Hcib Apunts

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HCIB- Apunts
Història i cultura de les Illes Britàniques (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona)
Studocu non è sponsorizzato o supportato da nessuna università o ateneo.

Scaricato da Sandra Moreno Herrerías (smoreno31@santandreu.fedac.cat)
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HISTORIA I CULTURA ILLES BRITANIQUES
PRE-CELTIC SKARA BRAE-ORKNEYS
Neolithic settlement. About 12 houses-communities. Established 3180 BC till 2500 BC

Toilets, fireplace, shelves, ornaments, beds (They were a bit civilized). It creates a
society4cooperation and religion. 5000 henges in UK. Burials to bury their people and
religious sites, healing site, part of a bigger complex, nearby: other structures and burial
mounds. Calculations involved. Architect and engineer, some stones from 150 kms away.
STONEHENGE: Stonehenge is one of the

world9s most famous monuments. It stands
on Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire, and its
giant stones can be seen from miles around.
Stonehenge was built over many hundreds of
years. Work began in the late Neolithic Age,
around 3000 BC. Over the next thousand
years, people made many changes to the
monument. The last changes were made in
the early Bronze Age, around 1500 BC.
Why did the ancient Britons build such a massive monument at Stonehenge? What
exactly went on at this sacred site?
Some people think that Stonehenge was used to study the movements of the Sun and
Moon. Other people think it was a place of healing.
The ancient Britons believed that the Sun and Moon had a special power over their lives.
It is very likely that they held special ceremonies at Stonehenge on Midsummer9s
Day (the longest day of the year) and on Midwinter9s Day (the shortest day of the year).
Many experts believe that Stonehenge was used for funerals. They suggest that
people carried the dead along the River Avon, and then walked up to Stonehenge in
a grand procession. The most important funeral ceremony of the year was probably
held on Midwinter9s Night at Stonehenge.

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CELTS:
From Switzerland and spread to all Europe. France,

Galicia, Rome, Germany. 600 BC-500 BC. Not an
invasion but a steady migration from their people.
Mineral rich countries and lands to harvest. They were
various warring tribes. They had similar languages
cultures and religions they fought each other.
STRUCTURE:
Nobles: clan leader, warriors, druids (some women
were leaders and warriors)
Middle class: merchants, craftsmen, farmers
Working class.
Slaves: Criminals, prisoners of war
Women: mas o menos on equal footing as men. Could own property, choose a husband,
even become clan leaders.
Druids: super-class of priests, political advisors, teachers, healers, arbitrators, right to

speak ahead of the king, acted as ambassadors in time of war, composed verse-Bards,
upheld the law.
The ancient Celts were various tribal groups living in parts of western and
central Europe in the Late Bronze Age and through the Iron Age (c. 700 BCE to c. 400
CE). Given the name Celts by ancient writers, these tribes and their culture migrated and
so they established a presence in territories from Portugal to Turkey.
The term 8Celts9 is commonly used to refer to peoples who lived in Iron Age Europe
north of the Mediterranean region prior to the Roman conquest after ancient
writers gave them that name. However, it is a problematic label. This is because these
peoples were not part of a unified state but, rather, belonged to a multitude of tribes, many
of which had no direct contact with each other
One of the striking points of connection between many of the peoples of Iron Age
Europe is their common language: Celtic. The Celtic language is a branch of
the Indo-European language family. Scholars have divided Celtic languages into two
groups: Insular Celtic and Continental Celtic. The latter group was no longer widely
spoken after the Roman imperial period.

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Celtic religion include:

