Role-play as a Heritage Practice

Role-play as a Heritage Practice is the first book to examine physically per-

formed role-enactments, such as live-action role-play (LARP), tabletop role-
playing games (TRPG), and hobbyist historical reenactment (RH), from a
combined game studies and heritage studies perspective.
Demonstrating that non-digital role-plays, such as TRPG and LARP, share
many features with RH, the book contends that all three may be considered
as heritage practices. Studying these role-plays as three distinct genres of
playful, participatory and performative forms of engagement with cultural
heritage, Mochocki demonstrates how an exploration of the affordances of
each genre can be valuable. Showing that a player’s engagement with history
or heritage material is always multi-layered, the book clarifies that the layers
may be conceptualised simultaneously as types of heritage authenticity and as
types of in-game immersion. It is also made clear that RH, TRPG and LARP
share commonalities with a multitude of other media, including video games,
historical fiction and film. Existing within, and contributing to, the fiction and
non-fiction mediasphere, these role-enactments are shaped by the same large-
scale narratives and discourses that persons, families, communities, and
nations use to build memory and identity.
Role-play as a Heritage Practice will be of great interest to academics and
students engaged in the study of heritage, memory, nostalgia, role-playing,
historical games, performance, fans and transmedia narratology.

Michał Mochocki, PhD, works as Assistant Professor at Kazimierz Wielki

University in Bydgoszcz, Poland. His research interests focus on non-digital and
digital role-playing games, which he approaches from the angles of narratology
and heritage studies. In addition to academic research, his knowledge of histor-
ical role-enactments comes from first-hand experience as reenactor, educator,
RPG writer and designer. He is a member of Games Research Association of
Poland, Digital Game Research Association, and International Game Devel-
opers Association.
Role-play as a Heritage Practice

Historical Larp, Tabletop RPG and

Reenactment

Michał Mochocki
First published 2021
by Routledge
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© 2021 Michał Mochocki
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asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Mochocki, Michal, author.
Title: Role-play as a heritage practice : historical LARP, tabletop RPG and
reenactment / Michal Mochocki.
Other titles: Historical LARP, tabletop RPG and reenactment
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020046651 (print) | LCCN 2020046652 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367673062 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003130956 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: History--Study and teaching--Simulation methods. | Historical
reenactments. | Educational games. | Fantasy games.
Classification: LCC D16.255.S5 M63 2020 (print) | LCC D16.255.S5 (ebook) |
DDC 907.1--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020046651
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020046652

ISBN: 978-0-367-67306-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-67349-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13095-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Taylor & Francis Books
To Aleksandra and Alicja, for all things that matter.
Contents

List of tables x
Acknowledgements xi
List of abbreviations xii

Introduction: Heritage and role-playing 1

0.1 Heritage role-playing studies: towards a dual methodology 3
0.2 The road not quite taken: historical game studies 7
0.3 The nature of heritage: not about the past 8
0.4 The substance of heritage: tangible + intangible = symbiotic 9
0.5 The studies of heritage: theories and methods 12
0.6 Performance and spectacle in heritage studies 14
0.7 What is LARP and TRPG? 16

1 Heritage authenticity meets game immersion 24

1.1 The concept of authenticity in heritage studies 24
1.2 Authentic heritage experiences in the experience economy 27
1.3 Authenticity and accuracy in historical game studies 29
1.4 The concept of immersion in heritage practices 31
1.5 The concept of authenticity and game immersion/
incorporation 32

2 Immersion, authenticity, and implicit fandoms in site/event

visitation 40
2.1 Embodied performance, authenticity, and immersion in
SEVs 40
2.2 History/heritage buffs as transmedia fandoms 50
viii Contents

3 RH+TRPG+LARP: Prototypical models and first-person

audience 66
3.1 Prototypical models 66
3.2 First-person audience in heritage engagement 75

4 RH+TRPG+LARP as narrative media 91

4.1 Historical storyworlds 91
4.2 RH+TRPG+LARP as narrative media 100

5 Performative representation of heritage 115

5.1 Larp and semiotics of embodied performance 115
5.2 Representational game mechanics 131
5.3 Narratorial voice and other media 140

6 Processual enactment of RH+TRPG+LARP storyworlds 151

6.1 Processually enacted storyworlds in LARP 152
6.2 Enactedness and definiteness of storyworld components 154
6.3 Pre-game phase 155
6.4 The game/event itself 160
6.5 Post-game phase 163

7 Immersion/involvement in activity and environment 169

7.1 Activity immersion/involvement and bodily-habit memory 171
7.2 Environment immersion/involvement and cultural presence 180

8 Immersion/involvement in character and game 193

8.1 Character immersion/involvement and prosthetic memory 193
8.2 Game immersion/involvement and emersive game logic 207

9 Narrative immersion/involvement and authorised heritage

discourse 220
9.1 Macro phase: authorised and un-authorised discourses 222
9.2 Micro phase: immersion/involvement in narrative 226
 Contents ix

10 Community immersion/involvement and dissonant heritages 244

10.1 Micro phase: immersion/involvement in community 246
10.2 Macro phase: community involvement and dissonant
heritages 253

Conclusions 272

Index 277
Tables

0.1 Overlapping areas of game studies and heritage studies 4

1.1 Authenticity in heritage studies and experience economy 28
1.2 Experiential heritage authenticity vs. game involvement/
immersion 35
3.1 Characteristics of prototypical models 76
5.1 Larp/game mechanics as metasymbolic mode of signification 129
6.1 Phases of processual world-building 165
7.1 Affordances for immersion into activity 174
7.2 Affordances for immersion into environment 189
8.1 Affordances for immersion into character 206
8.2 Affordances for immersion into game 215
9.1 Affordances for immersion into narrative 234
10.1 Affordances for immersion into community 266
Acknowledgements

Excerpts from the Imperial Age line of products are the copyright of Ada-
mant Entertainment, and are used with permission.
Table 3.1 includes two columns from “Table 2.1 Common characteristics
across RPG forms” in Zagal & Deterding 2018, eds. Copyright © 2018 From
Role-Playing Game Studies: Transmedia Foundations by José Pablo Zagal and
Sebastian Deterding. Reproduced by permission of Taylor and Francis
Group, LLC, a division of Informa plc.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 include revised material from two published works by
the same author:

 Mochocki, M. 2017. “From Live Action to Live Perception: Player

Character's Point of View”, in Y. Kot (ed.), Larp as a Social Tool. Minsk:
Издатель А. Н. Вараксин.
 Mochocki, M. 2018. “Live Action Role Play: Transmediality, Narrativity and
Markers of Subjectivity”, International Journal of Transmedia Literacy 4.

The mixed Calleja/Bowman/Schmitt/Wang model of immersion+authenticity

from Chapter 1, and (partially) its application to SEV from Chapter 2, come
from the author’s unpublished work “Heritage Sites in Videogames: Questions
of Authenticity and Immersion”, currently under review.
Abbreviations

RH historical reenactment
TRPG tabletop role-playing game
LARP live-action role-play
SEV site/event visitation
GM gamemaster
PC player character
NPC non-player character
OOC out-of-character
SEM strategic experiential module
AHD authorised heritage discourse
Introduction
Heritage and role-playing

Merging heritage studies with role-playing game studies, this book examines
three types of historical role-enactment:

 Historical reenactment (RH): battles and camps staged by costumed

hobbyists geared up with period-accurate replicas and performing period-
accurate physical activities
 Live-action role-playing (LARP): scenarios and situations enacted via
improvised full-body acting by costumed participants role-playing as fic-
tional characters
 Tabletop role-playing games (TRPG): scenarios and situations narrated
by gamemaster and non-costumed participants, who are role-playing fic-
tional characters via a combination of verbal description, voice acting,
body language, and game mechanics

“Each form of historical representation has its own methodology, its own
forms, codes and conventions, and its own cultural value”, say Donnelly &
Norton (2011, 155). These three all employ physical enactment of historical
roles (characters), experienced as first-person audience acting within a repre-
sented period setting. They all rely on fandom-like community culture driven
by collective enthusiasm. They differ in their specific modes of representation
of the historical material, and in forms of interaction with the simulated
environment. From the perspective of heritage studies, I examine RH and
history/heritage-themed TRPG+LARP as performative, participatory and
playful heritage practices. Role-playing game studies focus my attention on
the narrative and gameplay opportunities offered to players/participants (in
particular: forms of player involvement). Taken together, the dual methodo-
logical lens of game studies + heritage studies sheds light from two angles.
Chapter 1 erects the main pillar for bridging these disciplines: a mixed
model of immersion+authenticity, which uses both concepts to describe player/
participant’s engagement with history/heritage material. Such engagement is
always multi-layered, and the layers may be conceptualised simultaneously
as types of heritage authenticity, and of in-game immersion/incorporation.
2 Introduction

