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Lecture-5: Confidentiality
Topics Covered…
• Confidentiality
• Cryptographic Solution
• Symmetric Approach
• Asymmetric Approach
• Classical Cryptosystem
• Shift Cipher
• Substitution Cipher
Today’s Content…
• Classical Cryptosystem
• Vigenere Cipher
• Analysis
• Confidentiality
• Block cipher
• Stream cipher
Confidentiality can be achieved using
encryption/decryption
Encryption Decryption
Secure Network
E ^d@#*^
D
&!h^*hi ^d@#*^
&!h^*hi
Message
(I love you) Message
(I love you)
E: Encryption- Charlie cannot see what is being sent over the channel
D: Decryption- Bob can successfully decrypt the message
But …
• We can’t make everything public
• Eve can easily decrypt then
A cryptosystem should be secure even if the attacker knows all the details of
the system, with the exception of the secret key.
Depending upon the key, cryptosystems can be
divided into:
• Symmetric Cryptosystems
• Asymmetric Cryptosystems
Symmetric Cryptosystems
• Formal definition
Some Traditional
Cryptosystems
Threat Model
Assumptions:
• Attacker has full knowledge of the encryption/decryption algorithm
• Attacker doesn’t know the secret key
Frequently occurring 2-letter words th, he, er, on, an, of, to, in, it, is, be, as, at,
so, we, he, by, or, do, if, me, my, up, an,
go, no, us, am
Frequently occurring 3-letter words the, and, for, are, but, not, you, all, any,
can, had, her, was, one, our, out, day, get,
has, him, his, how, man, new, now, old,
see, two, way, who, boy, did, its, let, put,
say, she, too, use
Frequently occurring 4-Letter Words that, with, have, this, will, your, from,
they, know, want, been, good, much,
some, time
Substitution Cipher
• Frequency Analysis Technique
• Only 1 ciphertext is enough to get the key
• But the ciphertext should be long enough (atleast 30 characters) to make
statistical correlation
Monoalphabetic Ciphers
• Shift and Substitution ciphers are mono-alphabetic ciphers
• One-to-one mapping between plaintext and ciphertext
• Preserve language properties !!
Shift by 0
Shift by 1
Shift by 2
Shift by 25
Shift by 25
Shift by 1
Shift by 2
Shift by 0
For Example,
Keyword - hope
Keyword - hope
Keyword - tree
Ciphertext- ??
Shift by 25
Shift by 1
Shift by 2
Shift by 0
For Example,
Keyword - hope
Keyword - tree
CVJTNAFENMCDMKBXFSTKLHGSOJWHOFUISFYFBEXEINFIMAYSSDY
YIJNPWTOKFRHWVWTZFXHLUYUMSGVDURBWBIVXFAFMYFYXPIGBH
WIFHHOJBEXAUNFIYLJWDKNHGAOVBHHGVINAULZFOFUQCVFBYNF
TYGMMSVGXCFZFOKQATUIFUFERQTEWZFOKMWOJYLNZBKSHOEBP
NAYTFKNXLBVUAXCXUYYKYTFRHRCFUYCLUKTVGUFQBESWYSSWLB
YFEFZVUWTRLLNGIZGBMSZKBTNTSLNNMDPMYMIUBVMTLOBJHHF
WTJNAUFIZMBZLIVHMBSUWLBYFEUYFUFENBRVJVKOLLGTVUZUAOJ
NVUWTRLMBATZMFSSOJQXLFPKNAULJCIOYVDRYLUJMVMLVMUKB
TNAMFPXXJPDYFIJFYUWSGVIUMBWSTUXMSSNYKYDJMCGASOUXB
YSMCMEUNFJNAUFUYUMWSFJUKQWSVXXUVUFFBPWBCFYLWFDYGU
KDRYLUJMFPXXEFZQXYHGFLACEBJBXQSTWIKNMORNXCJFAIBWW
BKCMUKIVQTMNBCCTHLJYIGIMSYCFVMURMAYOBJUFVAUZINMATC
YPBANKBXLWJJNXUJTWIKBATCIOYBPPZHLZJJZHLLVEYAIFPLLYIJ
IZMOUDPLLTHVEVUMBXPIBBMSNSCMCGONBHCKIVLXMGCRMXNZB
KQHODESYTVGOUGTHAGRHRMHFREYIJIZGAUNFZIYZWOUYWQZPZ
MAYJFJIKOVFKBTNOPLFWHGUSYTLGNRHBZSOPMIYSLWIKBANYUO
