Chapter 2: Describing Motion: Kinematics

in One Dimension
2.1 Displacement, Time, and Average
Velocity
2.2 Instantaneous Velocity
2.3 Average and Instantaneous
Acceleration
2.4 Motion with Constant Acceleration
2.5 Freely Falling Bodies
2.6 Velocity and Position by Integration
• Mechanics = Study of objects in motion.
1. Kinematics =
Description of motion of the objects.
– Chapters 2 & 3
2. Dynamics = WHY objects move.
– Introduction of the concept of FORCE.
– Causes of motion, Newton’s Laws
– Most of the course from Chapter 4 & beyond.
 MECHANICS
Study of motion, force and energy

Kinematics Dynamics
How Why
objects move objects move
• Translational Motion =
Motion with no rotation.

• Rectilinear Motion =
Motion in a straight line path.
 Reference Frames & Displacement

• Every measurement must be made with respect to a

reference frame. Usually, the speed is relative to the Earth.
 Position on a line

1. Reference point (origin)

2. Distance
3. Direction

Symbol for position: x

SI units: meters, m
 Coordinate Axes
• Usually, we define a reference frame using a
standard coordinate axes. (But the choice of reference
frame is arbitrary & up to us, as we’ll see later!)
• 2 Dimensions (x,y)
• Note, if it is convenient, - ,+ +,+
we could reverse + & - !

A standard set of xy -,- +,-

(Cartesian or rectangular)
coordinate axes
 Coordinate Axes
• 3 Dimensions (x,y,z)
First Octant

• Define direction using these.

 Distance vs- Displacement
1) Distance and displacement are similar but different
a) Distance is a scalar quantity which refers to
“the total path travelled during the motion.
b) Displacement is a vector quantity which refers
to “the overall change in position of the object from
start to finish”. Or it is the shortest distance
between the initial and final positions.
 Displacement on a line
• Change of position is called Displacement:

xf

xi

Displacement is a vector quantity

It has magnitude and direction
 Displacement
t1 t2 ¬ times
¯ ¯

x1 = 10 m, x2 = 30 m
Displacement º ∆x = x2 - x1 = +20 m
• ∆ º Greek letter “delta” meaning “change in”
• The arrow represents the displacement (meters).
 Displacement & Distance
Distance traveled by an object
¹ Displacement of the object!
Here,
Distance = 100 m.
Displacement
= 40 m East.

• Displacement º Δx º Change in position

of an object. Δx is a vector (magnitude & direction).
• Distance is a scalar (magnitude).
 x1 = 30 m, x2 = 10 m
Displacement º ∆x = x2 - x1 = - 20 m
• Displacement is a VECTOR
 Vectors and Scalars
• Many quantities in physics, like displacement,
have a magnitude and a direction. Such
quantities are called VECTORS.
– Other quantities which are vectors: velocity,
acceleration, force, momentum, ...
• Many quantities in physics, like distance,
have a magnitude only. Such quantities are
called SCALARS.
– Other quantities which are scalars: speed,
temperature, mass, volume, ...
 Distance
l Distance (d) – how far an object travels.
l Does not depend on direction.
l Scalar or vector quantity? Scalar

l Imagine an ant crawling along a ruler.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

l What distance did the ant travel?

d = 3 cm
 Distance

lDistance does not depend on direction.

lHere’s our intrepid ant explorer again.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

lNow what distance did the ant travel?

ld = 3 cm
lDoes his direction change the answer? No
 What is the car’s distance, what is the car’s
displacement?

• The car covered a distance of 25 km

and a displacement of 10 km, East
 What distance did Tim travel? What was
Tim’s displacment?

• Tim covered a distance of (3m + 4m) = 7 m

and a displacement of 5 m, NE
 Displacement

Exp.: suppose you walk 10m north and then turn around and
walk 10m south. 10m
south north
10m

You have walked a total distance 20m. However, your displacement

is the net change in your position or zero in this case.

ü Displacement have a direction as well as a magnitude.

Positive and Negative
Displacements
 What is the distance the physics
student travelled? What is their
displacement?
Example- A physics student walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South,
4 meters West, and finally 2 meters North.

The student covered a distance of 12 m (4m + 2m + 4m +2 m) = 12

meters
and has a displacement of O m
 Distance

• Distance does not depend on direction.

• Let’s follow the ant again.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

• What distance did the ant walk this time?

• d = 7 cm
 Displacement
• Let’s revisit our ant, and this time we’ll find
his displacement.
- +

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

• Distance: 3 cm
• Displacement: +3 cm
– The positive gives the ant a direction!
 Displacement
• Find the distance and displacement of the ant.

