History I

Summary

2019
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Prehistory Britain:
First, there were different kinds of inhabitants. They were hunters and gatherers and they moved from place to place in
small groups. They used stone to make tools and weapons.
Agricultural Revolution:
In the New Stone Age, people from Europe crossed to the island. They brought new ways with them: a revolution had
started in the East of Europe. People were learning not just to hunt and kill for food, but to keep the animals in captivity
and to control, domesticate, them. In addition, they were learning to gather the seed and scatter it about to grow food.
They were learning to plant and profit from that, to be farmers.
Men started to settle as they waited for crops and plants to grow. They mastered the skills to make more sophisticated
weapons and tools. For example, pots to store food. Mortality rates were reduced, so the population grew and dwellings
began to appear. The Revolution also meant a change in social organization: hierarchies appeared and social classes as
the owner of the crops was more important than the rest. Duties began to be differentiated: there were hunters, gatherers,
etc. There was a division of labour. Also, before the Revolution, the decisions were made by the whole of the community,
no matter sex. Everyone shared responsibilities and there was no difference between men and women. After the
Revolution, there was gender division: men took charge and the decisions, hunted and provided for the community while
women were in charge of the children.
Beaker Folk:
New people arrived at the island, but these were different as they knew how to use metal, bronze in particular. They were
much more advanced than other inhabitants at the time. From metal, they created functional objects and jewels and they
get their name from the shape of the drinking vessels they made: The Beaker folk. They were the ones who started
building Stonehenge, a religious center.
The Celts:
Around the same time, other invaders began to settle in the isles. These came from central Europe: The Celts. They were
an advanced civilization, and the first to leave more than material remains on the island (language and religion, for
instance). They were warriors and tribal. They brought new knowledge of the use of iron, so they could make better
weapons and tools and thus drive older inhabitants away. Also, they improved farming methods and developed new ways
of growing crops. They were a highly organized and prosperous civilization. They lived in clans, each with a chieftain, and
even though they fought among themselves, they joined each other when there was a common threat. However, there
wasn’t a hierarchy, each clan was equal. The population was growing steadily so they began building hill-forts, which were
the center of the tribes and also made good defenses. They also built wooden roads that connected each clan’s dwelling.
They even traded between the clans, and it was important for social and political contact. They were also matriarchal and
women had more freedom and independence and could even be tribe leaders. There was equality and women were
warriors as well. A good example of this is Queen Boudicca. As regards religion, the Celtic tribes were ruled over by a
warrior class: The Druids. They were important priests and though illiterate, they were in charge of the teachings of the
culture: laws, medicine, history, religion. The Druids exercised great power and were judges and leaders of tribal opinion.
This is why they represented a problem for the Romans as they defied their system. As for the spread of Celtic culture,
the Bards were the artists who travelled from tribe to tribe telling myths and stories.
Some of the Celtic tribes that came to Britain in different waves were: The Parisii and the Iceni (Gaul Celts) and some
other Belgae Celts. In Europe, The Romans were fighting the Gaul Celts, who were being helped by the British Celts.
They provided them with food and let them hide in Britain. In addition, the Celts had made Britain an important food
producer and exporter in which the Romans saw profit.

The Romans:
They came to Britain to rule and exploit the island as part of a world Empire, not to settle. They looked for slaves, tribute
and bounty for their Empire, not to conquest and annex Britain.

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Julius Caesar:
The Roman Empire had conquered west of Europe. One important man was Julius Caesar. He was an ambitious and
influential man who came from an aristocratic family. He was a successful military who conquered lands and brought
slaves and made conquered people pay taxes to Rome. He was also a master in rhetoric so he could address all kinds of
people and get to them (military or people in general). He was so important that he was appointed Pontifex Maximus: a
prestigious religious position. He was a formidable politician: he became a member of the Senate and started growing, so
much that other Senators became suspicious. He made an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, important men and also
members of the Senate, called the Triumvirate and they ruled the Republic. After Crassus’ death, civil war broke out
between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar won and the rest of the senators felt he was unstoppable and he had political power
and support from the people. Caesar was murdered by all of them. This was a political mistake and brought about a new
civil war. Eventually, the Republic fell and the Empire rose led by Augustus (Caesar’s adoptive son).
Caesar and Britain:
During the time that Caesar was fighting the Gauls, he heard that the Britons were helping the Celts from Gaul. So, he
was determined to invade Britain as a way of punishment and in 55 BC he landed the first expedition to the islands which
was failure. The tide of the English Channel destroyed his ships and when he got to the isles he found resistance on the
Celtic tribes. He went back home. In 54 BC he prepared a second, more elaborate invasion. This time, he won some
battles against the Celts and advanced into the land. But, as the Empire was at war and he had to return to Gaul, he made
a deal with the Celts, who agreed to grant him slaves and tribute. So Caesar left again, without making a permanent
occupation, but he increased trade between Britain and the Empire, and Roman citizens could settle in Britain. Britain was
kind of a client state.
Roman invasion and occupation:
In 43 AD, Britain was successfully invaded and conquered and the process of Romanization began. The decision was
made by Emperor Claudius who wanted to increase his prestige, to stop Celts from helping Gaul and because Britain was
known to be rich in minerals and in exporting goods like cattle, grains, slaves, etc. Britain was ruled by tribal leaders who
resisted invasion but were eventually defeated. One of these leaders was Boudicca (60 AD), who was the queen of the
Iceni. She took London but was defeated. The Romans had little difficulty because they had a better trained army and the
Celts fought among themselves as well.
By 61 AD the Romans had extended northward and westward. In 78 AD, the Roman governor Agricola conquered Wales
and Scotland, though there were rebellions in Scotland and the Romans couldn’t fully take it. Years later, to protect
themselves from northern raiders, Emperor Hadrian built a wall that could mark the division between England and Scotland
(128 AD).
The Romans justified their invasions with the threat of an attack to Rome and the invasions of the city. When they invaded,
there were 3 poossible outcomes: surrender, run away or resistance. When there was resistance, the Romans were
pitiless and killed or enslaved their opponents. However, they liked to take up challenges and show mercy, which meant
social murder for them, to be pardoned was the worst. When there was surrender, the Romans let their people be in
exchange of tribute, slaves and soldiers. They Romanized conquered people and let them keep their organizations, chiefs
and religions as long as they meant no harm to their order. They were ordered and knew how to keep it like that.
The Romans established a Romano-British culture and began the process of Romanization of the British. They built towns
so that people could live comfortably, as they were fortified, they also provided protection. Towns were the basis of Roman
administration and civilization. They had streets, markets and shops. Towns were connected by the great network of stone
roads that the Romans built, mainly for military purposes but also for trading between towns. For the Romans, urban life
was the basis of civilization. That’s why they built public baths, amphitheaters for entertainment, houses with central
heating and more. London became a central city for commerce. The native Britons could gain Roman citizenship if they
contributed to the Empire and were wealthy enough, and had adopted completely the Roman ways.
Roman legacy:

Roman legacy in Britain is largely material. During their rule, Britain enjoyed a time of prosperity and comfort that wouldn’t
be enjoyed again until many centuries later. The Romans imposed their imperial administrative structure which included
cultural and religious tolerance as well as respect for lord chiefs and customs, as long as there was no political opposition.
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The Roman provinces were administered by Roman governors who were in charge of collecting taxes, maintain peace
and providing justice. The Romans also allowed loyal Celtic chiefs to continue being chiefs of their tribes. When they felt
something was a threat to their Empire, they were ruthless, they massacred the Druids, for example. The most important
contribution to Britain, however, was their religion. Christianity, which was made official for the Empire by Emperor
Constantine (313 AD, Edict of Milan) who realized that the structure of the Christian church was suitable for his interest
and organization. Even though the Britons remained pagan, Christianity spread quickly and gained strength, especially in
Wales where it merged with Celtic faith.
Decline of Rome:
The Roman Empire began to decline because of new invasions and civil war. This brought a weakening of the frontiers in
Britain, which were attacked by the Picts and the Scots, as the Roman legions were sent to Rome. The Empire was
divided by Emperor Constantine. The West was facing invasions so in 410 AD the Romans left Britain. Ad Romans never
taught the Britons how to defend themselves, they were left as an easy prey for newcomers. The Western Empire fell in
476 AD, the Eastern in 1453 AD. Britain was fighting against the Picts, the Scots and the Saxons, and also Celtic tribes
were fighting among themselves (in Wales). This set the ground for the following invaders who would be able to do what
the Romans wouldn’t: leave cultural changes in the land.

The Anglo-Saxons:
This was the first invasions to make considerable cultural changes to Britain, for it brought more permanent results in the
language, in the ethnic group, organization of land and political unity as a single kingdom.
The coming of the Anglo-Saxons:
Britain was under attack and defenseless, as well as with no local government. One chieftain decided to employ foreign
mercenaries to fight the invaders. He called the Anglo-Saxons (Hengist and Horsa): Germanic tribes who had already
been raiding Britain’s coast. They defeated the Picts and the Scots but instead of leaving, they decided to settle (440
AD+). They came along with the Jutes, in small groups under several chieftains without unified command. The conquest
wasn’t systematic; it was gradual without an army of occupation. These people hadn’t encountered the Romans so they
weren’t influenced by their religion. They were pagan and their culture was based mainly in loyalty to a chief or military
leader.
Settlement:

They settled in the southeast of England and conquered most of Britain except for Cornwall, Wales and Scotland. They
encountered no resistance among the Briton, except for an attempt to halt the invasion by the Romano -Briton Arthur
(myth). The Anglo-Saxons replaced the Roman-Celtic culture with theirs. The Britons were killed, enslaved or ran away.
Towns were destroyed and continental relationships were broken.
The AS lived in different kingdoms that were separated by natural boundaries. There were seven of these, ruled by their
own king. They were: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Wessex, Kent and Sussex. There was no national unity
or a single leader to unify them, they even fought among themselves but they shared language, pagan religion, and law
systems. However, at times, one king would impose his rule over the other kingdoms and create a temporary unity. When
this happened, he was called the Bretwalda (overlord, Britain-ruler) and he subjected the other Kingdoms because of
military prowess. One of these Bretwaldas was King Offa of Mercia, who is considered to be the first king recognized
outside of the isles. After his death, the dominant kingdom was Wessex whose overlord was king Egbert. Things changed
in Britain: the language (Old English), the population and the land, the tradition of kingship and the development of the
English law.
Religion:
Christianity had remained in Wales, Ireland and part of Scotland, places the AS couldn’t conquer. A Celtic Christian Church
had developed, quite different from the Roman. They spread their religion through missionaries, so some AS came to
Christianity that way. But Pope Gregory the Great in Rome wanted the AS to convert to Roman Christianism. He sent
Augustine (597 AD) as a missionary to the kingdom of Kent where King Ethelbert received them. Paganism was strong
among the AS but they allowed the few Christians, like Ethelbert’s Frankish wife, to practice in private. Ethelbert converted

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and gave Augustine a church in Canterbury. When a King became a Christian, it was normal for him to decree that that
to be the official religion of his kingdom. Thus, Christianism spread over the AS kingdoms.
Paganism was strong with the AS, and at first they regarded Christianity with suspicion. They were warriors and believed
in fearlessness and valor. Christianity spoke of love, repentance and redemption as well as fear of the afterlife. AS religion
was more like an expression of ethnic traditions.
Most AS were thus converted either to Celtic or Romanic Christianism. The conflict between paganism and Christianity
was over but the problem now was the rivalry between these two chr8ches. They differed in their organization in policy
and theology. Celtic church was decentralized and autonomous, it pretended simplicity, poverty and humility and stressed
pilgrimage and monastic life. They preached and baptized, and they produced men devoided of personal ambition and
leading an austere life. They didn’t follow the traditions of the Roman Church and even had different dates, for example
for festivities like Easter. The Roman church, with its organized system, could supply the permanent religious needs of
the people and provide the necessary stability. The conflict between the churches brought conflict among the people. An
ecclesiastical conference was held. The Synod of Whitby (664 AD). In order to settle the matter and follow one church,
the Roman one was chosen. The church was organized, and the power of the clergy increased up to the point of becoming
counselors to the kings. It was in charge, as well, of spreading culture and scholarship. The church was the most important
institution and everyone lived under their protection.
Political organization and society:
The institutions that unified the English were the church and the monarchy. The king was important. The survival of the
kingdom depended on the personal power of the king. He stood at the center of government who had lots but not absolute
power. His prestige and power grew as the kingdom enlarged its boundaries and as long as the church supported him.
The king was expected to give the church and people peace and order, justice and mercy. All his subjects owed allegiance
to him and his kinsmen and had to fight in his army. When he wrote an order, all his subjects had to obey and t his gave
him power. But this power was limited first by the law which he had to enforce but not change, and then by his council,
the Witan, who advised him and he was expected to listen to them. They were important churchmen, landowners, and
kinsmen chosen by the king and they advised him in making choices. The Witan also was in charge of selecting the
successor of the king when he died (who would usually be a member of the royal family though there were no hereditary
law).
Society revolved around two principles:
1. Loyalty to the lord 2. Loyalty to the Kin
1. Followers were devoted to their lords: they had to fight for him, protect him, defend him. They were prepared to die for
their lord, and to survive him in battle was shameful. The lord, in turn, had to grant his followers protection as well as
giving them loot and treasures such as rings. There was a duty of vengeance on both sides in case of murder, or the lord
had to compensate his follower’s Kin. An oath was sworn by the follower. The Lord also had to provide his followers with
amour and horses, this was legally called “heviot”, and when the follower died his Kin paid it back to the Lord. The Lord,
as well, took responsibility for his follower’s acts. Duty to the Lord came first.
2. Second came duty to your Kin. Every one depended on the support of their Kin, and to be Kinless and without a place
was shameful. If a man was killed, his Kin had to avenge him by killing the murderer or asking for compensation: the
wergild (man-price) paid in money or property, depending on the social rank. Vengeance was carried out under the
protection of laws that regulated it. This was prohibited with Christianity. They preferred mutilation or compensation,
because they kept a percentage.
AS Hierarchy:
Society was organized by ranks: first came the King, followed by the Witan, then there were thanes (Lords), then churls
(free landowner), then serfs (servants) and lastly thralls (slaves). The land was divided in shires, the larger writs governed
by an Ealdorman. Shires were divided into hundreds, smaller administrative units. Then there was the village, an
agricultural community. Lastly there were boroughs, fortified centers of commence, important towns.