• the reverence for sacred groves and other natural sites like rivers and springs.
• the dedication of votive offerings to gods such as foodstuffs, weapons, animal and
(more rarely) human sacrifice.
• the depositing of valuable and everyday goods with the deceased in tombs,
indicating a belief in an afterlife.
• a belief in the protective power of totems, particularly animals like the stag and
boar.
• a reverence for the human head, which was considered the location of the soul.
• the use of taboos to ensure compliance with religious and community rules.
• ceremonies led by druids.
With druids loath to commit their knowledge to writing, there are no surviving
sacred texts, hymns, or prayers for the Celtic religion.
CELTIC SOCIETY: Celtic societies were led first by monarchs and then by elected
chiefs or, alternatively, a small council of elders. Over time, many tribes joined
together for mutual assistance or became dependent on another, more powerful one
and so paid some kind of tribute. By the end of the period, there were large
confederations of tribes, joined to meet the common threat from the Romans. We know
that some women were chiefs in Celtic Britain, for example, Cartimandua, ruler of the
Brigantes tribe in the north of England in the mid-1st century CE, and Boudicca (d. 61
CE), queen of the Iceni tribe, who led a revolt of several tribes against the Roman
occupation in 60 CE. There is also evidence that some women were treated as equally
as men in terms of burial with precious goods, for example, in the 6th-5th century BCE
Vix burial near Châtillon-sur-Seine in northeast France.
BOUDICA: was a queen of the British Iceni tribe who led an uprising against
the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. According to Roman
sources, shortly after the uprising failed, she poisoned herself or died of her wounds,
although there is no actual evidence of her fate. She is considered a British folk hero.
An estimated 70,000380,000 Romans and Britons were killed in the three cities by those
following Boudica, many by torture. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces,
possibly in the West Midlands; despite being heavily outnumbered, he decisively
defeated the Britons. The crisis caused Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces
from Britain, but Suetonius's victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the
province. Boudica then either killed herself to avoid capture (according to Tacitus), [8] or
died of illness (according to Cassius Dio).

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ROMANS
Came before Christ and after. First invasions 55BC. Julius Caesar came and went twice.
1st time 12.000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. 2nd time -got as far as Thames. Invasion:
43 AD- Rome now much more aggressively imperialist. Emperor Claudius- considered
to be an idiot and felt he had to prove himself. 50.000 troops used to occupy Britain.
Occupation: 58 AD- Nero appointed a new governor. There is a mission to wipe out the
Druids. King Iceni died in AD 60, he left half of his land to Nero and half to wife
Boudicca. Paulinus declared Iceni a roman slave state after the occupation, romans
showed brutality and flogged Boudicca, 2 daughters raped, Boudicca was outraged and
supported by her own and other tribes.
Key events to highlight
Julius Caesar's two brief visits, 55 and 54 BC.
Invasion and settlement, 43 AD→

Claudius, elephants, province of Britannia established, building of roads, towns, forts.
It's also worth examining the Roman army machine, and the role of legionaries in building
forts and roads.
The attack on the Druids' stronghold on Anglesey, 60 AD.
Boudicca's rebellion, AD 60/61. This makes a good case study of relations between
invaders and invaded. See Boudicca (lesson plan).
The building of Hadrian's wall, 122 AD (see vol 3 Pax Romana).
Boudicca revolt: AD 61 most roman troops fighting in N.Wales,

went on rampage to Camulodunum and destroyed outer city
the capital and burnt inner sanctum. All romans did in the
temple. Went to destroy Londinium and Verulamium. Finally,
defeated in the batter in NW midlands on route to take on
remaining army. She gets more supporters to defeat the roman
empire in England. Finally, she killed herself. 250.000 followers
slaughtered of Boudicca. Eventually defeated by her own
success, to many combatants, her body buried under King9s
Cross.

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Romans implement: their rails through all of England. By AD100 most of Britain now
in roman hand. Roman empire stretched from Judea to Scotland. Roman Britain
becoming <civilized= by the romans (they started to love in cities). Tribal chieftains9
sons being sent to Rome to experience the life and culture.
Roman London Consolidation: it was really small are

that was defined by the roman walls. Hadrian9s wall: AD
122-30 most lasting monument from Roman Britain.
Built by emperor Hadrian. It was 35 miles long (from
Tryne to Solway) It was built to stop Picts (Scottish) to
prevent Picts joining the Brigantes, to control all
border movement, to make money from the people that
passed the wall. They also built the Antonine Wall but it
was abandoned.
British aristocracy became thoroughly Romanised Romano-British. Developing

urban Latin-speaking middle class. Majority rural population- still Celtic speaking.
Not much difference in quality of life for them. During this period growth of urban
centres, road Watling Street or Ermine Street, improvements in diets, housing, sanitation,
agriculture.
Christianity: From AD 213- Christianity became permitted cult in Roman Empire.