- +

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

• Distance: 7 cm
• Displacement: +3 cm =xf-xi=3-0=+3m=3i m
 Practice Problem
lA women drives her scooter 7 kilometres north. She
stops for lunch and then drives 5 kilometres east.
What distance did she cover? What was her
displacement?
Distance = 7+5=12 km
Displacement= (72+52)1/2
 Average Velocity
Average Speed º (Distance traveled)/(Time taken)
A Scalar A Vector
Average Velocity º (Displacement)/(Time taken)
• Velocity: Both magnitude & direction describing
how fast an object is moving. It is a VECTOR.
• Speed: Magnitude only describing how fast
an object is moving. It is a SCALAR.
Units of both are distance/time = m/s
 Average Velocity & Average Speed
• Consider the displacement from before. Suppose
that the person does the whole trip in 70 s.

Average Speed = (100 m)/(70 s) = 1.4 m/s

Average Velocity = (40 m)/(70 s) = 0.57 m/s
 General Case

t1 t2 ¬ times
¯ ¯ vave =

∆x = x2 - x1 = displacement
∆t = t2 - t1 = elapsed time
Average Velocity
vave = (x2 - x1)/(t2 - t1)
 Average Speed and Average Velocity
• Average speed describes how fast a particle is
moving. It is calculated by:
distance always positive
average speed = Scalar (has magnitude
elapsed time only)
• Average velocity describes how fast the
displacement is changing with respect to time:
Dx sign gives direction in 1 Dimension
v=
Dt Vector (has magnitude
and direction)
Average speed and average velocity often have the same
magnitude, but not always
 Example - A car travels 400 km from Philadelphia
to Livingston in 2 hours and then back 200 km to
Trenton in 1 hr. What is the car’s speed and
velocity?
Dx

X =0 100 200 300 400 km

Livingston Trenton Philadelphia

d 600
Average speed s = = = 200km / h
t 3
Dx 200 - 400
Average velocity v = = = -67 km / h
t 3
 Velocity and Position
• Consider the case where
the position vs. time curve
is as shown in the figure.
•In general,
The Average Velocity
is the slope of the line
segment that connects
the positions at the
beginning & end of
the time interval.
 Instantaneous Velocity
•Average velocity doesn’t tell
us anything about details during
the time interval.
•To look at some of the details,
smaller time intervals are needed
The slope of the tangent at a
certain time instant will
give the instantaneous
velocity at that time.
lim Δx
v = Δ t→ 0
Δt
 Instantaneous Velocity
• Instantaneous Velocity º The velocity at any
instant of time.
• Mathematically, the Instantaneous Velocity is
formally defined as:

º the ratio considered as a whole for

infinitesimally small ∆t.
• Mathematicians call this a “derivative”.
 Instantaneous Velocity º Velocity
at any instant of time.
• Mathematically, instantaneous velocity:

• Mathematicians call this a “derivative”.

Þ Instantaneous Velocity
v ≡ Time Derivative of
Displacement x
 Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity is the average velocity in the limit
as the time interval becomes infinitesimally short.

Ideally, a speedometer would measure

instantaneous velocity; in fact, it measures
average velocity, but over a very short time
interval.
 These graphs show
(a) Constant Velocity ®
Instantaneous Velocity
= Average Velocity

and
(b) Varying Velocity ®
Instantaneous Velocity
¹ Average Velocity
 Graphical Representation of
Motion
Position-Time Graph

x
B
Dx
Dx
slope
=v
A
Dt
Dt
t Steepness = speed
slope
Sign = direction

Velocity = speed + direction

Average Velocity from a Graph
B

x Dx Dx
A slope = =v
Dt Dt
t
Mathematical Model
x = v t + x0
x = position
x0 = initial position
v = average velocity
t = time
 Graphs of Motion
x vs. t
50
Mathematical Model
x = v t + x0
40

Dx =20m
x (m)

30
20
10 Dx =20m x0 = 20 m Slope
0
v = 2 m/s Dx
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
=v
Dt
SLOPE

t (s)

AREA
v vs. t Mathematical Model
4

3
v =2
v (m/s)

2 (UNIFORM VELOCITY)
Area=20m = Dx
Dx = v Dt
1

0
Area
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (init and final positions unknown.
t (s) ONLY KNOW DISPLACEMENT)
 What is happening in this graph?
x vs t
25
20
Mathematical
Graphical

15
10 x = -5t + 20
x (m)

5
0
-5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-10 t (s)
Diagrammatic

End t=6 s 5s 4s 3s 2s 1s t=0 s START

X = -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 m

v=
 Plot the corresponding v-t graph
20 x vs. t
15
x0 = 20 m
v = -5 m/s Slope
10
x (m)