YAPWZXHVFUQAIATYYKYKPMCEYLIRNPCDMEIMFGWVBBMUPLHML
QJWUGSKQVUDZGSYCFBSWVCHZXFEXXXAQROLYXPIUKYHMPNAYF
OFHXBSWVCHZXFEXXXAIRPXXGOVHHGGSVNHWSFJUKNZBESHOKIR
FEXGUFVKOLVJNAYIVVMMCGOFZACKEVUMBATVHKIDMVXBHLIVWT
JAUFFACKHCIKSFPKYQNWOLUMYVXYYKYAOYYPUKXFLMBQOFLACK
PWZXHUFJYGZGSTYWZGSNBBWZIVMNZXFIYWXWBKBAYJFTIFYKIZ
MUIVZDINLFFUVRGSSBUGNGOPQAILIFOZBZFYUWHGIRHWCFIZMWYS
UYMAUDMIYVYAWVNAYTFEYYCLPWBBMVZZHZUHMRWXCFUYYVIEN
FHPYSMKBTMOIZWAIXZFOLBSMCHHNOJKBMBATZXXJSSKNAULBJC
LFWXDSUYKUCIOYJGFLMBWHFIWIXSFGXCZBMYMBWTRGXXSHXYK
ZGSDSLYDGNBXHAUJBTFDQCYTMWNPWHOFUISMIFFVXFSVFRNA
Observed distance
in ciphertext
Possible keyword lengths
Kasiski Test
CVJTNAFENMCDMKBXFSTKLHGSOJWHOFUISFYFBEXEINFIMAYSSDYY
IJNPWTOKFRHWVWTZFXHLUYUMSGVDURBWBIVXFAFMYFYXPIGBHW
IFHHOJBEXAUNFIYLJWDKNHGAOVBHHGVINAULZFOFUQCVFBYNFTY
GMMSVGXCFZFOKQATUIFUFERQTEWZFOKMWOJYLNZBKSHOEBPNAY
TFKNXLBVUAXCXUYYKYTFRHRCFUYCLUKTVGUFQBESWYSSWLBYFEF
ZVUWTRLLNGIZGBMSZKBTNTSLNNMDPMYMIUBVMTLOBJHHFWTJN
AUFIZMBZLIVHMBSUWLBYFEUYFUFENBRVJVKOLLGTVUZUAOJNVUWT
RLMBATZMFSSOJQXLFPKNAULJCIOYVDRYLUJMVMLVMUKBTNAMFP
XXJPDYFIJFYUWSGVIUMBWSTUXMSSNYKYDJMCGASOUXBYSMCMEU
NFJNAUFUYUMWSFJUKQWSVXXUVUFFBPWBCFYLWFDYGUKDRYLUJ
MFPXXEFZQXYHGFLACEBJBXQSTWIKNMORNXCJFAIBWWBKCMUKIV
QTMNBCCTHLJYIGIMSYCFVMURMAYOBJUFVAUZINMATCYPBANKBXL
WJJNXUJTWIKBATCIOYBPPZHLZJJZHLLVEYAIFPLLYIJIZMOUDPLLT
HVEVUMBXPIBBMSNSCMCGONBHCKIVLXMGCRMXNZBKQHODESYTV
GOUGTHAGRHRMHFREYIJIZGAUNFZIYZWOUYWQZPZMAYJFJIKOVFK
BTNOPLFWHGUSYTLGNRHBZSOPMIYSLWIKBANYUOYAPWZXHVFUQAI
ATYYKYKPMCEYLIRNPCDMEIMFGWVBBMUPLHMLQJWUGSKQVUDZGS
YCFBSWVCHZXFEXXXAQROLYXPIUKYHMPNAYFOFHXBSWVCHZXFEX
XXAIRPXXGOVHHGGSVNHWSFJUKNZBESHOKIRFEXGUFVKOLVJNAYI
• Common factors to all – 2, 3 and 6
VVMMCGOFZACKEVUMBATVHKIDMVXBHLIVWTJAUFFACKHCIKSFPKY • GCD – 6
QNWOLUMYVXYYKYAOYYPUKXFLMBQOFLACKPWZXHUFJYGZGSTYW
ZGSNBBWZIVMNZXFIYWXWBKBAYJFTIFYKIZMUIVZDINLFFUVRGSSBU
• Hence, likely keyword length = 6
GNGOPQAILIFOZBZFYUWHGIRHWCFIZMWYSUYMAUDMIYVYAWVNAY
TFEYYCLPWBBMVZZHZUHMRWXCFUYYVIENFHPYSMKBTMOIZWAIXZ
FOLBSMCHHNOJKBMBATZXXJSSKNAULBJCLFWXDSUYKUCIOYJGFL
MBWHFIWIXSFGXCZBMYMBWTRGXXSHXYKZGSDSLYDGNBXHAUJBTF
DQCYTMWNPWHOFUISMIFFVXFSVFRNA
Source: http://crypto.interactive-maths.com/kasiski-analysis-breaking-the-code.html
Index of Coincidence
• Appearance of repeated segments could be by chance
• To confirm the keyword size obtained by kasiski, we calculate index of
coincidence
• Is a statistical measure which helps distinguish text encrypted with a vigenere
cipher from a random text
Index of Coincidence
• A statistical measure which helps distinguish text encrypted with a vigenere
cipher from a random text
• Coincidence: Given an English text
• If we pick 2-letters from the text at random
• Both different (most of the time)
• Both same (in some cases)
Index of Coincidence
• A statistical measure which helps distinguish text encrypted with a vigenere
cipher from a random text
• Coincidence: Given an English text
• If we pick 2-letters from the text at random
• Both different (most of the time)
• Both same (in some cases)
X=
LACEBJBXQSTWIKNMORNXCJFAIBWWBKCMUKIVQTMNBCCTHLJYIGIMSYCFVMURMA
YOBJUFVAUZINMATCYPBANKBXLWJJNXUJTWIKBATCIOYBPPZHLZJJZHLLVEYAIFPL
LYIJIZMOUDPLL …..