Britannia itself became slowly Christianised. Mix with pagan worship. AD 208 first
English martyr, St Alban a roman soldier executed for sheltering a Christian priest. St
Patrick Romano-British patrician, pirates, slave, scaped, monk in Gaul, returned to
Christianise Irish. St Ninian went North Christianise Picts.
Decline and fall: Romans needed to post more troops home to fight off Vandals,
Ostogroths and Visigoths. Britain left increasingly undefended. Picts and Scots
continuing headache but mid- 300s boatloads of Saxons had started arriving on
Eastern shores. Saxon mercenaries- from 2 generations before. Built Saxon shore-
series of forts to try to defend the attacks. AD 367 Picts attack from North, Scotti attack
Western coasts, Saxons stepped up their raid in Eastern England, count of Saxon
shore killed, Forts destroyed and looted, Possible united alliance.
There was anarchy during years. Some roman order finally restored. Probable lack
of faith in rulers and protectors. From AD 407-410 last roman troops withdrawn by
Emperor Constantine. Rome had been overrun by Aleric the Goth. Britannia seen
as less important from Empire now based in Constantinople. British tribal leaders
told by emperor to look to their own defences with their own resources.
By the early 5th century, the Roman Empire could no longer defend itself against
either internal rebellion or the external threat posed by Germanic tribes expanding
in Western Europe. This situation and its consequences governed the eventual

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permanent detachment of Britain from the rest of the Empire. After a period of local
self-rule, the Anglo-Saxons came to southern England in the 440s.
In the late 4th century, the Empire was controlled by members of a dynasty that included
the Emperor Theodosius I. This family retained political power within itself and formed
alliances by intermarriage with other dynasties, at the same time engaging in internecine
power struggles and fighting off outside contenders (called "usurpers") attempting to
replace the ruling dynasty with one of their own. These internal machinations drained
the Empire of both military and civilian resources. Many thousands of soldiers were
lost in battling attempted coups by figures such as Firmus, Magnus
Maximus and Eugenius.
The Empire's historical relationship with Germanic tribes was sometimes hostile, at
other times cooperative, but ultimately fatal, as it was unable to prevent those tribes
from assuming a dominant role in the relationship. Various Germanic. By the early
5th century, as a result of severe losses and depleted tax income, the Western Roman
Empire's military forces were dominated by Germanic troops, and Romanised
Germans played a significant role in the empire's internal politics. and other tribes
beyond the frontiers were able to take advantage of the Empire's weakened state, both to
expand into Roman territory and, in some cases, to move their entire populations into
lands once considered exclusively Roman, culminating in various successful
migrations from 406 onwards.

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GERMANICS
400 AD. Different tribes from northern Germany south Denmark: Angles, Saxons,
Jutes, Frisians. They attacked Britain, a not well defended country but rich. They
did raids to loot all they could. Attractive by the agriculture. Britain is the
descendant from Anglo-Saxons the Angle kind.
Mid 5th century roman empire was on decline. Europe full migratory ethnics groups
armed forces. Angles and Saxons and jutes and Frisians living under threat of invasion,
there was an overpopulation. There were also pirates and freebooters. It was a dark age,
almost no text or historical reference.
In Britain, the Cives and Celts were left to defend themselves. No standing army and
a power vacuum. The roman infrastructures were crumbling away. Celtic King
Vitalinus gained upper hand and declared for himself Vortigern or Overlord of all
Britain. Overstretched 3 fronts (scots, Anglo-Saxons and Picts) people on coast appealed
for help. Vitalinus did what romans did, they hired barbarians merceneries to fight other
barbarians.
450 AD Vortigern contracted Germanic chieftain Hengist and brother Horsa to fight
back the raids. Hengist means stallion. They moved north and fought off Picts as well
as raids their homeland. Vortigern stopped paying the barbarians. Hengist people
went on rampage in South East Britain supposedly worse than Boudica9s revolution
in 367 AD. Barbarians killed all Vortigen Council and they established the kingdom
of Kent. Over the next decades waves upon waves of Germanics came to Britain.
To flee the Anglo-Saxons, some Britons fled to other parts of the island to feel safe from
them: Cornwall, Wales, Lowland Scotland and Brittany. Some of the, joined the Scots in
Ireland. This group later settled in what is now Scotland. Probably most stayed put and
lived alongside the barbarians. English is a genetic mixture from the different tribes.
In all areas, the people spoke Celtic languages: Cornish, Welsh, Irish and Scottish
Gaelic. All but Cornish are still spoken today.