Chapter 2 aims to validate this dualistic view by the example of museum visi-
tation: a classic type of heritage practice. As a low-interaction spectator activity
(do-not-touch-the-exhibits), it seems to be far removed from intense gaming
experiences. Nonetheless, its experiential dimensions can indeed be translated to
types of player involvement with virtual environments. Chapter 3 moves from
SEV (site/event visitation) to prototypical models of RH+TRPG+LARP. The
three chapters together situate history/heritage-themed RH+TRPG+LARP next
to SEV as heritage genres that rely on immersion/involvement in historical
environments.
Chapters 4, 5 and 6 explore how those imagined environments are
designed, co-created, represented, and collaboratively enacted in playful
interaction. Already contrasted as distinct media genres in Chapter 3, RH
+TRPG+LARP in Chapter 4 are discussed as narrative media, their immer-
sive environments reframed as storyworlds. Chapter 5 examines the rich
repertoire of modes of communication, semiotic resources, and interaction
protocols used to create and sustain the simulations of those worlds. Chapter
6 is a step-by-step analysis of multiple stages of this process, from the pre-
paratory phase of design and logistics to the live run of the game/event to its
various follow-up activities. This part of the book is dominated by formal and
processual analysis, but it also acknowledges the specificity of historical
content.
Chapters 7 to 10 continue the comparative analysis of RH+TRPG+LARP
+SEV, the analytical focus shifting from creation and representation to
experiential involvement. The formal features examined in earlier chapters are
here re-examined as experiential affordances for involvement/immersion.
Reiterating the assumption about historical settings from Chapter 1, this part
of the book connects types of immersion to types of heritage authenticity.
Chapters 9 and 10 go far beyond the actual game/event to macro-scale
engagement with heritage narratives, social memory, and collective identities.
The six-dimensional model of game involvement by Calleja (2011) was
developed for videogames which represent environments (often, historical)
through digitally represented spaces, objects and living beings. It has been
adapted to forms of immersion in non-digital role-played simulations
(Bowman & Standiford 2016); then expanded to immersion in larp (Bowman
2017), then to both digital and non-digital role-playing (Bowman 2018). I
follow Bowman’s three papers in the adaptation of Calleja’s videogames to
non-digital role-play, but I also quote extensively from the original book-
length study, which includes much more detail. Calleja’s 2011 book remains
the most insightful analysis of game immersion (which he prefers to rename
as ‘incorporation’) to date.
RH+TRPG+LARP do not exist in a vacuum. They have distant as well as
immediate predecessors, from folk rituals and battles staged in the ancient
Colosseum to miniature wargaming, fixed-site amusement parks and the
game of Diplomacy in the 20th century. Set in specific historical periods, they
 Introduction 3

share these settings with a multitude of other media: popular (such as histor-
ical fiction, film, theatre, video game) and academic ones (e.g. history text-
book, journal paper, conference presentation). As Aurell (2015) observes, the
21st century is marked by “an increasing level of creativity in historical
representation” (148). These days, “Multimodality, re-creation, interactivity,
and imagination shape contemporary history; images, social media, games,
and film bear the information that produces our perspectives on the present
and past” (148–149). Existing within (and contributing to) the fiction and
non-fiction mediosphere, historical RH+TRPG+LARP are shaped by the
same large-scale narratives and discourses that persons, families, commu-
nities, and nations use to build memory and identity. Ultimately, “history is
owned by those who experience or engage with it, not only by professional
historians” (Aurell 2015, 149).
I hope to bring historical TRPG+LARP to the attention of heritage scho-
lars and educators, and to encourage them to rethink heritage authenticity in
terms of involvement in immersive environments. I also wish to encourage
game scholars to consider heritage authenticity as an important aspect of
immersion in historical settings.
The book has two limitations I am aware of, resulting from the choice of
research priorities. First of all, its focus on entire genres and genre-specific
affordances prioritises breadth over depth. I investigate detailed character-
istics of six types of immersion/authenticity across four heritage genres, dis-
cussing their formal and experiential affordances. The emerging framework is
illustrated with relevant examples – but not with detailed case studies, which
would require more space than this volume can accommodate. Systematic
case studies of historical TRPG, LARP, and RH should follow in another
book.
The second limitation is Anglocentrism: most examples, prototypical
models and theorising comes from within Anglo-American cultures, with a
significant presence of Nordic larp discourse produced in English. This is only
partially justified by the fact that all three genres of role-enactment emerged
and developed in Anglophone countries. More importantly, this is my delib-
erate research bias as a scholar employed at the Department of Anglophone
Literature & Culture (recently renamed to Department of Anglophone
Literatures).

0.1 Heritage role-playing studies: towards a dual methodology

The use of role-playing studies should raise no eyebrows, as RH+TRPG
+LARP are all based on a playful physical performance of temporarily
adopted roles. Heritage studies, in turn, is justified by the thematic scope:
history/heritage-themed settings. Instead of multiple thematic genres, the
spotlight is on storyworlds representing the past: historical fiction, historical
fantasy, alternate history. Focus on historical LARP and historical TRPG
4 Introduction

brings them to a common denominator with RH. As genres of non-digital

role-play, they may be studied with regard to shared and medium-specific
characteristics as games/play. As forms of creative engagement with the past,
they are heritage practices.
Which methodology is dominant, then? Is this a heritage studies book on
three forms of performative heritage practices, or vice versa: role-playing
game studies on three types of non-digital role-enactment? It wants to be
both. As reflected in the title, my ambition is to integrate ‘role-playing’ +
‘heritage’ in a dual methodology standing equally strong on both legs. The
co-presence of role-play and heritage in historical RH+TRPG+LARP is not
the only rationale behind such approach. As I have argued before (Mochocki
2018), game studies and heritage studies are already overlapping to a high
degree (see Table 0.1).
The attempt at dual methodology is complicated by the inherently inter-
disciplinary nature of both fields. Heritage studies emerged at the intersection
of history, archaeology, museology, heritage management, leisure and tourism
studies, and left-wing socio-cultural studies (Carman & Sørensen 2009, 11–13),
then expanded its scope to include digital media and audience research (Lewi,
Smith, Cooke & vom Lehn 2020). Game studies comprise interaction studies,
information science, narratology, media studies, social and audience studies and
many more (Mäyrä 2015; Deterding 2016), with role-playing game theories in

Table 0.1 Overlapping areas of game studies and heritage studies

Game studies Shared interests Heritage studies
Object/medium: Formal features Object/medium:
Game  semiotic construct Site, exhibit, artefact, event
 material form
 affordances
Play(er) Experiential features Visitor, user, practitioner
 experience
 processuality
 embodiment
 performativity
 meaning-making
 identity
 agency
 immersion
Culture Cultural context Culture
 discourses
 technology
 economy
 politics/power
 communities
 group identity
 Introduction 5

particular influenced by performance studies (Hoover, Simkins, Deterding,

Meldman & Brown 2018). I consider this a welcome challenge: a challenge to
navigate in the chaotic methodological multiverse, but a welcome opportunity
to select methods, tools and concepts that actually connect the two fields.
My weapon-of-choice is transmedia narratology, which already is a dual
methodology integrating media studies with narratology. Narratology itself
covers more than forty schools of inquiry (Nünning 2003, 249–251), its classical
era influenced by structuralist semiotics whose mindset Ryan & Bell (2019) call
“textualist”. As characterised by Martin (2019, 201–202), the textualist tradition
“took the path of Saussure over Peirce, of Joyce over Borges, of Derrida over
Eco. Imagination was out, science was in; romance was out, realism was in”, yet
“This scientism … was only one of many such cycles in literary history”. In this
book I follow cognitive narratology informed by possible worlds theory, which
“sees reading as a matter of gradually building a model of the fictional world”,
and “imagines narrative primarily in terms of the entities that populate the
world” (Punday 2019, 305). I also refer to enactivist narratology that examines
“how recipients can extend themselves into imaginary spaces and enact the
consciousnesses of fictional characters” (Caracciolo 2014, 207). In particular, I
reach for:

 The concept of media genre (or medium) to frame RH+TRPG+LARP as

role-playing genres and history/heritage genres (see Chapter 4.2)
 The concept of transmedia storyworld to apply it to historical periods as
shared settings for fiction and non-fiction narratives (from historical fiction/
fantasy to academic historiography) in a variety of popular and academic
media (including role-based play and games, and virtual environments), (see
Chapters 2.2, 4.1 and 4.2)
 The concept of mental construct used in transmedia narratology and heri-
tage studies to highlight the cognitive-imaginative nature of the vision of the
storyworld (or: of the past) evoked by narrative media (Chapter 3.2)
 The concept of media affordance with its functional variants: representa-
tional, interaction, experiential, narrative; plus the general concept of
narrative agency as the power to use the available affordances for world-
building and storytelling (Chapters 5 and 6)
 The concept of medium-specificity in media-conscious narratology, which
aims to identify which affordances and limitations are medium-neutral
and medium-specific (Chapters 4 and 5)
 Comparative media analysis as a method based on a close study of
medium-specific affordances of several related media genres (Chapters 5
to 10)