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Law and justice:
The AS had an elaborate and developed law system whose principle was to get revenge for a crime, and the responsibility
to get it rested on the injured or his/her Kin. Christianity modified some aspects of the system. The wergild was the system
by which, in the case of a serious crime or murder, the injured person or Kin was to receive a payment in money or
property depending on the injured’s rank.
Trials:
There were judicial procedures, brought forward in court. There were courts in the hundreds and in the shires. AS laws
weren’t written down, the procedure was based on oaths: the plaintiff and the defendant swore under oath. The defendant
was summoned to court and he swore his innocence helped by witnesses that took account for him. They weren’t there
to provide information on the case, but to declare whether they were innocent or guilty. If there wasn’t a clear verdict, or
if the defendant couldn’t get witnesses, an ordeal was carried out: the judgment of God: The church took control of the
procedure. It consisted of a difficult and painful test that the defendant needed to pass to prove his innocence. If he was
innocent, God would save him from death.
The plaintiff summoned the defendant, but if he failed to appear, after a number of summons he would lose his suit. If
then his kindred or himself didn’t pay the fines, he became an outlaw: anyone could kill him with impunity and anyone who
helped him or took vengeance for him were fined or killed. Only the king could pardon him.

The Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings:

Alfred and the first Danish invasions:
A couple of years before King Offa’s death, a new threat came to the island. In 793 AD the Vikings (Danes, Norwegians
and Swedish) coming from Scandinavia, started raiding Britain’s coasts, looting and pillaging. They came as part of the
expansion movement they were doing, first as pirates destroying and plundering, but eventually, as settlers. They entered
through Scotland, Northumbria and East Anglia, and they advanced inland. Vikings were excellent sailors and traders, as
well as fierce warriors and vicious people. They built great ships.
England had been free of invasions for years and were fighting among the kingdoms, so they were defenseless. There
was no one who could stop them. By 871 AD they had taken all of England except for Wessex, where Alfred ruled. After
many battles he was able to defeat the Vikings at Edington in 878 AD. He then made their leader sign the Peace of
Wedmore: Guthrum was to be baptized and to leave Wessex. They divided the land, and the Vikings settled in the North
and East, in the Danelaw. They came, thus, to a kind of friendly coexistence.
Alfred is the only king to be considered great. He was a symbol of the defiance and defense of England. After all the
destruction caused by the Vikings, he set to restore law and order, monastic life and church, literacy and arts as he was
a scholar. He wanted to create a national identity for the English, to give an impulse to education and the learning of
English. The results of this first invasions were that the Vikings were made to accept Alfred as their king, and Wessex
because the ruling kingdom for the years to come. There would not be more fights among each other and the possibility
of being a single kingdom was clear.
The second Danish invasions:
In 980 AD new raiders began to appear and, again, the Danes seemed unstoppable. The king this time was Ethelred the
Unready, known as the who didn’t receive good council. He was unpopular and inefficient but also cruel. He could only
achieve peace by paying the Vikings off, in what is known as the Danegeld. This meant the payment of exorbitant taxes
for the English. But this didn’t stop the Danes from killing and settling so Ethelred ordered the massacre of all the Danes
living in his kingdom which brought a fierce retaliation from their king, Sweyn.
Ethelred ran, leaving England without a leader. Sweyn took control of England. After his, his son’s (Edmund Ironside) and
Sweyn’s deaths, Canute (Sweyn’s son) was elected King of England by the Witan in 1017 AD.

Canute was the first Scandinavian king and also ruled Denmark, Norway and Sweden. He converted to Christianity and
kept the peace of a unified land, enforced the laws and was interested in church affairs. He also restored literacy and

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rebuilt places destroyed by the Vikings. He ruled in the AS tradition and made few changes and he was popular and is
remembered as a strong king that legislated wisely.
As he was king of other lands, he had to travel from place to place and thus be absent for long periods in England. He
had to delegate his powers so he grouped the land in four and designated Earls to each one (Wessex, Mercia,
Northumbria). These Earls played important parts in English politics, especially Godwin, Earl of Wessex, who had lots of
power.
Canute died and was succeeded by Harold Harefoot who was succeeded by his half-brother Harthacanute. Both of them
did him no credit and were unpopular. With Harthacanute’s death, the Scandinavian kings’ reigns were over.
The Viking invasions didn’t have such remarkable effects as the AS had. They adopted to the English customs. They
made an impact on language, though. But, overall, AS and Vikings were quite similar warriors, loyal and bound by Kin.
Under the Scandinavians, England came into contact with the continent.
The Witan then elected Edward the Confessor as king (1040 AD), the last Anglo-Saxon king. He was half Norman by birth
and grew up in Normandy. He was very religious. He brought to England his Norman ways and friends and favored them
which turned the AS against him, especially Godwin who wanted more power.
Edward didn’t leave any successor to the throne. Thus, there were several claimants: William of Normandy, Harold II,
Harold King of Norway and the son of Edmund Ironside (Edgar the Aetheling). The latter was rejected by the Witan. Due
to the problems of succession, another conflict arouse.

The Normans
After Edward the Confessor’s death, Harold II was chosen king by the Witan. He was popular and a successful military
man who proved himself capable of defending England. After Godwin’s death, Harold came into his lands and political
power and influence, as well as the Earldom of Wessex. However, Harold had to deal with other claimants to the throne
as soon as he succeeded to it.
First, there was William of Normandy. This area of France had been invaded by the Scandinavians at the time of the great
Viking expansion. The king of France had been forced to grant this territory to the Viking leader, Rollo. As they sett led,
they lost much of their Viking identity and became French in language and custom. They became Christians and embraced
the church. However, they owed obedience to the French king.
William was Duke of Normandy at the time of the Confessor’s reign. He visited the king in England and returned home
with the promise that, at Edward’s death, he would succeed him as king of England. In addition to this, William claimed
that by Viking descent he was related to the English king. He was also supported by the Pope. But what made his claim
stronger was the fact that Harold, who had shipwrecked in Normandy years before, had taken an oath of fidelity to the
Norman Duke. Harold was to support William but when he accepted the crown, he broke the oath.
Second, there was Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. He claimed to be the proper heir to the throne as part of Canute’s
inheritance. He found a valuable ally in Tostig, Earl of Northumbria and Harold’s brother. Tostig had been sent into exile
when Harold supported a revolt by the Northumbrians, so he wanted revenge from his brother.
In 1066 AD, Edward the Confessor dies and Harold is chosen king. William prepares for invasion but the first to arrive is
Harold Hardrada, in the North. Harold, who was actually waiting for William, rushed North and fought Hardrada and Tostig
in Stamford Bridge. Both were killed and the Norwegians left, defeated. Meanwhile, William’s fleet, which had been
delayed by bad weather, landed at Pevensey. Harold rushed southwards with his now smaller and exhausted army. Both
armies met at Hastings, in a hard battle that lasted till night. At the end of the day, Harold lay dead, his army defeated.
William advanced to London, where the English resistance had gathered subduing every town in his way. He finally got
the fealty of the rebels and was crowned at Westminster on Christmas Day.

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Norman kings: William I
Despite his victory at Hastings and the surrender of London, it would take years before the conquest was completed.
There were revolts and risings against Norman rule as the English resented being oppressed and conquered. However,
there was very little unity and national feeling among the English, so the uprisings occurred only at regional level and
never actually represented much of a threat to William’s power. He crushed the resistance in ruthless ways.
At the beginning of his reign, William had a policy of firmness mixed with conciliation. He was willing to cooperate with the
English aristocracy if they were loyal to him; he also retained Anglo-Saxon customs that didn’t conflict with his rule.
However, this changed when he returned to Normandy feeling confident to leave his barons in charge and came back to
find rebellions, once again, in England. The most terrible one was the rising in Northumbria as they were allied with Danish
invaders. William devastated the north: he slaughtered cattle, burned crops and dwellings and killed everybody. He used
that as an example, and was so cruel that after that, only, his reign was stable.
After this, William changed his policy. He seized the lands of those who opposed him and he gave them to his Norman
followers. Almost all the English aristocracy was left landless. William also removed them from his council. He ordered
castles to be built across the country, so that he could dominate and subject the people (Motte and Bailey castles, like the
Tower of London) and also to protect himself and his followers.
Land ownership
William brought with him the political and economic practices of Normandy, and adopted them to English (Anglo-Saxon)
society. He ruled under the premise that all the land belonged to him, so no one could be more powerful than him. He
carefully scattered the land among his barons so that they couldn’t form consolidated fiefs (such as the one he possessed
in Normandy or Godwin had had) This he did in order to avoid the problems of feudalism on the continent: the parts were
greater than the whole, and the vassals were more powerful than the lord so they defied him.
Anglo-Norman feudalism
What William created was a monarchy based on political feudalism, which rested on the relationship between the lord and
his vassal. William kept some estates for himself and gave a percentage to the church and other to his barons. The king
guaranteed his vassals protection and justice, in return he got his vassals allegiance which consisted in fealty, homage
and an annual supply of knights (the number depending on the size of the baron’s land) The vassals, in addition, had to
attend the king’s court and to pay certain fees.
Centralized royal power
To strengthen his hold over the barons, William permitted no castles to be built without royal consent. But what made him
more powerful was the fealty he demanded not only from his barons but also from every man in England (Oath of
Salisbury). Thus, he centralized the power in the crown.
Government
Nevertheless, William retained many Anglo-Saxon institutions, laws and customs that benefitted his interests. He
demanded Danegeld as a source of income and fyrd as a counterforce to the barons. His Great Council replaced the
Witan but preserved its function of advising the king, though now it was made up of his tenants in chief. Most of the
governing was done through a small group of advisers, barons and royal officials. In the shires, royal authority worked
effectively for the first time through the office of a sheriff (local government) who replaced the earl as the official
representative of the king. In this way, royal power was no longer distant and indirect, but influential in each community
since the sheriff had full administration of local government and control of the local militia.
Church

The Church was also reorganized during William’s reign. At the time of his conquest, the Church’s dioceses weren’t orderly
arranged, and their boundaries weren’t very clear. It was not even clear which Archbishop was the actual head of the
Church, and the monasteries followed different customs. William appointed Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury, who
set to reorganize the church. First, he made himself head of the church as Arch. of Canterbury over York. He moved
cathedrals to central areas, called the bishops to frequent synods, filled vacancies with Norman clergymen but was careful
not to disregard the English. William further benefitted the church by giving it jurisdiction over its own affairs. He even
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permitted the establishment of ecclesiastical courts: no case involving the church or churchmen would be heard in the
shire courts but would be taken to the bishop, who would judge it according to church law. This increased the
administrative centralization of the church.
Less papal power
At this time, Pope was claiming England as a papal fief (because it was land converted by his messengers) and more
influence in the government of the church. William, with Lanfranc’s support, retaliated by making royal permission
necessary before any papal power could be exercised in England.
The Domesday Book (1086 AD)
William’s great administration is shown is the elaborate survey he carried out in 1086 in order to know what belonged to
him and how he could tax it; it could be described as a census of the ownership and wealth of the land, as well as of its
resources at his disposal and the potential amount of tax he could raise from his vassals and the knights they owed him.
There were also disagreements among landholders as to whom the land belonged to; the survey would settle these
problems as well. Royal commissioners were sent to every part of the country with a specific set of questions; their findings
were recorded in what was known as the Domesday Book. The information covered landholders, amount of land held,
amount of people occupying the land, animals and resources in general, woodland, buildings, and the value of everything
during Edward the Confessor’s reign, during the conquest and during 1086. What was recorded on the book had no
appeal, everything registered there meant it was the last word. This document is a valuable insight of the feudal structure
and its society. It also shows the percentage of land held by the king, the church and his tenants. But most importantly, it
gauges the impact of the Norman conquest in England.
Even though William was king by conquest, he provided order, peace, security and stability to the English. He introduced
a reformed church which governed its affairs independently, a political feudal system rested on the f ealty exacted from
Norman nobles in return for land holdings granted by the king, a substantial centralizing of royal power, strong central and
local administration; and the involvement of continental affairs, especially with France.
Consequences of the conquest
The Norman conquest gave way to the settlement of French kings in England. A French speaking nobility displaced the
English one, and French language and manners were adopted. But, under their rule, England developed distinctive and
original institutions (Parliament for instance) England became more attached to the continent: economically through
commerce and politically/militarily. This is when the conflicts between English and French monarchs began.

William II (1087-1100)
The conqueror died in 1087, besieging a castle in France. He left his three sons a monarchy that controlled feudal tenure,
baronial service, central administration and local government. However, the Conqueror’s sons’ reigns were marked mainly
by their quarrels over their father’s inheritance.
The sons of the Conqueror
Towards the end of the Conqueror’s reign, Normandy was threatened by the King of France and the Count of Anjou.
Robert Curthose, William’s eldest son, sided with his father’s enemies. However, William bequeathed Normandy to him.
Robert felt he should be king of England as well. But it was bequeathed to William’s second son: William Rufus, who was
crowned William II and felt he should be king of Normandy. To his youngest son, Henry, William gave money instead of
lands. Henry used much of the money to buy lands in Normandy but really he wanted Normandy or England.
Baron’s rebellions
Thus, the three brothers were expecting the right time to attack, and making alliances with the barons and French leaders.
This is why within a few months of his accession William found opposition among some Norman barons, who for their
own interests wanted to reunite England and Normandy. As they had lands and honours in both places, they risked losing
them if they favoured one brother over the other. These barons supported Robert but William put down their rebellions.
After suppressing the revolts, William set to conquer Normandy. He brought support and campaigned there while he
suppressed new revolts in England. But he was lucky, for at that time Pope Urban II called every man to the Crusades

9
and Robert saw the profit in it. He sold Normandy to William and left. As the new Duke, William recovered the lands
that had been lost during Robert’s slack rule, and restored it to the strong, fearful rule of the Conqueror. William also
campaigned in Scotland and Wales, where he had important victories.
William II vs Anselm
Although he was a successful military man, William was not a very popular king. He was an able ruler but brutal ad cruel,
he preferred bribery to war which meant high taxes for the English, and in a time of renewed religious fervor he openly
despised the church and clergy and showed himself irreligious. He treated the church as a useful treasury: by preventing
appointments to vacant bishoprics and abbots, he could benefit from the Church’s revenues and lands. His problems with
the Church intensified when he appointed Anselm as Archbishop of Canterbury. The Church at this time was going through
changes in Europe (the Gregorian reform) concerning church state affairs and clergy independence. Anselm and William
quarreled over the respective authority of church and state. Anselm appealed to the Pope so William confiscated his
goods and estates. Anselm exiled himself, leaving William with church’s land and revenue and the sense that a king was
not to be antagonized with.
William increased royal authority during his reign and he kept intact his father’s conquest. He also reunited England and
Normandy, something that his brother would consolidate. William’s death was shady as he was struck by an arrow while
hunting with his brother in the forest. He left no successor, so as soon as he got the chance, Henry seized the treasury
and was crowned in Westminster.