Index of Coincidence of a Proper English Plaintext
• Suppose we have a long string X (length n) of English language
• The number of occurrence of each letter corresponds to the average frequency of
that letter in the English language, i.e., 8 A’s, 3 C’s, 13 E’s etc.
• Let the frequency of each letter A, B, C … Z in the given string be 𝑓0 , 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 … 𝑓25
Index of Coincidence of a Proper English Plaintext
• Suppose we have a long string X (length n) of English language
• The number of occurrence of each letter corresponds to the average frequency of that
letter in the English language, i.e., 8 A’s, 3 C’s, 13 E’s etc.
• Let the frequency of each letter A, B, C … Z in the given string be 𝑓0 , 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 … 𝑓25
n
• We can choose any two elements of string X in C2 ways
Index of Coincidence of a Proper English Plaintext
• Suppose we have a long string X (length n) of English language
• The number of occurrence of each letter corresponds to the average frequency of
that letter in the English language, i.e., 8 A’s, 3 C’s, 13 E’s etc.
• Let the frequency of each letter A, B, C … Z in the given string be 𝑓0 , 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 … 𝑓25
n
• We can choose any two elements of string X in C2 ways
f
• Number of ways of choosing two A’s from string X is: 0 C2
• Similarly, for each letter 𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 25, no. of ways of choosing both elements
fi
to be i is: C2
Index of Coincidence of a Proper English Plaintext
• Suppose we have a long string X (length n) of English language
• The number of occurrence of each letter corresponds to the average frequency of that
letter in the English language, i.e., 8 A’s, 3 C’s, 13 E’s etc.
• Let the frequency of each letter A, B, C … Z in the given string be 𝑓0 , 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 … 𝑓25
n
• We can choose any two elements of string X in C2 ways
f
• Number of ways of choosing two A’s from string X is: 0 C2
• Similarly, for each letter 𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 25, no. of ways of choosing both elements to
fi
be i is: C2
σ25 fi C σ25 2
𝑖=0 𝑓𝑖 (𝑓𝑖 −1) 25 𝑓𝑖
• Thus, IC (X) = 𝑖=0
𝑛
2
= ≈ σ𝑖=0 = σ25
𝑖=0 𝑝𝑖
2
C2 𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛
• Here, 𝑝𝑖 denotes the probability of occurence of each letter in English language
Index of Coincidence of a Proper English Plaintext
Ref: D.R. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition, CRC Press, 2006.
Index of Coincidence of English Letters
𝐼𝑐 (𝑥) ≈
Ref: D.R. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition, CRC Press, 2006.