From the role-playing game studies point of view, RH+TRPG+LARP are

all genres of non-digital role-playing next to children’s pretend-play, improv
theatre, military simulations (milsims), Renaissance Faires etc. In the lens of
6 Introduction

heritage studies, history-themed RH+TRPG+LARP are genres of heritage

(also called popular/public history) next to historical/heritage feature film,
miniature wargaming, historical novel, Renaissance Faire, historical music/
dance festival etc. These popular heritage genres are contrasted with genres of
academic history (conference talk, journal paper, monograph, school text-
book, film documentary) and expert-curated heritage (museum exhibit,
museum website, museum theatre, living history site, 3D virtual heritage
environment).
They all have at least three things in common:

 They are media: culturally recognised as different kinds (whether called

media, genres, forms, pastimes etc.) by practitioners and audiences. It
makes them eligible for comparative media analysis based on affordances
stemming from their technical, semiotic and cultural characteristics. This
I do in Chapters 1 and 2 on the example of traditional non-interactive
(spectatorial) visits to heritage sites/events, contrasting it with proto-
typical models of RH+TRPG+LARP.
 They are narrative media: represent (historical) environments populated
by (historical) characters involved in situations and events. This opens
them for content analysis, but also for formal analysis as above, focused
on the narrative function of media affordances. Consequently, Chapters 4
to 6 explore the representational affordances (how to represent/enact the
storyworld) of RH+TRPG+LARP and SEV (site/event visitation), and
Chapters 7 to 10 focus on the experiential aspects of the above (how
the representations/enactments facilitate involvement and immersion in
heritage).
 They share storyworlds across media: the same historical setting (period +
region) is represented in multiple media across the popular/academic,
fiction/non-fiction, and digital/non-digital divides. This encourages me to
look at historical periods as transmedia storyworlds parallel to the uni-
verses of big entertainment brands such as Harry Potter, the Witcher,
Game of Thrones etc. Accordingly, in the last two chapters I move away
from comparative media studies to an integrational perspective of shared
narratives and discourses flowing across media platforms.

A narratological approach to historical settings has further support in the

philosophy of history. Academic historians have largely abandoned claims to
objective truth, accepting the view of history as an imaginative reconstruction
(Collingwood’s philosophy of history; see Nielsen 1981), and of historio-
graphy as partially-fictionalised narratives based on such imaginations (this
view popularised by Hayden White (1973), and repeatedly by Alun Munslow
and Robert Rosenstone, editors of the Rethinking History journal). This book
subscribes to that point of view, productive as it has been in studies on his-
torical drama (Schreiber 2016) and video games (Chapman 2016).
 Introduction 7

0.2 The road not quite taken: historical game studies

TRPG+LARP with historical settings fall within the scope of historical game
studies: “the study of those games that in some way represent the past or
relate to discourses about it” (Chapman 2016). This field is overwhelmingly
dominated by video games, as indicated e.g. by the list of references in
“Introduction: what is historical game studies?” to Rethinking History 21:3
(Chapman, Foka & Westin 2017). Studies on board games (e.g. Begy 2015) or
TRPG (e.g. White 2014) are few and far between. On larp – virtually non-
existent in the ‘historical game studies’ circle. Hopefully, I can make a fresh
contribution to the field.
The structure of the book resembles Adam Chapman’s (2016) Digital
games as history: how videogames represent the past and offer access to his-
torical practice. His Part I: Digital Games as History contextualises historical
video games as interactions with history – so do I in Chapters 1 and 2 for
TRPG+LARP as heritage practices. My Chapters 4 to 6 run parallel to his
Part II: Digital Games as Historical Representations. Eventually, my Chap-
ters 7 to 10 follow many of the same threads as his Part III: Digital Games as
Systems for Historying, especially his Chapter 7: “Affording Heritage
Experiences, Reenactment and Narrative Historying”. We both talk about
affordances, narratives, representations etc. There are three major differences:
digital (Chapman) versus non-digital (me); game genres including non-RPGs
(him) versus role-plays including non-games (me); and most importantly:
history versus heritage.
It is due to the latter that I do not cite Chapman as frequently as I other-
wise would. The major contribution I wish to bring into historical game stu-
dies is not the non-digital role-playing genres – it is the conceptual framework
of heritage studies. The history-based approach faces the problem of massive
non-historicity of the so-called historical content in games. By this I do not
mean occasional inaccuracies, factual errors and oversimplifications, although
this is part of it. I am thinking of total disregard for history in games which
use a few superficial historical elements but make no attempt at any coherent
vision of the past. For instance, the Chinese mobile game Honor of Kings
(2015) mixes mythical and historical characters as MOBA fighters. “Many of
Honor of Kings’ heroes are drawn from Chinese history, but the game makes
major changes in line with its fantastical theme and to accommodate its
gameplay”, say Liboriussen & Martin (2018). There is no vision of a histor-
ical past: no historical economy, society, geography, timeline or politics in the
background. Just names of real historical figures with fantasy-style visual
representation and magical powers that have little, if anything, to do with the
historical biographies. This is clearly not historical content: loosely inspired
by history, at best.
One way out of the problem is to expand the definition of historicity by the
category of “popularised history” (Liboriussen & Martin 2018)1 or “popular
8 Introduction

history” (Chapman 2016). Related terms outside game studies include “pop-
ular historymaking” (Rosenzweig & Thelen 1998) and “public history” (Dean
2018). Reframing such material as a special kind of history (one that does not
need any semblance of actual history) enables scholars to study even loose,
fragmentary, inaccurate and inconsistent historical inspirations as representa-
tions of history – and forms of interaction with history. It certainly opens
more territory for historical game scholarship. But it comes at the price of
rejecting the notion of history being a rigorous effort to study and understand
the past.
Trying to understand the past as a possibly coherent vision is, in my opi-
nion, the very essence of history. If a new branch of history abandons this
quest, I would hardly call it history at all. If it prefers creative play with bits
and pieces taken from history, legend and myth, mixed freely with fiction and
the designer’s imagination – this is heritage. “Creative engagement with the
past in the present” (Harrison 2013, 4) is the domain of heritage studies.
Therefore, what I cherrypick from the archive of ‘historical game studies’ are
studies of ‘virtual heritage’ and ‘Cultural Presence’ (Champion 2011; 2015)
rather than ‘history’.
This is, however, my personal view. Historians themselves can be more
generous with their disciplinary scope, recognising “professional and popular
historians” (Rosenzweig & Thelen 1998, 2; my emphasis). And it is not my
place to correct them. I am not going to claim that the ‘heritage approach’ is
essentially better and should be universally adopted. Least of all by histor-
ians, who understandably want to remain in their discipline. The heritage
approach is better for me, coming to historical games as I do from a culture
studies/literary studies background. As I took the trouble to write this book, I
obviously assume it will work for other scholars, too, but it is for the readers
to judge.

0.3 The nature of heritage: not about the past

Heritage is not history. What emerges in the literature as the most essential fea-
ture is that “heritage is primarily not about the past, but instead about our rela-
tionship with the present and the future” (Harrison 2013, 4; original emphasis).
Heritage “has always been produced by people according to their contemporary
concerns and experiences” (Harvey 2001, 320). In other words, “the present
selects an inheritance from an imagined past for current use and decides what
should be passed on to an imagined future” (Tunbridge & Ashworth 1996, 6).
Throughout this book, I will consistently use the term history to refer to the past
as it happened, or to the academic discipline that studies this past. The term
heritage will be used in accordance with the above.
One way to understand heritage is as a construct or “product shaped from
history” (Tunbridge & Ashworth 1996, 20): one “that attributes ‘significance’
to certain places, artifacts, and forms of behavior from the past” (Silberman
 Introduction 9

2016, 36). This construct presents “a version of the past received through
objects and display, representations and engagements, spectacular locations
and events, memories and commemorations, and the preparation of places for
cultural purposes and consumption” (Waterton & Watson 2015, 1). Whether
cultural or natural, “all heritage is a mental construct” (Nic Craith & Kockel
2016, 430), shaped in “a process of making and re-making narratives” (Dull
2013, 2). The means of narrative representation of the past in RH+TRPG
+LARP and their experiential affordances come in Chapters 4 to 10. On the
community level, the discursive construct may be studied as a relatively fixed
legacy of a given group and/or time period, which I explore in the final
chapter. However, it is perhaps the process, not the product, that is more
interesting to study.
Heritage is a process of social meaning-making. Smith goes as much as to
claim that “there is no such thing as heritage” (Smith 2006, 13), meaning that
objects and places do not owe their heritage value to any inherent material fea-
tures, only to a collective decision of a community or power structure. In the
institutional and national dimension, “heritage is heritage because it is subjected
to the management and preservation/conservation process, not because it simply
‘is’” (3). Moreover, once-established visions of heritage are in a constant flux,
created as they are “by social groups, whose composition and self-perceptions
change with time” (Silberman 2016, 36). In the personal dimension of ancestral
legacy, “the real moment of heritage when our emotions and sense of self are
truly engaged, is not so much in the possession of the necklace, but in the act of
passing on and receiving memories and knowledge (Smith 2006, 2).
Harvey (2001) suggests that the term be used as a verb, coining the name
heritageisation. The social construction of heritage operates via narrative
media (see Chapters 4, 5 and 9), especially ones with embodied performances
(Chapters 2.1, 5.1 and 7.1), and is conditioned by pre-existing heritage dis-
courses (Chapters 1, 2, 9 and 10).
Heritage is a process of personal experience: “an embodied cultural per-
formance of meaning-making” (Smith & Campbell 2016, 443) which is
grounded in the social and political, but experienced individually. It is “sub-
jectively constructed, reconstructed, emergent in situ, modulated by affect and
bodily immersive” (Waterton & Watson 2015, 12), and may include “virtually
anything by which some kind of link, however tenuous or false, may be
forged with the past” (Johnson & Thomas 1995, 170). The experiential
dimension of RH+TRPG+LARP, with their performative, participatory, and
embodied perspective as first-person audience, is discussed in Chapter 3.2 and
throughout Chapters 7 to 10.