5
t (s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-5
SLOPE

-10

v vs. t
2
v (m/s)

v = -5m / s
t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2

-4

-6
 10
x-t Draw the
corresponding v-t
8
6
4
graph
x (m)

2
t (s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2
-4

SLOPE
-6

8 v-t
6

v =?
4
2
t (s)
v (m/s)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2
-4
-6
-8
 10 x vs. t
8
6
4
x (m)

2
t (s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2
-4
-6

AREA
-8

8 v-t
6
Dx=
Draw the
4
2 +12m
3m t (s)
corresponding x-t
v (m/s)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2
-4
Area= Dx Dx= graph
-6m -16m
-6
-8
 Average Speed
• Speed is a scalar quantity
– same units as velocity
– total distance / total time
• The average speed is not (necessarily) the
magnitude of the average velocity
 Speed
• Speed (s) – Rate at which an object is
moving.
• speed = distance / time
• s = d/t
• Like distance, speed does not depend on
direction.
 Speed
• A car drives 100 meters in 5 seconds.
1s
2
3
4
5
100 m

• What is the car’s average speed?

– s = d/t
– s = (100 m) / (5 s) = 20 m/s
 Speed
• A racecar is traveling at 85.0 m/s. How far
does the car travel in 30.0 s?
 Example
lBack to our ant explorer!
1s
2
3
4
5 - +

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
cm

lDistance traveled: 7 cm
lDisplacement: +3 cm (3-0)
lAverage speed: (7 cm) / (5 s) = 1.4 cm/s
lAverage velocity: (+3 cm) / (5 s) = +0.6 cm/s
 Acceleration
• An object’s velocity can change with time. An
object with a velocity that is changing with time
is said to be accelerating.
• Definition: Average acceleration = ratio of
change in velocity to elapsed time.
aave º = (v2 - v1)/(t2 - t1)
• Acceleration is a vector.
• Instantaneous acceleration

• Units: velocity/time = distance/(time)2 = m/s2

 Acceleration
lAcceleration – the rate at which velocity
changes.

lCan be an:
lIncrease in speed
lDecrease in speed
lChange in direction
 Types of acceleration
lIncreasing speed
lExample: Car speeds up at green light

lDecreasing speed
screeeeech

lExample: Car slows down at stop light

lChanging Direction
lExample: Car takes turn (can be at constant
speed)
 Acceleration

• Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes over time.

• What are the units?
– SI Units: (m/s)/s or m/s2
– Other Units: (km/h)/s or (mi/h)/s
• An object accelerates if its speed, direction, or both change.
• Acceleration has direction and magnitude. Thus, acceleration is a vector
quantity
• Acceleration = 0 implies a constant velocity (or rest)
Example - A car accelerates along a straight road from
rest to 87 km/hr in 6.0 s. What is the average acceleration?
Average Dv v f - vi 87 - 0 km / h
acceleration a = Dt = t - t = 6 = 14.5 s
f i

= 4m / s 2
START

0 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
0 4 8 12 16 20m/s
v
a 4m/s2
 x v a
Position-Time Graph
t=5

x t=4

t=3

t=2
t=1
t=0
0 1 2 3 4 5
START t
1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
Speeding up in + direction a and v SAME direction
START
01s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
v
a
Slowing down in + direction a and v OPP direction
START
0 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
v
a
Speeding up in - direction a and v SAME direction
0 START
5s 4s 3s 2s 1s

x
v
a
Slowing up in - direction a and v OPP direction
START
5s 4s 3s 2s 1s 0

x
v
a
• Displacement and velocity are in the
direction of motion

• When acceleration is in the SAME

direction as velocity, the object is
speeding up

• When acceleration is in the OPPOSITE

direction to velocity, the object is slowing
down
Speeding up in + direction x v a
Position-Time Graph
t=5

t=4
x
t=3

t=2
t=1
t=0
0 1 2 3 4 5
START t
0 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
Slowing down in + direction
x v a
Position-Time Graph
t=5
t=4
t=3

+x t=2

t=1

t=0
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
START
0 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

x
Speeding up in - direction
x v a
0 1 2
t 3 4 5
t=0
t=1
t=2
t=3
-x
t=4

t=5
START

5s 4s 3s 2s 1s 0

x
Slowing down in - direction
x v a
0 1 2 t 3 4 5
t=0

t=1
-x
t=2

t=3
t=4
t=5
START

5s 4s 3s 2s 1s 0

x
 Can we find time?
l A car accelerates at a rate of 3.0 m/s2. If its original speed is
8.0 m/s, how many seconds will it take the car to reach a final
speed of 25.0 m/s?