Henry I (1100-1135)
Henry reunited lots of qualities, many of them bad. But as king he did much to bring good government, and his work was
constructive and lasting. He came out as a great administrator and showed great statesmanship in dealing with the
English.
Charter of Liberties/Coronation Charter
Henry was careful to keep the English nobles’ support. On the day of his coronation he proclaimed, through the Charter
of Liberties, that he would abide by the laws of Edward the Confessor and William I, and that he would halt all extortionate
methods of collecting money from the nobles and the church. In other words, henry was denouncing his brother’s
oppressive practices and promising good government. In addition, Henry married a member of the royal house of Wessex
to gain popularity. He also recalled Anselm from his exile.
Robert’s return and revolt
However, this policy of buying support by granting favours and concessions didn’t stop the barons from rebelling. Henry’s
brother, Robert, came back from Jerusalem ready to reclaim his lands, namely England. Some Norman and English
barons remained loyal to the king, thus Robert was forced to sue for terms: Henry was to keep England and Robert was
to return to Normandy as Duke with an annual tax paid by the English. A year after this, Henry retaliated by invading
Normandy and defeating Robert. The king’s brother was imprisoned until his death, and Henry was in full possession of
Normandy.
Church: Gregorian reform
Though the rest of his reign was peaceful, Henry had a serious confrontation with the church as William II had had before
him. The church was going through a change regarding its own view, led by Pope Gregory VII. He saw it as a divine
society whose members were set apart from the rest by the power God granted them. So it was absurd for the Pope that
the church should be controlled by laymen; he was God’s representative on Earth and thus greater than any king. The
reformers wished to free the church from secular control. This view stirred opposition from the kings as they were regarded
as nothing more than a layman, inferior to all priests.
Lay investiture
Anselm’s return only brought quarrels with Henry. He was against the control the king had over church, which was
represented in the ceremony of Lay investiture, in which the king gave his newly appointed bishop or abbot their land
holdings and properties in return of homage and fealty. The king himself nominated the bishops and abbots, and only
after this ceremony, they could be consecrated. The matter centered on whether a clergyman was first a pastor or a feudal
10
lord, whether he should be consecrated first and then do homage to the king. Henry was in a difficult position as bishops
and abbots were great landowners and key figures in central and local administration, so he needed their loyalty, and he
was unwilling to quarrel with the church.
Solution
After some years, the matter was settled: bishops would be elected by the church under the king’s supervision, and they
would continue to do homage before their consecration but the church would invest the bishops with its symbols. So, in
practice, Henry gave up lay investiture but continued to be the effective ruler of the English Church, acknowledging the
Pope´s authority only when he saw fit, and appointing his own bishops and abbots.
Administration
Henry reshaped England’s central administration. His interest was in making the most of his royal power, even increasing
it, as a way of getting more money. In order to do this, he needed to keep his treasury full so he needed to see that the
taxes to which the king had a right did in fact reach him and were not lost in the way.
Taxes
The king collected two kinds of taxes: those of Anglo-Saxon origin, like the Danegeld, and those that came with feudalism
(when his tenants succeeded to their fiefs, or got married or failed to obey their duties)
New offices
Henry selected a small group of administrators from his council, to whom he gave special roles: the justiciar could act in
the home of the king; the chancellor was responsible for legal and secretarial duties of the government. The office of the
treasurer increased in power, and accounts of all receipts and expenditures were demanded; disputes over Tax cases
were held in a new office called Exchequer which was also the place where royal accounting took place. To raise more
money, Henry came up with the idea of scutage: the barons were allowed to make a money payment instead of
contributing knights as a feudal tax. This had the barons benefit of discouraging barons’ private armies.
Crown courts
Henry’s interference in administration went as far as law courts. Most offences were punished by fines which went to the
holder of the court. Although there were some crown courts, most cases never reached them as they were dealt with the
lord of a manor or with a baron. So Henry decided that we would get as much business as he could into his own courts:
he demanded that all those who broke the King’s Peace were punished by his own court. Most serious offences were
breakages of the king’s peace. He also invited men to bring their complaints to him, for a fee. He did this by sending
itinerant judges to every shire. This way, royal intervention increased, justice now reached into local areas and order was
enforced.
These changes which increased royal power were of course regarded as a threat by the barons, who lost influence and
money. However, Henry knew how to handle them and he knew the risks of alienated barons. But he was strong and
energetic, so the nobles had to bear with him until his death.
Towards the end of his reign, the succession problem dominated the politics. Henry’s heir had died, leaving him with no
legitimate male heir. He made sure that his barons swore allegiance to the only heir he had: Matilda. To strengthen her
position, he arranged he marriage to the future Count of Anjou. But he knew that the barons’’ oath meant little. England
had never been ruled by a queen. In addition, the marriage to Anjou, though powerful, was unpopular among the Normans
as they were rivals. At his death the chances for a peaceful succession and stability were very little.
Henry is regarded (despite his personality traits) as a great king. He brought a strong administration to England, produced
law and filled the treasury. He was a master politician and diplomat who could handle invasion and revolting barons. The
power of the magnates was checked, public finances systematized, royal authority increased, justice reformed and, most
importantly, the monarchy was growing in stability.

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Civil War: Matilda vs. Stephen (1135-1154 AD)
Henry I left no male heir as his son had died before him. He chose his daughter, Matilda, as his heiress and made the
barons vow allegiance to her before he died. He also had her married to Geoffrey of Anjou (Plantagenet) to secure his
possessions in Normandy. This brought discontent among the Norman barons.
The vow of allegiance was useless as it was unthinkable to have a woman king at this time, and also because of the
unpopular marriage. Henry died in 1135 AD. Matilda was in Normandy and she did nothing to secure the English throne.
But her cousin, Stephen of Blois, persuaded the church and the barons to renounce their oath to Matilda and make him
king instead as he was a fitter candidate. He was crowned king in 1135 AD.
He ruled by bargains and by increasing concessions to the barons and the church in order to keep his title. For the barons,
who had been kept at bay by Henry, he was the perfect puppet king. But in 1139 AD Matilda decided to claim the throne
and thus the war began.
It lasted twenty years and though there were few battles, it was all very confusing as the barons kept changing sides for
a higher price each time. For the people, it was a time of misery and the country was in a state of lawlessness. Matilda
captured Stephen but couldn’t be crowned. Gradually, Stephen gained lands and Matilda left in 1147 AD.
In France, Matilda’s husband had conquered Normandy and ruled it in the name of their son: Henry. In 1153 AD, Henry
crossed to England and won the war quite easily. The barons grew tired so they organized a meeting and Henry and
Stephen signed the Treaty of Walling Ford: Henry was to succeed Stephen. Stephen died in 1154 AD.

Henry II (1154-1189 AD) – First Plantagenet King

At a very young age he became king of England. He was a very powerful man and he owned many lands: he was Count
of Anjou and Duke of Normandy and of Aquitaine (by marriage to the ex-wife of the French King). He added the
overlordship of Wales, Scotland and southeastern Ireland.
Henry was a masterful man who loved power and money, but who hated disorder and inefficiency. He came to the throne
after the civil war so the country was in confusion and there wasn’t royal authority. Henry set about to restore all the law
and order that had been lost. First, he regained lands that belonged to the crown by revoking royal grants made by
Stephen. He also ordered the destruction of illegal castles. He did this by command and force. Second, he took up what
his grandfather had done, pushing it further: to secure income and increase his wealth he used the scutage: the tax barons
had to pay to the king as the feudal code required, made in money. Then, he increased the power of the royal courts and
the justice they dispensed. He brought better justice and more respect for royal authority. This resulted in a legal system
called the Common Law. In order to make justice more uniform and to avoid confusion over the different laws made by
every court, Henry sent judges all over the country to select the best local laws and customs and the most convenient for
him that were to be applied to all the courts over the realm. Henry also introduced the use of a jury made up of 12
respectable men from the hundred or village who swore an oath.
The expansion of royal justice made access to the courts easier for the people and prevented the barons from having too
much power. What Henry wanted was to bring the name and power of the King into the problems of his subjects, the king
had to be the true protector of all his subjects. In his courts there were not only criminal cases but also disputes over land.
He wanted to bring all his subjects under the power of his law, not only under the power of force.
Henry and the church:
There was, however, a group of subjects who were outside the power of his law: the churchmen. The church’s authority
had grown a lot during Stephen’s reign, as he had made concessions in exchange of support. In addition, William I had
long ago given the church jurisdiction over its own affairs, especially over ecclesiastical courts. Henry now encountered
conflict over the jurisdiction of the church’s courts. The church could try all cases involving the clergy, whatever the offense.
They could try everything including ecclesiastical matters.
In order to have the church under his control, Henry appointed his friend and chancellor Thomas Becket as Archbishop
of Canterbury. He also defined the powers of the church and government in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164 AD).
This document decreed that the king had rights over the English church, including the right to try criminal offenses made
by the clergy. The church refused the constitutions at first but eventually agreed. Becket, however, didn’t so he went into
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exile. Afterwards, a reconciliation was arranged but it was useless. The conflict ended with the murder of Becket, his later
canonization and public humiliation for Henry. Therefore, Henry was made to withdraw some of the terms in “the
constitutions”. However, the expansion of the church courts was halted.
Henry, because of his skill and personality, could rule over his empire transplanting government procedures from one
dominion to another. But he was forced to spend time away from England, trying to protect his domains and keep peace,
especially his lands in France. He was a vassal of the French King and this was a source of conflict. Towards the end of
his reign, Henry faced a great rebellion led by his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine and his children, Richard, Geoffrey and John.
The French and Scottish Kings sided with Henry’s family as well. But Henry crushed them. However, his sons continued
plotting against him and finally allied themselves with King Philip Augustus of France. They defeated Henry, who died
after hearing that John had betrayed him.
Henry is considered to have been a great king. He ruled powerful and wide dominions, and he gave England the strong
government and peace it needed. Through his reforms in law and crime, he brought a uniform legal system of justice.

Richard I (1189-1199 AD) – The Crusades

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the roman catholic church was one of the most powerful and influential authorities. In
addition, this was a time of great religious fervor. The crusading movement originated as a plan to capture the Holy Land
from the Muslims (who had occupied it and didn’t allow Christian pilgrims) and to convert them as well. The excuse was
that this was the will of God but, over the years, the real aim of the crusades became the promise of money, lands and
adventure.
The crusades brought together rival monarchs, and only within the religious and cultural bonds of Christendom did Europe
find the political unity that was thriving in the continent.
The most significant crusades were the First, between 1096 AD and 1099 AD that managed to capture Jerusalem and
set up feudalism and Christian kingdoms. The second, between 1147 AD and 1157 AD, in which the Muslims reconquered
ground lost. And the third, between 1189 AD and 1192 AD, led by Richard I (the Lion-heart), Philip Augustus of France
and the German Emperor, who fought Saladin.
The results of the crusades were significant. New trade routes were found to the Orient, which privileged England; royal
power was increased; there was a great influence in culture, learning and inventions from Islam, towns and commerce
grew together with the circulation of money and there was an adoption at new methods of warfare. But most importantly,
the crusades created the sense of chivalry and contributed to the building of English national identity.

Richard I (1189-1199 AD) – His reign

When Henry II died, he was succeeded by his son Richard I. He was the picture of chivalry and took up crusading as his
primordial task. During his reign, he stayed only a few months in England. It was thanks to the good administration of his
father that Richard could be absent for so long without trouble or war arising in the country. People didn’t want war and
the royal institutions like the courts could ensure order. So, order no longer depended on the King’s presence. Richard
left his brother, John, and the barons in charge of government while he was away. Richard’s only interest in England were
its soldiers and the taxes others raised for him. He died in France, fighting Philip Augustus and childless.

John (1199-1216 AD) – His reign

He was an efficient administrator of justice and personally checked the crown’s revenue. From Richard he inherited an
empty treasury (He even had to pay ransom when Richard was kidnapped), a troubled continental position as Philip
Augustus was trying to conquer English lands in France, and retaliating barons who had grown tired of the King’s
restrictions ever since Henry II and now were stronger due to the lack of royal authority.
During his reign, John had to deal with war in France and conflict with Philip Augustus, conflicts with Pope Innocent III
and the church, conflict with the barons.

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John (1199-1216 AD) – His conflicts
1- War in France: After crusading, Richard had fought against the French king, trying to stop him from conquering the
Angevin lands. He only managed to keep Philip at bay, who was now using a pretender to the English throne (Arthur,
John’s nephew) to win support. At first, John fought back and defeated Arthur, but eventually, in 1204 AD, John lost all
the English lands in France except for Aquitaine.
John also had a personal quarrel with King Philip. John married a French woman who was bethroded to a French man.
This man appealed to Philip, who summoned John to stand trial making use of his powers as overlord. But John refused
to go, so Philip forfeited all his French domains.
The loss of most of the French domains, the murder of Arthur, and the heavy taxation John’s subjects had damaged the
King’s reputation.
2- Conflicts with Pope Innocent III: John’s next quarrel was with one of the most powerful Popes: Innocent III. It began
with the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury and the vacancy he left. The monks elected a candidate but John elected
one as well. The dispute was sent to Rome, and the Pope elected a third candidate and ordered John to accept him. The
King refused so the Pope placed England under an interdict: all church services expect baptism and confession of the
dying were prohibited. John retaliated by confiscating church revenues and property. John was excommunicated and the
Pope threatened to depose him. This conflict encouraged other enemies of John’s, particularly the barons and Philip
Augustus who, with the Pope’s blessing, prepared to invade England. Finally, John submitted and agreed to a ccept the
Pope’s Archbishop and to restore church’s property and to become the Pope’s feudal vassal. In return, he had the support
of the Pope.
3- Conflicts with the barons: John had been abusing his feudal rights ever since he had been crowned. For his
unsuccessful campaigns in France, he had needed to raise taxed, not only to his barons but to the people in general. He
asked for more than he was allowed. In 1214 AD, in order to finance his last attempt to defeat Philip, he asked for another
scutage from his barons but they refused to pay. Several barons united and, had it not been for the intervention of the
Archbishop of Canterbury, civil war would have easy followed. The AB mediated in the negotiations between the barons
and John.
John wanted to have all the power centralized around him and by doing this, he took out privileges to the barons. The
barons. The barons wanted to win back what they had lost with Henry II.
John was finally pushed to agree to their demands by signing the Magna Carta at Runnymede in 1215 AD. In its clauses,
it was specified that the king couldn’t abuse his powers, especially those dealing with taxes, scutage and reliefs (for land).
It was also specified that nobody could be tried secretly or imprisoned without trial, that the church was free, that no taxes
were to be levied without consent of the Great Council.
Magna Carta was an agreement on feudal injustices and legal protection against a tyrannical king. It strengthened the
position of the barons, protected their rights and interests, and reminded the king that there were certain limitations to his
power. The king could be limited by the prescribed laws and his subjects had the right to rforce him to observe the laws.
In the charter there was a warning that, should the king dishonor the charter, he must face armed rebellion. Within a few
months, John repudiated the charter with papal approval. Thus, civil war broke out in 1216 AD.
The barons allied themselves with Philip Augustus, and offered the crown to his son Louis. John fought but couldn’t defeat
them. He died that same year, avoiding a full scale civil war.
John is considered to be one of the worst kings in English history. He was cruel and chose to quarrel with two of the most
powerful men at the time. However, he took a personal interest in judicial and financial administration and these made
many advances on these matters during his reign. The signing of Magna Carta also showed that the king could be brought
to terms and negotiate peacefully.