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King Arthur: was actually Romano British and not a medieval character. He could
have been Ambrosius Aurelianus. A mythic battle at MT. Badonicus AD 500. He killed
nearly 1000 Saxons himself. Finally, he was in battle. Celts took up the legend: the
Camelot Tintagel Castle Cornwall. Story was revised in the medieval literature. was
a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the
defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The
details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of Welsh and English folklore and literary
invention, and modern historians generally agree that he is unhistorical.The sparse
historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales
Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthur's name also occurs
in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.
Last Celtic King lost to Saxons in the battle of Welsh

Cadwhaller of Gwynned AD 682. There were 200 years of
localized invasions so as to find a settlement and a sort of
cohabitation. Welsh is the country of the strangers.
Anglo-Saxon settlements: -ing folk of, -ton settlement,

borough fortified town, -ham farm, -feld field, -caester
camp.
Anglo-Saxon Society: Highly organized tribal unit in

Kingdoms. Each tribe ruled by a king chosen by a council
of elders.
-Thanes: the upper class, earls, or free warriors

-Thralls: indentured labour who did the farming and domestic work
-Freemen and Slaves
The Anglo-Saxons farmed, maintained local governments. Had a common law and a legal
system. Crated fine crafts, especially metalwork. Eventually, the small kingdoms
developed in seven large ones: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, East
Anglia and Kent. This development produced a new language: OLD ENGLISH. They
used to live in single-family homes surrounding a communal hall and protected by a
wooden stockade fence.
They were hard fighters and bold sea warriors. Admired physical strength, bravery,
loyalty, fairness, and honesty. 25% of population were slaves. Great love of personal
freedom. Enjoyed conflict, swimming matches, horse races, banqueting, drinking
mead made from fermented honey, singing songs, and storytelling. Flyting (medieval
raping) a conflict of wits between two warriors where each praises his own deeds and
belittles the other9s.

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Role of woman in the society:
The wife of an earl or thane supervised weaving (tejer) and dyeing of clothes, the
slaughter of livestock (pigs, cows, chicken), the making of bread, beekeeping (hives)
and the brewing of mead.
Women inherited and held property. The married women retained control over the
property. Husbandry (the man who looks after the animals)
Bards: the communal hall offered shelter and a place for council meetings. Politically
organised council (the elder man in the community) The communal hall was also a place
for storytellers or bards who shared orally the storied of the Anglo-Saxons and their gods
or heroes.
Beowulf was the first written piece of literature in England. An epic, a long, heroic poem,
about a great pagan dragon-slayer warrior renowned for this courage, strength and
dignity. National epic of England, first such work composed in the English language.
Beliefs: worshiped Germanic or Norse gods. Odin/ Woden was the chief of the gods,
death, poetry, and magic. Fria goddess of love and festivity. Tiu the god of war and the
sky. Thor god of thunder.
The names of these gods survive today in our words.The dragons were the personification
of evil and death and the protector of treasure; also associated with the Vikings.
CHRISTIANITY:
In 432 the whole Celtic Ireland was converted by Patrick, a Romanised Briton. St.
Patrick was a 5th-century missionary to Ireland and later served as bishop there.
He is credited with bringing Christianity to parts of Ireland and was probably
partly responsible for the Christianization of the Picts and Anglo-Saxons. He is one
of the patron saints of Ireland.
In 563, a group of Irish monks led by a soldier and abbot named Columba established a
monastery on the island of Iona off the West coast of Scotland.
In 597, Saint Augustine sent by Pope Gregory the Great (angels according to the pope
blue eyes and blond hair were angels)
Converted Jutish King Ethelbert of Kent and establish a monastery at Canterbury.
Their society is slowing believing in Christianity and to convert their people. Some
people were forced. By 650 most of England was Christian in name, brought it back
into the roman world.