Fv - Iv
t=
a
25.0m /s - 8.0m /s
t=
3.0m /s2
t = 5.7s
 Can we find Final Velocity?
l A motorcycle traveling at 25m/s accelerates at a rate of
7.0m/s2 for 6.0 seconds What is the final speed of the
motorcycle?
Example: Average Acceleration
A A car accelerates along a straight road
from rest to 90 km/h in 5.0 s. Find the
magnitude of its average acceleration.
Note: 90 km/h = 25 m/s
aave =
Example: Average Acceleration
A car accelerates along a straight road
from rest to 90 km/h in 5.0 s. Find the
magnitude of its average acceleration.
Note: 90 km/h = 25 m/s
aave = = (25 m/s – 0 m/s)/5s = 5 m/s2
 Example: Car Slowing Down
A car moves to the right on
a straight highway (positive
x-axis). The driver puts on
the brakes. If the initial
velocity (when the driver hits
the brakes) is v1 = 15.0 m/s.
It takes 5.0 s to slow down
to v2 = 5.0 m/s. Calculate the
car’s average acceleration.

a= = (v2 – v1)/(t2 – t1) = (5 m/s – 15 m/s)/(5s – 0s)

a = - 2.0 m/s2
 Deceleration
A car car is moving to
the left instead of to the
right. Still assume
positive x is to the right.
Calculate the average
acceleration now.

• “Deceleration”: A word which means “slowing down”.

deceleration does not necessarily mean the acceleration is
negative! Instead if the acceleration and the velocity in an
opposite direction the object velocity decreases.
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & Acceleration are both vectors.
Are the velocity and the acceleration
always in the same direction?
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & Acceleration are both vectors.
Are the velocity and the acceleration
always in the same direction?
NO!!
If the object is slowing down, the acceleration
vector is in the opposite direction of the
velocity vector!
 Example: Car Slowing Down

A car moves to the right on a straight highway (positive x-axis).

The driver puts on the brakes. The initial velocity (when driver
hits brakes) is v1 = 15.0 m/s. It takes t = 5.0 s to slow down
to v2 = 5.0 m/s. Calculate the car’s average acceleration.
 Example: Car Slowing Down

A car moves to the right on a straight highway (positive x-axis).

The driver puts on the brakes. The initial velocity (when driver
hits brakes) is v1 = 15.0 m/s. It takes t = 5.0 s to slow down
to v2 = 5.0 m/s. Calculate the car’s average acceleration.
a= = (v2 – v1)/(t2 – t1) = (5 m/s – 15 m/s)/(5s – 0s)
a = - 2.0 m/s2
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & Acceleration are both vectors.
Is it possible for an object to have a zero
acceleration and a non-zero velocity?
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & Acceleration are both vectors.
Is it possible for an object to have a zero
acceleration and a non-zero velocity?
YES!!
If the object is moving at a constant velocity,
the acceleration vector is zero!
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & acceleration are both vectors.
Is it possible for an object to have a zero
velocity and a non-zero acceleration?
 Conceptual Question
Velocity & acceleration are both vectors.
Is it possible for an object to have a zero
velocity and a non-zero acceleration?
YES!!
If the object is instantaneously at rest (v = 0)
but is either on the verge of starting to
move or is turning around & changing
direction, the velocity is zero, but the
acceleration is not!
As already noted, the instantaneous acceleration
is the average acceleration in the limit as the time
interval becomes infinitesimally short.

The slope of the

velocity versus time
tangent is the
instantaneous
acceleration.
 Acceleration
Acceleration given x(t).
A particle is moving in a straight line so that its
position is given by the relation x = (2.10 m/s2)t2
+ (2.80 m). Calculate (a) its average acceleration
during the time interval from t1 = 3.00 s to t2 =
5.00 s, and (b) its instantaneous acceleration as
a function of time.
X(t) = (2.10 )t2 + (2.80 )

V(t)=dx/dt= 4.20 t

aave=(vf(5)-vi(3))/(5-3) =4.2 m/s2

ainst=dv/dt=4.20 m/s2
 Graphing Motion
Position (distance) vs. Time Graphs

Velocity =0
At rest, no change in
position
 Graphing Motion
Position (distance) vs. Time Graphs

The velocity of the object

can be calculated by
evaluating the slope of
each line, or one point
along each line.

Yellow line (constant speed of 3 m/s) Blue line (constant

speed of 1 m/s)
 Graphing Motion
Position (distance) vs. Time Graphs

The velocity is
increasing or speeding
up

Changing distance over time or acceleration.