Henry III (1216-1272 AD) – His reign

He came to the throne when he was a child. It was a dangerous time as civil war was still a possibility, and the French
prince Louis was still occupying the country. But prince Louis left and a group of barons and church men set up a regency
which was respected and obeyed. The regency was limited by the Great Charter as it was, after all, an agreement the
14
barons had reached on how they were expecting to be governed by the king and what good government was believed to
be.
Henry was an intelligent and very religious man but he wanted to be a real king and to have military success. Though the
period of regency had been peaceful, when he came of age and became king, among the barons there was a growing
feeling that power should be exercised with their advice. This would be a source of conflict.

Henry III (1216-1272 AD) – Second Baron’s War (1264-1267 AD)

Henry married Eleanor of Provence who brought with her a number of French relatives to court. These French relatives
and friends started winning the King’s favor, who gave them important positions as advisers or replacing Englishmen at
court. The English barons grew dissatisfied; they became angrier at Henry’s failures in France. The barons felt they were
being excluded from that share in the government that the Charter stated, and their places were occupied with Frenchmen.
Henry then made things worse by embarking in a military campaign for the Pope. To do this he raised taxes to the clergy
who sided with the barons as, in addition to taxes, the Pope had filled vacancies in the English church with Italians. This
Pope’s campaign in Sicily brought only debts. This brought about the Revolt of the Barons, who found their leader in the
King’s brother-in-law: Simon de Montfort (who happened to be French). He had charisma and political ability and ideals
beyond his interests and he was quite ahead of his time. The barons took up arms and drew up a program to reform the
kingdom. Henry could do nothing but surrender to their demands in exchange for taxes. He was forced to sign the
Provisions of Oxford (1258 AD) in which they stated that a council made up of barons was to be set and was going to act
as adviser of the king. Foreigners were to be dismissed from court, and the council (called a Parliament) was to meet
three times a year. A year later in the barons’ activities and their estates were to be watched as was agreed by the
Provisions of Westminster (1259 AD).
However, this new scheme depended on the barons’ unity and it didn’t last long. Some changed sides and others quarreled
among themselves. Henry took this chance and annulled the Provisions with the support of the Pope and with Edward,
his son, by his side. Civil war broke out again. Simon defeated and Edward at Lewes (1264 AD) and ruled for a short time
under a baronial oligarchy, He summoned a Parliament in which he included knights and respectful citizens to make it
more representative. But the barons grew suspicious of him.
In 1265 AD, the royal army led by Edward defeated the barons and killed Simon. In 1266 AD, Henry confirmed Magna
Carta and gradually turned over control of government to Edward. Henry died in 1272 AD.
Henry lacked the ability to rule effectively. It was thanks to him however that the idea of Parliament began to appear as a
way of government and of checking the king’s decisions. The parliament summoned by Simon was to develop into the
House of Commons over time.

Edward I (1272-1307 AD) – Reforms

He was energetic and resourceful, a statesman and military leader. He had learned from his father’s reign that the king in
order to succeed needed the barons by his side, and must rule under and through the law. He saw a benefit to Simon’s
ideas: the way of government in which more people could participate but which preserved power to the king.
Edward had a legalistic and organizing mind. He wanted to know exactly what his powers were and to exercise them fully.
By legal reform, he strengthened the crown in the feudal hierarchy and Parliament grew as well. What he did was to
confirm and codify by legislative enactments much of the legal advances Henry II had done. He did this by statue law:
decrees passed by the king through his Great Council/Parliament and thereby introduced into the English legal system as
a new law that took precedence over the others. Some of the statues were:
a- The statute of Gloucester (1278 AD): which transferred cases from baronial courts to royal courts
b- The first statute of Westminster (1275 & 1285 AD): which sets limits to feudal aids (financial duties from
tenant/vassal to lord), reliefs and fees.
c- Statute of Mortmain (1279 AD): which tried to limit the extension of church property and the grant of land to the
church
Edward went further and attempted to simplify the complications of feudal system regarding land and its ownership. His
aim was to ensure that the king knew who was owner of what and therefore could tax them. He sent commissioners all
over the country asking for the legal right they had to hold their lands. If they couldn’t show it, the king would then claim
15
the land as his. This was also aimed at solving land ownership conflicts. He also devised a tax for imports and exports
(like customs).
Edward, however, was very careful over his right of taxation. A king was expected to govern efficiently and to be strong
and win wars. But to do this he needed money, especially to finance his campaigns and professional army. He knew there
were to ways of getting money: by force or by agreement. Force was useful but usually led to civil war, agreement, instead,
gave the impression of sharing the kingdom’s business and increased loyalty. It was because of this constant need for
money that the English parliament grew.
Parliament:
In 1295 AD Edward summoned the Model Parliament in which the greatest nobles and churchmen attended together with
knights, burgesses and respectful citizens. These last represented the communities and had the possibility of asserting
or withholding the king’s demands for money and to bring to him and the Great Council their problems. However, their
presence wasn’t compulsory yet, and they didn’t have real power.
The purpose of parliaments wasn’t only taxation. Edward would inform the barons of the development of his campaigns
and also see to the law.
Military:
Edward’s greatest successes as a military were his campaigns in Wales and Scotland.
1. Wales: In Wales there were Earls who ruled with their own laws on the borders with England, and beyond there were
the Welch princedoms. All of them owning homage to the king of England, their overlord. Prince Llewelyn led the Welsh
in their attempt for independence. He refused to pay homage to Edward who in return invaded Wales. They fought and
Edward defeated him, imposing English laws upon the Welsh. Uprisings followed but were crushed. Edward solved the
problem by making his son Prince of Wales. Edward successfully subdued Wales and it became subject to the English
crown and accepted English justice.
2. Scotland: There was a close relationship between England and Scotland, the Scottish King was a vassal of the English
and also had to pay homage. Edward took advantage of this relationship when he was summoned to intervene in the
succession to the Scottish throne. The claimants to the throne agreed to let him decide who should be king. He chose an
unpopular claimant and highlighted that he, Edward, was Lord of Scotland. He claimed he had the right to hear appeals
from Scottish courts or even to summon the Scottish king. Opposition grew in Scotland and eventually, the Scots allied
with the king of France. Edward invaded and deposed the king. The Scots were then led by William Wallace, who won
the Battle of Sterling Bridge (1297 AD) and even invaded Northern England. He was then defeated by Edward. A year
later, Robert Bruce was crowned king but was also defeated. However, Edward couldn’t subdue Scotland and he died on
his way there to fight another revolt, led by the young king Robert Bruce.
Overall reign:
Edward’s military strategy was to build castles. Trey meant power, defense and centers of government and trade, and
also a way of bringing English culture to the Welsh and Scots. He knew the limitations of military conquest. Edward is
considered to have been one of the greatest kings. He was a good administrator, and his advances in the legal system
and Parliament were significant. His Welsh conquest was one of his greatest successes, and he foresaw the value to a
community of thriving trade and prosperous merchants.
Towards the end of his reign, Edward I faced opposition among his subjects, especially his magnates and the propertied
classes: the merchant and the clergy. The King’s autocratic attitude strained relations with his influential subjects, but it
was the extraordinarily heavy taxation what broke the straw. Edward’s campaigns in Wales, Scotland and now France
(where the king had confiscated Edward’s lands) were extremely expensive, as well as the building of castles and the
raising of armies. The leader magnates, supported by the Welsh lords who resented Edward’s invasion, presented
grievances to the king and forced him to confirm magna carta and to give up certain taxation methods.
At his death, he bequeathed his son a kingdom, oppressed by severe taxation, a war in the North that didn’t promise
victory, instability on the French territories, then threatened by the king of France, and political unrest centered on the
barons who were now free of the control of a powerful king.

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Edward II (1307-1327 AD)
Personality:

Edward II was the opposite of his father. Politics and warfare had been Ed I’s life purpose, and he was a strong and fearful
personality. Edward II hated politics, the business of kingship and war, and his likes weren’t considered to be manly. As
king, therefore, he proved weak and unable. His method was to seek advice and even delegate power on his favorites.
Conflict with the barons:
One such favourite was the Gascon Knight, Piers Gaveston, who had been exiled by Edward I because of his close and
intimate relationship with his son. As soon as Edward became King, he recalled his friend and showered him in honours:
he raised him to the highest office, gave him English lands and named him Earl. The barons, of course, resented this as
they saw their own influence threatened.
In an attempt to settle the growing conflict, Edward agreed to reform royal government, he also needed money to finance
the ongoing war. He summoned Parliament where the barons, led by Thomas of Lancaster, presented him with a collection
of “ordinances” which sought to limit the king’s freedom of action: the king must govern with his natural advisers, the
barons; he must avoid heavy taxation and making war without consent; a council of twenty-one Lord Ordainers would
control the appointment of ministers. All in all, the king must be the barons’ puppet. They were exacting from Edward’s
concessions and reforms which his father had been unwilling to confirm.
Edward II accepted the ordinances in return of Gaveston’s safety when being banished. However, he had no intention of
keeping them, and after a few months Gaveston returned from exile and was restored to his royal favours. The barons
retaliated by having Gaveston executed. Between Edward and the baron, a peace was patched up, though the king was
waiting for a chance at revenge.
In the meantime, while Edward quarreled with his barons, Robert Bruce, King of Scotland had been reconquering his land
and even part of northern England. Edward raised an army and marched north only to be crushingly defeated at the Battle
of Bannockburn (1314 AD). This ensured Scotland’s independence and brought humiliation to the king, whose
unpopularity was increasing due to heavy taxes and a series of bad harvests which brought social distress.
Edward promised to put the ordinances into full effect and to obey the barons. But they were disunited themselves,
Lancaster facing opposition. The king found new favourites on the Despensers, who had great territorial ambitions. Civil
war finally broke out in 1322 AD, when the Despensers came back from exile. Edward now had the support of Lancaster’s
enemies so he was able to defeat him and have him executed.
Plot against him:
Edward’s problematic reign, however, could only end in tragedy. He was married to Isabella of France, a strong woman
who came to despise the king. While negotiating peace with the French king and taking her and Edward’s son and heir to
do homage, she began an affair with an exiled Welsh baron who hated the Despensers: Roger Mortimer.
Together, they plotted against Edward and landed in England determined to seize the crown. Edward finally lost support
and, through Parliament, was deposed in favour of his son in 1327 AD. He was imprisoned and the murdered.

Edward III (1327-1377 AD)

At the beginning of his reign, actual power rested with his mother and her lover: Isabella and Mortimer. Edward watched
passively as Mortimer grew in power, though it didn’t last long: the barons soon started plotting together with the king the
fall of both Isabella and Mortimer. Parliament condemned him as a traitor and executed him, while Isabella was
imprisoned. Now in full possession of his Kingdom, Edward was able to restore the authority lost during his father’s reign,
and the monarchy won respect again. Edward was determined to erase the memories of his father’s disastrous reign.
Luckily, he was very different from him: he was chivalric and his first love was war. In this way, he resembled his
grandfather from whom he would take inspiration for his military campaigns.
Edward proved to be capable of dealing with the barons, and as he never threatened their interests, he had their full
support. In this way, the king was able to lead a campaign in Scotland, where he succeeded at first but then put aside to
concentrate on something better: France.
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Edward III (1327-1377 AD) – The Hundred Years’ War: First Wave
Ever since the Norman Conquest, when England and France became close in relationship and rulers, problems
concerning feudal rights and landownership were something every king had to face. By this time, of the Great empire
ruled by Henry II only Gascony remained under English ownership.
There were several causes for the war:
1- The historical hostility resulting from English possessions in France. For the French, these were an obstacle for the
monarchs to centralize and consolidate their holdings. For the English kings, this meant that they were vassals to French
Kings, and as such they had to pay homage and were at the mercy of the French king who could confiscate English
estates and ask for money in return. Gascony was confiscated by the French king in 1337 AD.
2- When the French king died without an heir, Edward claimed to be the next in line of succession as his mother Isabella
was the late king’s sister. French lawyers, however, invoked the old Salic Law which stated that inheritance through female
line was forbidden.
3- England’s economic dependence with Flanders was at risk as trade and commerce were in jeopardy because of the
increasing control of the French king in Flanders. England provided wool to Flanders, and cloth and corn to Bordeaux,
and Gascony was a thriving wine-producing enterprise.
4- English people resented the French alliance with Scotland, which increased the king’s difficulties in his war with the
Scots. In addition, there was also piracy occurring in the English Channel, unpunished by the government.
Start of the War and first wins:
In 1337 AD, Edward III declared the war. He began to collect allies in France and found it on the burgesses from Flanders,
who saw their interests threatened by the French king. He also bought support on the Continent. However, there was little
enthusiasm for the war in England, especially from Parliament and the barons to whom the king was constantly asking for
money. They were reluctant to pay for something that may not succeed, but Edward simply had to confirm Magna Carta
to get what he wanted.
Edward and his son, the Black Prince, led the invasion of France. They crushed the French at the Battle of Crécy (1346
AD), one of the most important victories of England. Edward then proceeded to take Calais. This increased Edward’s
popularity and presented the war as an opportunity for any man, of adventure, riches and glory. The French had been
surprised by the English and their powerful longbows. A couple of years later, the English succeeded again at the Battle
of Poitiers (1356 AD): they took up many French territories and also imprisoned the French King. This wave culminated
with the signing of the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 AD by which Edward III renounced his claim to the French crown but he
received Aquitaine, Poitiers and Calais and he was to release the French King for a ransom.
During this successful period, this great enterprise of war brought together king and barons. It was a profitable enterprise
for plunder, fame and fortune. But it also produced something new: national identity. Soldiers started fighting as nationals.
England, moreover, was better positioned than France as by this time it was more unified and better organized than
France.
Decline of the war:
The war was halted, then, because of the outbreak of the Black Death, a disease that was spreading rapidly along
Europe’s trade routes and was decimating its population. In addition to this, the burdens of the ware were starting to show,
and a period of decline would start at the end of Edward III’s reign.
The king now faced an empty treasury because of all the money and debts the war had costed. His activity began to
decline, as well as his interest in politics. His popularity began to fell when he took a mistress who preyed on his wealth,
and when France began to recover under its new and able king who won back what had been accomplished during the
war. In addition, the Black Prince’s misrule of Aquitaine brought the opposition of its inhabitants, who presented heavy
taxation and so started to appeal to the French king for help, the government of England lost direction and another political
crisis arose: barons antagonized clerical ministers, and the king’s son, John of Gaunt, started gaining more power. He
was Duke of Lancaster and one of the most powerful men in England, he gave patronage to different people (from heretics
of Oxford to merchants). He dominated the king’s council, and when he arranged a truce with France, the barons lost it
18
as they couldn’t benefit from war anymore. They summoned a Good Parliament in which they turned on Gaunt and other
ministers, and even on the king’s ministers and were accused of treason. They were dismissed or banished. The crisis
then culminated with the death of the Black Prince, followed by his father’s a year later.
Edward’s reign as a whole:
Edward III was not a wise king or a great statesman, and he is mostly remembered for launching the greatest war at his
time. Although his ambition brought years of warfare and misery for the English, his chivalric personality and successes
kept his popularity up. He was the founder of the Order of the Garter, a fellowship of king and knights.