0.4 The substance of heritage: tangible + intangible = symbiotic

Before heritage studies emerged as an autonomous and self-aware field of
academic inquiry in the 1980s, there had already been a vast array of studies
10 Introduction

on heritage conducted within archaeology, history, art history, museology etc.,

dating back to the age of Enlightenment (Carman & Sørensen 2009, 11–13).
Then, rapid industrialisation in the 19th century brought about governmental
efforts for the preservation and protection of heritage (Carman & Sørensen
2009, 15). The first examples of such national legislation are the Ancient
Monuments Protection Act (1882) in England and the Federal Antiquities
law (1906) in the USA. The European model of heritage management and
protection was spread across the globe under the colonial administrations,
and reached the status of international law due to transnational agreements
such as the Venice Charter (1964), and the influential World Heritage List
(1972) due to which “the full-blown concept of ‘world heritage’ took promi-
nence on the global stage” (Ruggles & Silverman 2009, 5). All these early
documents defined heritage as material remnants of the past, “focused nar-
rowly on … monuments and sites” (Logan & Smith 2009, xii). As extensively
discussed by Smith (2006), this globally-implemented approach to heritage
was essentially the “Western Authorized Heritage Discourse (AHD) that
defines heritage as material (tangible), monumental, grand, ‘good’, aesthetic
and of universal value” (Smith & Akagawa 2009, 3).
This gradually changed to include not only the tangible natural (next to cul-
tural) heritage but also “an ever-increasing emphasis on the intangible aspects
of heritage and tradition (Harrison 2013, 13). Ahmad (2006) traces this
changing definition of heritage in as many as 40 international agreements
(293–294). This change was fuelled by the rise of critical heritage studies in the
1980s (see 0.5 below: theories of heritage), which challenged the Western
cultural hegemony. The shift from the material to the intangible was facilitated,
among other things, by voices coming from Asian countries (Akagawa 2016),
but also from Africa and from various indigenous peoples living in Americas
and Australia (Aygen & Logan 2016, 417). For the Japanese, “historic build-
ings may be regularly and entirely rebuilt with modern materials and techni-
ques without compromising their heritage values or sense of authenticity”
(Smith 2006, 54–55). Australian Aborigines give primacy to oral stories and
physical practices over material sites (Smith 2006, 45–47); for instance, they
practise repeated repainting of the Wandjina rock-art, which in the Western
view was seen as vandalism and desecration of ancient heritage sites (Bowdler
1988; Hampson 2013). The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage (UNESCO, 2003) is recognised as “an attempt to
acknowledge and privilege non-Western manifestations and practices of heri-
tage” (Smith & Akagawa 2009, 1). It was not universally implemented in
national heritage regulations – for example, England was adamant in its focus
on physical historic environments (Smith & Waterton, 2009) – but on the
international level UNESCO has officially recognised non-material culture as
another sector of heritage.
The final step in this debate is integrationist. Nic Craith & Kockel (2016)
warn against the separation of these concepts and urge UNESCO to
 Introduction 11

reconsider “whether separate lists and definitions for tangible and intangible
heritage should be continued” (438). Ultimately, heritage “cannot be defined
by its materiality or non-materiality, but rather by what is done with it”
(Smith & Waterton 2009, 292). Smith brings them to a common denominator by
universalisation of the intangible: “all heritage is ‘intangible’ whether these
values or meanings are symbolized by a physical site, place, landscape or other
physical representation, or are represented within the performances of languages,
dance, oral histories or other forms of ‘intangible heritage’” (Smith 2006, 56).
Indeed, with heritage scholars widely adopting the view of heritage as a
mental construct and social process, the tangible form may be seen as com-
pletely reliant on “a shifting range of intangible cultural values that are used
to give meaning to places and events” (Smith & Waterton 2009, 292). On the
other hand, the tangible form may be analogically universalised by insisting
that all heritage depends on materiality, with intangible culture “embodied in
people rather than in inanimate objects” (Logan 2007, 33; also Smith 2006,
57). The human body is a tangible carrier of meanings and values, a “mobile
monument” (Gapps 2010, 50), “a site in which social identity and political
attitudes are expressed” (Ruggles & Silverman 2009, 2), just like the built
monuments and sites. “In short, focus has shifted from the visual/symbolic
consumption of objects and sites towards the actual (co-)presence of living,
breathing, sensing and doing bodies with the objects and material settings
provided” (Haldrup & Baerenholdt 2015, 53). Physical role-enactments come
to mind as perfect examples.
In this book, I subscribe to the ‘integrated’ or ‘holistic’ view postulated by
Bouchenaki (2003) as “a symbiotic relationship between the tangible and the
intangible” (2). Tangible heritage should be firmly placed in the wider context
of the intangible “spiritual, political and social values” (4), intangible forms
should be safeguarded by recording in “some form of materiality” (4), and spe-
cial attention should be given to “practitioners and tradition holders” whose
bodies are transmitters of culture (4). What Bouchenaki (2003) compares to two
inseparable sides of one coin, Nic Craith & Kockel (2015) metaphorise as the
Yin/Yang forces in “The Tao of Heritage”: “two sides of a coin do not (usually)
interact, whereas Yin and Yang do” (2). Harrison (2013) sees heritage neither
“as a set of tangible ‘things’, nor as intangible expressions and practices, but
instead as relational and emergent in the dialogue between people, objects,
places and practices” (226). Several international charters already adopted the
symbiotic approach (e.g. the ICOMOS 2004 declaration cited in Nic Craith &
Kockel 2016, 430). In summary, Nic Craith & Kockel (2016) recall the long
tradition of studying material culture as “‘cultural expressions’ along similar
lines to cultural practices and beliefs” (438).
As discussed in Chapter 3 and further, RH+TRPG+LARP have different
relationships between the tangible and intangible elements. Material culture is
the dominant factor in RH, important in live-action role-play, and minor in
TRPG (Bienia 2016). Intangible heritage permeates all.
12 Introduction

0.5 The studies of heritage: theories and methods

As Waterton and Watson (2015) report, within heritage studies

the emphasis has undoubtedly changed from a concern with objects

themselves … to the ways in which they are consumed and expressed as
notions of culture, identity and politics. More recently, heritage scholars
have also started to concern themselves with processes of engagement and
the construction of meaning, so that a post-post-structural, or more-than-
representational, labyrinth of individuated, affective, experiential and
embodied themes has started to emerge.
(1)

Simultaneously, the practices of both entertainment- and education-oriented

heritage industry are increasingly based on participatory activities (Beverland &
Farrelly 2010; Cerquetti 2018). At the same time, history and heritage fre-
quently becomes the topic and educational agenda of commercial popular cul-
ture and of non-commercial activities of fan communities. History and heritage
is (and has always been) part of TRPG+LARP (see Chapter 3), and the
essence of RH.
It has become standard in heritage studies literature to highlight the mul-
titude of understandings of heritage and approaches to its management and
analysis. One important division is between “two important sets of heritage
practices, those focused on management and conservation of heritage sites,
places and objects, and those tied to the visitation of sites and institutions
within tourism and leisure activities” (Smith 2006, 12). The scope of this
book partially overlaps with the latter (tourism and leisure activities), but is
not limited to visitation of sites.
Another conceptualisation of the field lists three areas: theories in, of, and
for heritage (Waterton & Watson 2013). Primarily concerned with tangible
heritage (see 0.4 above), theories in heritage comprise the above-mentioned
operational concerns of conservation, management and visitation, with strong
links to tourism and education. This literature is not interested in theorising
heritage as such, but in finding practical solutions for the heritage industry
(548–549). This is not a handbook for heritage professionals, so I will refrain
from formulating guidelines. Nonetheless, readers interested in practical
applications may study Chapters 4 to 10 to see how RPG+LRP+RH are (and
how they may be) integrated with the for-profit and non-profit practices of
heritage institutions.
Theories of heritage, developed since the 1980s,

moved thinking about heritage away from its objects towards its social
and cultural context and significance … concerned with questioning the
representation of meaning, especially hegemonic meanings, about a past
 Introduction 13

that effectively validates a national present or re-inscribes it with

essentialisms.
(550)

