as possible about the schedule of the proposed work.
 Be specific about the means of evaluating the data or the conclusions.
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 Be certain that the connection between the research objectives and the research method is
evident.
 Spell out preliminary work developing an analytical method or laying groundwork as Phase
1.
At the end of this phase you will be able to report that you have accomplished something and
are ready to undertake Phase 2.
7. Description of Relevant Institutional Resources: Generally this section details the resources
available to the proposed project and, if possible, shows why the sponsor should select this
University and this investigator for this particular research. Some relevant points may be:
 the institution's demonstrated skill in the related research area

 its abundance of experts in related areas that may indirectly benefit the project
 its supportive services that will directly benefit the project
 and the institution's unique or unusual research facilities or resources available to the project
8. List of References: The style of the bibliographical item itself depends on the disciplinary field.
The main consideration is consistency; whatever style is chosen should be followed carefully
throughout the proposal.
9. Personnel: This section usually consists of two parts: (1) an explanation of the proposed
personnel arrangements and (2) the biographical data sheets for each of the main contributors to
the project. The explanation should specify how many persons at what percentage of time and
in what academic categories will be participating in the project. If the program is complex and
involves people from other departments or colleges, make clear the organization of the staff
and the lines of responsibility. Any student participation, paid or unpaid, should be mentioned,
and the nature of the proposed contribution detailed. If any persons must be hired for the
project, say so, and explain why, unless the need for persons not already available within the
University is self-evident.
10. Budget: Sponsors customarily specify how budgets should be presented and what costs are
allowable. The budget lays out the costs to be met by the funding source, including personnel,
non-personnel, administrative, and overhead expenses. The budget also specifies items paid for
by other funding sources. Includes explanations for requested expenses.
Research Design
The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the
research project, which is popularly known as the ‘research design’. A research design helps
to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. With regard to
an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
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collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure. Infact, research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and
the final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study

2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into
the following (Kothari 1988):
a. The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selected study;
b. The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
c. The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d. The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
Features of Research Design:
The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:
i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
research problem;
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which would
be adopted; and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting the
39
study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any r e s e a r ch .
Types of Research Design
There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:
1. Exploratory Research Design;

2. Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and
3. Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.
1. Exploratory Research Design
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main
objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in- depth or
more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect.
The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a
research design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different dimensions of the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research
design is required as the Initial research problem would be transformed into a more precise one
in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the research procedure for
collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three methods are considered in the context
of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b) experience
survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
2. Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular

individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with
which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study
analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic research
study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the
narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual, group or situation, are instances
of descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research design falls under this
category. As a research design, both the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common
requirements, hence they are grouped together. However, the procedure to be used and the
research design need to planned carefully. The research design must also make appropriate
provision for protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard to the
completion of the research study in an economical manner. The research design in such studies
should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus attention on the following:
 Formulation of the objectives of the study,
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 Proper designing of the methods of data collect ion,
 Sample selection,
 Data collection,
 Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
 Reporting the findings.
3. Hypothesis-Testing Research Design
Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of
causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies require procedures that would
not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the
causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence, when research design is
discussed in such studies, it often refers to the design of experiments.
2.2 Importance of Research Design
The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct of the
various stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus
yielding the maximum information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A research
design helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting the relevant data
and the techniques to be adopted for their analysis. This would help in pursuing the objectives
of the research in the best possible manner, provided the available staff, time and money are
given. Hence, the research design should be prepared with utmost care, so as to avoid any error
that may disturb the entire project. Thus, research design plays a crucial role in attaining the
reliability of the results obtained, which forms the strong foundation of the entire process of
the research work.
Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times. This is
because it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many researchers are
not able to achieve the purpose for which the research designs are formulated, due to which
they end up arriving at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of the research
project tends to render the research exercise meaningless. This makes it imperative that an
efficient and suitable research design must be planned before commencing the process of
research. The research design helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a proper form,
which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the inadequacies and faults in them. The research
design is also discussed with other experts for their comments and critical evaluation, without
which it would be difficult for any critic to provide a comprehensive review and comments on
the proposed study.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design:

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A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A
research design which does not allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the
best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields maximum information and
provides an opportunity of viewing the various dimensions of a research problem is considered
to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus, the question of a good design relates to
the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem studied. While a research design
may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other words, it may be lacking in
one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems. Therefore, no single
research design can be applied to all types of research problems.
A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the following
considerations:
i. The methods of gathering the information;

ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied; and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.
2.1 Concepts Relating To Research Design

Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
1. Dependent and Independent Variables
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative
values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest
sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the
presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values
quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables
need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-
continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For
example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous
variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables,
it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in
the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price
42
is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and price
of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of
original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by
the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of s u b s t i t
utes.
2. Extraneous Variables
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect
the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a
researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s school
performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and
the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school
performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken
by the
researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the
extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’.
Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of
independent variable/s is clearly evident.
3. Control
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of
extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the
study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’
is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
4. Confounded Relationship
The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific

methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research
hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable.
Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that
are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:
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When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-
testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-
experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known
as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent
variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non- experimental hypothesis- testing research’. For
example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the
school attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis- testing
research, because the independent variable - family income is not manipulated here. Again
assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay
their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including
75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not
have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on
each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school
attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing
research, because in this particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the
parents have been manipulated.
7. Experimental and Control Groups
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research,

it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or
special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore- mentioned example,
Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups,
A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as
‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental group or both the
experimental and control groups together.
8. Treatments
Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are
subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings
and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research
study attempts to examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types
of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the
three t reatments.
9. Experiment
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a
given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield
of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into
44
two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes
to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop,
then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the
impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment
is known as a comparative e x p e r i m e n t .
10. Experimental Unit(s)
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which
different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units
must be selected with great caution.
Case Study Research
The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of a social or economic unit,
such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is calledcase
study method. The objective of case study method is to examine the factors that cause the
behavioral patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment. The data for a
study are always gathered with the purpose of tracing the natural history of a social or
economic unit, and its relationship with the social or economic factors, besides the forces
involved in its environment. Thus, a researcher conducting a study using the case study method
attempts to Understand the complexity of factors that are operative within a social or economic
unit as an integrated totality. Burgess (Kothari, 1988) described the special significance of the
case study in understanding the complex behaviour and situations in specific detail. In the
context of social research, he called such data as social microscope.
Criteria for Evaluating Adequacy of Case Study
John Dollard (Dollard, 1935) specified seven criteria for evaluating the adequacy of a case or
life history in the context of social research. They are:
i. The subject being studied must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural set up. That is, the case
selected from its total context for the purpose of study should be considered a member of the
particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life history of the individual must
be carried out with a view to identify the community values, standards and shared ways of life.
ii. The organic motors of action should be socially relevant. This is to say that the action of the
individual cases should be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situations. To put
in simple words, the social meaning of behaviour should be taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
iii. The crucial role of the family-group in transmitting the culture should be recognized. This
means, as an individual is the member of a family, the role of the family in shaping his/her
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behaviour should never be ignored.
iv. The specific method of conversion of organic material into social behaviour should be clearly
demonstrated. For instance, case-histories that discuss in detail how basically a biological
organism, that is man, gradually transforms into a social person are particularly important.
v. The constant transformation of character of experience from childhood to adulthood should

be emphasized. That is, the life- history should portray the inter-relationship between the
individual’s various experiences during his/her life span. Such a study provides a
comprehensive understanding of an individual’s life as a c o n t i n u u m .
vi. The ‘social situation’ that contributed to the individual’s gradual transformation should
carefully and continuously be specified as a factor. One of the crucial criteria for life-history
is that an individual’s life should be depicted as evolving itself in the context of a specific
social situation and partially caused by it.
vii. The life-history details themselves should be organized according to some conceptual
framework, which in turn would facilitate their generalizations at higher levels.
These criteria discussed by Dollard emphasize the specific link of coordinated, related,
continuous and configured experience in a cultural pattern that motivated the social and
personal behaviour. Although, the criteria indicated by Dollard are principally perfect, some
of them are difficult to put to practice.
Dollard (1935) attempted to express the diverse events depicted in the life-histories of persons
during the course of repeated interviews by utilizing psycho-analytical techniques in a given
situational context. His criteria of life-history originated directly from this experience. While
the life-histories possess independent significance as research documents, the interviews
recorded by the investigators can afford, as Dollard observed, “rich insights into the nature of
the social situations experienced by them”.
It is a well-known fact that an individual’s life is very complex. Till date there is hardly any
technique that can establish some kind of uniformity, and as a result ensure the cumulative of
case-history materials by isolating the complex totality of a human life. Nevertheless, although
case history data are difficult to put to rigorous analysis, a skilful handling and interpretation
of such data could help in developing insights into cultural conflicts and problems arising out
of c u l t u r a l -change.
Gordon Allport in (Kothari 1988) has recommended the following aspects so as to broaden the
perspective of case-study data:
i. If the life-history is written in first person, it should be as comprehensive and coherent as

possible.
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ii. Life-histories must be written for knowledgeable persons. that is, if the enquiry of study is
sociological in nature, the researcher should Write it on the assumption that it would be read
largely by sociologists only.
iii. It would be advisable to supplement case study data by observational, statistical andhistorical
data, as they provide standards for assessing the reliability and consistency of the case study materials.
Further, such data offer a basis for generalizations.
iv. Efforts must be made to verify the reliability of life-history data by examining the internal
consistency of the collected material, and by repeating the interviews with the concerned
person. Besides this, personal interviews with the persons who are well-acquainted with
him/her, belonging to his/her own group should be conducted.
v. A judicious combination of different techniques for data-collection is crucial for collecting
data that are culturally meaningful and scientifically significant.
vi. Life-histories or case-histories may be considered as an adequate basis for generalization to
the extent that they are typical or representative of a certain group.
vii. The researcher engaged in the collection of case study data should
never ignore the unique or typical cases. He/she should include them as exceptional cases.
Case histories are filled with valuable information of a personal or private nature. Such
information not only helps the researcher to portray the personality of the individual, but also
the social background that contributed to it. Besides, it also helps in the formulation of relevant
hypotheses. In general, although Blummer (in Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) was critical
of documentary material, he gave due credit to case histories by acknowledging the fact that
the personal documents offer an opportunity to the researcher to develop his/her spirit of
enquiry. The analysis of a particular subject would be more effective if the researcher acquires
close acquaintance with it through personal documents. However, Blummer also
acknowledges the limitations of the personal documents. According to him, such documents
do not entirely fulfill the criteria of adequacy, reliability, and representativeness. Despite these
shortcomings, avoiding their use in any scientific study of personal life would be wrong, as
these documents become necessary and significant for both theory- building and practice.
In spite of these formidable limitations, case study data are used by anthropologists,
sociologists, economists and industrial psychiatrists. Gordon Allport (Kothari, 1988) strongly
recommends the use of case study data for in-depth analysis of a subject. For, it is one’s
acquaintance with an individual that instills a desire to know his/her nature and understand
them. The first stage involves understanding the individual and all the complexity of his/her
nature. Any haste in analyzing and classifying the individual would create the risk of reducing
his/her emotional world into artificial bits. As a consequence, the important emotional
organizations, anchorages and natural identifications characterizing the personal life of the
individual might not yield adequate representation. Hence, the researcher should understand
the life of the subject. Therefore, the totality of life-processes reflected in the well-ordered life-
history documents become invaluable source of stimulating insights. Such life-history
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documents provide the basis for comparisons that contribute to statistical generalizations and
help to draw inferences regarding the uniformities in human behaviour, which are of great
value. Even if some personal documents do not provide ordered data about personal lives of
people, which is the basis of psychological science, they should not be ignored. This is because
the final aim of science is to understand, control and make predictions about human life. Once
they are satisfied, the theoretical and practical importance of personal documents must be
recognized as significant. Thus, a case study may be considered as the beginning and the final
destination of abstract knowledge.
2.2 Measurement: Types and Errors

The measurement of an amount is based on some international standards which are completely
accurate compared with others. Generally, measurement of any quantity is done by comparing it
with derived standards with which they are not completely accurate. Thus, the errors in
measurement are not only due to error in methods, but are also due to derivation being not done
perfectly well. So, 100% measurement error is not possible with any methods.
It is very important for the operator to take proper care of the experiment while performing on
industrial instruments so that the error in measurement can be reduced. Some of the errors are
constant in nature due to the unknown reasons, some will be random in nature, and the other
will be due to gross blunder on the part of the experimenter.
2.11.1 Errors in Measurement System
An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the actual value.
For example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for finding the errors in
measurement, it is not necessary that they may get similar results. There may be a difference
between both measurements. The difference that occurs between both the measurements is
referred to as an ERROR.
Sequentially, to understand the concept of errors in measurement, you should know the two
terms that define the error. They are true value and the measured value. The true value is
impossible to find out the truth of quantity by experimental means. It may be defined as the
average value of an infinite number of measured values. Measured value can be defined as the
estimated value of true value that can be found by taking several measured values during an
experiment.
2.11.2 Types of Errors in Measurement System
Generally errors are classified into three types: systematic errors, random errors and blunders.
1) Gross Errors
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2) Blunders
3) Measurement Errors
Systematic Errors
 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoretical Errors
Random Errors
1) Blunders
Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording or due to a
wrong value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while
reading a scale. These blunders should stick out like sore thumbs if one person checks the work
of another person. It should not be comprised in the analysis of data.
2) Measurement Error
The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value.
Usually, Measurement error consists of a random error and systematic error. The best
example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are loaded with 1kg standard weight
and the reading is 10002grams, then
The measurement error is = (1002grams-1000grams) =2grams

Measurement Errors are classified into two types: systematic error and random errors
Systematic Errors
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The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic
errors. Usually they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative error. These errors can be
detached by correcting the measurement device. These errors may be classified into different
categories.
Systematic Errors
In order to understand the concept of systematic errors, let us classify the errors as:
 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
 Theoritical
Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments. These errors
may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types of errors include loading effect and misuse
of the instruments. In order to reduce the gross errors in measurement, different correction
factors must be applied and in the extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully.
Environmental Errors
The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument. External
conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields. In order
to reduce the environmental errors
 Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by making some
arrangements.
 Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around the instrument.
Observational Errors
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As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due to wrong observations or reading in the
instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading. The wrong observations may be due
to PARALLAX. In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are needed:
meters provided with mirror scales.
Theoretical Errors
Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example, a theory
states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the readings taken when it
actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement.
Random Errors
Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions and noise and
tiredness in the working persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An example of
the random errors is during changes in humidity, unexpected change in temperature and
fluctuation in voltage. These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a large number of
readings.
Random Errors
2.11.3 Measurement Error Calculation

There are several ways to make a reasonable measurement error calculation such as estimating
random errors and estimating systematic errors.
Estimating Random Errors
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There are a number of ways to make a reasonable estimate of the random error in a particular
measurement. The best way is to make a series of measurements of a given quantity (say, x)
and calculate the mean and standard deviation (x ̅ & σ_x ) from this data.
The mean x ̅ is defined as
Where, Xi is the result of the i th measurements ‘N’ is the number of measurements
The standard variation is given by
If a measurement is repeated many times, then 68% of the measured valves will drop in the
range x ̅ ± σ_x
We become more positive that , is an accurate representation of the true value of the quantity
x ̅ . The standard deviation of the mean σ_x is defined as
σ_(x ̅ )=σ_x⁄√N
The quantity σ_x is a good estimate of our uncertainty in x Notice that the
measurement
precision increases in proportion to √N as we increase the number of measurements. The
following example will clarify these ideas. Assume you made the following five measurements
of a length:
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Error Calculations
Therefore, the result is
22.84±.08mm
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In some cases, it is hardly useful to repeat a measurement many times. In that situation, you
can estimate frequently the error by taking account of the smallest division of the measuring
instrument.
For example, when using a meter stick, one can measure, perhaps a half or sometimes even a
fifth of a millimeter. So, the absolute error would be estimated to be around 0.5 mm or 0.2 mm.
Thus, this is all about the various types of errors in measurement and error measurement
calculation. We hope you are satisfied with this article. We express our gratitude to all the
readers. Please share your suggestions and comments in the comment section below.
2.3 Measurement of Scales (Reliability and Validity)

The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively. Attitude is a
resultant of number of external and internal factors. Depending upon the attitude to be
measured, appropriate scales are designed. Scaling is a technique used for measuring
qualitative responses of respondents such as those related to their feelings, perception, likes,
dislikes, interests and preferences.
2.12.1 Types of Scales
Four types of scales are generally used for Marketing Research are as under:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
Four types of scales are generally used for Marketing Research.
1. Nominal Scale
This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various alternative

categories which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These scales are just
numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales. Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit
card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used
when relationship between two variables is to be studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no
more than labels and are used specifically to identify different categories of responses.
Following example illustrates -
What is your gender?