Richard II
The grandson of Edward III, Richard came to the throne when he was a child. The beginning of his reign was marked by
political factionalism centered on the baronial regency. The great nobles, led by the king’s uncles, one of them being
John of Gaunt, took advantage of their regency to conspire against each other in their quarrel for powerful positions.
Gaunt built up the image of the king very carefully. He emphasized the different order of the king, who was chosen by
God through hereditary succession and his greatness and magnificence. So Richard was to grow up intelligent and
masterful, bur at the same time, he was to become deeply insecure, something that led him to overconfidence. The fact
that he grew up being dominated by his guardians, made him a temperamental man with a strong desire to be
independent.
Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
Richard showed great leadership when faced with one of the greatest social crisis England knew: The Peasants’ Revolt.
The causes of the rebellion had been brewing for a long time, especially after the outbursts of the plague and the French
war during Edward III’s reign. Though the Black Death decimated the population, for those who lived its consequences
weren’t very bad: the decreased number of peasants reduced the labour market and so rents were forced down, wages
were increased and with the collapse of prices, peasant could improve their standard of living. Social mobility was now
possible as many peasants could buy vacant estates. The landowners couldn’t benefit from this as for then, the impact of
the plague was negative (prices rose and rents fell and agriculture and market production were threatened) So they had
the Statute of Labourers (1351) passed by Parliament, with the aim of discouraging mobility among a thriving labour force.
The statute restores pre-plague wages; a wage cap was set. By this time, the consequences of the war were also felt,
especially on the economy. In order to finance the war, several taxes were imposed on the king’s subjects. When the
Statute of Labourers was passed, the economic success the peasants enjoyed was stopped. Their wages weren’t enough
because of the high prices. Overtaxation brought economic depression. The poll tax imposed in 1381 by john of Gaunt
was the last straw for the peasants to pay for the war, this tax was imposed not only on the landowners, but on the
peasants as well, and it was extremely high. When the peasants looked for support in the Church, they couldn’t find it.
The bishops and abbots were great landowners and thus were happy with the statute and taxes; the peasants felt betrayed
and resentment grew.
The revolt began in Essex, when the peasants refused to pay the poll tax. It spread quickly to Kent, and soon the peasants,
led by Wat Tyler and John Ball, attacked manor houses and killed landowners. They marched to London, where they
waited to see the king and present their demands: the abolition of serfdom, taxes, reducing land rents, manorial reform,
less property for the church and more rights and privileges for the common people, together with a royal pardon. Richard
met them, agreed to their demands as long as they didn’t threaten the crown, and pacified them. But, in a confusing
episode, Wat Tyler was killed and when things seem out of control, Richard confronted the peasant and claimed that he
was to be their leader. The rioters went home with royal pardons.
Outcome:
Several revolts (smaller) followed but were subdued. Many rebels were executed. The rebellion failed, as Richard never
kept this promises and exploitation of peasants continued. However, attention was focused on them for the first time and
it demonstrated how the feudal system was decaying.
Barons’ anger – the Merciless Parliament (1387)

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After succeeding in managing this situation, Richard grew tired of John of Gaunt and the regents’ tutelage. He turned for
counsel to a few close friends and officials, whom he could trust. He disregarded the advice of the barons (who felt had
the right to advise because of their lands and power) and of the members of Parliament, ho by this time had great influence
and money. The treatment of his friends resembled that of Edward II’s in the generous patronage Richard gave them. So
Parliament and a group of Barons led by Richard’s uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, accused Richard’s friends of treason
and incompetence in the Merciless Parliament. The king’s friends were either banished of executed, and all the power
went to the Lords Appellant who regulated political actions and the advisers of the king. However, after this, Richard
carefully built a party of loyalists, among whom was Henry Bolingbroke, and asserted himself as king, by running his
own government. He made peace treaties with Irish rebels, and negotiated a truce in France which he sealed by marrying
the French princess.
Deposition
Once the felt secure, Richard took revenge on the Lords Appellant. Banishments, murders and executions took place,
showing the king’s attitudinal change towards tyranny. He gave titles and favours to his followers, with whom he packed
the Parliament, the were imprisonments without trial, he passed retroactive anti-treason laws and began to confiscate
estates. These actions frightened the barons and landowners, who started deserting him. In 1399, Henry Bolingbroke,
who had been banished, returned to England where he met great support. He came to claim his father’s inheritance which
Richard had confiscated. Richard, without support, was captured and imprisoned. He was deposed by Parliament, who
chose Henry as his successor (as Richard had no children). The king is thought to have been murdered.
Richard’s reign included a factious regency, a baronial oligarchy, a period of royal tyranny and a deposition. Its end shows
the strong relationship between kings and barons and how they needed each other to rule. As a result, Parliament became
an important tool to protect their own interests. Richard’s downfall as his belief of an absolute monarchy, with a king
making and breaking laws at will, unstoppable even for the Parliament.

Lancaster kings
Henry IV (1399-1413)
Though Parliament tried to legalize his succession. It was clear for everyone that Henry IV as king by conquest. However,
he had a feeble claim by heredity through his father John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III. But this claim
could be overthrown by a better legal claimant to the throne: Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, who as descended from
an elder son of Edward III.
So henry knew that his position was fragile, and that his conquest had been possible by noble support. Though he had
had his own motives (revenge), it had been an attack on tyranny on a government by a king who claimed unlimited power.
Therefore, in order to rule at leisure, he had to prove that he was the opposite of Richard: he needed to show his barons
that he cared for their counsel, he needed to refrain from raising unjust taxes, and he needed to be warlike to gain respect
and popularity. Henry realized his sovereignty depended on the allegiance of his subjects; so he handled the church, the
nobility and Parliament with care, avoiding confrontation and severity.
As a Lancastrian, Henry inherited the network of interests and riches of his father. His conciliatory personality and
generosity, together with his Lancastrian connections, helped him overcome several revolts during his reign. He had two
important allies among the barons: The Percies and the Nevilles, leaders of the north and extremely powerful up to the
extent of having personal armies. But Henry wasn’t intimidated by them, it was Parliament that tried to control him. When
he was refused money, Henry borrowed from the London merchants. By conciliation, he obtained Parliament’s support
without losing power.
Risings
Henry faced several rebellions during his reign. First, he faced Richard II’s supporters who were hoping to restore his
kingship. This rising led to the late king’s murder, and the rebels were killed. A few years later. Henry lost the support of
the Percies: the king owed them money and didn’t seem to be ready to repay it, so the Percies fostered the rumor that
Henry had murdered Richard II and allied themselves with the Welshman, Owen Glendower. The Welsh had many
reasons to riot against the English, but the landowner’s oppression as the most significant. Owen was after the
independence of Wales, with its own ecclesiastical organization and universities. Together, they raised a rebellion hose
objective was to replace Henry with Edmund Mortimer. Henry defeated them, killing one leader: Harry Hotspur (son of
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one of the Percies) Years later, Glendower and the Percies were plotting again, this time with the aid of the Archbishop
of York. King Henry and his son and heir, Henry, put down the Percies and the Welsh rebels, as well as the Scots who
were helping them.
Henry spent his whole reign defending his crown, and securing his dynasty. He was energetic and succeeded in handling
the powerful forces of the church, the nobility and Parliament. But his usurpation of the throne led to a century of disputed
successions during which Parliament became the tool of rival factions. The nobility was starting to play with the crown,
anticipating the period or civil war that was to come. Having broken the hereditary succession, the Lancastrian kings could
rule not by right but by strong arm.
Henry V (1413-1422 AD)

Henry IV left his son a peaceful and loyal kingdom. His campaigns against the Welsh rebels, and his government as
Prince of Wales, had given Henry vast experience. He was capable, fearless, ambitious and an authoritarian monarch.
His kingship as firm and energetic, and was the climax of Lancastrian England.
Henry bent all his energy and abilities to the conquest of France. He was determined to claim what he thought was his by
right, and to unite both crowns and set a dynasty.
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): Second wave
When Henry came to the throne, conditions in France were ripe for a renewal of the war and for English intervention.
France was weak, demoralized and with little unity. In addition, the French king was insane and the French were divided
between rival factions: The Burgundians and the Orleanists.
Henry’s ambitions coincided with his subjects’ expectations: magnates and knights raised large armies, taxes were
imposed and even a navy was built. The king attracted popular support when he explained his aims publicly. Henry raised
a professional army and equipped it well to pay for all this, he asked for huge loans. His strategy as the same as Edward’s:
to ally with French nobles to exploit their divisions. But he also took inspiration from William the Conqueror; he wanted to
take Normandy first.
In 1415 AD, Henry landed in France. The French were crushed at the Battle of Agincourt, a success even greater than
Crecy or Poitiers. The victory brought even more popularity to the king, and more discontent among the French. After this,
by methodical sieges he conquered Normandy and fought his way to Paris, where his Burgundian allies helped him
capture the city and thus exact his terms.
By the end of the 14 th century little remained of the English possessions which Edward had won in France. Now, Henry
possessed most of the country. In 1420 AD, Henry, the French king and the Burgundians signed the Treaty of Troyes by
which Henry was to marry the French princess and be recognized as regent of France until the French king’s death, when
Henry would become king of France. In addition, French territories were to be divided between Henry and his allies. This
marks the summit of English success in the war.
Outcome - consequences
Henry V never became king of France as he died two years later, followed by the French king. Therefore, Henry’s baby
son, Henry, succeeded as England’s and France’s king. The tide turned for the English now as the Dauphin refused the
treaty and was declared king of France soon after. The Burgundians as well started deserting the English (towards the
end of the war)
Though Henry’s popularity didn’t abandon him, the results of his campaigns were similar to those of Edward III. The
English crown was loaded in debts and the treasury was empty. As the new king was young, regents were appointed.
Henry V is considered a great king, mainly because of his deeds in France. He handled with skill the nobles, Parliament
and church, directing them to fight in the war. Therefore, his reign wasn’t threatened by rebellion. He was a very religious
man, so during his reign Lollards were persecuted for heresy and burned.

21
Henry IV (1422-61/1470-71)
Henry inherited both the English and the French crowns at a difficult time: the French war was coming to an end without
success, and factionalism among the nobles was setting the ground for political instability.
The king was only a baby, so the royal council appointed protectors: John, Duke of Bedford was regent of France, and
Humprhey, Duke of Gloucester was protector of England. This period of minority was one of magnate rule which created
vested interests that wouldn’t be surrendered when the king came of age, especially the struggle between Gloucester and
Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester. These magnates were starting to concentrate most of the power.
As Henry grew up, he came out to be very different from his father. He was a man of peace, simple and modest, and he
took great interest in education and religion. However, he was inexperienced and depended on others to rule. He
deposited all his trust in Beaufort and in the Duke of Suffolk.
The Hundred Years’ War: End (1453) – Consequences
When Henry V died, he left his brother Bedford in charge of the war. He was a successful military man, determined to
keep de Burgundian alliance which was vital for the English.
At first, he was able to defeat the dauphin and besiege him in the last French stronghold, Orleans. The French seemed
doomed until Joan of Arc appeared and changed history. A peasant girl, she claimed that she heard voices which
commanded her to save France. She believed it was God’s desire for her to free France from the English. She was allowed
to lead the French army in Orleans, resulting in the relief of the city and their advance to Paris.
English decline
Joan and the Dauphin (now king of France) not only halted English advance but they also gave the French inspiration and
spirit to revert English conquest. The Burgundians decided that it was time to become neutral, and Bedford died years
later. The tide had turned. England was in a military and financial trap, with no leader to direct her, and with the English’s
opinion divided. Parliament lost its warlike enthusiasm and stopped granting money for the war. Rival factions were
quarreling for power, and popular discontent was increasing.
The search for peace because urgent. Beaufort sent envoys to negotiate and a truce was agreed. Henry married Margaret
of Anjou, and promised to surrender won territory in France. However, the French soon took over most of the English
territories, including Gascony. By 1453 AD, of the great empire, only Calais remained.
Overall consequences
The war reflected the dynastic rivalries and feudal code, but it increasingly took on the characteristics of a war between
two nations. France won the war and though England had lost almost all her possessions, she was now freed from
continental rivalries and could concentrate on other things, like the civil war that broke out in 1455 AD and commercial
expansion overseas. During the war, Parliament had exploited the king’s constant need for money by prestige. But above
all, there was now a sense of national identity, and patriotism even made Englishmen weary of the influence of the
Pope.
Consequences in England
Back home, things were in a tight spot. The loss of the war, especially of the lands (most of which belonged to nobles who
paid for the war) and of Gascony in particular, with its long-established wire and cloth trade, were a blow for the king.
The Lancastrian government was discredited, and dis-satisfaction and discontent towards Henry and his administration
increased. Factionalism among nobles, debts and taxes amounted to the problem. Order and law were lost as soldiers
who returned from war pillaged and plundered everywhere, without punishment. The magnates started recruiting them
and raising private armies. They soon became a law unto themselves uncontrollable by a weak king, afraid of losing their
support. Extremely rich and powerful, no magistrate dare to condemn them. Some of them were the Nevilles, the Percies,
the dukes of Norfolk, Suffolk and York.
Revolt
The landowners, merchants and lawyers, now part of Parliament, suffered the tyranny of the magnates. Henry was too
weak and poor to take effective action; he was bankrupt and couldn’t provide for the officials on whom effective
22
government depends. All this led to the impeachment and murder of the Duke of Suffolk, and the first popular revolt since
1381 rose in the south, led by Jack Cade. The rebels marched to London and asked for better justice and payment of the
king’s debts henry offered a general pardon and promised to end misgovernment and the rebels went back home. In time,
Cade was executed and the rebellion accomplished nothing.
The Lancastrian dynasty was now a national humiliation. The stage was cleared for a dynastic struggle; for civil war.