These works are located within the neo-Marxist cultural studies, analysing the
construction of heritage as value-laden representations (often with post-
structuralist and semotic angle), as well as the reliance of heritage on political
discourses and structures of power (including feminist and post-colonial per-
spectives) (550–551). Harvey’s concept of heritageisation (2001), Smith’s
authorised heritage discourse (2006), Ashworth & Tunbridge’s dissonance
(1996), and Harrison’s dialogue (2013) are instrumental for my discussion of
history-themed RPG+LRP+RH within the social and discursive aspects of
heritage, with special focus on the political and identity-related issues deba-
ted in the Nordic and American role-playing communities (see Chapters 9
and 10).
Theories for heritage deal with

questions that ask us about our very being, and what happens to our
bodies, ourselves? … questions about the role played by the personal, the
ordinary and the everyday, within spaces of heritage, whether they are
physical, discursive or affective.
(Waterton & Watson 2013, 551)

The authors recommend that such theories be “framed in terms of practice

and performance … advocating an understanding of heritage devised at the
moment that we are doing it” (555). These theories go beyond the semiotic-
representational-ideological concerns ‘of ’ heritage, delving into the subjective,
embodied, affective, non-representational and non-discursive experience
people have when they engage with heritage. Specifically, Waterton & Watson
(2013) mention the actor-network theory, mobilities theory, and theory of
affect (551–555) which “do not seek to become theories of heritage … but
they may be used for heritage as an extraneous source of theoretical and
explanatory motility” (554). The authors postulate “a consideration of affect
that works for heritage and takes into account the intensity that moves
between bodies and places, registering as feelings and emotion” (54). After
all, “museums and heritage sites are places where people go to feel” (Smith &
Campbell 2016, 445), and so are heritage events such as RPG+LRP+RH.
Theories ‘for heritage’ include role-playing studies on immersion and first-
person audience, which also focus on subjectivity, performativity, and embo-
died experientiality. This I discuss in Chapters 1 to 3, and 7 to 10. I do not
survey player experiences myself, however. My theorisation of the experiential
(immersive) aspect is an extension of the formal analysis of narrative affor-
dances. Using prior theories of involvement/immersion as well as existing
player/visitor research, I translate the representational and interaction
14 Introduction

affordances for storytelling (identified in Chapters 4 to 6) to experiential

affordances for involvement/immersion (Chapters 7 to 10).

0.6 Performance and spectacle in heritage studies

The performative turn in culture and in culture/social studies has had a profound
impact on tourism, heritage and heritage studies (Burke 2005). Goffman’s (1959)
highly influential idea of social framings and performances in everyday life
implies that specific situations (‘occasions’ in Burke’s occasionalism), such as
visiting heritage sites and commemoration events, necessarily involve the adop-
tion of a specifically framed role (museum-goer or festival attendant) and require
a performance of specific behaviours. One influential work that has set trends for
performance-orientation in tourism studies is Abercrombie & Longhurst’s study
of media audiences (1998). They highlight the increasing role of spectacle and
performance in the 20th century society, including the ‘spectaclization’ of not
just people but also places, and the increasingly performative behaviours of mass
audiences and diffused audiences. Theirs is the concept of spectacle/performance
paradigm as the third paradigm in audience studies.
Defining a research paradigm as “a network of assumptions which pre-
scribe what kinds of issues are proper research problems” (Abercrombie &
Longhurst 1998, 3), they first discuss the behavioural paradigm (focused on
the one-directional impact of media messages on audiences) and the incor-
poration/resistance paradigm (focused on the tension between the messages of
the hegemonic cultural order and the resistant or negotiated readings by
minority audiences). The spectacle/performance paradigm they propose is
based on two major assumptions: (1) the audience plays an active performa-
tive role; (2) being an audience of a medium is integrated in everyday perfor-
mativity related to personal and group identity. Although they do not use the
term, they herald the phenomenon of prosumption, coined by Toffler (1980)
and already making its way in the language of business and marketing (e.g.
Kotler 1986).
Within ten years, their concept of active audience and identity-construction
has been repeatedly addressed in museum studies (Stylianou-Lambert 2010,
136), being a part of the general trend in tourism studies. Urry & Larsen
(2011) list eight aspects of the performance turn in tourism (190–194):

1 Shift from mere viewing ‘tourist gaze’ to ‘multi-sensous’ embodied and

interactive experience
2 Goffman’s dramaturgical sociology applied to the study of performative
actions and interactions in tourism situations
3 Focus on the involvement of multiple actors (agents): tourists, managers,
personnel, social norms and habits
4 Focus on the partial indeterminacy, unpredictability, non-standardisation
and creativity of tourist performance
 Introduction 15

5 Shift from the view of tourist places as fixed and passive to places as
imagined, negotiated, changeable and performed
6 Focus on material objects and technologies and their affordances for the
tourist experience
7 Focus on contextual connections of tourism with the everyday personal,
professional, family and communal lives
8 Shift from the “representational and textual readings of tourism” to
“ethnographies of what humans and institutions enact and stage to make
tourism and performances happen” (194)

Tourism studies is highly relevant for heritage studies, with heritage sites
and practices being at the core of the so-called cultural tourism. The heritage
industry is an integral part of the tourism economy. In the UK, for instance,
Light (2015) estimates that 58.2 per cent of the whole tourism industry is
heritage-based, amounting to “£12.4 billion annually for the UK economy
and supporting 195,000 jobs”, according to 2010 data from Heritage Lottery
Fund (147). Kershaw (1994), for instance, talks about heritage and tourism in
one breath, noticing the growing performativity of “the heritage and tourist
industries, where costume drama – whether in the form of retro-dressing or
the contemporary couture of slick uniforms – is increasingly the norm” (166).
Smith & Campbell (2016) insist it “is not just that heritage and museums
have a performative element, but that these performances are embodied acts
involving complex relationships between emotion, memory (both personal
and social), and cognition” (453). Bagnall (2003) emphasises that “this emo-
tional and imaginary relationship is engendered by the physicality of the
process of consumption” (87). The body is a “space of visceral processing”
(Papoulias & Callard 2010, 34). Even mental and spiritual experiences, non-
physical as they appear, emerge from the physico-chemical corporeality of the
processes running in the ‘hardware’ of human brain, nervous system, hor-
mone glands, etc. The deeper into the 21st century, the greater attention is
paid to the body in the humanities and social sciences, accurately termed “the
embodied turn” (Nevile 2015). Heritage studies does not fall behind, with
embodiment-focused papers and theories now universally present in compre-
hensive volumes outlining the state of the art: Graham & Howard (2008);
Waterton & Watson (2015); Logan, Nic Craith & Kockel (2016), including
Intangible Heritage Embodied by Ruggles & Silverman (2009).
Haldrup & Baerenholdt (2015) talk about three kinds of performances.
There is performance of heritage by staff and volunteers at heritage sites for
visitors, such as live theatre and first-person interpretation (55–58). Then,
there is performance at heritage sites by visitors themselves, which includes
their interactions with the staff (e.g. reenactors / living history interpreters),
performance of activities afforded for tourists, as well as their own inter-
pretations, emotional and intellectual engagements (58–61). As I elaborate
further on (Chapter 3.2), in the first-person audience of RPG+LARP and
16 Introduction

some of RH, when the roles of performers and audience collapse into each
other (there being no other audience than the participants), so do the perfor-
mances of and performances at. Finally, there is performance with heritage going
on around and after the heritage visits in private and social lives, when people
reach for souvenirs, photos and memories to reminisce, discuss, re-interpret and
share their experiences (61–64). This equally applies to RH+TRPG+LARP,
examined at length in Chapter 10. First, however (Chapter 2), I will focus on the
visitor’s performances in traditional SEV (site/event visitation), where I am pri-
marily interested in performance at and with heritage.
As a footnote to point 2 from Urry & Larsen’s list, I wish to highlight
Haldrup & Baerenholdt’s (2015) observation about the theoretical founda-
tions. Whereas “the empirical studies that have fuelled the turn towards per-
formance have drawn on Goffman’s dramaturgical sociology … the
performance turn in tourist, leisure and museum studies … has not been
strongly connected to post-structural/linguistic notions of performativity as
advanced by Butler” (53–54). Urry & Larsen’s The Tourist Gaze 3.0 (2011)
assumes “the top-down approach of Foucault and the bottom-up approach of
Goffman are both necessary” (189). I will draw from both theoretical threads,
the dramaturgical and the linguistic/discursive. The former prevails in Chap-
ters 4 to 6, the latter in 7 to 10.