[ ] Male
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[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining
stocks and daily turnover.
How do you stock items at present?

[ ] By product category [ ] At a centralized store [ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
Daily turnover of consumer is?

[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
A two way classification can be made as follows
Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method
100 – 200
200 – 300
Above 300
Mode is frequently used for response category.
2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing Research. It is more
powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The
ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is
obtained through the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
5. Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked
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5. Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them
based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second
maximum Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating
Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal
intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.
Company Less Well Known
1 2 3 4 5
Name Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Very Dis-
Overall Very
Satisfied 1 2 3 4 5
Satisfaction Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and
also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not
permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has
been established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean
scores of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion)
can also be calculated.
4. Ratio Scale
Ratio Scales are not widely used in Marketing Research unless a base item is made available
for comparison. In the above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not
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necessarily mean that the respondent is twice more satisfied than the respondent who marks 2
on the scale. A Ratio scale has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally
appearing intervals. For example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length, weight,
etc. The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a
ratio scale analytically are the most versatile. Rati scale possess all he characteristics of an
internal scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations.
Data on certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-ended
questions, will have ratio-scale properties.
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For
example we can say that a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much
as one with an annual income of $ 20,000.
2.12.2 Self-Rating Scales

Following are the self-rating scales
1. Graphic Rating Scale
2. Itemized Rating Scales
a. Likert Scale
b. Semantic Differential Scale
c. Stapel’s Scale
d. Multi-Dimensional Scaling
e. Thurston Scales
f. Guttmann Scales/Scalogram Analysis
g. The Q Sort technique
Explanation of self-rating scales

1. Graphic Rating Scale
The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that
runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to another. Example
0 1 5 7
(poor quality) (bad quality) (neither good nor bad) (good quality)
BRAND
This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position. Here
one attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of ice-cream.
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Poor good
BRAND 2
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is
there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that
“indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate
position on the line”, we measure the physical distance between the left extreme position and
the response position on the line.; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the response
or attitude towards the brand.
Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial amount of time, since we first
have to measure the physical distances on the scale for each respondent.
2.12.2 Itemized Rating Scales

These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of brief
descriptions associated with each category. They are widely used in Marketing Research. They
essentially take the form of the multiple category questions. The most common are - Likert,
Semantic, Staple and Multiple Dimension. Others are - Thurston and Guttman.
a. Likert Scale
It was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a degree of
agreement and disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each scale item has 5 response
categories ranging from strongly agree and strongly disagree.
5 4 3 2 1
Strongly agree Agree Indifferent Disagree Strongly disagree
Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be scaled as -2 to
+2.
-2 -1 0 1 2
For example quality of Mother Diary ice-cream is poor then Not Good is a negative statement
and Strongly Agree with this means the quality is not good.
Each degree of agreement is given a numerical score and the respondents total score is
computed by summing these scores. This total score of respondent reveals the particular
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opinion of a person.
Likert Scale are of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but not to measure the
difference between attitudes. They take about the same amount of efforts to create as Thurston
scale and are considered more discriminating and reliable because of the larger range of
responses typically given in Likert scale.
A typical Likert scale has 20 - 30 statements. While designing a good Likert Scale, first a large
pool of statements relevant to the measurement of attitude has to be generated and then from
the pool statements, the statements which are vague and non-discriminating have to be
eliminated.
Thus, likert scale is a five point scale ranging from ’strongly agreement’to ’strongly
disagreement’. No judging gap is involved in this method.
b. Semantic Differential Scale

This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.
Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options-
1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant
Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or - 3 to 3. On the
basis of these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by
joining these profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the number
of variables.
Profile Analysis
/
/
/
Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities
and differences among objects.
When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good basis
for comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its simplicity,
while producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method
is easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude, highly
versatile, reliable and generally valid.
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c. Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-
 Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
 Each item has ten response categories.
 Each item has an even number of categories.
 The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask respondents to
rank from +5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best describe the ice cream accurately.
Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the ice cream quality accurately.
Thus, we can select any number from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to -5,for words
we think are very inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
This is a unipolar rating scale.
d. Multi-Dimensional Scaling
It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to study consumer attitudes related
to perceptions and preferences. It is used to study-
The major attributes of a given class of products perceived by the consumers in considering the
product and by which they compare the different ranks.
1. To study which brand competes most directly with each other.

2. To find out whether the consumers would like a new brand with a combination of
characteristics not found in the market.
3. What would be the consumer’s ideal combination of product attributes?
4. What sales and advertising messages are compatible with consumer’s brand perceptions?
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It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off
on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program.
The purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of
the stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been developed, the next
step is to determine the preference with regards to the product under study. These techniques
attempt to identify the product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their
relative importance.
This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different brands
would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what are the
attributes for joining M.Com course? The responses may be -to do PG, to go into teaching line,
to get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you cannot base
decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing between brands,
they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions of the consumers
involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand as a composite of a
number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.
Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multidimensional scaling. There
are many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle, vendor
evaluations and advertising media selection.
The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to clearly define the concept of similarities and
preferences. Further the distances between the items are seen as different
e. Thurston Scales
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the attitude
towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements are
collected that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these
statements along an 11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of
favourableness towards the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median
ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct questionnaire of twenty to thirty items
that are chosen more or less evenly across the range of ratings.
The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The
scale is then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by
computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with all
the items has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval measurement
scale. But it is the time consuming method and labour intensive. They are commonly used in
psychology and education research.
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f. Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis
It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuum in such a way that a person
who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all
other items expressing a less extreme position. For example - Children should not be allowed
to watch indecent programmes or government should ban these programmes or they are not
allowed to air on the television. They all are related to one aspect.
In this scale each score represents a unique set of responses and therefore the total score of
every individual is obtained. This scale takes a lot of time and effort in development.
They are very commonly used in political science, anthropology, public opinion, research and
psychology.
g. The Q Sort technique
It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a rank order procedure
and the objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some criteria. The
number of objects to be sorted should be between 60-140 approximately. For example, here we
are taking nine brands. On the basis of taste we classify the brands into tasty, moderate and
non-tasty.
We can classify on the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then we can attain the
perception of people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate. We can
classify sixty brands or pile it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be placed in three
piles-low, medium or high.
Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt to classify subjects in terms of their similarity to
attribute under study.
2.4 Designing of Research Proposal Introduction of Research Proposal
There you are. You have a great idea that your company would benefit from, but there is just
one problem. Your great idea requires funding, and it is up to you to convince your company
why they should grant you the money needed. In order to do this, you immediately decide to
write a research proposal.
So, let's take a look at what a research proposal is. When someone is interested in obtaining
support for research, they often write a research proposal. These proposals are intended to
convince people that your ideas and projects are important. They strive to explain how you can
satisfactorily complete the project. A research proposal needs to let people know why the project
is a good and/or needed idea and that you understand what information and studies are already
out there. Keep in mind that the way the proposal is written is also important, as grammar,
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structure, and content can make a difference in whether or not the proposal is accepted or
rejected.
While conducting a proposal, several questions need to be answered so that those you hope will
support your research, understand the significance and reason behind your work.
The following are some important questions to answer:
 What are you going to do?

 How much money do you need to complete your project?
 How long will it take?
 Why do you feel the project will help or benefit the sponsors?
 Why are you the one for the job?
 What are your qualifications?
 What will you do with the results?
2.13.1 Components of research Proposal

Proposals for sponsored activities generally follow a similar format; variations depend upon
whether the proposer is seeking support for a research grant, a training grant, or a conference
or curriculum development project. The following outline covers the primary components of a
research proposal. Your proposal will be a variation on this basic theme.
1. Title Page: Most sponsoring agencies specify the format for the title page, and some provide
special forms to summarize basic administrative and fiscal data for the project. Titles are brief
but comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of the proposed work.
2. Abstract: The funder may use the abstract to make preliminary decisions about the proposal.
Therefore, an effective summary states the problem addressed by the applicant, identifies the
solution, and specifies the objectives and methods of the project. This summary
should also outline funding requirements and describe the applicant’s ability.
3. Table of Contents: Brief proposals with few sections usually do not need a table of contents.
Long and detailed proposals may require, in addition to a table of contents, a list of illustrations
(or figures) and a list of tables. If all of these sections are included, they should follow the order
mentioned, and each should be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals. The table of
contents lists all major parts and divisions, including the abstract.
4. Introduction (including Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of
Research): The introduction of a proposal begins with a capsule statement and then proceeds
to introduce the subject to a stranger. It should give enough background to enable an informed
lay person to place your particular research problem in a context of common knowledge and
should show how its solution will advance the field or be important for some other work. The
statement describes the significance of the problem(s), referring to appropriate studies or
statistics.
5. Background (including Literature Survey): Be sure to (1) make clear what the research
problem is and exactly what has been accomplished;
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(2) to give evidence of your own competence in the field; and (3) to show why the previous
work needs to be continued. The literature review should be selective and critical. Discussions
of work done by others should lead the reader to a clear idea of how you will build upon past
research and also how your work differs from theirs.
6. Description of Proposed Research (including Method or Approach): The comprehensive
explanation of the proposed research is addressed to other specialists in your field. This section
is the heart of the proposal and is the primary concern of the technical reviewers. Remember as
you lay out the research design to:
 Be realistic about what can be accomplished.

 Be explicit about any assumptions or hypotheses the research method rests upon.
 Be clear about the focus of the research.
 Be as detailed as possible about the schedule of the proposed work.
 Be specific about the means of evaluating the data or the conclusions.
 Be certain that the connection between the research objectives and the research method is
evident.
 Spell out preliminary work developing an analytical method or laying groundwork as Phase
1.At the end of this phase you will be able to report that you have accomplished something and are
ready to undertake Phase 2.
7. Description of Relevant Institutional Resources: Generally, this section details the resources
available to the proposed project and, if possible, shows why the sponsor should select this
University and this investigator for this particular research. Some relevant points may be:
 the institution's demonstrated skill in the related research area

 its abundance of experts in related areas that may indirectly benefit the project
 its supportive services that will directly benefit the project
 and the institution's unique or unusual research facilities or resources available to the project
8. List of References: The style of the bibliographical item itself depends on the disciplinary field.
The main consideration is consistency; whatever style is chosen should be followed carefully
throughout the proposal.
9. Personnel: This section usually consists of two parts: (1) an explanation of the proposed
personnel arrangements and (2) the biographical data sheets for each of the main contributors to
the project. The explanation should specify how many persons at what percentage of time and
in what academic categories will be participating in the project. If the program is complex and
involves people from other departments or colleges, make clear the organization of the staff
and the lines of responsibility. Any student participation, paid or unpaid, should be mentioned,
and the nature of the proposed contribution detailed. If any persons must be hired for the
project, say so, and explain why, unless the need for persons not already available within the
University is self-evident.
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10. Budget: Sponsors customarily specify how budgets should be presented and what costs are
allowable. The budget lays out the costs to be met by the funding source, including personnel,
non-personnel, administrative, and overhead expenses. The budget also specifies items paid for
by other funding sources. Includes explanations for requested expenses.
2.5 Pilot Surveys

Pilot studies can play a very important role prior to Conducting a full-scale research
project
Pilot studies are small-scale, preliminary studies which aim to investigate whether crucial
components of a main study – usually a randomized controlled trial (RCT) – will be feasible.
For example, they may be used in attempt to predict an appropriate sample size for the full-
scale project and/or to improve upon various aspects of the study design. Often RCTs require
a lot of time and money to be carried out, so it is crucial that the researchers have confidence
in the key steps they will take when conducting this type of study to avoid wasting time and
resources.
Thus, a pilot study must answer a simple question: “Can the full-scale study be conducted in
the way that has been planned or should some component(s) be altered?”
The reporting of pilot studies must be of high quality to allow readers to interpret the results
and implications correctly. This blog will highlight some key things for readers to consider when
they are appraising a pilot study.
What are the main reasons to conduct a pilot study?

Pilot studies are conducted to evaluate the feasibility of some crucial component(s) of the full-
scale study. Typically, these can be divided into 4 main aspects:
 Process: where the feasibility of the key steps in the main study is assessed (e.g. recruitment
rate; retention levels and eligibility criteria)
 Resources: assessing problems with time and resources that may occur during the main study
(e.g. how much time the main study will take to be completed; whether use of some equipment
will be feasible or whether the form(s) of evaluation selected for the main study are as good as
possible)
 Management: problems with data management and with the team involved in the study (e.g.
whether there were problems with collecting all the data needed for future analysis; whether
the collected data are highly variable and whether data from different institutions can be
analyzed together).
2.14.1 Reasons for not conducting a pilot study

A study should not simply be labelled a ‘pilot study’ by researchers hoping to justify a small
sample size. Pilot studies should always have their objectives linked with feasibility and should
inform researchers about the best way to conduct the future, full- scale project.
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How to interpret a pilot study
Readers must interpret pilot studies carefully. Below are some key things to consider when
assessing a pilot study:
 The objectives of pilot studies must always be linked with feasibility and the crucial component
that will be tested must always be stated.
 The method section must present the criteria for success. For example: “the main study will be
feasible if the retention rate of the pilot study exceeds 90%”. Sample size may vary in pilot
studies (different articles present different sample size calculations) but the pilot study
population, from which the sample is formed, must be the same as the main study. However,
the participants in the pilot study should not be entered into the full-scale study. This is because
participants may change their later behaviour if they had previously been involved in the
research.
 The pilot study may or may not be a randomized trial (depending on the nature of the study).
If the researchers do randomize the sample in the pilot study, it is important that the process for
randomization is kept the same in the full-scale project. If the authors decide to test the
randomization feasibility through a pilot study, different kinds of randomization procedures
could be used.
 As well as the method section, the results of the pilot studies should be read carefully. Although
pilot studies often present results related to the effectiveness of the interventions, these results
should be interpreted as “potential effectiveness”. The focus in the results of pilot studies
should always be on feasibility, rather than statistical significance. However, results of the pilot
studies should nonetheless be provided with measures of variability (such as confidence
intervals), particularly as the sample size of these studies is usually relatively small, and this
might produce biased results.
After an interpretation of results, pilot studies should conclude with one of the following:
(1) The main study is not feasible;
(2) The main study is feasible, with changes to the protocol;
(3) The main study is feasible without changes to the protocol OR
(4) The main study is feasible with close monitoring.
Any recommended changes to the protocol should be clearly outlined. Take home
message
 A pilot study must provide information about whether a full-scale study is feasible and list
any recommended amendments to the design of the future study.
2.14.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Pilot Survey
 Establishes the validity of research based upon the expert knowledge of other researchers in
the discipline, therefore preventing falsified work from being accepted within an area of
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study.
 Provides valuable feedback so that researchers can revise and improve their papers before
publication.
 Enables journal editors to select the most important research findings for publication in their
journals, based upon the objective, independent reviews of an expert group.
 The process of peer review is understood and accepted by the majority of researchers.
Disadvantages include:
 It can cause lengthy delays in the dissemination of research findings.