Practicing with Slope
Graphing Motion (position vs.
time)
• What type of motion does this graph show?
– Answer: Constant speed (straight line)

• What is the slope of this line?

– Answer: 1 m/s=(8-0)/(8-0)

• What is the average velocity?

– Answer: 1 m/s
Graphing Motion
• Describe the motion of each
object.
• Answers
– Object 1: constant velocity to
the right or upwar
– Object 2: constant velocity of
zero (at rest)
– Object 3: constant velocity to
the left or downward
Example
What is the average
acceleration for each
segment, what is the
average acceleration for
the whole motorcycle
ride?
aA=(10-0)/5=2m/s2
aA-C=(5-0)/25-0=1/5 m/s2
Graphical Representation of Motion
(Uniform Velocity)
30 Dx
SLOPE = =v AVERAGE
20 Dt VELOCITY
x (m)

10 For motion with constant velocity

0
NO acceleration
Connect with
v =v
SLOPE

straight line
0 1 2 3 4 5

AREA
v-t Dv
5 SLOPE = =a AVERAGE
4 Dt acceleration
v (m/s)

3
2 AREA
under
= [m / s ][ s ] = [m]
1
0
curve = v Dt = Dx
0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s) https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/

RUNNING TOTAL
 Constant Acceleration Motion
Dx
15
x vs. t SLOPE = =v AVERAGE
10
acceleration
Dt VELOCITY
x (m)

AREA = [ m][ s ]
5 Connect with No physical
curved line
0 t (s) meaning
slope

0 1 2 3 4 5

9 v vs. t Dv

AREA
6 SLOPE = = a acceleration
AVERAGE
Dt
v (m/s)

3
t (s)
AREA = v Dt = Dx
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
slope

-6
AREA
1
a vs. t
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 SLOPE = Da / Dt
a (m/s2)

-1 t (s)
-2 Dv =-9 AREA = a Dt = Dv
-3
-4 RUNNING TOTAL
https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
 15
x vs. t Dx
10 SLOPE = =v
Dt
x (m)

0 t (s) Velocity NOT

v ¹v
slope

0 1 2 3 4 5
constant
9 v vs. t
Dv

AREA
6
SLOPE = =a
v (m/s)

3 Dx t (s) Dt
0
-3
0 1 2 3 4 5 AREA = v Dt = Dx
slope

-6

constant
a =a
AREA
1
a vs. t acceleration
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
a (m/s2)

t (s)
= [m / s 2 ][ s ] = [m / s ]
-1
AREA
-2 Dv
-3 = a Dt = Dv
-4
https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
 PHYSICS DEPARTMENT STORE
30 Position vs. Time
20

x (m)
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
SLOPE t (s)
AREA
10
Velocity vs. Time

5
v (m/s)

-5
SLOPE 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s) AREA
Acceleration vs. Time
2
a (m/s2)

0
-2
-4
0 1 2 t (s) 3 4 5

https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
Estimate the net displacement from 0 s to 5.0 s

3
v (m/s)

2 Area under v-t

curve
1 Dx = 4.5 + 6 = 10.5 m
0 t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5

https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
 Estimate the displacement from 0 s to 4.0 s
2

1
v (m/s)

0
0 1 2 3 4 t (s)
-1

-2
Area under v-t
Dx = 2 -2 = 0 m
curve
https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
Construct
2
the corresponding x-t and a-t curves
2

x (m)
All
x (m)
1
1
Curved
(acceleration)
0
0 0 1 2 3 4tt(s)
(s)
2 0 1 2 3 4

AREA
1 = v Dt = Dx
v (m/s)

0 t (s)
0 1 2 3 4
-1
Dv

slope
=a
Dt
-2
3
22
(m/s)2)

11
aa(m/s 2

00
t (s)
-1 0
-1 1 2 3 4
-2
-2
-3
-3 https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
A) What is the acceleration at
1 s, at 3 s and at 6 sec?
a1=2m/s2, a3=0m/s2, a6=-4m/s2
B) What is the total
displacement for the entire
trip?
Dx0-10= 6m

C) What is the distance

traveled for the trip?

d0-10= 30m

https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/
 curved
18
16 Construct the
corresponding
14
12 straight straight
x (m)

10
8
6
curved x-t and a-t
4
2
curves
0 curved t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6

AREA
B
4
A
= v Dt = Dx
v (m/s)

2 C
0 t (s)
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D F
Dv
=a
-4 slope
E
Dt
-6
4
2
a (m/s2)

0
t (s) https://www.bcsd.org/webpages/larnold/

-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-4
Example

Find the average velocity

for each segment of the
“walk”, and for the total
“walk”.