0.7 What is LARP and TRPG?

This last leg of the Introduction is aimed at readers unfamiliar with LARP
and tabletop RPG. Assuming that my target audience will be knowledgeable
about RH, I will try first to explain LARP by comparison to RH, and then
move from LARP to TRPG.
Legion: Siberian Story is an annually-held historical larp about the Cze-
choslovak legion formed in Russia in 1917 during the Russian Civil War. Like
an RH event, it is a three-day collective role-enactment with costuming, props
(replicas), and physical performance of combat and non-combat activities.
There is no audience, only participants. The main physical challenge is a 20-
kilometer walk in a relatively difficult terrain in cold weather, as the larp is
always held in winter. The organisers have prepared the route, the equipment,
the places to sleep, and the fictional biographies of the characters. The play-
ers, in a survival-like challenge, face the cold, the march, daily chores such as
food preparation, and occasional fights with the enemy. All the time they
should play-pretend to be the historical (though fictitious) character.
This is a major difference: unlike RH, instead of generic soldiers, players
impersonate individual characters with elaborate (often dramatic) backstories,
personalities, and worldviews. Like RH battles, Legion also has a loose pre-
scripted scenario for the opening scene, the finale, and some on-the-road
events. Unlike RH, combat happens merely in small episodes. Larps rely first
and foremost on unscripted social role-play in the shoes of the imaginary
 Introduction 17

characters. The core of the experience is improvised interpersonal behaviour,

in-character dialogue, cooperation and conflicts with other co-players imper-
sonating 1917 legionnaires trying to get home out of the hell of the Bolshevik
revolution.
Not all larps are historical. Many take players to contemporary, futuristic, or
fantastic settings. Not all involve strenuous physical effort outdoors; they may be
played by 10 (or fewer) characters in a single room. Not all are documented as
well as Legion, which has a strong coverage online that will remain searchable
even if the official website should disappear. My advice for readers who had not
been introduced to the notion of LARP is to start with the Nordic Larp book
(Stenros & Montola 2010), which includes text and photo reports on about 30
different games. Limited though it is to the Nordic cultures, it is more than
enough to demonstrate the nature of larp and its varieties. A free PDF version is
available online. A more recent and comprehensive account can be found in
Chapters 2 and 5 in Zagal & Deterding (2018).
TRPG is similar to LARP in personal identification of the player with an
individualised character, and ongoing enactment of this character in impro-
vised dialogue. But it takes place indoors, among several players sitting
around a table, without costumes, props, or full-body acting. The physical
enactment of the character is reduced to voice acting with accompanying
body language. Beside speaking and gesturing, all physical actions of the
character are narrated by the player, and success or failure is usually deter-
mined by the game rules (e.g. with dice). The whole physical environment, as
well as the bodies and behaviours of other characters than those impersonated
by the players at the table, are also narrated or rules-generated by one player
adopting the function of gamemaster (GM). Since all player-declared inter-
actions in/with the imagined world are mediated through communication with
the GM, the number of players ‘serviced’ by one GM rarely reaches ten,
typically between two and five.
If there was a TRPG version of the Legion, the creation of player char-
acters would be identical in its narrative layer, i.e. inventing the biographies
and characterisations. Preparation for play would differ immensely. LARP
requires physical travel to the game location, costuming, equipping, and
practicing safe combat in pre-LARP workshops. TRPG is similar to digital
RPG: a structured character sheet is filled with statistics, skills, and equip-
ment quantified in the game ruleset. Instead of physical practice, players need
to learn the game rules (mechanics) that represent combat, skill use, and other
challenging actions of the imaginary characters. If the opening scene of the
game cast players as a group of characters setting up camp to cook food, in
LARP they actually (physically) have to build the campfire and use real food
provided by the organisers. In TRPG, they would verbally declare they build
the campfire (the GM may order a dice-based skill test to see if the characters
succeed), and they declare they eat food they have listed in the inventory. If
the camp is attacked, in LARP it will be a semi-real physical struggle
18 Introduction

following safety rules practiced in the pre-game workshops, acted out between
the players at the camp and the attackers role-played by staff sent by the
organisers. In TRPG the GM will verbally describe the arrival of attackers,
and the fight will progress by alternating declarations: each player narrating
the actions of his/her character, and the GM the actions of the attackers. The
GM will also supervise the application of combat rules from the game ruleset.
Verbal in-character communication, however, will be roughly the same in
TRPG and LARP. The LARP version of the Czechoslovak soldier would tell
his/her sad life story using the player’s own immersed voice while sitting by the
campfire – the TRPG version would employ the same voice-acting at the gaming
table.
Chapters 3 to 6 will further elaborate on the formal features of RH+TRPG
+LARP. Nonetheless, I realise it is difficult to explain TRPG or LARP to
outsiders through text alone. I strongly recommend reaching for video
presentations, or real ‘actual play’ recordings. For TRPG visual footage is
non-essential, audio podcasts will suffice. I will not link such material
directly, as they often migrate between websites and URLs. Instead, I can
direct readers to official media content of the largest brands. The best
documented LARP is College of Wizardry, organised in Poland since 2014.
In addition to a plethora of official and unofficial YouTube videos and blog
reports, it became global news in 2014–15, inspired an array of academic
and popular papers, and an entire book ed. by Stenros & Montola (2017).
For TRPG introductory material I suggest Dungeons & Dragons, Call of
Cthulhu, and World of Darkness. They all have YouTube channels with
introductions and recordings of actual play sessions. They have been on
the market for decades, and the materials are likely to stay available for
years to come.

Note
1 Shortly before the completion of this book, Liboriussen & Martin published
another paper on “Honor of Kings”, this time (2020) switching to the heritage
approach and citing extensively from heritage studies literature. I confess a pinch of
pride here, as it had been me who advocated the heritage approach to Bjarke at the
History of Games conference in Copenhagen 2018.

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Tonino Pencarelli and Fabio Forlani, 149–168. New York, NY: Springer Berlin
Heidelberg.
Champion, Erik. 2011. Playing with the Past. London and New York: Springer.
Champion, Erik. 2015. Critical Gaming: Interactive History and Virtual Heritage.
Farnham: Ashgate.
20 Introduction

Chapman, Adam. 2016. Digital Games as History: How Videogames Represent the
Past and Offer Access to Historical Practice. New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Chapman, Adam, Anna Foka, and Jonathan Westin. 2017. ‘Introduction: What Is
Historical Game Studies?’ Rethinking History 21 (3): 358–371. https://doi.org/10.
1080/13642529.2016.1256638.
Dean, D. M., ed. 2018. A Companion to Public History. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Deterding, S. 2016. ‘The Pyrrhic Victory of Game Studies: Assessing the Past, Present,
and Future of Interdisciplinary Game Research’. Games and Culture. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1555412016665067.
Donnelly, Mark, and Claire Norton. 2011. Doing History. Doing… Series.
London and New York: Routledge.
Dull, Ian. 2013. ‘Introduction. Sketching Heritage Studies’. In Heritage Studies: Stor-
ies in the Making, edited by Meghan Bowe, Bianca Carpeneti, Ian Dull, and Jesse
Lipkowitz, 1–16. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.
Gapps, Stephen. 2010. ‘On Being a Mobile Monument: Historical Reenactments and
Commemorations’. In Historical Reenactment From Realism to the Affective Turn,
edited by Iain McCalman and Paul A. Pickering, 50–62. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Goffman, Erving. 1990. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York:
Doubleday.
Graham, Brian, and Peter Howard, eds. 2008. The Ashgate Research Companion to
Heritage and Identity. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub. Co.
Haldrup, Michael, and Jorgen Ole Bærenholdt. 2015. ‘Heritage as Performance’. In
The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage Research, edited by Emma
Waterton and Steve Watson, 52–68.
Hampson, Jamie. 2013. ‘Rock Art Heritage and the (Re)Negotiation of Post-Colonial
Identities’. In Heritage Studies: Stories in the Making, edited by Meghan Bowe,
Bianca Carpeneti, Ian Dull, and Jesse Lipkowitz, 141–169. Newcastle: Cambridge
Scholars.
Harrison, Rodney. 2013. Heritage: Critical Approaches. Milton Park and New York:
Routledge.
Harvey, David C. 2001. ‘Heritage Pasts and Heritage Presents: Temporality, Meaning
and the Scope of Heritage Studies’. International Journal of Heritage Studies 7 (4):
319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/13581650120105534.
Honor of Kings. 2015. Tencent Games.
Hoover, Sarah, David Simkins, Sebastian Deterding, David Meldman, and Amanda
Brown. 2018. ‘Performance Studies and Role-Playing Games’. In Role-Playing
Game Studies: Transmedia Foundations, edited by José Pablo Zagal and Sebastian
Deterding. New York: Routledge.
Johnson, P., and B. Thomas. 1995. ‘Heritage as Business’. In Heritage, Tourism and
Society, edited by D.E. Herbert, 170–190. London: Massell.
Kershaw, Baz. 1994. ‘Framing the Audience for Theatre’. In The Authority of the
Consumer, edited by Russell Keat, Nigel Whiteley, and Nicholas Abercrombie, 166–
187. London and New York: Routledge.
Kotler, Philip. 1986. ‘The Prosumer Movement: A New Challenge for Marketers’. In
Advances in Consumer Research, edited by Richard J. Lutz, 13:510–513. Provo, UT:
Association for Consumer Research.
 Introduction 21