The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485) – Part 1

End of Lancastrian Rule
Already there were some who supported the claims of the Duke of York, Richard, descendant of Edward III, to the throne.
Until 1453 AD, Henry was childless and the Duke of York seemed the rightful successor (besides, he had a stronger legal
claim than the Lancastrian Kings), but Margaret bore him a son. However, that same year Henry suffered a mental
breakdown which made him unable to rule. The House of Lords appointed York as Lord Protector and under his firm rule
the royal administration began to work. Judges were sent to imprison the magnates who had taken the law into their own
hands. The Queen resented this and, after one year, when Henry got suddenly better, she retaliated by outing Yo rk and
his friends from government. York now claimed the crown openly and war began.
Gathering a group of lords as supporters, including the Earl of Warwick and an army made up of mercenaries, York
confronted Henry at the Battle of St. Albans (1455 AD). York won but agreed to leave Henry on the throne as long as the
most important offices in government were in Yorkist hands. Henry underwent another bout of madness, but his queen
was determined to keep the crown for their son. While Henry was kept prisoner in London, she raised an army. In 1460
AD she faced York and killed him along with many of his followers. She entered London and returned control to the
Lancastrians. Margaret was a courageous woman and an able ruler. She exerted power over the king, someth ing that
made her unpopular.
The death of York was a severe blow to the Yorkists. But Warwick and York’s son, Edward, now Duke of York continued
to raise armies. They managed to enter London, where Edward was proclaimed king by his Yorkist peers and by
merchants and commons. Then, they moved north where they caught the queen’s army. They met and Edward crushed
the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton (1461 AD). The Yorkist triumph was decisive and firmly established Edward IV
on the throne. Margaret, Henry and their son fled to Scotland. Lancastrian rule had come to an end.
Edward IV – York

Edward set about stamping out all remaining Lancastrian opposition. Henry was imprisoned at the Tower of London but
Margaret fled to France. However, Edward was starting to fall out with his most powerful ally: The Earl of Warwick, Richard
Neville. Warwick was one of the barons who had started civil war, he was the head of the Neville family and owner of
enormous estates; he was also related to all the leading men. This is why he received the title of “Kingmaker”: all his
wealth enabled him to hire more soldiers. He felt he had the right to advise and direct the king’s policy. But Edward, unlike
Henry, was a man of strength and authority. He dismissed Warwick’s plans of marriage for him and disregarded an alliance
the Earl had made in France. Thus, Warwick turned on him.
Warwick gathered his followers and struck. He took Edward by surprise and defeated and captured him. Many of the
King’s supporters were executed but Warwick didn’t dare to claim the throne. He released the king after making him
promise to accept the new ministers and to accept the advice of his barons. Edward put up with this but he was determined
to cut down any magnate who challenged his royal authority. After some time, the king accused Warwick of treason, the
Earl had to fly to France.
While in France, Warwick started plotting against Edward with his former enemies Margaret and her son the Lancastrian
supporters. The conspiracy was mainly supported by the King of France, who provided them with the troops and money.
In 1470 AD, Warwick landed in England. Edward, taken by surprise, was defeated and fled, so Henry VI was released
and restored to the throne. Edward took refuge in Burgundy, where he got support from the French (who resented their
king). He was provided with men and money and in 1471 AD he was ready to take back his kingdom. Landing in England,
he found men joining him for the Lancastrian government was still inefficient and unpopular. He met Warwick’s army and
crushed it at the Battle of Barnet (1471 AD). Warwick was killed, one of the most powerful allies of the Lancastrians. A
month later, Margaret and her son were preparing their army. Edward caught them and defeated them at the Battle of
Tewkesbury (1471 AD). Most of the Lancastrian nobles were executed and Prince Edward was killed. Margaret was
23
captured and sent of the Tower. Henry VI was murdered that very same day. Edward IV was now undisputed King of
England, the direct Lancastrian line completely wiped out.
Henry VI is considered one of the worst kings of England. Though he came to an unstable and poor throne, he lacked the
authority and the personality traits and skills an English king needed to have. He couldn’t provide law and order and
couldn’t balance the powerful baron’ rivalries. He was the last Lancastrian King.

Edward IV (1461-1470 / 1471-1486) – Yorkist Kings

He was a man of great strength and authority, intelligent and a great soldier. He was able to keep the nobles at bay so
that, during his reign, peace and order could be restored, as well as royal authority.
During his first period as king, Edward was busy stomping out all the remaining Lancastrian opposition. He started to
disregard his most powerful ally, Warwick the king maker, and won the Baron’s hatred after secretly marrying Elizabeth
Woodville and giving her relatives positions at court. After defeating his enemies, Edward was free to rule without
opposition.
Edward set out to restore what years of inefficient government had caused. He sent judges to check on the courts, and
put in operation laws to regulate the practice of livery, by which the magnate had been able to recruit private armies. He
also took over lands for the crown, building up the royal estates so that the crown was again the greatest landowner in
the country. Edward also made a profit from trade: as import duties rose, the crown’s income did as well. He also sold
wool to the Continent and profited from this.
Edward was therefore able to rule without having to resort to Parliament for money. His successes in trade and commerce
benefitted not only on the crown, but also the smaller property owners and merchants (members of the Common). He
knew that he couldn’t afford to anger them by constantly demanding money or over taxation. By confiscating estates and
receiving “gifts” or Benevolences from richer subjects, Edward avoided asking Parliament for money. Benevolences were
actually non-parliamentary taxes, granted by the will of the giver at the expense of the king’s friendship.
Edward was in such a comfortable position that he even declared war against France to gain more popularity. When he
invaded France, the French king offered him money and annual pension in return for peace.
The political security and economic stability that Edward had brought to the country resulted in a period of constructive
rule. But when he died in 1483 AD, his son and heir was only a child. The prospect of a minority, leading to civil war
became a possibility once again.
Edward IV was a masterful king who was able to bring peace, order and stability to England. In the closing years of his
reign, the crown owned a great fortune, and royal authority had been restored.

Richard III (1483-1485)

When Edward IV died, his son was “crowned” Edward V in 1483 AD but his accession to the throne was problematic. The
barons now had a chance to reassert their power, and the factions that had been closest to Edward IV, the Woodvilles
and Richard of Gloucester, were now quarreling.
Richard was made Lord Protector by Parliament, and he proceeded to arrest the supporters of the Queen and his enemies.
At the same time, rumors about Edward IV’s marriage to Elizabeth being invalid started spreading, giving the impression
that Edward V was a bastard. Whether this was true, or whether Richard fostered these rumors is uncertain. The thing is
that, shortly after Edward IV’s death, Edward V and his brother were sent out to the Tower and never came out. They are
thought to have been murdered by Richard, who was crowned king later that year.
Even though he was very unpopular, Richard’s was a good government. He was a good administrator and he managed
to keep some powerful barons at bay. He also restored the effectiveness of the courts of common law. He also gave
England a breathing-space of two years before war broke out again.
Richard’s actions led to a revival of dynastic warfare. He faced revolts led by the Woodvilles and by some barons. But shit
got real when Henry Tudor claimed the throne in the name of Lancaster.

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The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485) – Part 2: End
Henry Tudor’s claim to the throne was feeble (he descended from Edward III through an illegitimate line descend from
John of Gaunt), but he was the leader of the Lancastrian party. As Richard’s unpopularity grew, Henry started gaining
more and more support from his exile in France.
Backed by the French king and by some of Richard’s allies, Henry landed in England with an army and confronted the
king. They met at the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485 AD), where Richard was killed, as he had been betrayed by his allies.
Henry snatched the crown from the battlefield and was later on proclaimed king Henry VII.
This was the last battle and the ending of the Wars of the Roses. As Richard didn’t have any heir and most of the Yorkists
supported Henry, the new king didn’t face opposition. The Plantagenet dynasty came to an end.
The war as a whole

The Wars of the Roses were a dynastic struggle between two royal houses, and involved only the aristocratic families and
their followers. Rather than a civil war, they represented the struggle for power between two political parties, both of which
accepted the unity of the kingdom and the existing system of government by king, council and Parliament. Neither party
sought to destroy or divide the royal authority, but rather to obtain power over the council and through it govern the country.
Thus, these wars were fought by the great barons and their private armies; the rest of the people were left undisturbed,
for the barons wished to control a thriving kingdom with popular support.
The impact of the wars was that of a damaged, decimated and leaderless aristocracy. Some nobles were in exile, many
families had been wiped out, and others were left to the leadership of young boys. So the nobility was exhausted of power,
and Parliament too, as it was only used to sanction the king’s actions. This meant that the king and the “commons” were
closer than before in common opposition to the nobility.

Henry VII (1485-1509)

He was able to proclaim himself king because Richard had been killed, together with many of his supporters, and because
other claimants to the throne had also been eliminated. However, Henry’s claim was feeble and he would have to secure
his position on the throne.
Henry was a respectful and skillful ruler. He was determined to make the monarchy great again, and to position the crown
above political factionalism; he was also set on taking the idea of “Kingship” to the extreme. He was unsympathetic to
aristocratic values, and his goal was a monarchy in which the nobles served the king instead of a partnership. He wanted
to rule England from his centralized royal court, personally. Not indirectly through intermediaries.
Attempts to dethrone him:
To consolidate his power, Henry made Parliament confirm his title on the grounds of hereditary and conquest. He also
married Edward IV’s daughter, Elizabeth of York, therefore uniting both houses. This marriage also helped him keep the
allegiance of those Yorkists who had supported him before. However, Henry faced several plots to dethrone him. First, a
man called Lambert Simnel was persuaded by Yorkists to impersonate Edward IV’s nephew and claim the throne. This
got northern and Irish support but was crushed when the army landed in England. Second, there were rumors that the
Princes in the Tower were alive as their bodies had never been found. This time, the Yorkist produced an imitator of one
of the princes: Perkin Warbeck. He got men and money from the Kings of Scotland and France, but Henry’s diplomacy
eventually deprived him of foreign support and when Warbeck landed in England, he was captured and executed. After
these rebellions, Henry’s reign was secured.
Throne secure:
Henry then moved on to enforce and restore law and order. He turned for advice not to holders of titles and great estates,
but to “common” men whose authority came from their ability, good service and loyalty to the king, regardless of social
position. He also used royal patronage – the process by which the crown granted offices, lands and other valuable stuff
to its dependents – as a tool for political control.
Local government:

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Henry governed through his large Council, made up of these men of lower social rank and a few magnates acting as
counselors. The council deliberated policy, administered lands and taxation and justice in the localities, and it also
arbitrated disputes between powerful men. However, the real governing was done by the Privy Council, made up of
Henry’s most trusted and closest advisers. Because Henry’s main aim at the beginning of his reign was to be at the center
of power and to restore order, he expanded the jurisdiction of his council over all cases of livery and maintenance (the
great lord’s practice of recruiting and maintaining private armies), bribery and civil disorder. The entity in charge of dealing
with these affairs was the court of Star Chamber, a powerful judicial body separate from the Council and under Henry’s
direct influence. This court discussed issues such as internal security, armed forces and foreign affairs, and it was Henry’s
tool for increasing royal involvement in civil and criminal cases. The court was a supervisory body established mainly to
compel the nobles to accept royal authority as it oversaw to the lower courts at local level. The establishment of the court
was important as it kept the barons at bay, and Henry could control them by supervising their armies and checking their
local power and abuse of it, which had gone out of royal control over the Wars of the Roses.
At local level, Henry enforce law through the justices of peace who supervised the collection of taxes and saw that the
laws were obeyed, as well as the wishes of the king.
Economy:
Henry knew that money meant power and freedom from parliamentary grants. But he came to an impoverished crown, so
he set out to fix this. Following Edward IV’s example, Henry depended mainly on import duties: that is why he fostered
foreign commerce by signing treaties like the 1485’s Navigation Act which stimulated English shipping as only English
ships could be used to import goods, and the Intercursus Magnus with the Netherlands reopened the cloth trade to
merchants. Henry didn’t want to antagonize people by raising taxes, but he collected as many as he could. He also relied
on the fines for livery and retaining, and even seized properties of attained nobles. Henry’s most useful tool was t he
granting of benevolences from his wealthy subjects.
Just like Edward IV, Henry found the way not to depend upon Parliament, and during his reign they only met on a few
occasions.
Henry’s reign as a whole:

Henry’s main concern was being able to establish a secure dynasty. He wasn’t interested in war, so most of his foreign
policies revolved around his wish to make England look strong and glorious. He used marital diplomacy and careful
arranged unions with some of the most important countries of the continent: by marrying Arthur (and later on Henry) to
Catherine of Aragon, he secured an alliance with Spain, he then married his daughter Margaret to the Scottish king,
making both kingdoms and securing peace.
Henry wanted to increase the majesty of the crown as much as he could, so that people were aware of his dignity and
would therefore respect him. He demanded that his badge was set on buildings so that everybody would recognize it. He
also issued a coin, the sovereign, which had a picture of him.
By the time Henry VII died, he had made the crown wealthy again, and powerful and respected. Law and order were being
reestablished, trade was flourishing and the government was a centralized one with the king being its motor. His strong
government provided England with the peace and security it lacked. Henry was a prototype of a modern ruler, her knew
how to walk the thin line that divides legality from illegality. He was business like, an accountant and a diplomat. His
ultimate success was a peaceful succession by his eldest son, Henry VIII.