VA=(2-0)/1=2 m/s
VB=(2-2)/1=0 m/s
VC=(3-2)/3-2=1 m/s
VD=(0-3)/5-3=-3/2 m/s
VA-D=(0-0)/5-0=0 m/s
Example

CAREFUL!

What is the displacement

for each segment of the
graph shown?

Displacement= area
dA=1/2(10)(2)=10m
dB=1/2(5)(4)+5*2=20 m
dC=1/2(10)(4)+10*2
 Section Check

Example
On the basis of the
velocity-time graph
of a car moving up a
hill, as shown on the
right, determine the
average acceleration
of the car?

A. 0.5 m/s2 C. 2 m/s2

B. -0.5 m/s2 D. -2 m/s2

 Section Check
Answer 3

Answer: B

Reason: Average acceleration of an object is the slope of the

velocity-time graph.

vf = 0 vi = 25 m/s

tf = 50 s ti = 0

a = vf – vi = 0 – 25 m/s = - 0.5 m/s2

tf – ti 50 s - 0
•Motion with Constant Acceleration
If the acceleration is constant, the velocity changes
linearly with time:

Average velocity:
Motion with Constant Acceleration
Position as a function of time
Motion with Constant Acceleration
Velocity as a function of position
Special Case: Motion with Uniform
Acceleration (our typical case)
• Acceleration is a constant
• Kinematic Equations (which we
will derive in a moment)
v = v0 + at
1
Dx = v t = (v0 + v)t
2
Dx = v0t + 12 at 2
2
v = v0 + 2aDx
2
 Derivation of the Equation (1)
• Given initial conditions:
– a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
• Start with definition of average acceleration:
Dv v - v0 v - v0 v - v0
aavg = = = = =a
Dt t - t0 t -0 t
• We immediately get the first equation
v = v0 + at
• Shows velocity as a function of acceleration and time
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to find the
displacement
 Derivation of the Equation (2)
• Given initial conditions:
– a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
• Start with definition of average velocity:
x - x0 Dx
vavg = =
t t
• Since velocity changes at a constant rate, we have
1
Dx = vavg t = (v0 + v)t
2
• Gives displacement as a function of velocity and time
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for the
acceleration
 Derivation of the Equation (3)
• Given initial conditions:
– a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0

• Start with the two just-derived equations:

1
v = v0 + at Dx = vavg t = (v0 + v)t
2

1 1 1 2
• We have Dx = (v0 + v)t = (v0 + v0 + at )t Dx = x - x0 = v0t + at
2 2 2
• Gives displacement as a function of all three quantities: time,
initial velocity and acceleration
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to find the final
velocity
 Derivation of the Equation (4)
• Given initial conditions:
– a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
• Rearrange the definition of average acceleration
Dv v - v0 , to find the time v - v0
aavg = = =a t=
Dt t a
• Use it to eliminate t in the second equation:
2
1 1 v 2, -rearrange
v0 to get
Dx = (v + v)t =
0 (v + v )(v - v ) =
0 0
2 2a 2a
2 2
v 2 = v0 + 2aDx = v0 + 2a ( x - x0 )
• Gives velocity as a function of acceleration and displacement
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for the time
 Problem-Solving Hints
• Read the problem
• Draw a diagram
– Choose a coordinate system, label initial and final points, indicate a
positive direction for velocities and accelerations

• Label all quantities, be sure all the units are consistent

– Convert if necessary v = v0 + at
• Choose the appropriate kinematic equation
• Solve for the unknowns Dx = v0t + 12 at 2
– You may have to solve two equations for two unknowns 2
v 2 = v0 + 2aDx
• Check your results
Example
 KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
A passenger jet lands on a runway with a velocity of
70 m/s. Once it touches down, it accelerates at a
constant rate of -3 m/s2. How far does the plane
travel down the runway before its velocity is
decreased to 2 m/s, its taxi speed to the landing gate?
vi = 70 m/s
vf = 2
a = -3 m/s 2 D x = 816 m
Dx = ? m
t
a a
vi vf

Dx
 Example

• Find the average velocity of a student who runs 750 m [East] in 5.0
min, stopes for 10.0 min, and then runs another 3.0 km [East] in
30.0 min.
Example
solution
Example
solution
 Freely Falling Objects
• One of the most important & common special cases of motion
with constant acceleration:

“FREE FALL”
Objects falling due to gravity near the surface
of Earth. Neglect air resistance. Near Earth’s
surface, all objects experience approximately
the same acceleration due to gravity.
Use the one-dimensional constant
acceleration equations
• Experiment:
– Rock & feather
dropped at the same
time in air. Repeated
in vacuum.