Lewi, Hannah, Wally Smith, Steven Cooke, and Dirk Vom Lehn. 2020. ‘Introduction’.
In The Routledge International Handbook of New Digital Practices in Galleries,
Libraries, Archives, Museums and Heritage Sites, edited by Hannah Lewi, Wally
Smith, Dirk Vom Lehn, and Steven Cooke, 1–11.
Liboriussen, Bjarke, and Paul Martin. 2018. ‘The Reception of Chinese History in
Honor of Kings’. Presented at the DiGRA 2018. The Game is the Message, Turin.
Liboriussen, Bjarke, and Paul Martin. 2020. ‘Honour of Kings as Chinese Popular
Heritage: Contesting Authorized History in a Mobile Game’. China Information,
March. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X20908120.
Light, Duncan. 2015. ‘Heritage and Tourism’. In The Palgrave Handbook of Con-
temporary Heritage Research, edited by Emma Waterton and Steve Watson, 144–
157.
Logan, William. 2007. ‘Closing Pandora’s Box: Human Rights Conundrums in Cul-
tural Heritage Protection’. In Cultural Heritage and Human Rights, edited by
Helaine Silverman and D. Fairchild Ruggles, 33–52. New York, NY: Springer.
Logan, William, and Laurajane Smith. 2009. ‘Foreword’. In Intangible Heritage,
edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, vi–vii. London and New York:
Routledge.
Logan, William, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, eds. 2016. A Companion
to Heritage Studies. Chichester and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Martin, Thomas L. 2019. ‘“As Many Worlds as Original Artists” Possible Worlds
Theory and the Literature of Fantasy’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Con-
temporary Narratology, edited by Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 201–224. Lin-
coln: University of Nebraska Press.
Mäyrä, Frans. 2015. ‘The Identity of Game Studies: The Widening Range of Research
in Games and Play’. Keynote speech presented at the Central & Eastern European
Game Studies, Kraków.
Mochocki, Michał. 2018. ‘A Heritage Studies Approach to Non-Digital Role-Playing
Games in Historical Settings’. Presented at the History of Games conference,
Copenhagen.
Nevile, Maurice. 2015. ‘The Embodied Turn in Research on Language and Social
Interaction’. Research on Language and Social Interaction 48 (2): 121–151. https://
doi.org/10.1080/08351813.2015.1025499.
Nic Craith, Máiréad, and Ullrich Kockel. 2015. ‘The Tao of Heritage’. ResearchGate.
www.researchgate.net/publication/286871111_The_Tao_of_Heritage.
Nic Craith, Máiréad, and Ullrich Kockel. 2016. ‘(Re‐)Building Heritage: Integrating
Tangible and Intangible’. In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William
Logan, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 426–442. Chichester and Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Nielsen, Margit Hurup. 1981. ‘Re-Enactment and Reconstruction in Collingwood’s
Philosophy of History’. History and Theory 20 (1): 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/
2504642.
Nünning, Asgar. 2003. ‘Narratology or Narratologies? Taking Stock of Recent Devel-
opments, Critique and Modest Proposals for Future Usages of the Term’. In What
Is Narratology? Questions and Answers Regarding the Status of a Theory, edited by
Tom Kindt and Hans-Harald Müller, 239–276. Berlin and New York: Walter de
Gruyter.
22 Introduction

Papoulias, Constantina, and Felicity Callard. 2010. ‘Biology’s Gift: Interrogating the
Turn to Affect’. Body & Society 16 (1): 29–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1357034X09355231.
Punday, Daniel. 2019. ‘Rereading Manovich’s Algorithm. Genre and Use in Possible
Worlds Theory’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Contemporary Narratology, edited
by Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 269–314. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press.
Rolling.cz2020. ‘Legion: Siberian Story’. Legion.rolling.cz. http://legion.rolling.cz/.
Rosenzweig, Roy, and David P. Thelen. 1998. The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses
of History in American Life. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ruggles, D. Fairchild, and Helaine Silverman. 2009. ‘From Tangible to Intangible
Heritage’. In Intangible Heritage Embodied, edited by D. Fairchild Ruggles and
Helaine Silverman. New York, NY: Springer.
Ruggles, D. Fairchild, and Helaine Silverman, eds. 2009. Intangible Heritage Embo-
died. New York, NY: Springer.
Ryan, Marie-Laure, and Alice Bell. 2019. ‘Introduction: Possible Worlds Theory
Revisited’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Contemporary Narratology, edited by
Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 1–43. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Schreiber, Paweł. 2016. Stage Histories: Post-War British Historical Drama. Frankfurt
am Main and New York: Peter Lang Edition.
Silberman, Neil. 2016. ‘Heritage Places: Evolving Conceptions and Changing Forms’.
In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William Logan, Máiréad Nic
Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 30–40. Chichester and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Smith, Laurajane. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London New York: Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Smith, Laurajane, and Natsuko Akagawa. 2009. ‘Introduction’. In Intangible Heritage,
edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, 1–9. London and New York:
Routledge.
Smith, Laurajane, and Gary Campbell. 2016. ‘The Elephant in the Room: Heritage,
Affect, and Emotion’. In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William
Logan, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 443–460. Chichester and Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell: Wiley-Blackwell.
Smith, Laurajane, and Emma Waterton. 2009. ‘“The Envy of the World?”Intangible
Heritage in England’. In Intangible Heritage, edited by Laurajane Smith and Nat-
suko Akagawa, 289–302. London and New York: Routledge.
Stenros, Jaakko, and Markus Montola, eds. 2010. Nordic Larp. Stockholm: Fea Livia.
Stenros, Jaakko, and Markus Montola, eds. 2017. College of Wizardry: The Magic of
Participation in Harry Potter Larps. Helsinki: Pohjoismaisen roolipelaamisen seura.
Stylianou-Lambert, Theopisti. 2010. ‘Re-Conceptualizing Museum Audiences: Power,
Activity, Responsibility’. Visitor Studies 13 (2): 130–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10645578.2010.509693.
Toffler, Alvin. 1980. The Third Wave. New York, Toronto, London, Sydney and
Auckland: Bantam Books.
Tunbridge, J. E., and G. J. Ashworth. 1996. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of
the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Chichester and New York: J. Wiley.
Urry, John, and Jonas Larsen. 2011. The Tourist Gaze 3.0. 3rd ed. Theory, Culture &
Society. Los Angeles and London: SAGE.
 Introduction 23

Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson. 2015. ‘Heritage as a Focus of Research: Past,
Present and New Directions’. In The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage
Research, edited by Emma Waterton and Steve Watson, 1–17.
Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson. 2013. ‘Framing Theory: Towards a Critical
Imagination in Heritage Studies’. International Journal of Heritage Studies 19 (6):
546–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2013.779295.
Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson, eds. 2015. The Palgrave Handbook of Con-
temporary Heritage Research. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
White, Hayden V. 1973. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Cen-
tury Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
White, William J. 2014. ‘The Right to Dream of the Middle Ages: Simulating the
Medieval in Tabletop RPGs’. In Digital Gaming Re-Imagines the Middle Ages,
edited by Daniel T. Kline, 15–27. New York: Routledge.
Zagal, José Pablo, and Sebastian Deterding, eds. 2018. Role-Playing Game Studies:
Transmedia Foundations. New York: Routledge.
Notes

Introduction
1 Shortly before the completion of this book, Liboriussen & Martin published
another paper on “Honor of Kings”, this time (2020) switching to the heritage
approach and citing extensively from heritage studies literature. I confess a pinch of
pride here, as it had been me who advocated the heritage approach to Bjarke at the
History of Games conference in Copenhagen 2018.

Chapter 2
1 I found no TRPG-specific peculiarities in Fuist’s paper that would prevent the
application of this term to LARP as well.

Chapter 4
1 Close, not identical, as a larper also perceives affordances for (inter)action and can
switch to active involvement at any time.

Chapter 5
1 Main in LARP+RH; in TRPG it is secondary to narration and mechanics.
2 For the purpose of this argument, “As is the case in dramatic performance, the
participant’s verbal contribution will count as the actions and speech acts of an
embodied member of the fictional world” (Ryan 2015, 209).
3 I first coined the term ‘implied character’ for player characters in TRPG scenarios,
which typically describe them only as “PCs” or “party”, as an empty slot to be
filled with self-created characters by each gaming group (Mochocki 2007).
4 It is possible for GM to have arranged it with an ‘accomplice’ to role-play an
important NPC over the phone or voice chat, but this would be an innovation
beyond the usual TRPG conventions (it is not typical for a GM to have support
staff outside the room).