 It is a time consuming process which places considerable demands on the academic
community. There has been extensive debate as to how effective the peer review process
really is in detecting errors in academic papers.
 It may be difficult to protect the anonymity of referees in very specialized research fields
where there may be only a small number of experts.
 It is sometimes accused of protecting established opinions and not being open to genuinely
new ideas.
 Ultimately it may not prevent the publication of poor research as review standards may be
lower in less prestigious journals.
Suggested Questions
1. Briefly outline research process.
2. Highlight the different research approaches.
3. Discuss the qualities of a researcher.
4. Explain the different types of research.
5. What is a research problem?
6. Outline the features of research design.
7. Discuss the features of a good research design.
8. Describe the different types of research design.
9. Explain the significance of research design.
10. What is a case study?
11. Discuss the criteria for evaluating case study.
12. Define hypothesis.
13. What are the characteristic features of a hypothesis?
14. Distinguish between null and alternative hypothesis.
15. Differentiate type i error and type ii error.
16. How is a hypothesis tested?
Define the concept of sampling design.
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UNIT 3
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Sampling
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include simple random
sampling or systematic sampling.
In business, a CPA performing an audit uses sampling to determine the accuracy of account
balances in the financial statements, and managers use sampling to assess the success of the
firm’s marketing efforts.
BREAKING DOWN Sampling

The sample should be a representation of the entire population. When taking a sample from a
larger population, it is important to consider how the sample is chosen. To get a representative
sample, the sample must be drawn randomly and encompass the whole population. For
example, a lottery system cold be used to determine the average age of students in a university
by sampling 10% of the student body.
Sample Design
A sample design is made up of two elements.
 Sampling method. Sampling method refers to the rules and procedures by which some
elements of the population are included in the sample. Some common sampling methods are
simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
 Estimator. The estimation process for calculating sample statistics is called the estimator.
Different sampling methods may use different estimators. For example, the formula for
computing a mean score with a simple random sample is different from the formula for
computing a mean score with a stratified sample. Similarly, the formula for the standard error
may vary from one sampling method to the next.
Sample Survey
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population
(Kothari, 1988). Sample constitutes a certain portion of the population or universe. Sampling
design refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for the
sample from the population or universe. A sample design helps to decide the number of items
to be included in the sample, i.e., the size of the sample. The sample design should be
determined prior to data collection. There are different kinds of sample designs which a
researcher can choose. Some of them are relatively more precise and easier to adopt than the
others. A researcher should prepare or select a sample design, which must be reliable and
suitable for the research study proposed to be undertaken.
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Steps in Sampling Design:
A researcher should take into consideration the following aspects while developing a
sample design:
1) Type of Universe:
The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly define the number of
cases, technically known as the universe. A universe may be finite or infinite. In a finite universe
the number of items is certain, whereas in the case of an infinite universe the number of items
is infinite (i.e., there is no idea about the total number of items). For example, while the
population of a city or the number of workers in a factory comprise finite universes, the number
of stars in the sky, or throwing of a dice represent infinite universe.
2) Sampling Unit:
Prior to selecting a sample, decision has to be made about the sampling unit. A sampling
unit may be a geographical area like a state, district, village, etc., or a social unit like a family,
religious community, school, etc., or it may also be an individual. At times, the researcher
would have to choose one or more of such units for his/her study.
3) Source List:
Source list is also known as the ‘sampling frame’, from which the sample is to be
selected. The source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The researcher has to
prepare a source list when it is not available. The source list must be reliable, comprehensive,
correct, and appropriate. It is important that the source list should be as representative of the
population as possible.
4) Size of Sample:
Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe to form
a sample. For a researcher, this constitutes a major problem. The size of sample must be
optimum. An optimum sample may be defined as the one that satisfies the requirements of
representativeness, flexibility, efficiency, and reliability. While deciding the size of sample, a
researcher should determine the desired precision and the acceptable confidence level for the
estimate. The size of the population variance should be considered, because in the case of a
larger variance generally a larger sample is required. The size of the population should be
considered, as it also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
should also be considered, while deciding the sample size. Besides, costs or budgetary
constraint also plays a crucial role in deciding the sample size.
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(A) Parameters of Interest:
The specific population parameters of interest should also be considered while determining the
sample design. For example, the researcher may want to make an estimate of the proportion of
persons with certain characteristic in the population, or may be interested in knowing some
average regarding the population. The population may also consist of important sub-groups
about whom the researcher would like to make estimates. All such factors have strong impact
on the sample design the researcher selects.
(B) Budgetary C on s tr ai nt :
From the practical point of view, cost considerations exercise a major influence on the
decisions related to not only the sample size, but also on the type of sample selected. Thus,
budgetary constraint could also lead to the adoption of a non- probability sample design.
(c) Sampling Procedure:
Finally, the researcher should decide the type of sample or the technique to be adopted for
selecting the items for a sample. This technique or procedure itself may represent the sample
design. There are different sample designs from which a researcher should select one for
his/her study. It is clear that the researcher should select that design which, for a given sample
size and budget constraint, involves a smaller error.
Criteria for Selecting A Sampling Procedure:
Basically, two costs are involved in a sampling analysis, which govern the selection of a
sampling procedure. They are:
1) The cost of data collection, and

2) The cost of drawing incorrect inference from the selected data.
There are two causes of incorrect inferences, namely systematic bias and sampling error.
Systematic bias arises out of errors in the sampling procedure. They cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. Utmost, the causes of these errors can be identified
and corrected. Generally, a systematic bias arises out of one or more of the
following factors:
a. Inappropriate sampling frame,

b. Defective measuring device,
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c. Non-respondents,
d. Indeterminacy principle, and
e. Natural bias in the reporting of data.
Sampling error refers to the random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters. Because they occur randomly and likely to be equally in either
direction, they are of compensatory type, the expected value of which errors tend to be equal
to zero. Sampling error tends to decrease with the increase in the size of the sample. It also
becomes smaller in magnitude when the population is homogenous.
Sampling error can be computed for a given sample size and design. The measurement of
sampling error is known as ‘precision of the sampling plan’. When the sample size is increased,
the precision can be improved. However, increasing the sample size has its own limitations.
The large sized sample not only increases the cost of data collection, but also increases the
systematic bias. Thus, an effective way of increasing the precision is generally to choose a
better sampling design, which has smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a specified
cost. In practice, however, researchers generally prefer a less precise design owing to the ease
in adopting the same, in addition to the fact that systematic bias can be controlled better way
in such designs.
In sum, while selecting the sample, a researcher should ensure that the procedure adopted
involves a relatively smaller sampling error and helps to control systematic bias.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
In a field study due to time and cost involved, generally, only a section of the population is
studied. These respondents are known as the sample and are representative of the general
population or universe. A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
Following are the characteristics of good sample design:
1. Sample design should be a representative sample: A researcher selects a relatively small

number for a sample from an entire population. This sample needs to closely match all the
characteristics of the entire population. If the sample used in an experiment is a representative
sample then it will help generalize the results from a small group to large universe being
studied.
2. Sample design should have small sampling error: Sampling error is the error caused by
taking a small sample instead of the whole population for study. Sampling error refers to the
discrepancy that may result from judging all on the basis of a small number. Sampling error is
reduced by selecting a large sample and by using efficient sample design and estimation
strategies.
3. Sample design should be economically viable: Studies have a limited budget called the
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research budget. The sampling should be done in such a way that it is within the research budget
and not too expensive to be replicated.
4. Sample design should have marginal systematic bias: Systematic bias results from errors
in the sampling procedures which cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample
size. The best bet for researchers is to detect the causes and correct them.
5. Results obtained from the sample should be generalized and applicable to the whole
universe: The sampling design should be created keeping in mind that samples that it covers
the whole universe of the study and is not limited to a part.
Different Types of Sample Designs:
Sample designs may be classified into different categories based on two factors, namely, the
representation basis and the element selection technique. Under the representation basis, the
sample may be classified as:
I. Non-probability sampling
II. Probability sampling
While probability sampling is based on random selection, the non- probability sampling is
based on ‘non-random’ selection of samples.
I. Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling is the sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population would have an equal chance of being
included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling,
judgment sampling and purposive sampling. Under this type of sampling, the items for the
sample are deliberately chosen by the researcher; and his/her choice concerning the choice of
items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the researchers select
a particular unit of the universe for forming a sample on the basis that the small number that is
thus selected out of a huge one would be typical or representative of the whole population.
For example, to study the economic conditions of people living in a state, a few towns or
village may be purposively selected for an intensive study based on the principle that they are
representative of the entire state. In such a case, the judgment of the researcher of the study
assumes prime importance in this sampling des ig n .
Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under this sampling,

the researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with certain restrictions
imposed on how they should be selected. This type of sampling is very convenient and is
relatively less expensive. However, the samples selected using this method certainly do not
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satisfy the characteristics of random samples. They are essentially judgment samples and
inferences drawn based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
II. Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as ‘choice sampling’ or ‘random sampling’. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of being included in the
sample. In a way, it is a lottery method under which individual units are selected from the
whole group, not deliberately, but by using some mechanical process. Therefore, only chance
would determine whether an item or the other would be included in the sample or not. The
results obtained from probability or random sampling would be assured in terms of probability.
That is, the researcher can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results
obtained from the random sample. This is the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling satisfies the law of statistical regularity,
according to which if on an average the sample chosen is random, then it would have the same
composition and characteristics of the universe. This is the reason why the random sampling
method is considered the best technique of choosing a representative sample.
The following are the implications of the random sampling:
i. it provides each element in the population an equal probable chance of being chosen in the
sample, with all choices being independent of one another and
ii. it offers each possible sample combination an equal probable opportunity of being selected.
Method of Selecting A Random Sample:
The process of selecting a random sample involves writing the name of each element of a finite
population on a slip of paper and putting them into a box or a bag. Then they have to be
thoroughly mixed and then the required number of slips for the sample can be picked one after
the other without replacement. While doing this, it has to be ensured that in successive drawings
each of the remaining elements of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This
method results in the same probability for each possible sample.
Complex Random Sampling Designs:
Under restricted sampling technique, the probability sampling may result in complex random
sampling designs. Such designs are known as mixed sampling designs. Many of such designs
may represent a combination of non-probability and probability sampling procedures in
choosing a sample.
Some of the prominent complex random sampling designs are as follows:
(i) Systematic Sampling:

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In some cases, the best way of sampling is to select every first item on a list. Sampling of this
kind is called as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced in this type of
sampling by using random numbers to select the unit with which to start. For example, if a
10 per cent sample is required out of 100 items, the first item would be selected randomly from
the first low of item and thereafter every 10th item. In this kind of sampling, only the first unit
is selected randomly, while rest of the units of the sample is chosen at fixed intervals.
(ii) Stratified Sampling:
When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative
sample. Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in such
a manner that they are individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total population.
Then, items are selected from each stratum to form a sample. As each stratum is more
homogeneous than the remaining total population, the researcher is able to obtain a more
precise estimate for each stratum and by estimating each of the component parts more
accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of the whole. In sum, stratified sampling
method yields more reliable and detailed information.
(iii) Cluster Sampling
When the total area of research interest is large, a convenient way in which a sample can be
selected is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then randomly
selecting a number of such smaller areas. In the process, the ultimate sample would consist of
all the units in these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling, the total population is
sub-divided into numerous relatively smaller subdivisions, which in themselves constitute
clusters of still smaller units. And then, some of such clusters are randomly chosen for inclusion
in the overall sample.
(iv) Area Sampling:
When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is termed
as area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of units based
on geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The merits and
demerits of cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.
(v) Multi-Stage Sampling:
A further development of the principle of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling. When the
researcher desires to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and a
sample of few banks is required for this purpose, the first stage would be to select large primary
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sampling unit like the states in the country. Next, certain districts may be selected and all banks
interviewed in the chosen districts. This represents a two-stage sampling design, with the
ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts.
On the other hand, if instead of taking census of all banks within the selected districts, the
researcher chooses certain towns and interviews all banks in it, this would represent three-
stage sampling design. Again, if instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
towns, the researcher randomly selects sample banks from each selected town, then it
represents a case of using a four-stage sampling plan. Thus, if the researcher selects randomly
at all stages, then it is called as multi-stage random sampling design.
(vi) Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size:
When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same
number of elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process, where
the probability of inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to the size of
the cluster. For this, the number of elements in each cluster has to be listed, irrespective of the
method used for ordering it. Then the researcher should systematically pick the required
number of elements from the cumulative totals. The actual numbers thus chosen would not
however reflect the individual elements, but would indicate as to which cluster and how many
from them are to be chosen by using simple random sampling or systematic sampling. The
outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple random sample. The method is also
less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive.
Thus, a researcher has to pass through various stages of conducting research once the problem
of interest has been selected. Research methodology familiarizes a researcher with the complex
scientific methods of conducting research, which yield reliable results that are useful to policy-
makers, government, industries etc. in decision- making.
Data Collection Methods
It is important for a researcher to know the sources of data which he requires for different
purposes. Data are nothing but the information. There are two sources of information or data
they are - Primary and Secondary data. The data are name after the source. Primary data refers
to the data collected for the first time, whereas secondary data refers to the data that have
already been collected and used earlier by somebody or some agency. For example, the
statistics collected by the Government of India relating to the population is primary data for
the Government of India since it has been collected for the first time. Later when the same data
are used by a researcher for his study of a particular problem, then the same data become the
secondary data for the researcher. Both the sources of information have their merits and
demerits. The selection of a particular source depends upon the (a) purpose and scope of
enquiry, (b) availability of time, (c) availability of finance, (d) accuracy required, (e) statistical
77
tools to be used, (f) sources of information (data), and (g) method of data collection.
(a) Purpose And Scope Of Enquiry:
The purpose and scope of data collection or survey should be clearly set out at the very
beginning. It requires the clear statement of the problem indicating the type of information
which is needed and the use for which it is needed. If for example, the researcher is interested
in knowing the nature of price change over a period of time, it would be necessary to collect
data of commodity prices. It must be decided whether it would be helpful to study wholesale
or retail prices and the possible uses to which such information could be put. The objective of
an enquiry may be either to collect specific information relating to a problem or adequate data
to test a hypothesis. Failure to set out clearly the purpose of enquiry is bound to lead to
confusion and waste of resources.
After the purpose of enquiry has been clearly defined, the next step is to decide about the scope
of the enquiry. Scope of the enquiry means the coverage with regard to the type of information,
the subject-matter and geographical area. For instance, an enquiry may relate to India as a
whole or a state or an industrial town wherein a particular problem related to a particular
industry can be studied.
(b) Availability of Time:
The investigation should be carried out within a reasonable period of time, failing which the
information collected may become outdated, and would have no meaning at all. For instance,
if a producer wants to know the expected demand for a product newly launched by him and
the result of the enquiry that the demand would be meager takes two years to reach him, then
the whole purpose of enquiry would become useless because by that time he would have
already incurred a huge loss. Thus, in this respect the information is quickly required and hence
the researcher has to choose the type of enquiry accordingly.
(c) Availability of Resources:
The investigation will greatly depend on the resources available like number of skilled
personnel, the financial position etc. If the number of skilled personnel who will carry out the
enquiry is quite sufficient and the availability of funds is not a problem, then enquiry can be
conducted over a big area covering a good number of samples, otherwise a small sample size
will do.
(d) The Degree Of Accuracy Desired:

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Deciding the degree of accuracy required is a must for the investigator, because absolute
accuracy in statistical work is seldom achieved. This is so because (i) statistics are based on
estimates, (ii) tools of measurement are not always perfect and (iii) there may be unintentional
bias on the part of the investigator, enumerator or informant. Therefore, a desire of 100%
accuracy is bound to remain unfulfilled. Degree of accuracy desired primarily depends upon the
object of enquiry. For example, when we buy gold, even a difference of 1/10 th gram in its
weight is significant, whereas the same will not be the case when we buy rice or wheat.
However, the researcher must aim at attaining a higher degree of accuracy, otherwise the whole
purpose of research would become meaningless.
(e) Statistical Tools toBe Used:
A well-defined and identifiable object or a group of objects with which the measurements or
counts in any statistical investigation are associated is called a statistical unit. For example, in
socio-economic survey the unit may be an individual, a family, a household or a block of
locality. A very important step before the collection of data begins is to define clearly the
statistical units on which the data are to be collected. In number of situations the units are
conventionally fixed like the physical units of measurement, such as meters, kilometers,
quintals, hours, days, weeks etc., which are well defined and do not need any elaboration or
explanation. However, in many statistical investigations, particularly relating to socio-
economic studies, arbitrary units are used which must be clearly defined. This is a must because
in the absence of a clear cut and precise definition of the statistical units, serious errors in the
data collection may be committed in the sense that we may collect irrelevant data on the items,
which should have, in fact, been excluded and omit data on certain items which should have
been included. This will ultimately lead to fallacious conclusions.
(f) Sources of Information (Data):
After deciding about the unit, a researcher has to decide about the source from which the
information can be obtained or collected. For any statistical inquiry, the investigator may
collect the data first hand or he may use the data from other published sources, such as
publications of the government/semi-government organizations or journals and magazines etc.
(g) Method of Data Collection:
There is no problem if secondary data are used for research. However, if primary data are to be
collected, a decision has to be taken whether (i) census method or (ii) sampling technique is to
be used for data collection. In census method, we go for total enumeration i.e., all the units of
a universe have to be investigated. But in sampling technique, we inspect or study only a
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selected representative and adequate fraction of the population and after analyzing the results
of the sample data we draw conclusions about the characteristics of the population. Selection
of a particular technique becomes difficult because where population or census method is
more scientific and 100% accuracy can be attained through this method, choosing this becomes
difficult because it is time taking, it requires more labor and it is very expensive. Therefore,
for a single researcher or for a small institution it proves to be unsuitable. On the other hand,
sample method is less time taking, less laborious and less expensive but a 100% accuracy
cannot be attained through this method because of sampling and non-sampling errors attached
to this method. Hence, a researcher has to be very cautious and careful while choosing a
particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.

2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.
1. Direct Personal Interviews:
A face to face contact is made with the informants (persons from whom the information is to
be obtained) under this method of collecting data. The interviewer asks them questions
pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. Thus, if a person wants to collect
data about the working conditions of the workers of the Tata Iron and Steel Company,
Jamshedpur, he would go to the factory, contact the workers and obtain the desired information.
The information collected in this manner is first hand and also original in character. There are
many merits and demerits of this method, which are discussed as under:
Merits:
1. Most often respondents are happy to pass on the information required from them when
contacted personally and thus response is encouraging.
2. The information collected through this method is normally more accurate because interviewer
can clear doubts of the informants about certain questions and thus obtain correct information.
In case the interviewer apprehends that the informant is not giving accurate information, he
may cross-examine him and thereby try to obtain the information.
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3. This method also provides the scope for getting supplementary information from the informant,
because while interviewing it is possible to ask some supplementary questions which may be
of greater use later.
4. There might be some questions which the interviewer would find difficult to ask directly, but
with some tactfulness, he can mingle such questions with others and get the desired information.
He can twist the questions keeping in mind the informant’s reaction. Precisely, a delicate situation can
usually he handled more effectively by apersonal interview than by other survey techniques.
5. The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and educational level of
the person interviewed, and thereby can avoid inconvenience and misinterpretation on the
part of the informant.
Demerits:
1. This method can prove to be expensive if the number of informants is large and the area is
widely spread.
2. There is a greater chance of personal bias and prejudice under this method as compared to other
methods.
3. The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and experienced; otherwise they may not be
able to obtain the desired information. Untrained or poorly trained interviewers may spoil the
entire work.
4. This method is more time taking as compared to others. This is because interviews can be held
only at the convenience of the informants. Thus, if information is to be obtained from the
working members of households, interviews will have to be held in the evening or on week
end. Even during evening only an hour or two can be used for interviews and hence, the work
may have to be continued for a long time, or a large number of people may have to be employed
which may involve huge expenses.
Conclusion:
Though there are some demerits in this method of data collection still we cannot say that it is
not useful. The matter of fact is that this method is suitable for intensive rather than extensive
field surveys. Hence, it should be used only in those cases where intensive study of a limited
field is desired.
In the present time of extreme advancement in the communication system, the investigator
instead of going personally and conducting a face to face interview may also obtain information
over telephone. A good number of surveys are being conducted every day by newspapers and
television channels by sending the reply either by e-mail or SMS. This method has become
very popular nowadays as it is less expensive and the response is extremely quick. But this
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method suffers from some serious defects, such as (a) those who own a phone or a television
only can be approached by this method, (b) only few questions can be asked over phone or
through television, (c) the respondents may give a vague and reckless answers because answers
on phone or through SMS would have to be very short.
Indirect Oral Interviews:
Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally called
‘witnesses’ who are capable of supplying necessary information. This method is generally
adopted when the information to be obtained is of a complex nature and informants are not
inclined to respond if approached directly. For example, when the researcher is trying to
obtain data on drug addiction or the habit of taking liquor, there is high probability that the
addicted person will not provide the desired data and hence will disturb the whole research
process. In this situation taking the help of such persons or agencies or the neighbours who
know them well becomes necessary. Since these people know the person well, they can provide
the desired data. Enquiry Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government
generally adopt this method to get people’s views and all possible details of the facts related to
the enquiry.
Though this method is very popular, its correctness depends upon a number of factors such as
1. The person or persons or agency whose help is solicited must be of proven integrity; otherwise
any bias or prejudice on their part will not bring out the correct information and the whole
process of research will becomeuseless.
2. The ability of the interviewers to draw information from witnesses by means of appropriate
questions and cross-examination.
3. It might happen that because of bribery, nepotism or certain other reasons those who are
collecting the information give it such a twist that correct conclusions are not arrived at.
Therefore, for the success of this method it is necessary that the evidence of one person alone
is not relied upon. Views from other persons and related agencies should also be ascertained
to find the real position
.Utmost care must be exercised in the selection of these persons because it is on their views
that the final conclusions are reached.
Information from Correspondents:
The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places to collect

information under this method. These correspondents collect and transmit the information to
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the central office where data are processed. This method is generally adopted by news paper
agencies. Correspondents who are posted at different places supply information relating to
such events as accidents, riots, strikes, etc., to the head office. The correspondents are generally
paid staff or sometimes they may be honorary correspondents also. This method is also adopted
generally by the government departments in such cases where regular information is to be
collected from a wide area. For example, in the construction of a wholesale price index
numbers regular information is obtained from correspondents appointed in different areas. The
biggest advantage of this method is that, it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation.
But a word of caution is that it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal
prejudice and bias of the correspondents. As stated earlier, this method is suitable and adopted
in those cases where the information is to be obtained at regular intervals from a wide area.
Mailed Questionnaire Method:
Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known as
‘Questionnaire’ is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. Sometimes the
researcher himself too contacts the respondents and gets the responses related to various
questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for
answers. A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and send it back within a specified time. The questionnaire studies can be
classified on the basis of:
i. The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured.

ii. The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire and
iii. The communication method used.
When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their questioning to each interview
as it progresses. They might even try to elicit responses by indirect methods, such as showing
pictures on which the respondent comments. When a researcher follows a prescribed sequence
of questions, it is referred to as structured study. On the other hand, when
no prescribed sequence of questions exists, the study is non-structured.
When questionnaires are constructed in such a way that the objective is clear to the respondents
then these questionnaires are known as non- disguised; on the other hand, when the objective
is not clear, the questionnaire is a disguised one. On the basis of these two classifications, four
types of studies can be distinguished:
1. Non-disguised structured,
2. Non-disguised non-structured,
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3. Disguised structured and
4. Disguised non-structured.
There are certain merits and demerits of this method of data collection which are discussed
below:
Merits:
1. Questionnaire method of data collection can be easily adopted where the field of investigation
is very vast and the informants are spread over a wide geographical area.
2. This method is relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants respond in time.
3. This method has proved to be superior when compared to other methods like personal
interviews or telephone method. This is because when questions pertaining to personal nature
or the ones requiring reaction by the family are put forth to the informants, there is a chance
for them to be embarrassed in answering them.
Demerits:
1. This method can be adopted only where the informants are literates so that they can
understand written questions and lend the answers in writing.
2. It involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the part of informants may
be difficult to presume.
3. The information provided by the informants may not be correct and it may be difficult to
verify the accuracy.
However, by following the guidelines given below, this method can be made more effective:
The questionnaires should be made in such a manner that they do not become an undue
burden on the respondents; otherwise the respondents may not return them back.
i. Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed

ii. The sample should be large
iii. It should be adopted in such enquiries where it is expected that the respondents would return
the questionnaire because of their own interest in the enquiry.
iv. It should be preferred in such enquiries where there could be a legal compulsion to provide
the information.
Schedules Sent Through Enumerators:
Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators or

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interviewers. The enumerators contact the informants, get replies to the questions contained in
a schedule and fill them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire form. There is difference
between questionnaire and schedule. Questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent fills in him self, whereas schedule is the name
usually applied to a set of questions which are asked in a face-to face situation with another
person. This method is free from most of the limitations of the mailed questionnaire method.
Merits:
The main merits or advantages of this method are listed below:
1. It can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

2. There is very little scope of non-response as the enumerators go personally to obtain the
information.
3. The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked by
supplementary questions wherever necessary.
This method too like others is not free from defects or limitations. The main limitations are
listed below:
Demerits:
1. In comparison to other methods of collecting primary data, this method is quite costly as
enumerators are generally paid persons.
2. The success of the method depends largely upon the training imparted to the enumerators.
3. Interviewing is a very skilled work and it requires experience and training. Many
statisticians have the tendency to neglect this extremely important part of the data collecting
process and this result in bad interviews. Without good interviewing most of the information
collected may be of doubtful value.
4. Interviewing is not only a skilled work but it also requires a great degree of politeness and thus
the way the enumerators conduct the interview would affect the data collected. When questions
are asked by a number of different interviewers, it is possible that variations in the personalities
of the interviewers will cause variation in the answers obtained. This variation will not be
obvious. Hence, every effort must be made to remove as much of variation as possible due to
different interviewers.
Secondary Data:
As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have already been collected and analyzed
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by some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger, “A primary source is a publication in which the data are
published by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them. A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which was gathered by other authorities and for which others
are responsible.”
Sources of Secondary Data:
The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.
Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among
them are explained below:
(a) International Bublications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D,
I.C.A.F.E and U.N.O who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical
matters.
(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on a
number of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important publications
are: The Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Statistical Abstracts of States,
Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.
(c) Semi-Official Publications:
Semi-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats, etc.

Publish reports relating to different matters of public concern.
(d) Publications of Research Institutions:
Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R), Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc. Publish the findings of their research
programmes.
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(e) Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions
(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as the Raj
Committee’s Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee’s Report on Taxation and
Black Money, etc. Are also
important sources of secondary data.
(g) Journals and News Papers:
Journals and News Papers are very important and powerful source of secondary data. Current
and important materials on statistics and socio- economic problems can be obtained from
journals and newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly
Statistics of trade etc.
Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.
Precautions In The Use Of Secondary Data:
Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny
of such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact the user has to be extra-
cautious while using secondary data. In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that
“Secondary data should not be accepted at their face value.” The reason being that data may be
erroneous in many respects due to bias, inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of
definition, arithmetical errors etc. Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and
adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Prof. SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of
great importance. According to him, “the degree of reliability of secondary source is to be
assessed from the source, the compiler and his capacity to produce correct statistics and the
users also, for the most part, tend to accept a series particularly one issued by a government
agency at its face value without enquiring its reliability”.
Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the following
factors:
The Suitability of Data:

The investigator must satisfy himself that the data available are suitable for the purpose of
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enquiry. It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the original
enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in retail prices,
and if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
Adequacy of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether the data
are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the geographical area
covered by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available is very important
element. In the above example, if our object is to study the retail price trend of India, and if the
available data cover only the retail price trend in the state of bihar, then it would not serve the
purpose.
Reliability of Data:
The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The reliability
of data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the agency has used
proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.
It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing but a
handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become useful. Once
data have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step in a statistical
investigation is to edit the data i.e. To scrutinize the same. The chief objective of editing is to
detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a highly specialized one and
requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect may render useless the findings of
an otherwise valuable study. Editing data collected from internal records and published sources
is relatively simple but the data collected from a survey need excessive editing.
While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respectThe data should be accurate
2. The data should be consistent, and
3. The data should be homogeneous.
Data to posses the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of editing
which is discussed below:
Editing for Completeness:
while editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in all
respects. He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been furnished.
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If some questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance, the informants should
be contacted again either personally or through correspondence. Even after all the efforts it
may happen that a few questions remain unanswered. In such questions, the editor should mark
‘No answer’ in the space provided for answers and if the questions are of vital importance then
the schedule or questionnaire should be dropped.
Editing for Consistency:
At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to
questions are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he
should try to obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by
contacting, wherever possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others,
two questions in questionnaire are (a) Are you a student? (b) Which class do you study and
the reply to the first question is ‘no’ and to the latter ‘tenth’ then there is contradiction and
it should be clarified.
(a) Editing for Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the

information supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for
the editor to see that the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is due to
arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of inaccuracy is
faulty information supplied, it may be difficult to verify it and an example of this kind is
information relating to income, age etc.
(b) Editing for Homogeneity:
Homogeneity means the condition in which all the questions have been understood in the
same sense. The editor must check all the questions for uniform interpretation. For
example, as to the question of income, if some informants have given monthly income,
others annual income and still others weekly income or even daily income, no comparison
can be made. Therefore, it becomes an essential duty of the editor to checkup that the
information supplied by the various people is homogeneous and uniform.
Choice between Primary and Secondary Data:
As we have already seen, there are a lot of differences in the methods of collecting Primary
and Secondary data. Primary data which is to be collected originally involves an entire scheme
of plan starting with the definitions of various terms used, units to be employed, type of enquiry
to be conducted, extent of accuracy aimed at etc. For the collection of secondary data, a mere
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compilation of the existing data would be sufficient. A proper choice between the type of data
needed for any particular statistical investigation is to be made after taking into consideration
the nature, objective and scope of the enquiry; the time and the finances at the disposal of the
agency; the degree of precision aimed at and the status of the agency (whether government-
state or central-or private institution of an individual).
In using the secondary data, it is best to obtain the data from the primary source as far as
possible. By doing so, we would at least save ourselves from the errors of transcription which
might have inadvertently crept in the secondary source. Moreover, the primary source will also
provide us with detailed discussion about the terminology used, statistical units employed, size
of the sample and the technique of sampling (if sampling method was used), methods of data
collection and analysis of results and we can ascertain ourselves if these would suit our
purpose.
Now-a-days in a large number of statistical enquiries, secondary data are generally used
because fairly reliable published data on a large number of diverse fields are now available in
the publications of governments, private organizations and research institutions, agencies,
periodicals and magazines etc. In fact, primary data are collected only if there do not exist any
secondary data suited to the investigation under study. In some of the investigations both
primary as well as secondary data may be used.
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Unit -4
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Data Analysis
Analyzing quantitative and qualitative data is often the topic of advanced research and
evaluation methods courses. However, there are certain basics which can help to make sense
of reams of data.
Always start with your research goals
When analyzing data (whether from questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, or whatever),
always start from review of your research goals, i.e., the reason you undertook the research in
the first place. This will help you organize your data and focus your analysis. For example, if
you wanted to improve a program by identifying its strengths and weaknesses, you can organize
data into program strengths, weaknesses and suggestions to improve the program. If you wanted
to fully understand how your program works, you could organize data in the chronological
order in which customers or clients go through your program. If you are conducting a
performance improvement study, you can categorize data according to each measure associated
with each overall performance result, e.g., employee learning, productivity and results.
Basic analysis of "quantitative" information
(For information other than commentary, e.g., ratings, rankings, yes's, no's, etc.):
1. Make copies of your data and store the master copy away. Use the copy for making edits,
cutting and pasting, etc.
2. Tabulate the information, i.e., add up the number of ratings, rankings, yes's, no's for each
question.
3. For ratings and rankings, consider computing a mean, or average, for each question. For
example, "For question #1, the average ranking was 2.4". This is more meaningful than
indicating, e.g., how many respondents ranked 1, 2, or 3.
4. Consider conveying the range of answers, e.g., 20 people ranked "1", 30 ranked "2", and 20
people ranked "3".
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Basic analysis of "qualitative" information
(Respondents' verbal answers in interviews, focus groups, or written commentary on

questionnaires):
1. Read through all the data.

2. Organize comments into similar categories, e.g., concerns, suggestions, strengths, weaknesses,
similar experiences, program inputs, recommendations, outputs, outcome indicators, etc.
3. Label the categories or themes, e.g., concerns, suggestions, etc.
4. Attempt to identify patterns, or associations and causal relationships in the themes, e.g., all
people who attended programs in the evening had similar concerns, most people came from the
same geographic area, most people were in the same salary range, what processes or events
respondents experience during the program, etc.
5. Keep all commentary for several years after completion in case needed for future reference.
Interpreting information
1. Attempt to put the information in perspective, e.g., compare results to what you expected,
promised results; management or program staff; any common standards for your products or
services; original goals (especially if you're conducting a program evaluation); indications or
measures of accomplishing outcomes or results (especially if you're conducting an outcomes or
performance evaluation); description of the program's experiences, strengths, weaknesses, etc.
(especially if you're conducting a process evaluation).
2. Consider recommendations to help employees improve the program, product or service;
conclusions about program operations or meeting goals, etc.
3. Record conclusions and recommendations in a report, and associate interpretations to justify
your conclusions or recommendations.
Analyzing Data and Communicating Results
Reporting Results
1. The level and scope of content depends on to whom the report is intended, e.g., to funders /
bankers, employees, clients, customers, the public, etc.
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2. Be sure employees have a chance to carefully review and discuss the report. Translate
recommendations to action plans, including who is going to do what about the research results
and by when.
3. Funders / bankers will likely require a report that includes an executive summary (this is a
summary of conclusions and recommendations, not a listing of what sections of information
are in the report -- that's a table of contents); description of the organization and the program,
product, service, etc., under evaluation; explanation of the research goals, methods, and
analysis procedures; listing of conclusions and recommendations; and any relevant
attachments, e.g., inclusion of research questionnaires, interview guides, etc. The funder may
want the report to be delivered as a presentation, accompanied by an overview of the report.
Or, the funder may want to review the report alone.
4. Be sure to record the research plans and activities in a research plan which can be referenced
when a similar research effort is needed in the future.
Who Should Carry Out the Research?
Ideally, the organization's management decides what the research goals should be. Then a
research expert helps the organization to determine what the research methods should be, and
how the resulting data will be analyzed and reported back to the organization.
If an organization can afford any outside help at all, it should be for identifying the appropriate
research methods and how the data can be collected. The organization might find a less
expensive resource to apply the methods, e.g., conduct interviews, send out and analyze results
of questionnaires, etc.
If no outside help can be obtained, the organization can still learn a great deal by applying the
methods and analyzing results themselves. However, there is a strong chance that data about the
strengths and weaknesses of a product, service or program will not be interpreted fairly if the
data are analyzed by the people responsible for ensuring the product, service or program is a
good one. These people will be "policing" themselves. This caution is not to fault these people,
but rather to recognize the strong biases inherent in trying to objectively look at and publicly
(at least within the organization) report about their work. Therefore, if at all possible, have
someone other than the those responsible for the product, service or program to look at and
determine research results.
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Importance of Diagrammatic and Graphic Representation of Data
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Frequency Curve
Ogives Curves/cumulative frequency curves
Advantages of Diagrams and Graphs

The following are the advantages of diagrams and graphs:
 Diagram gives an alternative and elegant presentation: Diagrammatic presentations of the

data directly attract people, give delight to the eye and add to the statistics.
 Diagrams leave good visual impact: The visual impact of the diagram stresses the mind of
the people to think about the situation of the statistics.
 They facilitate comparison: It makes easy to compare the data by visualizing the fact in front
of the observer.
 Saves time: Diagrams present the set of data in such a way that their significance known
without loss of much time.
 Diagrams simplify complexity and depict the characteristics of the data in simple manner.
 Graphs reveal trend of the data series which is helpful for simple forecasting.
Frequency Histogram
 One of the more commonly used pictorials in statistics is the frequency histogram,
which in some ways is similar to a bar chart and tells how many items are in each numerical
category. For example, suppose that after a garage sale, you want to determine which items
were the most popular: the high‐priced items, the low‐priced items, and so forth. Let's say
you sold a total of 32 items for the following prices: 1, 2, 2, 2, 5, 5, 5, 5, 7, 8, 10, 10, 10, 10,
11, 15, 15, 15, 19, 20, 21, 21, 25, 25, 29, 29, 29, 30, 30, 30, 35, and 35.
The items sold ranged in price from 1 to 35. First, divide this range of 1 to 35 into a number
of categories, called class intervals. Typically, no fewer than 5 and no more than 20 class
intervals work best for a frequency histogram.
Choose the first class interval to include your lowest (smallest value) data and make sure that
no overlap exists so that one piece of data does not fall into two class intervals. For example,
you would not have your first class interval be 1 to 5 and your second class interval be 5 to 10
because the four items that sold for 5 would belong in both the first and the second intervals.
Instead, use 1 to 5 for the first interval and 6 to 10 for the second. Class intervals are mutually
exclusive.
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First, make a table of how your data is distributed (see Table 1). The number of observations
that falls into each class interval is called the class frequency.
Definition of Frequency Polygons

Statistics deals with the collection of data and information for a particular purpose. The
tabulation of each run for each ball in cricket gives the statistics of the game. Tables, graphs,
pie-charts, bar graphs, histograms, frequency
polygons etc. are used to represent statistical data
pictorially.
In the upcoming discussion let us discuss about
frequency polygons. Frequency polygons are
visually substantial method of representing
quantitative data and its frequencies.
To draw frequency polygons, we begin with, drawing
histograms and follow the following steps:
 Choose the class interval and mark the values on
the horizontal axes
 Mark the mid value of each interval on the
horizontal axes.
 Mark the frequency of the class on the vertical
axes.
 Corresponding to the frequency of each class interval, mark a point at the height in the middle
of the class interval
 Connect these points using line segment.
 The obtained representation is a frequency polygon.
Let us consider an example to understand frequency polygons better.
Example 1: In a batch of 400 students, the height of students is given in the following table.
Represent it through a frequency polygon.
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Solution: Following steps are to be followed to construct a histogram from the given data:
 The heights are represented on the horizontal axes on a suitable scale as shown.
 The number of students is represented on the vertical axes on a suitable scale as shown.
 Now rectangular bars of widths equal to the class- size and the length of the bars corresponding
to frequency of the class interval is drawn.
ABCDEF represents the given data graphically in form of frequency polygon as:
Frequency polygons can also be drawn independently without drawing histograms. For this the
mid points of the class intervals known as class marks are used to plot the points.
What is frequency curve? How do we draw it?

Frequency curve is obtained by joining the points of frequency polygon by a freehand smoothed
curve. Unlike frequency polygon, where the points we joined by straight lines, we make use of
free hand joining of those points in order to get a smoothed frequency curve. It is used to
remove the ruggedness of polygon and to present it in a good form or shape. We smoothen the
angularities of the polygon only without making any basic change in the shape of the curve. In
this case also the curve begins and ends at base line, as is in case of polygon. Area under the
curve must remain almost the same as in the case of polygon.
Cumulative Frequency or Ogives
At times we are interested in knowing how many workers of a factory earn less than Rs. 700
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per month, or how many workers earn more than Rs. 1000 per month, or percentage of
students who have failed, etc.
So, it is necessary to add the frequencies, when frequencies are added. They are called
cumulative Frequency,
The curve abstained by plotting cumulative frequency is called a cumulative frequency curve
or ogives.
There are two types of ogives
(1) Less than ogives-:- we start with the upper limits of the classes and go on additing the
frequencies, where this frequencies are plotted we get a rising curve.
(2) More than ogives:- we start with the lower limits of the classes and from the frequencies, we
subtract the frequency of each class. When these frequency are plotted we get a decline curve.
An ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency
distribution. It shows how many of values of the data are below certain boundary.
Steps for constructing an ogive:
1. Draw and label the x (horizontal) and the y (vertical) axes.
2. Represent the cumulative frequencies on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
3. Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper class boundary with the height being the
corresponding cumulative frequency.
4. Connect the points with segments. Connect the first point on the left with the x axis at the
level of the lowest lower class boundary.
Note: For the ogive we need the class boundaries and the cumulative frequencies
2.6 Hypothesis
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation

for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari,
1988). A research hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being
tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and some dependent variables. For
instance, the following statements may be considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions” or,
ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus, they
indicate that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be
put to test in order to examine its validity.
2.10.1 Characteristics of Hypothesis
A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
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i. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the inferences drawn
on its basis would not be r e l i a b l e .
ii. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research programmes fail
owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity. Therefore, some prior study
may be conducted by the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A hypothesis “is
tested if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can be confirmed or disproved
by observation” (Kothari, 1988).
iii. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
iv. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler hypothesis
generally would be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore, he/she must formulate such
h yp o t heses.
v. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as to make it

understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that simplicity of a hypothesis is not
related to its s i g n i f i c a n c e .
vi. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In other words, it
should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. That is, it must be in the form
of a statement which is most likely to occur.
vii. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of time. No
matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not use it if it cannot be tested within a
given period of time, as no one can afford to spend a life-time on collecting data to test it.
viii. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for an explanation.
This is to say that by using the hypothesis, and other known and accepted generalizations, a
researcher must be able to derive the original problem condition. Therefore, a hypothesis
should explain what it actually wants to explain, and for this it should also have an empirical
reference.
2.10.2 Concepts Relating To Testing Of Hypotheses:
Testing of hypotheses requires a researcher to be familiar with various concepts concerned with
it such as:
1) Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
In the context of statistical analysis, hypotheses are of two types’ viz., null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. When two methods A and B are compared on their relative superiority,
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and it is assumed that both the methods are equally good, then such a statement is called as the
null hypothesis. On the other hand, if method A is considered relatively superior to method B,
or vice-versa, then such a statement is known as an alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis
is expressed as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is expressed as Ha. For example, if a
researcher wants to test the hypothesis that the population mean (μ) is equal to the
hypothesized mean (H0) = 100, then the null hypothesis should be stated as the population
mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100. Symbolically it may be written as:-
H0:= μ = μ H0 = 100
If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should be concluded that something
else is true. The conclusion of rejecting the null hypothesis is called as alternative hypothesis
H1. To put it in simple words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is termed as the
alternative hypothesis. If H0 is accepted, then it implies that Ha is being rejected. On the other
hand, if H0 is rejected, it means that Ha is being accepted. For H0: μ = μ H0 = 100, the following
three possible alternative hypotheses may be considered:
Alternative hypothesis To be read as follows
The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not equal to 100,
H1: μ ≠ μ H0 i.e., it could be greater than or less than 100
The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is greater than
H1 : μ > μ H0 100
The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less than
H1 : μ < μ H0
100
Before the sample is drawn, the researcher has to state the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis. While formulating the null hypothesis, the following aspects need to be considered:
A. Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which a researcher wishes to prove, whereas the null
hypothesis is the one which he/she wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis is usually the
one which a researcher tries to reject, while an alternative hypothesis is the one that represents
all other possibilities.
B. The rejection of a hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, as it indicates that it
is a null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is α (i.e., the
level of significance) which is chosen very small.
C. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or
approximately a certain v a l u e .
2) The Level of Significance
In the context of hypothesis testing, the level of significance is a very important concept. It is
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a certain percentage that should be chosen with great care, reason and insight. If for instance,
the significance level is taken at 5 per cent, then it means that H 0 would be rejected when the
sampling result has a less than 0.05 probability of occurrence when H0 is true. In other words,
the five per cent level of significance implies that the researcher is willing to take a risk of five
per cent of rejecting the null hypothesis, when (H0) is actually true. In sum, the significance
level reflects the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is actually true, and
which is usually determined prior to testing the h y p o t h e s i s .
3) Testof Hypothesisor DecisionRule
Suppose the given hypothesis is H0 and the alternative hypothesis H1, then the researcher has
to make a rule known as the decision rule. According to the decision rule, the researcher
accepts or rejects H0. For example, if the H0 is that certain students are good against the H1
that all the students are good, then the researcher should decide the number of items to be tested
and the criteria on the basis of which to accept or reject the hypothesis.
4) Type I And Type II Errors
As regards the testing of hypotheses, a researcher can make basically two types of errors.
He/she may reject H0 when it is true, or accept H0 when it is not true. The former is called as
Type I error and the latter is known as Type II error. In other words, Type I error implies the
rejection of a hypothesis when it must have been accepted, while Type II error implies the
acceptance of a hypothesis which must have been rejected. Type I error is denoted by α (alpha)
and is known as α error, while Type II error is usually denoted by β (beta) and is known as β
e r r o r.
5) One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests
These two types of tests are very important in the context of hypothesis testing. A two-tailed
test rejects the null hypothesis, when the sample mean is significantly greater or lower than the
hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is suitable when the null
hypothesis is some specified value, the alternative hypothesis is a value that is not equal to
the specified value of the null hypothesis.
2.10.3 Procedure of Hypothesis Testing
Testing a hypothesis refers to verifying whether the hypothesis is valid or not. Hypothesis
testing attempts to check whether to accept or not to accept the null hypothesis. The procedure
of hypothesis testing includes all the steps that a researcher undertakes for making a choice
between the two alternative actions of rejecting or accepting a null hypothesis. The various
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steps involved in hypothesis testing are as follows:
1) Makinga Formal Statement:
This step involves making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This implies that the hypotheses should be clearly stated within the purview
of the research problem. For example, suppose a school teacher wants to test the understanding
capacity of the students which must be rated more than 90 per cent in terms of marks, the
hypotheses may be stated as follows:
Null Hypothesis H0 : = 100 Alternative Hypothesis H1: > 100