Index of Coincidence of a Random String
• Suppose we have a long string Y (length n)
• The elements of Y do not follow English letters frequency distribution
• Infact, each letter has equal probability of occurrence
• The chance of pulling out an A is 1/26
Index of Coincidence of a Random String
• Suppose we have a long string Y (length n) of random English letters
• The elements of Y do not follow English letters frequency distribution
• Infact, each letter has equal probability of occurrence
• The chance of pulling out an A is 1/26
• The probability of pulling out two As simultaneously is (1/26)*(1/26)
• The chance of drawing any pair of identical letters is: 26*(1/26)*(1/26) = (1/26) = 0.0385
Index of Coincidence of a Random String
• Suppose we have a long string Y (length n) of random English letters
• The elements of Y do not follow English letters frequency distribution
• Infact, each letter has equal probability of occurrence
• The chance of pulling out an A is 1/26
• The probability of pulling out two As simultaneously is (1/26)*(1/26)
• The chance of drawing any pair of identical letters is: 26*(1/26)*(1/26) = (1/26) = 0.0385
• As all the substrings have IC values close to 0.065, this shows our
keyword length guess = 6 is correct
• Frequency analysis of each of the 6 substrings lead us to the keyword
EXAMPLE
• IC(str 3) : 0.065
• IC(str 4) : 0.068
• IC(str 5) : 0.068
• IC(str 6) : 0.065
• As all the substrings have IC values close to 0.065, this shows our keyword
length guess = 6 is correct
• Frequency analysis of each of the 6 substrings lead us to the keyword –
“BRUTUS”
MAPPING UNDER THE KEYWORD – “BRUTUS”
CVJTNAFENMCDMKBXFSTKLHGSOJWHOFUISFYFBEXEINFIMAYSSDYY Be patient till the last. Romans, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause,
IJNPWTOKFRHWVWTZFXHLUYUMSGVDURBWBIVXFAFMYFYXPIGBHWI and be silent, that you may hear: believe me for mine honour, and have respect
FHHOJBEXAUNFIYLJWDKNHGAOVBHHGVINAULZFOFUQCVFBYNFTYG to mine honour, that you may believe: censure me in your wisdom, and awake
MMSVGXCFZFOKQATUIFUFERQTEWZFOKMWOJYLNZBKSHOEBPNAYT your senses, that you may the better judge. If there be any in this assembly, any
FKNXLBVUAXCXUYYKYTFRHRCFUYCLUKTVGUFQBESWYSSWLBYFEFZV dear friend of Caesar's, to him I say, that Brutus' love to Caesar was no less
UWTRLLNGIZGBMSZKBTNTSLNNMDPMYMIUBVMTLOBJHHFWTJNAUF than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my
IZMBZLIVHMBSUWLBYFEUYFUFENBRVJVKOLLGTVUZUAOJNVUWTRLM answer: —Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Had you
BATZMFSSOJQXLFPKNAULJCIOYVDRYLUJMVMLVMUKBTNAMFPXXJP rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live
DYFIJFYUWSGVIUMBWSTUXMSSNYKYDJMCGASOUXBYSMCMEUNFJN all free men? As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice
AUFUYUMWSFJUKQWSVXXUVUFFBPWBCFYLWFDYGUKDRYLUJMFPXX at it; as he was valiant, I honour him: but, as he was ambitious, I slew him.
EFZQXYHGFLACEBJBXQSTWIKNMORNXCJFAIBWWBKCMUKIVQTMNB There is tears for his love; joy for his fortune; honour for his valour; and death
CCTHLJYIGIMSYCFVMURMAYOBJUFVAUZINMATCYPBANKBXLWJJNX for his ambition. Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak;
UJTWIKBATCIOYBPPZHLZJJZHLLVEYAIFPLLYIJIZMOUDPLLTHVEVUM for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If
BXPIBBMSNSCMCGONBHCKIVLXMGCRMXNZBKQHODESYTVGOUGTHA any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his
GRHRMHFREYIJIZGAUNFZIYZWOUYWQZPZMAYJFJIKOVFKBTNOPLF country? If any, speak; for him have I offended. I pause for a reply. Then none
WHGUSYTLGNRHBZSOPMIYSLWIKBANYUOYAPWZXHVFUQAIATYYKYK have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to Brutus.
PMCEYLIRNPCDMEIMFGWVBBMUPLHMLQJWUGSKQVUDZGSYCFBSWV The question of his death is enrolled in the Capitol; his glory not extenuated,
CHZXFEXXXAQROLYXPIUKYHMPNAYFOFHXBSWVCHZXFEXXXAIRPXX wherein he was worthy, nor his offences enforced, for which he suffered death.
GOVHHGGSVNHWSFJUKNZBESHOKIRFEXGUFVKOLVJNAYIVVMMCGOF Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony: who, though he had no hand in
ZACKEVUMBATVHKIDMVXBHLIVWTJAUFFACKHCIKSFPKYQNWOLUMY his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying, a place in the commonwealth;
VXYYKYAOYYPUKXFLMBQOFLACKPWZXHUFJYGZGSTYWZGSNBBWZI as which of you shall not? With this I depart,—that, as I slew my best lover for
VMNZXFIYWXWBKBAYJFTIFYKIZMUIVZDINLFFUVRGSSBUGNGOPQAILI the good of Rome, I have the same dagger for myself, when it shall please my
FOZBZFYUWHGIRHWCFIZMWYSUYMAUDMIYVYAWVNAYTFEYYCLPWB country to need my death.
BMVZZHZUHMRWXCFUYYVIENFHPYSMKBTMOIZWAIXZFOLBSMCHHN
OJKBMBATZXXJSSKNAULBJCLFWXDSUYKUCIOYJGFLMBWHFIWIXSFG
XCZBMYMBWTRGXXSHXYKZGSDSLYDGNBXHAUJBTFDQCYTMWNPW
HOFUISMIFFVXFSVFRNA
Takeaway ….
• Large key size is a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition to
provide security.
• As long as statistical relationship between plaintext and ciphertext or
plaintext and key remains, cipher is not secure.
Conclusions
Symmetric Cipher