The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface is

approximately 9.80 m/s2. At a given location on the Earth
and in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with
the same constant acceleration.
• Experiment finds that the acceleration of
falling objects (neglecting air resistance) is
always (approximately) the same, no matter
how light or heavy the object.

• Acceleration due to gravity, a º g

g = 9.8 m/s2 (approximately!)
• Acceleration of falling objects is always the
same, no matter how light or heavy.
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
• First proven by Galileo Galilei

Legend: Dropped
objects off of the
leaning tower of Pisa.
 Freely Falling Objects
• A freely falling object is any object moving
freely under the influence of gravity alone.
• It does not depend upon the initial motion
of the object
– Dropped – released from rest
– Thrown downward
– Thrown upward
 Acceleration of Freely Falling
Object
• The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed
downward, regardless of the initial motion
• The magnitude of free fall acceleration is g = 9.80
m/s2
– g decreases with increasing altitude
– g varies with latitude
– 9.80 m/s2 is the average at the Earth’s surface
– The italicized g will be used for the acceleration due to
gravity
• Not to be confused with g for grams
• Acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.8 m/s2 (approximately)
– Depends on location on Earth, latitude, & altitude:
 Sign of g in 1d Equations
• Magnitude (size) of g = 9.8 m/s2 (POSITIVE!)
– But, acceleration is a vector (1 dimen), with 2
possible directions.
+y
-y

-y
+y
 Directions of Velocity & Acceleration
• Objects in free fall ALWAYS have downward
acceleration.
• Still use the same equations for objects thrown
upward with some initial velocity v0
• An object goes up until it stops at some point
& then it falls back down. Acceleration is
always g in the downward direction. For the
first half of flight, the velocity is UPWARD.
Þ For the first part of the flight, velocity &
acceleration are in opposite directions!
 Acceleration of Free Fall, cont.
• We will neglect air resistance
• Free fall motion is constantly accelerated
motion in one dimension
• Let upward be positive
• Use the kinematic equations with ay = -g =
-9.80 m/s2
 Free Fall – an object dropped
• Initial velocity is zero
• Let up be positive
• Use the kinematic
equations
– Generally use y instead of vo= 0
x since vertical a = -g
• Acceleration is
– ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2
 Free Fall – an object thrown
downward
• ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2
• Initial velocity ¹ 0
– With upward being
positive, initial velocity
will be negative vo≠ 0
a = -g
 Free Fall -- object thrown
upward
• Initial velocity is upward, so
positive vf = 0 at
• The instantaneous velocity at maximum height
the maximum height is zero
• ay = -g = -9.80 m/s2 vo≠ 0
everywhere in the motion
a = -g
 Maximum Height
• What is the velocity of the ball at the top of its
flight?
0 m/s
• What is the acceleration of the ball at the top
of its flight?
-9.8 m/s2
• What would happen if the both velocity and
acceleration are zero at the top of the ball’s
flight?
The ball would float.
 Freefall v at the top = 0

+ a = -9.8 m/s2

An object is thrown What is the

upward with initial velocity right
velocity, vo before it lands?

vf = -v0
 DO NOW
What is the initial velocity of this
object?
vi = ? m/s
vf = 0 m/s
a = -9.8 m/s2 ~ -10 m/s2
Dy =
t=4s

vi = 40 m/s
 DO NOW
A rocket is fired straight up from the
ground. It returns to the ground 10
seconds later. What was its launch
speed?

vi = ? m/s v0 = ? m/s
vf = 0 m/s v = -v0
a = -9.8 m/s2 ~ 10 m/s2 a = -9.8 m/s2 ~ 10 m/s2
Dy = Dy =
t=5s t = 10 s

vi = -50 m/s
 Kinematics Equations
for uniformly accelerated motion
• ∆x becomes ∆y
• a becomes g
Kinematics in the x-direction Kinematics in the y-direction
(horizontal) (vertical) (FREE FALL)

Dx = v x t Dy = v y t
v fx = vix + a x t v fy = viy + gt
v x = 12 (vix + v fx ) v y = 12 (viy + v fy )
Dx = vix t + a x t
1
2
2
Dy = viy t + gt1
2
2

v 2fx = vix2 + 2a x Dx v 2fy = viy2 + 2 gDx

ÞVELOCITY & ACCELERATION

ARE NOT NECESSARILY IN

THE SAME DIRECTION!