Chapter 7
1 There is a variation that does transform the real physical world into an open game
world: pervasive larp. This, however, uses the present-day world as its stage, which
makes it unsuitable for historical settings.
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Historical Game Studies?’ Rethinking History 21 (3): 358–371. https://doi.org/10.
1080/13642529.2016.1256638.
Dean, D. M., ed. 2018. A Companion to Public History. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
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org/10.1177/1555412016665067.
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Dull, Ian. 2013. ‘Introduction. Sketching Heritage Studies’. In Heritage Studies: Stor-
ies in the Making, edited by Meghan Bowe, Bianca Carpeneti, Ian Dull, and Jesse
Lipkowitz, 1–16. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.
Gapps, Stephen. 2010. ‘On Being a Mobile Monument: Historical Reenactments and
Commemorations’. In Historical Reenactment From Realism to the Affective Turn,
edited by Iain McCalman and Paul A. Pickering, 50–62. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Goffman, Erving. 1990. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York:
Doubleday.
Graham, Brian, and Peter Howard, eds. 2008. The Ashgate Research Companion to
Heritage and Identity. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub. Co.
Haldrup, Michael, and Jorgen Ole Bærenholdt. 2015. ‘Heritage as Performance’. In
The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage Research, edited by Emma
Waterton and Steve Watson, 52–68.
Hampson, Jamie. 2013. ‘Rock Art Heritage and the (Re)Negotiation of Post-Colonial
Identities’. In Heritage Studies: Stories in the Making, edited by Meghan Bowe,
 Bianca Carpeneti, Ian Dull, and Jesse Lipkowitz, 141–169. Newcastle: Cambridge
Scholars.
Harrison, Rodney. 2013. Heritage: Critical Approaches. Milton Park and New York:
Routledge.
Harvey, David C. 2001. ‘Heritage Pasts and Heritage Presents: Temporality, Meaning
and the Scope of Heritage Studies’. International Journal of Heritage Studies 7 (4):
319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/13581650120105534.
Honor of Kings. 2015. Tencent Games.
Hoover, Sarah, David Simkins, Sebastian Deterding, David Meldman, and Amanda
Brown. 2018. ‘Performance Studies and Role-Playing Games’. In Role-Playing
Game Studies: Transmedia Foundations, edited by José Pablo Zagal and Sebastian
Deterding. New York: Routledge.
Johnson, P., and B. Thomas. 1995. ‘Heritage as Business’. In Heritage, Tourism and
Society, edited by D.E. Herbert, 170–190. London: Massell.
Kershaw, Baz. 1994. ‘Framing the Audience for Theatre’. In The Authority of the
Consumer, edited by Russell Keat, Nigel Whiteley, and Nicholas Abercrombie, 166–
187. London and New York: Routledge.
Kotler, Philip. 1986. ‘The Prosumer Movement: A New Challenge for Marketers’. In
Advances in Consumer Research, edited by Richard J. Lutz, 13:510–513. Provo, UT:
Association for Consumer Research.
Lewi, Hannah, Wally Smith, Steven Cooke, and Dirk Vom Lehn. 2020. ‘Introduction’.
In The Routledge International Handbook of New Digital Practices in Galleries,
Libraries, Archives, Museums and Heritage Sites, edited by Hannah Lewi, Wally
Smith, Dirk Vom Lehn, and Steven Cooke, 1–11.
Liboriussen, Bjarke, and Paul Martin. 2018. ‘The Reception of Chinese History in
Honor of Kings’. Presented at the DiGRA 2018. The Game is the Message, Turin.
Liboriussen, Bjarke, and Paul Martin. 2020. ‘Honour of Kings as Chinese Popular
Heritage: Contesting Authorized History in a Mobile Game’. China Information,
March. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X20908120.
Light, Duncan. 2015. ‘Heritage and Tourism’. In The Palgrave Handbook of Con-
temporary Heritage Research, edited by Emma Waterton and Steve Watson,
144–157.
Logan, William. 2007. ‘Closing Pandora’s Box: Human Rights Conundrums in Cul-
tural Heritage Protection’. In Cultural Heritage and Human Rights, edited by
Helaine Silverman and D. Fairchild Ruggles, 33–52. New York, NY: Springer.
Logan, William, and Laurajane Smith. 2009. ‘Foreword’. In Intangible Heritage,
edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, vi–vii. London and New York:
Routledge.
Logan, William, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, eds. 2016. A Companion
to Heritage Studies. Chichester and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Martin, Thomas L. 2019. ‘“As Many Worlds as Original Artists” Possible Worlds
Theory and the Literature of Fantasy’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Con-
temporary Narratology, edited by Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 201–224. Lin-
coln: University of Nebraska Press.
Mäyrä, Frans. 2015. ‘The Identity of Game Studies: The Widening Range of Research
in Games and Play’. Keynote speech presented at the Central & Eastern European
Game Studies, Kraków.
Mochocki, Michał. 2018. ‘A Heritage Studies Approach to Non-Digital Role-Playing
Games in Historical Settings’. Presented at the History of Games conference,
Copenhagen.
Nevile, Maurice. 2015. ‘The Embodied Turn in Research on Language and Social
Interaction’. Research on Language and Social Interaction 48 (2): 121–151. https://
doi.org/10.1080/08351813.2015.1025499.
Nic Craith, Máiréad, and Ullrich Kockel. 2015. ‘The Tao of Heritage’. ResearchGate.
www.researchgate.net/publication/286871111_The_Tao_of_Heritage.
Nic Craith, Máiréad, and Ullrich Kockel. 2016. ‘(Re‐)Building Heritage: Integrating
Tangible and Intangible’. In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William
Logan, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 426–442. Chichester and Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Nielsen, Margit Hurup. 1981. ‘Re-Enactment and Reconstruction in Collingwood’s
Philosophy of History’. History and Theory 20 (1): 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/
2504642.
Nünning, Asgar. 2003. ‘Narratology or Narratologies? Taking Stock of Recent Devel-
opments, Critique and Modest Proposals for Future Usages of the Term’. In What
Is Narratology? Questions and Answers Regarding the Status of a Theory, edited by
Tom Kindt and Hans-Harald Müller, 239–276. Berlin and New York: Walter de
Gruyter.
Papoulias, Constantina, and Felicity Callard. 2010. ‘Biology’s Gift: Interrogating the Turn
to Affect’. Body & Society 16 (1): 29–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357034X09355231.
Punday, Daniel. 2019. ‘Rereading Manovich’s Algorithm. Genre and Use in Possible
Worlds Theory’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Contemporary Narratology, edited
by Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 269–314. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press.
Rolling.cz2020. ‘Legion: Siberian Story’. Legion.rolling.cz. http://legion.rolling.cz/.
Rosenzweig, Roy, and David P. Thelen. 1998. The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses
of History in American Life. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ruggles, D. Fairchild, and Helaine Silverman. 2009. ‘From Tangible to Intangible
Heritage’. In Intangible Heritage Embodied, edited by D. Fairchild Ruggles and
Helaine Silverman. New York, NY: Springer.
Ruggles, D. Fairchild, and Helaine Silverman, eds. 2009. Intangible Heritage Embo-
died. New York, NY: Springer.
Ryan, Marie-Laure, and Alice Bell. 2019. ‘Introduction: Possible Worlds Theory
Revisited’. In Possible Worlds Theory and Contemporary Narratology, edited by
Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan, 1–43. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Schreiber, Paweł. 2016. Stage Histories: Post-War British Historical Drama. Frankfurt
am Main and New York: Peter Lang Edition.
Silberman, Neil. 2016. ‘Heritage Places: Evolving Conceptions and Changing Forms’.
In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William Logan, Máiréad Nic
Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 30–40. Chichester and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Smith, Laurajane. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London New York: Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group.
Smith, Laurajane, and Natsuko Akagawa. 2009. ‘Introduction’. In Intangible Heritage,
edited by Laurajane Smith and Natsuko Akagawa, 1–9. London and New York:
Routledge.
Smith, Laurajane, and Gary Campbell. 2016. ‘The Elephant in the Room: Heritage,
Affect, and Emotion’. In A Companion to Heritage Studies, edited by William
Logan, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel, 443–460. Chichester and Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell: Wiley-Blackwell.
Smith, Laurajane, and Emma Waterton. 2009. ‘“The Envy of the World?”Intangible
Heritage in England’. In Intangible Heritage, edited by Laurajane Smith and Nat-
suko Akagawa, 289–302. London and New York: Routledge.
Stenros, Jaakko, and Markus Montola, eds. 2010. Nordic Larp. Stockholm: Fea Livia.
Stenros, Jaakko, and Markus Montola, eds. 2017. College of Wizardry: The Magic of
Participation in Harry Potter Larps. Helsinki: Pohjoismaisen roolipelaamisen seura.
Stylianou-Lambert, Theopisti. 2010. ‘Re-Conceptualizing Museum Audiences: Power,
Activity, Responsibility’. Visitor Studies 13 (2): 130–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10645578.2010.509693.
Toffler, Alvin. 1980. The Third Wave. New York, Toronto, London, Sydney and
Auckland: Bantam Books.
Tunbridge, J. E., and G. J. Ashworth. 1996. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of
the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Chichester and New York: J. Wiley.
Urry, John, and Jonas Larsen. 2011. The Tourist Gaze 3.0. 3rd ed. Theory, Culture &
Society. Los Angeles and London: SAGE.
Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson. 2015. ‘Heritage as a Focus of Research: Past,
Present and New Directions’. In The Palgrave Handbook of Contemporary Heritage
Research, edited by Emma Waterton and Steve Watson, 1–17.
Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson. 2013. ‘Framing Theory: Towards a Critical
Imagination in Heritage Studies’. International Journal of Heritage Studies 19 (6):
546–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2013.779295.
Waterton, Emma, and Steve Watson, eds. 2015. The Palgrave Handbook of Con-
temporary Heritage Research. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
White, Hayden V. 1973. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Cen-
tury Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
White, William J. 2014. ‘The Right to Dream of the Middle Ages: Simulating the
Medieval in Tabletop RPGs’. In Digital Gaming Re-Imagines the Middle Ages,
edited by Daniel T. Kline, 15–27. New York: Routledge.
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