2) Selecting a Significance Level
The hypotheses should be tested on a pre-determined level of significance, which should be

specified. Usually, either 5% level or 1% level is considered for the purpose. The factors that
determine the levels of significance are: (a) the magnitude of difference between the sample
means; (b) the sample size: (c) the variability of measurements within samples; and (d) whether
the hypothesis is directional or non- directional (Kothari, 1988). In sum, the level of
significance should be sufficient in the context of the nature and purpose of enquiry.
3) Deciding the Distribution to Use
After making decision on the level of significance for hypothesis testing, the researcher
has to next determine the appropriate sampling distribution. Thechoice to bemade
generally relates to normal distribution and the t-distribution. The rules governing the
selection of the correct distribution are similar to the ones already discussed with respect
to estimation.
4) Selection of a Random Sample and Computing an Appropriate Value
Another step involved in hypothesis testing is the selection of a random sample and then
computing a suitable value from the sample data relating to test statistic by using the
appropriate distribution. In other words, it involves drawing a sample for furnishing empirical
data.
5) Calculation of the Probability
The next step for the researcher is to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as far as it can from expectations, under the situation when the null hypothesis is
actually true.
6) Comparing the Probability
Another step involved consists of making a comparison of the probability calculated with the
specified value of α, i.e. the significance level. If the calculated probability works out to be
equal to or smaller than the α value in case of one-tailed test, then the null hypothesis is to be
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rejected. On the other hand, if the calculated probability is greater, then the null hypothesis is
to be accepted. In case the null hypothesis H0 is rejected, the researcher runs the risk of
committing the Type I error. But, if the null hypothesis H0 is accepted, then it involves some
risk (which cannot be specified in size as long as H0 is vague and not specific) of committing
the Type II error.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Analyzing quantitative and qualitative data is often the topic of advanced research and
evaluation methods courses. However, there are certain basics which can help to make sense
of reams of data.
Always start with your research goals
When analyzing data (whether from questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, or whatever),
always start from review of your research goals, i.e., the reason you undertook the research in
the first place. This will help you organize your data and focus your analysis. For example, if
you wanted to improve a program by identifying its strengths and weaknesses, you can organize
data into program strengths, weaknesses and suggestions to improve the program. If you wanted
to fully understand how your program works, you could organize data in the chronological
order in which customers or clients go through your program. If you are conducting a
performance improvement study, you can categorize data according to each measure associated
with each overall performance result, e.g., employee learning, productivity and results.
Basic analysis of "quantitative" information
(For information other than commentary, e.g., ratings, rankings, yes's, no's, etc.):
1. Make copies of your data and store the master copy away. Use the copy for making edits,
cutting and pasting, etc.
2. Tabulate the information, i.e., add up the number of ratings, rankings, yes's, no's for each
question.
3. For ratings and rankings, consider computing a mean, or average, for each question. For
example, "For question #1, the average ranking was 2.4". This is more meaningful than
indicating, e.g., how many respondents ranked 1, 2, or 3.
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4. Consider conveying the range of answers, e.g., 20 people ranked "1", 30 ranked "2", and 20
people ranked "3".
Basic analysis of "qualitative" information
(Respondents' verbal answers in interviews, focus groups, or written commentary on

questionnaires):
1. Read through all the data.

2. Organize comments into similar categories, e.g., concerns, suggestions, strengths, weaknesses,
similar experiences, program inputs, recommendations, outputs, outcome indicators, etc.
3. Label the categories or themes, e.g., concerns, suggestions, etc.
4. Attempt to identify patterns, or associations and causal relationships in the themes, e.g., all
people who attended programs in the evening had similar concerns, most people came from the
same geographic area, most people were in the same salary range, what processes or events
respondents experience during the program, etc.
5. Keep all commentary for several years after completion in case needed for future reference.
Interpreting information
1. Attempt to put the information in perspective, e.g., compare results to what you expected,
promised results; management or program staff; any common standards for your products or
services; original goals (especially if you're conducting a program evaluation); indications or
measures of accomplishing outcomes or results (especially if you're conducting an outcomes or
performance evaluation); description of the program's experiences, strengths, weaknesses, etc.
(especially if you're conducting a process evaluation).
2. Consider recommendations to help employees improve the program, product or service;
conclusions about program operations or meeting goals, etc.
3. Record conclusions and recommendations in a report, and associate interpretations to justify
your conclusions or recommendations.
Analyzing Data and Communicating Results
Reporting Results
1. The level and scope of content depends on to whom the report is intended, e.g., to funders /
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bankers, employees, clients, customers, the public, etc.
2. Be sure employees have a chance to carefully review and discuss the report. Translate
recommendations to action plans, including who is going to do what about the research results
and by when.
3. Funders / bankers will likely require a report that includes an executive summary (this is a
summary of conclusions and recommendations, not a listing of what sections of information
are in the report -- that's a table of contents); description of the organization and the program,
product, service, etc., under evaluation; explanation of the research goals, methods, and
analysis procedures; listing of conclusions and recommendations; and any relevant
attachments, e.g., inclusion of research questionnaires, interview guides, etc. The funder may
want the report to be delivered as a presentation, accompanied by an overview of the report.
Or, the funder may want to review the report alone.
4. Be sure to record the research plans and activities in a research plan which can be referenced
when a similar research effort is needed in the future.
Who Should Carry Out the Research?
Ideally, the organization's management decides what the research goals should be. Then a
research expert helps the organization to determine what the research methods should be, and
how the resulting data will be analyzed and reported back to the organization.
If an organization can afford any outside help at all, it should be for identifying the appropriate
research methods and how the data can be collected. The organization might find a less
expensive resource to apply the methods, e.g., conduct interviews, send out and analyze results
of questionnaires, etc.
If no outside help can be obtained, the organization can still learn a great deal by applying the
methods and analyzing results themselves. However, there is a strong chance that data about the
strengths and weaknesses of a product, service or program will not be interpreted fairly if the
data are analyzed by the people responsible for ensuring the product, service or program is a
good one. These people will be "policing" themselves. This caution is not to fault these people,
but rather to recognize the strong biases inherent in trying to objectively look at and publicly
(at least within the organization) report about their work. Therefore, if at all possible, have
someone other than the those responsible for the product, service or program to look at and
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determine research results.
Contents of a Research Report -- An Example
Ensure your research plan is documented so that you can regularly and efficiently carry out
your research activities. In your plan, record enough information so that someone outside of
the organization can understand what you're researching and how. For example, consider the
following format:
1. Title Page (name of the organization that is being,

or has a product/service/program that is being researched;
date)
2. Table of Contents
3. Executive Summary (one-page, concise overview of
findings and recommendations)
4. Purpose of the Report (what type of research was conducted, what decisions are being aided
by the findings of the research, who is making the decision, etc.)
5. Background About Organization and Product/Service/Program that is being researched
1. Organization Description/History
2. Product/Service/Program Description (that is being researched)
1. Problem Statement (in the case of nonprofits, description of the community need that is being
met by the product/service/program)
2. Overall Goal(s) of Product/Service/Program
3. Outcomes (or client/customer impacts) and Performance Measures (that can be measured as
indicators toward the outcomes)
4. Activities/Technologies of the Product/Service/Program (general description of how the

product/service/program is developed and delivered)
5. Staffing (description of the number of personnel and roles in the organization that are relevant
to developing and delivering the product/service/program)
6. Overall Evaluation Goals (eg, what questions are being answered by the research)
7. Methodology
1. Types of data/information that were collected
2. How data/information were collected (what instruments were used, etc?)
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3. How data/information were analyzed
4. Limitations of the evaluation (eg, cautions about findings/conclusions and how to use the
findings/conclusions, etc.)
8. Interpretations and Conclusions (from analysis of the data/information)
9. Recommendations (regarding the decisions that must be made
about the product/service/program)
10. Appendices: content of the appendices depends on the goals of the research report, eg.
1. Instruments used to collect data/information
2. Data, eg, in tabular format, etc.
3. Testimonials, comments made by users of the product/service/program
4. Case studies of users of the product/service/program
5. Any related literature
Some Pitfalls to Avoid
1. Don't balk at research because it seems far too "scientific." It's not. Usually the first 20% of
effort will generate the first 80% of the plan, and this is far better than nothing.
2. There is no "perfect" research design. Don't worry about the research design being perfect. It's
far more important to do something than to wait until every last detail has been tested.
3. Work hard to include some interviews in your research methods. Questionnaires don't capture
"the story," and the story is usually the most powerful depiction of the benefits of your products,
services, programs, etc.
4. Don't interview just the successes. You'll learn a great deal by understanding its failures,
dropouts, etc.
5. Don't throw away research results once a report has been generated. Results don't take up much
room, and they can provide precious information later when trying to understand changes in
the product, service or program.
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UNIT 5
108
Contents of a Research Report -- An Example
Ensure your research plan is documented so that you can regularly and efficiently carry out
your research activities. In your plan, record enough information so that someone outside of
the organization can understand what you're researching and how. For example, consider the
following format:
1. Title Page (name of the organization that is being, or has a product/service/program that is
being researched; date)
2. Table of Contents
3. Executive Summary (one-page, concise overview of findings and recommendations)
4. Purpose of the Report (what type of research was conducted, what decisions are being aided by
the findings of the research, who is making the decision, etc.)
5. Background About Organization and Product/Service/Program that is being researched
1. Organization Description/History
2. Product/Service/Program Description (that is being researched)
1. Problem Statement (in the case of nonprofits, description of the community need that is being
met by the product/service/program)
2. Overall Goal(s) of Product/Service/Program
3. Outcomes (or client/customer impacts) and Performance Measures (that can be measured as
indicators toward the outcomes)
4. Activities/Technologies of the Product/Service/Program (general description of how the

product/service/program is developed and delivered)
5. Staffing (description of the number of personnel and roles in the organization that are relevant
to developing and delivering the product/service/program)
6. Overall Evaluation Goals (eg, what questions are being answered by the research)
7. Methodology
1. Types of data/information that were collected
2. How data/information were collected (what instruments were used, etc?)
3. How data/information were analyzed
4. Limitations of the evaluation (eg, cautions about findings/conclusions and how to use the
findings/conclusions, etc.)
8. Interpretations and Conclusions (from analysis of the data/information)
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9. Recommendations (regarding the decisions that must be made about the
product/service/program)
10. Appendices: content of the appendices depends on the goals of the research report, eg.
1. Instruments used to collect data/information
2. Data, eg, in tabular format, etc.
3. Testimonials, comments made by users of the product/service/program
4. Case studies of users of the product/service/program
5. Any related literature
Some Pitfalls to Avoid
1. Don't balk at research because it seems far too "scientific." It's not. Usually the first 20% of
effort will generate the first 80% of the plan, and this is far better than nothing.
2. There is no "perfect" research design. Don't worry about the research design being perfect. It's
far more important to do something than to wait until every last detail has been tested.
3. Work hard to include some interviews in your research methods. Questionnaires don't capture
"the story," and the story is usually the most powerful depiction of the benefits of your products,
services, programs, etc.
4. Don't interview just the successes. You'll learn a great deal by understanding its failures,
dropouts, etc.
5. Don't throw away research results once a report has been generated. Results don't take up much
room, and they can provide precious information later when trying to understand changes in
the product, service or program.
WHAT IS A REPORT?
A report is a written document on a particular topic, which conveys information and

ideas and may also make recommendations. Reports often form the basis of crucial decision
making. Inaccurate, incomplete and poorly written reports fail to achieve their purpose and
reflect on the decision, which will ultimately be made. This will also be the case if the report
is excessively long, jargonistic and/ or structureless. A good report can be written by keeping
the following features in mind:
1. All points in the report should be clear to the intended reader.

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2. The report should be concise with information kept to a necessary minimum and arranged
logically under various headings and sub- headings.
3. All information should be correct and supported by evidence.
4. All relevant material should be included in a complete report.
Purpose of Research Report
1. Why am i writing this report? Do i want to inform/ explain/ persuade, or indeed all of these.
2. Who is going to read this report? Managers/ academicians/ researchers! What do they already
know? What do they need to know? Do any of them have certain attitudes or prejudices?
3. What resources do we have? Do i have access to a computer? Do i have enough time? Can any
of my colleagues help?
4. Think about the content of your report – what am i going to put in it? What are my main themes?
How much should be the text, and how much should be the illustrations?
Framework of A Report
The various frameworks can be used depending on the content of the report, but generally
the same rules apply. Introduction, method, results and discussion with references or
bibliography at the end, and an abstract at the beginning could form the framework.
STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
Structure your writing around the IMR&D framework and you will ensure a beginning,
middle and end to your report.
What do I put in the beginning part?
Title of project, Sub–title

TITLE PAGE (where appropriate), Date,
Author, Organization, Logo
BACKGROUND History(if any) behind project
Author thanks people and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT organization who helped
during the project
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A condensed version of a report –
outlines salient points, emphasizes
main
SUMMARY(sometimes called
conclusions and (where appropriate)
abstract of the
the main recommendations. N.B this
synopsis)
is
often difficult to write and it is
An at- a – glance list that tells the
LIST OF CONTENTS reader what is in the report
and what page number(s) to
LIST OF TABLES As above, specifically for tables.
As above, specifically
LIST OF APPENDICES
for appendices.
Author sets the scene and states
INTRODUCTION
his/ her intentions.
AIMS – general aims of the audit/
project, broad statement of intent.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVES – specific things
expected to do/deliver
What do I Put In the middle Part?
Work steps; what was done –

METHOD
how, by whom, when?
Honest presentation of the findings,
whether these were as expected or
RESULT/FINDINGS not. Give the facts, including
any
inconsistencies or difficulties
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What do I put in the end part?
Explanation of the results.( you might like to keep

the SWOT analysis in mind and think about your
project’s strengths, weakness, opportunities and
DISCUSSION
threats, as you write)
The author links the results/ findings with the

points made in the introduction and strives to
reach clear, simply stated and unbiased
conclusions. Make sure they are fully supported
CONCLUSIONS
by evidence and
arguments of the main body of
The author states what specific actions should be

taken, by whom and why. They must always be
linked to the future and should always be realistic.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Don’t make them unless asked
A section of a report, which provides full details of

publications mentioned in the
REFERENCES
text, or from which extracts
The purpose of an appendix is to supplement the
information contained in the
APPENDIX
main body of the report.
PRACTICAL REPORTS VS. ACADEMIC REPORTS
Practical Reports:
In the practical world of business or government, a report conveys an information and