 Equations for Bodies in Free Fall
• Written taking “up” as + y!
v = v0 - g t (1)
y = y0 + v0 t – (½)gt2 (2)
v2 = (v0)2 - 2g (y - y0) (3)
v = (½)(v + v0) (4)
g = 9.8 m/s2

Usually y0 = 0. Sometimes v0 = 0
 Equations for Bodies in Free Fall
• Written taking “down” as + y!
v = v0 + g t (1)
y = y0 + v0 t + (½)gt2 (2)
v2 = (v0)2 + 2g (y - y0) (3)
v = (½)(v + v0) (4)
g = 9.8 m/s2

Usually y0 = 0. Sometimes v0 = 0
Example: Falling from a Tower
A ball is dropped (v0 = 0) from a tower 70.0 m high.
How far will it have fallen after time t1 = 1 s, t2 = 2 s, t3
= 3 s?
Note: y is positive
v1 = -(9.8)(1)
= -9.8 m/s upward!
v = -gt
v2 = -(9.8)(2)
= -19.6 m/s y = -(½) gt2
a = g = -9.8 m/s2
v3 =- (9.8)(3)
= -29.4 m/s
 Example :Thrown Down From a Tower
A ball is thrown downward with an initial velocity of v0 = 3
m/s, instead of being dropped. What are it’s position & speed
after t1 = 1 s & t2 = 2 s? Compare with the dropped ball.
Note: y is positive
Upward!
v = v0 - gt
yf -yi = v0t - (½)gt2
a = g = -9.8 m/s2
y1, v1

y2, v2
vf(t1=1) = v0 – gt=-3-9.8*1=-12.8 m/s
yf -yi = v0t - (½)gt2 =
yf -0=-3*1-(1/2)*9.8*(1)2=-7.9 m
y3, v3
 v = 0 here, but a = - g!
Examples
A person throws a ball upward into the air
with an initial velocity of v0 = 15.0 m/s.
Calculate
Time to top
a. The time to reach the maximum height. t=
= ½ round 15/9.8=1.5 (s)
trip time
b. The maximum height. h=11.5 m
v2 = (v0)2 - 2g(y - y0)=0=152-2*9.8h=11.5 m
c. The time to come back to the hand.
=2*tmax=3.06 (s)==yf - y0 = v0t - (½)gt2=0
d. The velocity when it returns to the hand.
Vf=15-9.8*3.06=-14.988 =-15 m/s
v0 = 15 m/s ­
Note: y is positive UPWARD!
v = v0 – gt,
yf - y0 = v0t - (½)gt2
v2 = (v0)2 - 2g(y - y0)
Example: Not a bad throw for a rookie!
Problem: A stone is thrown at point (A) from
the top of a building with an initial velocity of
v0 = 19.2 m/s straight upward. The building is
H = 49.8 m high, and the stone just misses the
edge of the roof on its way down, as in the
figure. Answer these questions:

a) Calculate the time at which the stone

reaches its maximum height.
b) Calculate the maximum height of the
stone above the rooftop.
c) Calculate the time at which the stone
returns to the level of the thrower
d) Calculate the velocity of the stone at this instant.

e) Calculate the velocity & position of the stone

at time t = 5 s
Example: Ball Thrown Up at the Edge of a Cliff
A ball is thrown up at speed 15.0 m/s by a person
on the edge of a cliff. The ball can fall to the base
of the cliff 50.0 m below. Ignore air resistance.
Calculate:
a. The time it takes the ball to reach the base of
the cliff. t=2*tmax
yf-yi=15t-4.9t2=0-50=15t-4.9t2 à t=5.07 s
b. The total distance traveled by the ball.
Solution: a. We use the same quadratic
formula as before, we find t = 5.07 s
(the negative solution is physically
meaningless).
yf-yi=15t-4.9t2=0-50=15t-4.9t2 à
t=5.07 s

b. The ball goes up 11.5 m, then down

11.5 m + 50 m, for a total distance of
=11.5+11.5+50 =73.0 m
 Free Fall
Acceleration Due to Gravity

Example: Suppose the free-fall ride at an amusement park

starts at rest and is in free fall for 1.5 s. What would be its
velocity at the end of 1.5 s? How far would it fall?

Choose a coordinate system with a positive axis upward

and the origin at the initial position of the car. Because the
car starts at rest, vi would be equal to 0.0 m/s.

Givens: vi = 0.0 m/s, di = 0.0 m, ti = 0.0 s, tf = 1.5 s, a = -9.8 m/s2

Unknown: vf
 Free Fall
Acceleration Due to Gravity

To calculate the final velocity, use the equation for velocity

with constant acceleration.

Equation:

Substitute & Solve:

Sense: Negative velocity means down; units are OK.

 Free Fall
Acceleration Due to Gravity

How far does the car fall? Use the equation for
displacement when time and constant acceleration are
known.

Equation:

Substitute & Solve:

Sense: The displacement is negative because it fell, and

the units are meters. Looks good!