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

Henry VII bequeathed to his son a secure monarchy, a strong crown and a full treasury, something that Henry VIII enjoyed
upon his succession. Henry – unlike his father – was very popular. He was good looking and athletic, very learned and
intelligent, well-educated and charming. He was a devout churchgoer, knowledgeable in theology and with a taste in music
and literature, indeed, he patronized arts and encouraged artists to come to his court. Henry’s court was a feast, travelling
all over the country. This contrasted with his father’s boring reign and increased Henry’s popularity, who knew how
valuable it was to become known to his subjects.
Henry, however, had another side to him: he was cold-hearted and calculating like his father, self-absorbed, vain,
ambitious, very emotional and impulsive, and at times cynical and ruthless. These traits were part of his insecurities,
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stemming from the fact that – just like his father – his position on the throne was fragile, and he constantly needed to
reassert his kingship. This aspect of his personality would work the way in which he governed and how he treated his
closest relations; Henry became disloyal and incapable of taking on responsibility for his actions and the failures of his
reign.
Thomas Wolsey and Henry:
Upon becoming king, he arrested and executed some of his father’s most trusted advisors/ministers who were unpopular
for carrying out Henry VII’s legal extortions. This won him popularity among the aristocracy. During this time, Henry left
most administrative duties in the hands of ministers who had worked for his father, but shortly he delegated authority and
power to Thomas Wolsey. He was to dominate government and politics for a great part of Henry’s reign, and to become
the most hated man at court. Wolsey was an ambitious upstart who had risen high in rank from low birth – like many men
did during Tudor times – He was a clergyman, and he had entered royal service under Henry VII as his councilor. Now,
he had become cardinal and Archbishop of York, and he was soon appointed Lord Chancellor by Henry and Papal legate.
This meant that he was the head of the king’s government and as personal representative of the Pope in England, he was
also head of the church. Wolsey’s power, however, rested on his hard work and diplomatic success, and especially on
maintaining royal favour. With Henry on his side, he could be as corrupt as he was and use – and abuse – his power for
his own convenience. Indeed, he seldom consulted the other Archbishop or Rome when making decisions. This earned
him the hatred of other churchmen who were offended by his wealth and by the fact that he held many positions in the
churls, therefore monopolizing power and preventing others from taking them. Noblemen also hated him.
Wolsey’s main concern was foreign policy. Henry was eager to go to war and to conquer, and Wolsey organized and
directed his military campaigns in France, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. All these wars were unsuccessful – except for
Wales – and wasted lots of money. Wolsey, however, favoured diplomacy and usually made alliances with the most
powerful country. Henry would therefore drift between favoring Spain or France, and he would be subjected to Charles
V’s power and dominance in Rome.
Divorce:
After Wolsey’s alliance with France failed because of Charles V’s invasion of Rome, he not only lost his chance of
becoming Pope, but he also started to lose influence over Henry. The worst came when the king decided to divorce his
wife, Catherine of Aragorn. She had been promised to Henry’s elder brother to secure an alliance with Spain, but after
a short marriage she became a widow. In order to keep the alliance, Henry – after getting a papal dispensation – married
her. At first everything was ok, but after being married for several years the couple had borne only a daughter – Mary –
and it seemed that they couldn’t produce a son. This was a huge problem for Henry as he needed to secure his dynasty
and as he knew how problematic leaving a female successor was. Henry also felt that their marriage had been a mistake
and was actually null as Catherine was his sister-in-law at that time. They drifted apart, and Henry directed all his attention
to Cathy’s lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn, and determined to put an end to his marriage.
With the Pope under Charles V’s power, and the Holy Roman Emperor being Catherine’s nephew, Wolsey had little
chances of gaining Henry’s annulment of his marriage. After trying for two years, Henry lost patience both with Wolsey
and with the Pope. The Archbishop was dismissed from office and charged with treason. He made a run for it but was
captured and died on his way to London. He was highly unpopular because of his kinglike lifestyle and his wealth, and
many people hated him because he had appropriated royal privileges and was authoritarian. His long rule weakened the
church’s leadership in England and showed that it could be run without Rome’s interference.

The Break with Rome (1529-1534 AD)

Henry decided to take matters into his own hands. He was in a strong position to confront the Catholic Church because
of several reasons:
- The Church and the Papacy were no longer the unchallenged and power spiritual authority that they used to be.
The ideas spread by the German monk Luther in 1515 AD sprang the Reformation Movement which divided
Christian Europe into Catholics and Protestants.
- The Roman Catholic Church was subject to a lot of criticism because of its abuses, its extreme wealth and its
decline as a spiritual institution.

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 - In England, there was a lot of criticism towards the Church. It was thought to be corrupt and out of touch with the
people. There were many who wanted to reform it (since the days of Wycliffe) and to strip it of its wealth. Some of
these critics were Erasmus and Thomas More. Also, there was a sense of anticlericalism and resentment towards
the Pope and the bishops who lived like kings; the fact that many clergymen held more than one office and that
many didn’t even reside in their abbots aroused the hatred of the people as well. In addition, the church in England
owned a quarter of the land and drew fortunes a year. Lastly, there was a problem of leadership after Wolsey’s
fall: because he had monopolized power, churchmen weren’t used to working together, and the church had grown
independent from Rome’s council and help.
- The Reformation Movement in England spread quickly as a result, especially in London and in Cambridge
University. Many members of court and government sympathized with Luther’s ideas – Thomas Cromwell and
Thomas Cranmer did – and many people could easily gain access to Protestant ideas thanks to the printing
press. Henry, however, had no theological argument with the Church, he had even received the title of Defender
of the Faith from the Pope, for writing a document against Luther’s ideas.
Henry fed on all these reasons; especially on the strong feelings of anticlericalism to restrict papal powers in England.
Henry’s strategy was to break relations with Rome step-by-step in the hope that constant pressure on the Pope would
make him change his mind and annul the marriage. He made his divorce a matter of national interest ad a case of debate
in English/European universities. But he knew that he would need his subjects’ support to do anything. In 1529 AD, he
summoned the Reformation Parliament to discuss the issue, and it would become his main instrument of anticlerical
defiance. It was during these parliamentary discussions that Thomas Cromwell stood out as Henry’s main asset.
Cromwell was a lawyer who came from a common background and had worked himself up. He had entered royal service
as one of Wolsey’s main advisors, and was an MP by the time of Wolsey’s fall. He was a very intelligent man and a great
statesman and administrator; he was also an advocate of Luther’s ideas and a Protestant, and he would become one of
the strongest and most powerful supporter of the English Reformation. Another important man upon whom Henry would
rely on was Thomas Cranmer, a priest who also had worked for Wolsey and had fostered the discussion of Henry’s
marriage at universities. Cranmer was also a Protestantism educate, and he would become one of the leaders of the
English Reformation. However, the Reformation Parliament was also made up of those who wanted reform but not a
Protestant one, and who opposed Lutheranism. One of those men was Thomas More, a lawyer and philosopher who
was a devout Catholic and saw the Protestant Reform as heresy, and who would never consent to acknowledge superiority
of the King over the Pope/Church. Henry was very close to him and had appointed him Lord Chancellor after Wolsey’s
death.
Parliament issued royal policy over the next seven years to progressively cut down Rome’s authority in England. Cromwell
knew that the Pope would never grant Henry the divorce, he realized that the only way to solve this was to advance the
Royal Supremacy, and to foster the Reformation of the church in England in the meantime. He – along with several MPs
– used this opportunity to pass legislation on the matters that they really cared about, such as pluralism, non-residence
and fees.
Parliamentary statutes
In 1532 AD, Parliament drew against of clerical grievances that changed the clergy with making laws without royal of
Parliamentary approval, therefore against the royal prerogative. This was an attack on the church’s independent legislative
power, and the result was the Submission of the Clergy: a document that recognized Royal Supremacy over the Church,
so that it could no longer make canon law without royal permission. This was the first step towards making the King the
effective head of the Church. This was consolidated by the passing of the Act of Annates which halted payments to
Rome of the first year’s income of newly appointed bishops; by the Act of Appeals (1533 AD) which forbade all appeals
to the Pope and proclaimed that all English jurisdiction – both secular and religious – now sprang from the king and not
the pope, the king being the final judge in all cases; by several acts halting the payment of annates and other taxes and
payments to Rome, most importantly by the Act of Supremacy in 1534 AD which worked the end of Roman leadership of
the church by declaring the King Supreme Head of the Church of England, and the Treason Act which made it high
treason to deny royal supremacy of to refuse to sweat the Oath of Supremacy; and finally the break with Rome was
completed with the Act Against the Pope’s Authority (1536 AD) which removed the last vestiges of papal authority in
pastoral concerns.

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By 1536 AD the break with Rome was complete. Even though the King was the head of the church now and papal authority
had been severed, the Church of England was to remain catholic in is doctrine. The revolt had stemmed from a
purely dynastic and personal wish of Henry, and from his desire to exert royal authority over every matter in his
government.
The importance of the Roman Catholic Church at the time
The idea of a change in doctrine was hard to imagine because the Roman Catholic Church had been the only official
church in England for centuries, and its influence and power was even present in the loves of the people: it marked the
times of a year (holidays, festivities, etc.), it provided explanations for life, death, misfortune and success, it marked the
stages of their lives (baptism, marriage, etc.), it provided charity, healthcare and education, and took charge over
ecclesiastical disputes (adultery and sins) in its courts, and it was everywhere because it owned a huge percentage of the
land. However, this doesn’t mean that people were aware of the doctrine they professed (bibles were not translated, mass
was said in Latin). Henry’s desire was that the church should stick to its established forms of service and worship, even
though he consented to adopt and socialize a translated version of the Bible to his people.
In this way, Henry finally got what he wanted. Cranmer was appointed archbishop of Canterbury and he – supported by
Parliament’s legislation – declared Henry’s marriage annulled. By 1533 AD Anne Boleyn – who was pregnant – became
queen, and that same year she gave birth to a child: Elizabeth. Anne was the daughter of a respected nobleman; she was
well-educated, intelligent, and she took interest in art, literature and religious philosophy. She is thought to have been
sympathetic towards the reformation’s ideas and Protestantism. Henry felt a sincere passion for her and did not care to
hide it; Anne became really unpopular not only among the people, but also in court. After the birth of their daughter, Henry
found himself bitterly disappointed that it was not a boy, and after Anne miscarried twice, he lost all love for her. Her
enemies at court started plotting against her, taking advantage of Henry’s new infatuation with Jane Seymour. In 1536
AD Henry was convinced that his second marriage had also been cursed; Anne was charged with adultery and incest.
She was arrested, tried and executed that same year.
In 1535 AD, after the issuing of the Treason Act, many people who opposed the reform were executed. One of these was
Thomas More, who refused to swear the oath of allegiance to Henry. He was tried and executed; his place in the royal
council was taken by Thomas Cromwell, who started monopolizing power.
The Dissolution of Monasteries (1536-1540 AD)
During this year, henry found himself in urgent need of money. With Cromwell’s help, he turned his attention towards the
monasteries ad together they planned their progressive destruction. Their estates amounted to one-fifth of the land in
England, and they had excessive wealth in the form of jewels, libraries and other treasures. Cromwell nominated
commissioners to visit the monasteries and report on their state, to have some legal frame on which to destroy them. The
reports emphasized their decay and denounced immoral practices within the religious community. Through Parliament, in
1536 AD, the dissolution of the smaller monasteries began followed by the greater houses a couple of years later. The
great work of plunder finished in 1540 AD.
The dissolution of monasteries brought many consequences. First, the king’s revenues were greatly increased by the
seizure of monastic valuable and most significantly by the confiscation of monastic lands. Henry made a quick profit here
by selling these lands to his noblemen. It was this business that empowered and enriched the gentry, who had risen by
serving the crown. The percentage of aristocrats thus rose, together with their influence in Parliament and most importantly
they belonged to the group of Protestantism sympathizers. Second, Henry eliminated the last centres of resistance to
royal supremacy. The clergy was considerable damaged by the removal of ecclesiastical lords in the House of Lords,
which changed from a predominant clerical to a lay group. Third, as monasteries were dissolved people from the lowest
classes lost the social services that were provided by the church. This, added to rising poverty brought about by the
problems of unemployment and increasing population which produced the spreading of enclosures and the increase of
taxes and rents, led to popular discontent – also, because of the rejection to the reform – producing a revolt in the North:
the pilgrimage of Grace. The rebels were loyal to Henry though, and the king promised to grant them a pardon but he
never kept his word so he crushed them.
Cromwell’s administration