(sometimes) recommendations from a researcher who has investigated a topic in detail. A
report like this will usually be requested by people who need the information for a
specific purpose and their request may be written in terms of reference or the brief.
Whatever the report, it is important to look at the instruction for what is wanted. A report
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like this differs from an essay in that it is designed to provide information which will be
acted on, rather than to be read by people interested in the ideas for their own sake. Because
of this, it has a different structure and layout.
Academic Reports:
A report written for an academic course can be thought of as a simulation. We can

imagine that someone wants the report for a practical purpose, although we are really
writing the report as an academic exercise for assessment. Theoretical ideas will be more to
the front in an academic report than in a practical one. Sometimes a report seems to serve
academic and practical purposes. Students on placement with organizations often have to
produce a report for the organization and for assessment on the course. Although the
background work for both will be related, in practice, the report the student produces for
academic assessment will be different from the report produced for the organization, because
the needs of each are different.
RESEARCH REPORT: PRELIMINARIES
It is not sensible to leave all your writing until the end. There is always the possibility that it
will take much longer than you anticipate and you will not have enough time. There could also
be pressure upon available word processors as other students try to complete their own reports.
It is wise to begin writing up some aspects of your research as you go along. Remember that
you do not have to write your report in the order it will be read. Often it is easiest to start with
the method section. Leave the introduction and the abstract to last. The use of a word processor
makes it very straightforward to modify and rearrange what you have written as your research
progresses and your ideas change. The very process of writing will help your ideas to develop.
Last but by no means least, ask someone to proofread your work.
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT
A research report has a different structure and layout in comparison to a project report. A
research report is for reference and is often quite a long document. It has to be clearly structured
for the readers to quickly find the information wanted. It needs to be planned carefully to make
sure that the information given in the report is put under correct headings.
PARTS OF RESEARCH REPORT
Cover sheet: This should contain some or all of the following: Full title of the report Name
of the researcher
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Name of the unit of which the project is a part Name of the institution
Date/year.
Title page: Full title of the report. Your name
Acknowledgement: a thanks giving to the people who helped you.
Contents
List of the Tables
Headings and sub-headings used in the report should be given with their page numbers. Each
chapter should begin on a new page. Use a consistent system in dividing the report into parts.
The simplest may be to use chapters for each major part and subdivide these into sections and
sub-sections. 1, 2, 3 etc. Can be used as the numbers for each chapter. The sections of chapter
3 (for example) would be 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and so on. For further sub-division of a sub-section you
may use 3.2.1, 3.2.2, and so on.
Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary or Introduction:
This presents an overview of the whole report. It should let the reader see in advance, what is
in the report. This includes what you set out to do, how review of literature is focused and
narrowed in your research, the relation of the methodology you chose to your objectives, a
summary of your findings and analysis of the findings
BODY
Aims and Purpose or Aims And Objectives:
Why did you do this work? What was the problem you were investigating? If you are not
including review of literature, mention the specific research/es which is/are relevant to your
work.
Review of Literature
This should help to put your research into a background context and to explain its importance.
Include only the books and articles which relate directly to your topic. You need to be analytical
and critical, and not just describe the works that you have read.
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Methodology
Methodology deals with the methods and principles used in an activity, in this case research.
In the methodology chapter, explain the method/s you used for the research and why you
thought they were the appropriate ones. You may, for example, be depending mostly upon
secondary data or you might have collected your own data. You should explain the method of
data collection, materials used, subjects interviewed, or places you visited. Give a detailed
account of how and when you carried out your research and explain why you used the particular
method/s, rather than other methods. Included in this chapter should be an examination of
ethical issues, if any.
Results or Findings
What did you find out? Give a clear presentation of your results. Show the essential data and
calculations here. You may use tables, graphs and figures.
Analysis and Discussion
Interpret your results. What do you make out of them? How do they compare with those of
others who have done research in this area? The accuracy of your measurements/results should
be discussed and deficiencies, if any, in the research design should be mentioned.
Conclusions
What do you conclude? Summarize briefly the main conclusions which you discussed under
“Results.” were you able to answer some or all of the questions which you raised in your aims
and objectives? Do not be tempted to draw conclusions which are not backed up by your
evidence. Note the deviation/s from expected results and any failure to achieve all that you had
hoped.
Recommendations
Make your recommendations, if required. The suggestions for action and further research should
be given.
Appendix
You may not need an appendix, or you may need several. If you have used questionnaires, it is
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usual to include a blank copy in the appendix. You could include data or calculations, not given
in the body, that are necessary, or useful, to get the full benefit from your report. There may be
maps, drawings, photographs or plans that you want to include. If you have used special
equipment, you may include information about it.
The plural of an appendix is appendices. If an appendix or appendices are needed, design

them thoughtfully in a way that your readers find it/them convenient to use.
References
List all the sources which you referred in the body of the report. You may use the pattern
prescribed by American Psychological Association, or any other standard pattern recognized
internationally.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the case of small projects, this may not be in the form of a critical review of the literature,
but this is often asked for and is a standard part of larger projects. Sometimes students are asked
to write Review of Literature on a topic as a piece of work in its own right. In its simplest form,
the review of literature is a list of relevant books and other sources, each followed by a
description and comment on its relevance.
The literature review should demonstrate that you have read and analysed the literature relevant
to your topic. From your readings, you may get ideas about methods of data collection and
analysis. If the review is part of a project, you will be required to relate your readings to the
issues in the project, and while describing the readings, you should apply them to your topic.
A review should include only relevant studies. The review should provide the reader with a
picture of the state of knowledge in the subject.
Your literature search should establish what previous researches have been carried out in the
subject area. Broadly speaking, there are three kinds of sources that you should consult:
1. Introductory material;
2. Journal articlesand
3. Books.
To get an idea about the background of your topic, you may consult one or more textbooks at
the appropriate time. It is a good practice to review in cumulative stages - that is, do not think
you can do it all at one go. Keep a careful record of what you have searched, how you have
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gone about it, and the exact citations and page numbers of your readings. Write notes as you
go along. Record suitable notes on everything you read and note the methods of investigations.
Make sure that you keep a full reference, complete with page numbers. You will have to find
your own balance between taking notes that are too long and detailed, and ones too brief to be
of any use. It is best to write your notes in complete sentences and paragraphs, because research
has shown that you are more likely to understand your notes later if they are written in a way
that other people would understand. Keep your notes from different sources and/or about
different points on separate index cards or on separate sheets of paper. You will do mainly
basic reading while you are trying to decide on your topic. You may scan and make notes on
the abstracts or summaries of work in the area. Then do a more thorough job of reading later
on, when you are more confident of what you are doing. If your project spans several months,
it would be advisable towards the end to check whether there are any new and recent
references.
REFERENCES
There are many methods of referencing your work; some of the most common ones are the
numbered style, american psychological association style and the harvard method, with many
other variations. Just use the one you are most familiar and comfortable with. Details of all the
works referred by you should be given in the reference section.
THE PRESENTATION OF REPORT
Well-produced, appropriate illustrations enhance the presentability of a report. With today’s

computer packages, almost anything is possible. However, histograms, bar charts and pie charts
are still the three ‘staples’. Readers like illustrated information, because it is easier to absorb
and it’s more memorable. Illustrations are useful only when they are easier to understand than
words or figures and they must be relevant to the text. Use the algorithm included to help you
decide whether or not to use an illustration. They should never be included for their own sake,
and don’t overdo it; too many illustrations distract the attention of readers.
Types Of Reports: Characteristics Of Good Research Report
Reports vary in length and type. Students’ study reports are often called term papers, project
reports, theses, dissertations depending on the nature of the report. Reports of researchers are
in the form of monographs, research papers, research thesis, etc. In business organizations a
wide variety of reports are under use: project reports, annual reports of financial statements,
report of consulting groups, project proposals etc. News items in daily papers are also one form
118
of report writing. In this lesson, let us identify different forms of reports and their major
components.
Types of reports
Reports may be categorized broadly as Technical Reports and General Reports based on the
nature of methods, terms of reference and the extent of in-depth enquiry made etc. On the basis
of usage pattern, the reports may also be classified as information oriented reports, decision
oriented reports and research based reports. Further, reports may also differ based on the
communication situation. For example, the reports may be in the form of Memo, which is
appropriate for informal situations or for short periods. On the other hand, the projects that
extend over a period of time, often call for project reports. Thus, there is no standard format of
reports. The most important thing that helps in classifying the reports is the outline of its
purpose and answers for the following questions:
What did you do?

Why did you choose the particular research method that you used?
What did you learn and what are the implications of what you learned?
If you are writing a recommendation report, what action are you recommending in
response to what you learned?
Two types of report formats are described below:
A Technical Report
A technical report mainly focuses on methods employed, assumptions made while conducting
a study, detailed presentation of findings and drawing inferences and comparisons with earlier
findings based on the type of data drawn from the empirical work.
An outline of a Technical Report mostly consists of the following: Title and nature of the study:
Brief title and the nature of work sometimes followed by subtitle indicate more appropriately
either the method or tools used. Description of objectives of the study, research design,
operational terms, working hypothesis, type of analysis and data required should be present.
119
Abstract of Findings:
A brief review of the main findings just can be made either in a paragraph or in one/two pages.
Review of current status:
A quick review of past observations and contradictions reported, applications observed and
reported are reviewed based on the in-house resources or based on published observations.
Sampling and Methods employed
Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. In the case of experimental methods, the
nature of subjects and control conditions are to be specified. In the case of sample studies, details
of the sample design i.e., sample size, sample selection etc are given.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is derived from the Latin word “Plagiarius” meaning “kidnapper”. Plagiarism means
stealing or copying another’s work and representing it as own work. On Internet, everything is
available for free. We can share, upload, download, view, or search any text, audio, and video.
Everything is there for free. The availability of anything and everything on the internet has made
our lives easier but people make misuse of this advantage of the internet by representing other’s
work as their own for fame, for academic benefits, for money, for personal interests, etc.
Plagiarism is most commonly practiced in academics and researches. On the internet, we have all
kinds of literary articles, educational content, research papers, etc available for free. This facilitates
everyone and assists them in gaining knowledge and becoming literate. Earlier when there were
no Internet people either had to visit libraries when they wanted to study or know anything or had
to purchase expensive books. But now we just type the topic in our browser and we get thousands
of search results. As a result, some people use these articles, research papers, educational content
in an adverse manner.
Plagiarism can be intentional or unintentional. We should have the knowledge of what can be
called plagiarized content and what not. Following are the key points to understand what can be
called as plagiarism:
If we use another person’s work under our name.
If we copy other’s ideas and words and don’t give them the credit.
If we download copyrighted images or music and present them as our own.
If we copy maximum words and modify them so that we can cleverly use them under our own
name.
If we use someone else’s copyrighted music or video for our own music cover or video.
If we recreate an image, video, music, article, etc in such a manner that it is quite similar to the
original one.
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Types of Plagiarism
There are several types of plagiarism. In this article, we will get to know the common ones:
Complete Plagiarism: Complete Plagiarism is the most extreme form of plagiarism. In this
plagiarism, a person completely copies someone else’s work such as a research paper, article,
image, etc, and represents it as their own work. This form of plagiarism is similar to identity theft
or stealing.
Verbatim: Verbatim is also known as direct plagiarism. When we read a book we must have
observed that if any statement that a famous person has made is always represented in double
quotations and is highlighted so that we get to know that it is said by this particular person.
Similarly consider a person writing an article and mentioning someone’s else work or words that
too exactly the same. But this person doesn’t represent it in quotation marks. Then that person is
said to be exhibiting direct plagiarism. Hence copying another person’s work word to word and
not representing it in quotation marks is known as Verbatim or direct plagiarism.
Self Plagiarism: This kind of plagiarism is the duplication of a person’s own work. It is also
known as auto plagiarism. It occurs when a person copies some words of his own published work
and uses the same for another work. This form of plagiarism is commonly observed in research
journals. Researchers may make re-use of their research work for another research work, however,
the percentage of re-usage must be according to those set by the publishing journals if they allow
them to do so.
Source-Based Plagiarism: This form of plagiarism is most commonly observed in research work.
In the research paper one needs to provide references that have contributed to their work, If a
person provides wrong references that do not exist, or that are not relating to the work then it is
known as source-based plagiarism. The falsification of data or its fabrication is also source-based
plagiarism. Falsification and fabrication of data are manipulating or representing false or non-
existing data.
Accidental Plagiarism: This kind of plagiarism mostly occurs due to a lack of knowledge. If we
don’t know how to paraphrase, cite and quote a research work we leave the work as it is and it
results in accidental plagiarism.
Why is plagiarism unethical?

Plagiarism is unethical because we are representing someone’s other work as our own without
giving them the right to. In the real world if someone else takes our things without our permission
then we call that person a “thief” and doing so is considered as a punishable offense. Similarly if
in the virtual world someone copies someone else’s work it is unethical and is a punishable offense.
Plagiarism affects the integrity of academics. Researchers are given the degree of Ph.D. on basis
of their research works, students are given grades according to their homework. If we will be
practicing plagiarism we will not be gaining any knowledge. We may even succeed in getting our
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Ph.D. degree or good grades but that will put our career at risk and is a threat to our future. We
will be a risk for society, organizations where we may work as we do not have the complete
knowledge of the corresponding work.
If we use the plagiarized content for our personal benefits such as monetary gains, fame, etc then
it is unethical because we are being benefitted for what we actually have not done. We are being
rewarded without actually performing well or giving our 100 percent to get that reward. It is
immoral to do so.
How to avoid plagiarism?

There are certain steps we can follow in order to avoid plagiarism.
Always give credit to the person whose work you are including in your own work. Make use of
double quotations to prevent verbatim.
Build your own ideas and thoughts and use them in your work. Do not copy another person’s ideas
or work. Develop yourself and work on yourself so that you can enhance your thought process.
Increase the domain of your knowledge.
Make use of paraphrasing. Paraphrasing means the representation of an idea or thought in our own
words in such a manner that the original essence of that idea remains the same. But we should also
do paraphrasing in such a manner that it does not convert to plagiarism.
Use online plagiarism checker tools. There are many sites that offer plagiarism checker tools.
These sites check your work against thousands of other works available on the internet and give
you a percentage of plagiarized or unique content. They can even tell from which site the content
is copied. We should always use plagiarism checker tools in order to prevent plagiarism. Some of
the plagiarism checking tools are – Grammarly, smallseotools, turnitin, quetext, etc.
Always provide correct references in your research paper or article.