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The Break from Rome and the Dissolution of Monasteries had been accomplished thanks to Cromwell’s administration
and handling of Parliament. He was the brains behind many of the bills that had been passed, and he was responsible for
the reorganization of local and central government, and the increase of royal authority. He created new offices – the Privy
Council being one of the most important –, and he carefully watched over the royal finances.
Parliament
Parliament became far more powerful under Henry’s reign. The Break from Rome needed to be managed by a force that
could not be challenged, since parliament was the only body that could issue statute law without chance of appeal, and it
represented the nation – king, lords and commons. Henry consented to assert its privileges as it increased royal authority.
Also, Henry had the personality to keep the MPs at bay.
A new wife, and then another one
After Anne’s execution, Henry married Jane Seymour who finally gave him the male heir he so much wanted. Prince
Edward was born in 1537, but Jane died during childbirth. Because henry was clearly emotionally unstable, he asked
Thomas Cromwell to find him a new wife. Thomas used this opportunity to strengthen England’s relations with other
protestant nations, given the fact that the Break from Rome had left the country isolated and even threatened. He found
a good candidate in the German princess Anne of Cleves. He had been told that she was beautiful, so Henry agreed to
the alliance. When the couple finally met, Anne turned out to be horrible to Henry’s eyes, and her boring personality
resulted unsuitable for his court. They married but within months Henry became infatuated with one of Anne’s maids,
Catherine Howard and decided to divorce Anne. Luckily for her, they did it in good terms. The one who wasn’t so lucky
was Thomas Cromwell. His choice for a wife had infuriated Henry, and his enemies at court took advantage of this to plan
his downfall. Because Catherine came from a catholic family, Henry decided to forget that he had fostered a reform in his
country and he became the devout catholic he used to be again. He also grew weary of Protestantism and didn’t want to
antagonize Francis and Charles. This was most unfortunate for Thomas Cromwell, for he was a reformer – protestant
inclined – and he had let it slip in the policies he had developed. He was accused of treason, arrested and executed in
1540.
That same year Henry married Catherine. She was very young, and Henry – who was like 50 – started to grow fat and ill-
tempered. However, Henry doted on her and lavished gifts on her, probably because of her high spirits and carefree
attitude. Less than a year into the marriage, rumors of Catherine being adulterous began. She would eventually be found
guilty of misconduct and infidelity and tried. She was executed in 1542.
Towards the end of his reign, Henry engaged in a series of futile wars that resulted in severe economic problems – inflation
and he had to debase the coinage. After Cromwell’s fall, he relied on his Privy Council and in Cranmer. In 1543, Henry
backed once again his sympathy towards Catholicism. That same year he married his last wife, Catherine Parr, who was
interested in Protestantism. She was a middle aged woman who had been twice widowed, and she would accompany
Henry during his last days when his health was greatly deteriorated. Before dying, Henry nominated a regency council for
his young son, made up mainly of reformers inclined towards Protestantism. He died in 1547.
Henry VIII is one of the most popular English kings. What he did was to create and independent Anglican Church, joined
indissolubly to the crown, though still mostly catholic in doctrine. He had increased royal authority greatly, respecting
traditional forms of government and making Parliament an essential tool for the crown. He also enforced law and order
throughout the country and contributed to establish one of the essential forces of the English: the navy. He was aware of
the extent of his power and understood the times, so his policies reflected the feelings of most of his subjects. His reign
advanced in the destruction of medieval concepts, and he established the Tudor dynasty firmly.
Edward VI (1547-1553)
By the Act of Succession of 1544, Edward had been established as Henry’s successor (Mary and Elizabeth following in
line). Because the new king was still a child, Henry appointed a council of regency which was to rule in the name of the
king until he came of age. The council was made uo of various reformers among whom Edward Seymour – the king’s
uncle – was very influential. The council was to rule by majority decision but within a few days of Henry’s death, Seymour
was appointed Protector therefore assuming all the power and becoming the actual ruler for the next years. He made
himself Duke of Somerset and to keep the other members of the council on his side, he granted them lands.

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The Protectorate of Somerset (1547-1549)
Somerset was ambitious and well-meaning but unschooled in politics and administration. He seems to have been inclined
towards Protestantism and to have been a moderate reformer; he encouraged protestant doctrines and religious toleration.
This attitude – no heretics were charged with treason during his rule, for instance – added to his sympathy for the poor
and his attempt to provide social reform made him popular at first.
It was during 1547 that the Anglican Church started to be reformed in its doctrine taking a protestant approach. Because
Somerset had the treason and heresy acts repealed in Parliament, which opened the doors to reformers coming from
protestant centers all over Europe, there was a different from of worship. This was dangerous for it could lead to rebellion,
and the king as head of the church was responsible for providing his people with one uniform way of worshipping.
Protestant Settlement
In 1549 an Act of Uniformity was passed, ordering that only one form of service should be permitted in English churches.
This form was set out in the first Book of Common Prayer, devised by Cranmer and his committee. The new form had a
simplified communion service and had been written in English. Somerset also went further in the dissolution of church
estates by destroying chantries (small foundations that provided social and charitable services). He made a great profit
out if this. Later on, catholic shrines and images would be stripped of their wealth and destroyed. In this way, art and
everything associated with catholic liturgy and ritual was wiped out.
These changes aroused criticism, especially among members of the catholic faction but most importantly among people.
Uprisings followed the implementation of the Book of Prayer, demanding the restoration of the old ceremonies and the
abolition of the Book. Other revolts followed, not just because of religious discontent but rather because of the faltering
economy. Financial difficulties inherited from Henry had worsened: prices were still rising, the coinage was debased even
ore, enclosures were even more common now and inflation kept rising. These rebellions were quite dangerous especially
because Somerset could not bring himself to attack the rebels since he sympathized with them.
Somerset’s enemies took advantage of his inability to end this domestic crisis and led by John Dudley – later to become
Duke of Northumberland – they built up an alliance that stopped the rebellions and had Somerset ousted in 1549. This
alliance was made up of the Catholics and the landowners with whom Somerset had antagonized with his ideas of social
reform. Protestants who wanted more radical changes in the church had also turned against him. He was accused of
treason and executed.
Northumberland’s rule (1549-1553)
Northumberland now became supreme in the council. He was greedy and interested only in money and power, he favored
a more radical Protestantism and used it as a political tool to be closer to Edward. He ruled not as a lord protector but by
virtue of his influence over the king.
He restored domestic stability, stopped confrontations with France and Scotland and put finances back on track. But most
importantly, he would make the Anglican Church Openly Protestant and radically change it. In 1552 the Second Act of
Uniformity, authorized the production of the Second Book of Common Prayer, in which Cranmer rejected the Holy
Communion and Confession; soon transubstantiation was repudiated, clergy were allowed to marry and Catholic bishops
were displaced. Thus, the faith of the Church of England was defined in terms that reflected Lutheran influence.
Northumberland’s power relied mainly upon the king’s good favor. When in 1553 it became evident that Edward was
dying, he set to do everything to prevent Mary – who was a catholic – from coming to the throne. He persuaded Edward
to alter the succession order, cutting out Mary and Elizabeth, and to nominate Jane Grey – granddaughter of Henry VIII’s
sister – as his heiress. The council agreed and upon Edward’s death she was nominated queen. However, all supporters
Northumberland had deserted him and Mary claimed her right to become queen. She got popular support and was
proclaimed queen. She marched into London, where Northumberland and Jane were arrested and executed shortly after.
Edward’s short reign was marked by several difficulties. His regency was subject to factionalism stemming from religious
beliefs and want of power. He inherited some economic and social problems that worsened with Somerset’s and
Northumberland’s policies, creating even more instability. The Anglican Church was established as Protestant in doctrine
under the leadership of the dukes and Cranmer. Though he was a child, Edward had been well-educated and he proved

31
to be a very bright boy, taking interest in theology. He had been brought up as a Protestant, so his role during the church’s
reformation was not minor.

Mary I (1553-1558)
She became the first ruling queen of England, circumstance that added to religious intolerance and anti-Spanish
xenophobia would add to her difficulties.
Relationships
Daughter of Catherine of Aragon, she had been raised a catholic and was a staunch one. Her relationship with Henry had
been a rocky one, and she had suffered a lot during her parents’ divorce. Towards the end of her father’s life, they became
closer and she was returned to the line of succession. Her relationship with her half-siblings remained strained because
of her devout Catholicism.
Personality
Mary had the stubbornness and courage of her father, but she was also a kind-hearted and generous woman who – at
the beginning of her reign – enjoyed popularity among her people, especially the Catholics.
Two great issues dominated the politics of her short reign: A – Religion (Mary was determined to re-establish Roman
Catholicism) and B – Foreign alliance with Spain through marriage.
A- Mary’s goal upon coming to the throne was to re-establish papal authority and Catholicism in her kingdom. To do
this, she needed to rescind the religious legislation that had been passed ever since the Break from Rome.
Parliament supported her on this matter, with the only condition being that the church lands taken during the
dissolution of monasteries should not be restored. Thus, the book of Common Prayer was abolished, the old faith
was restored, heresy laws were revived and the Anglican Church returned to Roman jurisdiction. Leading
protestants were expelled from the country, some were deprived of their estates and many – like Cranmer – were
imprisoned and executed. A new Archbishop came, Cardinal Pole, to act in the name of the Pope.
MPs went along with the new reform even though they opposed it. They didn’t want to antagonize with the new
ruler, provoke rebellions or have their interests damaged. However, there were many who refused to go back to
the catholic ways and subservience to Rome and that still claimed to be protestant. It was on this matter that Mary
became violent, gaining popular discontent and loosing support. She persecuted protestants and had many people
executed in a relatively short space of time. This policy only contributed to the permanence and strengthening of
Protestantism in England. Mary therefore lost popular support and affection from the common people and from
Parliament.
B- To reestablish Catholicism, Mary was in need of support. Because she was a woman, she was also in need of a
marriage. So she found the perfect candidate in Phillip II of Spain. This alliance would bring England into the
catholic empire but Mary didn’t take into account the fact that the alliance with Spain was highly unpopular among
her people. The prospect of having a foreign king was unwelcomed. In addition, Phillip was clearly no interested
in Mary – who doted on him – but rather on the political benefits of the alliance.
Parliament opposed this marriage, especially because MPs were afraid that Philip would drag England into his
continental wars against France. Before the marriage took place, parliament made sure that Phillip’s role would
only be that of king consort, that he would have no rights to the crown, and that he would not have rights over his
wife. This, however, never became true as Phillip actually had lots of influence and power.
The marriage triggered several rebellions, the most serious being that of Kent (1554), led by Thomas Wyatt. They
entered London but were subdued, arrested and executed.
Spanish war
In 1557, Phillip effectively got England involved in the Spanish war with France- members of the council and parliament
opposed it bur pressure from both rulers enabled the decision to enter war. Involvement was unpopular and added to the
economic problems that England was already facing, like declining trade. The worst came when England lost its last
remaining continental possession: Calais. This was a blow to the English, who felt humiliated.
After this, Mary lost all support from her subjects. Her marriage also turned out to be a disaster as Phillip was a cold man.
He had been absent during most of Mary’s reign; she had wishes to become a mother and thus leave a catholic successor
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but this never happened – even though she claimed she was pregnant. She knew her successor was going to be a
protestant sympathizer; she got depressed and in 1559, she died.
Mary is not regarded with much esteem. She followed her catholic convictions, and tried to restore the past, but she didn’t
realize that her actions actually drove Protestantism deep into the foundations of the English society. Her fierce
persecution of protestants – though true – was used by Elizabethan and reformer historians to further stigmatize her and
her reign.

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Timeline
Prehistory 663 – Synod of Whitby, Roman church in England wins over
Celtic
250.000 BC – First evidence of life in Britain
732 - Ecclesiastical History of the English. Honorable Bede
10.000 BC – End of the Ice Age
757 – 796 – Offa’s Mercian rule
5000 BC – Britain becomes an island
793 – First written records of Viking invasion
4500 BC – The Iberians arrive
800 – Nennius History of the Britons
2500-800 BC – Bronze Age in Britain
829 – Wessex becomes the Supreme Kingdom. King Egbert
2300 BC – Men learned to be farmers and to domesticate conquers Mercia and forces Northumbrians to submit
animals in Britain
866-877 – Invasion of the Great Danish Army
2700-1900 BC – Beaker folk arrive in the island
867 – Vikings capture York
1450 BC – More invaders arrived
870 – Alfred the Great first crushes the Vikings. Battle of
900 - 700 BC – Most Celts start invading the island Ashdown.
750 BC – Biggest Celt wave 878 – Final battle Alfred vs Guthrum
800 BC – 100 AD – Iron Age in Britain 886 – Danelaw established
500 BC – Different Celts / Germanics arrived with the 889 – Anglo Saxon Chronicle starts
knowledge of Iron working
926 – Danelaw is conquered by the Saxons
55 BC – First roman attempt to conquer
959 – Edgar crowned king dies in 975
0 – BC to AD
978 – Edward the Martyr murdered and Ethelred the
Roman Britain Unready becomes king

1013 – Swein Forkbeard forces Ethelred into exile and takes

60 – Boudicca’s Revolt
control of England
122 – Hadrian’s Wall
1016 – Canute, son of Swein, becomes king
140 – Romans conquer Scotland
1035 – Canute dies. His son is king Harold Harefoot
144 – Antonine Wall is finished but quickly overan
1040 – Harefoot dies, Harthacnut succeeds
313 – Edict of Milan
1042 – Edward the confessor becomes king
367 – Pict and Welsh invade. Theodosius repulses them
1055 – Edward dies, succeeded by Harold Godwinson
410 – Roman departure from England. Visi-goths invade.
1066 – Same year Harold Hardrada invades and is killed by
Anglo Saxon period Godwinson in the battle of Stamford Bridge but then William
the conqueror also invades and defeats Godwinson in
450 – Vortigern calls Hengist and Horsa, anglosaxons for aid Hastings
against invaders
Medieval period
460 – Saint Patrick returns to convert Ireland
1066 – William I crowned king
455 – They fight against Vortigern
1077 – Beyeux Tapestry completed
547 – Gildas angry remarks
1085 – Domesday Book
597 – St. Augustine lands in Britain
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1087 – William I dies, succeeded by his son William II Rufus 1296 – Edward invades Scotland and takes the Stone of
Destiny
1100 – William II suspiciously dies in an accident, succeeded
by his brother Henry I 1297 – Scotland defeats the English in the Battle of Stirling
Bridge
1120 – Henry’s only son dies on the Whit Ship sinking
1307 – Edward II crowned
1126 – Henry settles the accession on his daughter Matilda
1314 – Robert the Bruce defeats the English at the battle of
1135 – Henry I dies. Matilda is considered unfit since she is a
Bannockburn
woman. Instead, Henry’s nephew Stephen is crowned
1326 – Edward II is overthrown by his wife and son
1135 – 1153 – Civil war between Matilda and Stephen
1327 – Edward III crowned after his father abdicated in
1154 – Henry II crowned. First Plantagenet king, son of
favour of him
Matilda. He had married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1153 and
annexed most of France into one big empire referred as the 1337 – 1453 – 100 years’ war begins
Angevin empire
1337 – Edward claims the throne of France
1170 – Thomas Becket murdered
1348 – 1349 – The black death kills millions
1189 – Richard I crowned
1376 – Edward’s son the black prince dies
1190 – Richard joins the Third Crusade
1377 – Edward III dies and is succeeded by his grandson
1199 – John I crowned Richard II who was only 10 years old

1215 – John signs Magna Carta 1381 – Peasants’ Revolt

1215-1217 – First Barons’ war due to the annulment of 1399 – Henry IV crowned
Magna Carta
1413 – Henry V crowned
1216 – Henry III crowned king
1415 – Henry V defeats the French at the Battle of Agincourt
1258 – Provisions of Oxford
1422 – Henry V dies suddenly and is succeeded by his 1-year-
1264 – 1267 – Second Barons’ war old son Henry VI

1272 – Edward I crowned 1453 – War of the Roses begins

1272 – Edward conquers Wales 1485 – Henry Tudor wins the Battle of Bosworth field, is
crowned and ends the war of the Roses
1290 – Edward expels all Jews

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