Learn how to cite your articles, provide references, use double quotations, etc. You should know
how to write a scholarly article or book or research paper before you begin writing.
If you are using someone else’s videos, images, or audios in your own video, etc always ask them
first, and even after that provide them the credit for the same.
Keep your morals high. Be educated about plagiarism and be an ethical person. As in real life, you
don’t do bad things as you know the differentiation between what is good and bad similarly teach
your inner conscience that plagiarism is unethical and you should not make use of plagiarized
content.
Dissemination of research findings
Dissemination of research findings involves careful planning, thought, consideration of target

audiences, and communication with those audiences. ... Successful dissemination of your research
findings requires you to determine who your audience is, where your audience is, and how to reach
them.
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CASE STUDY-1
Chandigarh is an upcoming cosmopolitan city in the north of India. It houses people from all over the
country now-a-days and has people with varied culture and interests. With higher income at their disposal,
the people of Chandigarh are now keeper than ever, to undertake various tours across the country. There
are several Travel agencies and Tour/Travel operators in the city. Sharma Travels had started its business
just few months ago and was excepting to double or treble its business in the coming festive season or the
later holiday season. In this highly competitive business arena, Mr. Sharma has decided to conduct a survey
to determine how much business Chandigarh has to offer and also wanted to know whether the residents
are aware of Sharma Travels. He thought that this survey would also determine the effectiveness of his
advertising strategies. Besides the above aspects, Mr. Sharma wants to gain additional knowledge on several
facets such as peoples’ travelling options, frequency of travel, their budgets, their satisfaction /
dissatisfaction levels with their present travel agencies and other related characteristics. YOU as a student
of management research are required to design a detailed questionnaire to satisfy Mr. Sharma’s queries on
the above mentioned aspects besides other facts, such as demographics etc. Which you think might be of
additional help to Mr. Sharma in his venture.
CASE STUDY-2
Assume you are an organizational research design expert assigned to the Strategic Planning Department of
a large multinational manufacturing firm. The Department has developed a new, PC-based, software
package called “STARTPACK”. The software(and a one-week training course to learn how to use it_ is
intended to improve the long-range planning ability of middle and upper-level managers.
Your job as research design expert is to devise research ( a design, a research strategy, a set of measures_
than will allow you to evaluate the effectiveness of the STARTPACK program. Describe a research deign
for evaluating the program. Make sure that your research approach can be used in the future and at all sites
in the company. When developing your plan, be sure to address at least the following issues:
a. Discuss how your design and approach deals with the major forms of validity. Be sure to examine at
least internal, external, and construct validity.
b. The type of design you would select (e.g. a design where you manipulate the independent variable
versus observe the independent variable.) Compare and contrast the selected design with another possible
design.
c. How your design deals with the major forms of validity. Be sure to examine at least internal, external,
and construct validity.
CASE STUDY-3
Team performance in XYZ Industries various considerably across teams and from month to month. The
senior VP in Charge of team development thought that a team training progress could improve the
performance of these teams. A Constant convinced him that his firm’s training program, which lasted only
one week and cost RS 25,000/- per team) could raise the performance of XYZ’s teams. The VP, however,
wanted to experimentally test the efficiency of this training program before he adopted it widely throughout
the firm. So the consultant suggested the following experimental test:
There were 48 teams in XYZ that showed significance variation from month to month in their level of
performance. The consultant chose the 24 worst performing teams based on last month’s date and assigned
them to the training group. “After all,” he argued, “these were the ones who most needed it.” The result
showed that the training group teams had a significantly larger rise (i.e., statistically significant) in their
performance than did the control group teams (Who, as a group, did not improve at all). The consultant
proudly displayed these results and argued that they convincingly demonstrated the efficacy of his program.
123
How would you advice the VP? Specifically, what is the validity of the consultant’s conclusions? If you
think he might be mistaken, what specific threats as internal validity are particularly plausible?
CASE STUDY-4
Ms.Cheritha, as the advertising manager for chemical topics magazine, is charged with the responsibility
for selling advertising space in the magazine. The magazine deals primarily with chemical processing
technology and is distributed solely by subscription. Major advertisers in the magazine are the producers
of chemical processing equipment since the magazine is primarily directed at engineers and other technical
people concerned with the design of chemical processing units . Since the size and composition of the target
audience for chemical topics are key concerns for prospective advertisers, Ms.Cheritha is interested in
collecting more detailed data on leadership. While she presently has total circulation figures, she feels that
these understate the potential exposure of an advertisement in chemical topics. In particular, she feels that
for every subscriber to chemical topics, there are several others in the firm to whom chemical topics are
routed for their perusal. She wishes to determine how large this ‘secondary’ audience is and also wishes to
develop more detailed data on readers such as degree of technical training, level in the administrative
hierarchy, and so on, since feels that these detail s would be quite helpful in influencing potential clients to
commit their advertising dollars to chemical topics. Questions: 1 What kind of research design is in order
to answer Ms.Cheritha’s question? Why? Outline the procedure you would follow in attacking these
questions.
CASE STUDY-5
A marketing manager wants an attractive packing for brand of toothpaste. The research advisor is
suggesting a research using and experimental research design, the marketing manager wonders whether a
research is required for this, and if so, is an experimental research design suitable for this purpose.
Questions: (a) How would you advice the marketing manager?
CASE STUDY-6
A leading software services company has lived to as a researcher. The task before you is to assess the need
for software products that will be accepted readily in the market. The company has not looked at software
products and has no idea of the industry demand. Questions: (a) Prepare a research proposal to identify the
industrial segment and the type of software products that the company can consider manufacturing. The
proposal should include the research design, time line and limitations.
CASE STUDY-7
Case Study:4 Ashok Leyland, a major manufacturer of Trucks and Buses, has decided to make a foray into
small passenger transport vehicles. Their product development team has developed an MUV (Multi Utility
Vehicle) with 7 seats and 8 seats configuration. They found that MUVs like Toyota Innova, GM Tavera
and many more other models from Mahindra and Tata Motors are doing good business in India. The
company outsourced the research to find out the market potential for MUV in India to Market Research
Group (MRG). MRG conducted sample market studies in Salem in Tamilnadu and Gorakhpur in Uttar
Pradesh. They submitted a market potential report to Ashok Leyland, which suggested that there is good
124
potential in the market for MUV. Based on the research report, the company launched the MUV Stile with
technological collaboration with Nissan India Ltd. This product is similar to Nissan Evalia. In May 2015
Ashok Leyland took a decision to withdraw Stile due to weak sales. Questions: a) Was the research done
by MRG scientific? b) What were the limitations in the research methodology? c) What could have been
appropriate research method?
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MCQs
Research is
A. Searching again and again
B. Finding solution to any problem
C. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem
D. None of the options
ANSWER: C
Which of the following is the first step in starting the research process?
A. Searching sources of information to locate problem.
B. Survey of related literature
C. Identification of problem
D. Searching for solutions to the problem
ANSWER: C
Research paper is a brief report of research work based on

A. Primary Data only
B. Secondary Data only
C. Both Primary and Secondary Data
D. None of the options
ANSWER: C
What is a research design?

A. A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory
B. The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
C. The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph
D. framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data
ANSWER: D
If a study is "reliable", this means that:

A. It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
B. The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
C. The findings can be generalized to other social settings
D. The methods are stated clearly enough for the research to be replic ated
ANSWER: B
What is a cross-sectional design?

A. A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
B. One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
C. The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
D. A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
ANSWER: C
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Why is it important for a researcher to review the literature?
A.Because it shows time has been spent on the subject.
B.Because it identifies like-minded researchers.
C.Because it will find if anyone has done the work before.
D.Because it is traditional.
ANSWER: C
The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:

A. Cost and time required to conduct the study
B. Access to gatekeepers and respondents
C. Potential ethical concerns
D. All the options.
ANSWER: D
Research hypotheses are:

A. Formulated prior to a review of the literature
B. Statements of predicted relationships between variables
Answer: B
Ethical problems can arise when researching the Internet because:

A. Everyone has access to digital media
B. Respondents may fake their identities
C. Researchers may fake their identities
D. Internet research has to be covert
Answer: B
Which of the following can be described as a nominal variable?

A. Annual income
B. Age
C. Annual sales
D. Geographical location of a firm
Answer: D
An ordinal scale is:

A. The simplest form of measurement
B. A scale with an absolute zero point
C. A rank-order scale of measurement
D. A scale with equal intervals between ranks
Answer: C
The ‘reliability’of a measure refers to the researcher asking:

A. Does it give consistent results?
B. Does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
C. Can the results be generalized?
127
D. Does it have face reliability?
Answer: A
The research process is a precise and essentially a sequential process.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: A
Descriptive studies require experimentation to establish relationships between variables.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: B
Plagiarism can be avoided by:

A. Copying the work of others accurately
B. Paraphrasing the author’s text in your own words
C. Cut and pasting from the Internet
D. Quoting directly without revealing the source
Answer: B
Which of the following is the first step in starting the research pr ocess?
A. Searching sources of information to locate problem.
B. Survey of related literature
C. Identification of problem
D. Searching
Answer: C
A common test in research demands much priority on

A. Reliability
B. Useability
C. Objectivity
D. All of these
Answer: D
Which of the following variables cannot be expressed in quantitative terms?

A. Socio-economic Status
B. Marital Status
C. Numerical Aptitude
D. Professional Attitude
Answer: C
The essential qualities of a researcher are

A. Spirit of free enquiry
B. Reliance on observation and evidence
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C. Systematization or theorizing of knowledge
D. All of these
Answer: D
In the process of conducting research ‘Formulation of Hypothesis” is followed by

A. Statement of Objectives
B. Analysis of Data
C. Selection of Research Tools
D. Collection of Data
Answer: C
Research design strategy encompasses all of the components below except _____.
A. data collection design
B. sampling design
C. instrument development
D. data analysis
Answer: D
Ph.D stands for

A. Doctor of Philosophy
B. Degree in Philosophy
C. Doctor of Psychology
D.None of these
Answer: A
Bibliography means
A. Foot Note
B. Quotations
C. List of Books referred
D. Biography
Answer: C
………….. is the first step of Research process

A. Formulation of a problem
B. Collection of Data
C. Editing and Coding
D. Selection of a problem
Answer: D
Research that is conducted to address a specific business decision for a specific organization
is called
A. applied business research
B. basic business research
C. evaluation research
D. performance monitoring research
129
Answer: A
Which type of study is loosely structured and designed to expand understanding of a topic
and provide insights?
A. Formal
B. Causal
C. Exploratory
D. Experimental
Answer: C
All of the following are possible goals of an exploratory study except _____.
A. discover future research tasks
B. expand understanding of a topic
C. test hypotheses
D. provide insight
Answer: C
A(n) _____ study involves manipulation of one or more variables to determine the effect on
another variable.
A. ex post facto
B. exploratory
C. experimental
D. statistical

A. Annual income
B. Age
C. Annual sales
Answer: D
An ordinal scale is:

A. The simplest form of measurement
B. A scale with an absolute zero point
C. A rank-order scale of measurement
D. A scale with equal intervals between ranks
Answer: C
The ‘reliability’of a measure refers to the res earcher asking:

A. Does it give consistent results?
Answer: A
130
Aishwarya Rai is more beautiful than Katrina Kaif this is an example of
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Ratio
D. Interval
ANSWER: B
Which of the following measures of central tendency can be applied for ordinal scale
measurement?
A. Geometric and harmonic means
B. Arithmetic means
C. Median and mode
D. Arithmetic mean and mode
ANSWER: C
The numbers assigned to the members of Team India is an example of

A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Ratio
D. Interval
ANSWER: A
If a study is "reliable", this means that:

A. It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
B. The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
C. The findings can be generalized to other social settings
D. The methods are stated clearly enough for the research to be replicated
ANSWER: B
Why is it important for a researcher to review the literature?

A.Because it shows time has been spent on the subject.
B.Because it identifies like-minded researchers.
C.Because it will find if anyone has done the work before.
D.Because it is traditional.
ANSWER: C
The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:

A. Cost and time required to conduct the study
B. Access to gatekeepers and respondents
C. Potential ethical concerns
D. All the given options.
ANSWER: D
131
A. Annual income
B. Age
C. Annual sales
ANSWER: D
The reliability of a measure refers to the researcher asking:

A. Does it give consistent res ults?
ANSWER: A
A common test in research demands much priority on

A. Reliability
B. Useability
C. Objectivity
D. All of these
ANSWER: D
Which steps involves in processing operations of data after collection of data?

A. Coding
B. Classification
C. Editing
D. Tabulation
ANSWER: C
Scale that indicates the relative position of two or more objects or some c haracteristics is
called
A. Ranking Scale
B. Ordinal Scale
C. Arbitrary Scale
D. Ratio Scale
ANSWER: B
Process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which a person or object

possesses some characteristics
A. Measurement
B. Scaling
C. Questionnaire
D. Interview
ANSWER: A
132
Scale in which the respondent directly compares two or more objects and makes choices
among them is
A. Ranking Scale
B. Rating Scale
C. Graphic Scale
D. None of these
ANSWER: A
The most common scales used in research are

A. Nominal
B. Ratio
C. Ordinal
D. All of the above
ANSWER: D
Validity in interviews is strengthened by the following EXCEPT:
A. Building rapport with interviewees

B. Multiple questions cover the same theme
C. Constructing interview schedules that contain themes drawn from the literature
D. Prompting respondents to expand on initial responses
ANSWER: B
The purpose of descriptive statistics is to:
A. Summarize the characteristics of a data set

B. Draw conclusions from the data
C. None of the options
D. All the options
Answer: A
1. The formulated problem should have
(a) Originality
(b) Values
(c) Coherence
(d) Facts
Answer: A
5. ………… is a quality of Good Researcher
(a) Scientific temper

(b) Age
(c) Money
(d) time
133
Answer: A
Which of the following is not a criterion for the statement of a good research problem?
(A) Expression of relationship between/among variables.

(B) Clarity and unambiguousness.
(C) Possibility of empirical testing.
(D) Possibility of use of statistical analysis.
ANSWER: D
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BVIMR SNAPSHOT

Established in 1992, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Institute of Management and

Dr. Nisha Nandal

Ms. Jahnavi Patky

Faculty Dr. Nisha Nandal, Dr.Pankaj Saini,Ms. Jahnavi Patky

Unit-2 (10 hours)

Internal Assessment Mapping

End Term (Univ) 60

On the successful completion of this program the students will be able to

Where 1- LOW MAPPED, 2- MEDIUM MAPPED, 3- HIGHLY MAPPED

Rationale for Mapping Program Outcomes and Course Outcomes:

Unit Contents Sessions COs Teaching Cognition Evaluation

1 Introduction to Research Methodology

Steps in research process, Defining the research Flip class

9 Different types of Cooper and Schindler(8th 1

28 Processing of data- Cooper and Schindler(9th 4

INDEX Page No.

Unit-1 Introduction to Research Methodology 17-33

Unit-2 Research process 34-69

Unit-4 Processing and Analysis of Data 92-108

Unit-5 Reporting of research 109-123

Case Studies 124-126

Internal and External papers 136-144

Research paper 145 onwards

In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined

1. Descriptive Versus Analytical

2. Applied Versus Fundamental

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an

3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative

Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioral sciences, which

4. Conceptual Versus Empirical

5. Other Types of Research

1.4 Importance of Knowing How to Conduct Research

Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of

Research in Functional /Business Areas

Various major functional areas in business

Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating,

This may be accomplished by following the marketing concept, Which

A marketing research study can be described as programmatic, selective, or evaluative.

Human Resource Management

Human resource development or personnel management or manpower management is

The recruitment, placement, induction, orientation, training, promotion, motivation,

Production management refers to planning, organization, direction, coordination and control of

 Product planning and development,

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS DECISION MAKING

Information for decision-making, what can go wrong?

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH?

A factual proposition in a person's mind is frequently described as knowledge. It essentially

It's used to prove theories

Provides the latest information

Research builds credibility

Helps succeed in business

Means to Find Gauge and Seize Opportunities Research

3. Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of

Selection of Research Problem

 Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey

 Preparing the Research Design

 Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following.

Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.

Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories.

Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions

 Generalization and Interpretation

Main Text of the Report