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-The church bought education and written literature to England (just aristocracy)
-Monks established churched, monasteries and libraries
-Monks recorded and duplicated illuminated manuscripts at first only written in

Latin
-Oral literature was transcribed into written form.
-Monks preserved not only Latin and Greek classics but also popular literature
(BEOWULF)
-The Venerable Bede: monk 673-735, he wrote the Historia ecclesiastica gentis
Anglorum. Main historical source for this period.
GERMANIC KINGDOMS RISE AND FALL

Still no single country, constant state of alliances and conflict and inter-marriage.
Northumbria first to rise to prominence, rising from Kingdoms of Deira and
Bernicia.
The rise of Mercia was the strongest kingdom and carried out expansions. Kept the
Welsh out. Had contacts with Charlemagne and declared by Pope Adrian I as the King
of the English, King Offa.
Spread of Mercian dialect trough central body of Angle-Land (where it comes the RP
accent)
WHY NOT SAXOLAND? → Still no single country, but at the time when idea of one
people came into use. Angle states- Northumbria then Mercia had dominance over the
Saxon states. Mercial dialect basis of Angle-ish.
Anglo-Saxons had no standing army or united force, some Saxons rulers mistakenly
hired Vikings as Mrecenaries. Bede worried

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VIKINGS:
The Vikings came in 7809s, including Eric Bloodaxe, Hogarth the Headsplitter, Ivor
the Boneless.
Vik (bay) people who live in the bay. Scandinavian warriors who raided Northern
Europe, Eastern Asia and Eastern North America. Norwegian Vikings in Iceland 860.
They were expansionist. They captured thousands of women to procreate and maintain
their linage. Later to colonize Greenland.
Swedish Vikings attacked Baltic Sea into Poland, Latvia, Lithuania and Russia (the Russ)
Reached North America (c.1000)
They expand because the pressure of over-population got them into their boats, poor
agriculture. Initial invasions Danish. Sagas full of epic heroics, Pagan religion, you
could get into the Valhalla.
Isolated monasteries became first targets because there were gold and silver, easy
targets. They just come, raid, and went home.
About 785 Reeve of Dorchester Wessex saw three ships. Thought to be traders but went
to raid, smash and grab anything with value (for around 50 years). Vikings were slavers.
Good ships.
Principle crude but delivery of violence efficient. Anglo-Saxons still had no standing
army or united force, it was divided. They had no way to protect themselves from
the Viking9s raids. The attacks were more frequent.
Bede worried that newly Christian Angle-land would return to Paganism because
of Vikings. Vikings inflected devastation on Kingdom of Northumbria. Lindisfarne, Iona,
Jarrow, York libraries were burned down.
Ivar the Boneless invaded East Anglia 866. 867 in York and Vikings wintered (they
set and not coming back) in England. 869 King Edmund the last king of East Anglia
was killed for refusing to play Danegeld (the gold and silver English had to pay, if

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they did not pay, Vikings will attack) and not renouncing his faith. He was tortured and
shoot 100 arrows for refusing.
DANEGELD: was a tax raised to pay tribute to the Viking raiders to save a land from
being ravaged. It was called the geld or gafol in eleventh-century sources. It was
characteristic of royal policy in both England and Francia during the ninth through
eleventh centuries, collected both as tributary, to buy off the attackers, and as stipendiary,
to pay the defensive forces. In England, a hide was notionally an area of land sufficient
to support one family; however, their true size and economic value varied enormously.
The hide's purpose was as a unit of assessment and was the basis for the land-tax that
became known as Danegeld. Initially it was levied as a tribute to buy off Viking invaders
but after the Danish Conquest of 1016 it was retained as a permanent land-tax to pay for
the realm's defense. The Viking expeditions to England were usually led by the Danish
kings, but they were composed of warriors from all over Scandinavia, and they eventually
brought home more than 100 tones of silver.
Mercia appealed to Wessex for helps. Aethelred and young prince Alfred marched to
their assistance. Vikings eventually retreated back to York. A temporary peace but
they recovered the lost ground. Only independent Anglo-Saxon in England was
Wessex. Half of the country was almost under the control of Viking (they are staying
to get taxed and the land). Danelaw was the agreement between Vikings and Alfred
the Great, an imaginary line from the Thames to the river of Liverpool, this territory
was ruled under the Vikings9 domains.
Viking9s invasions were getting bigger 30-35 ships, they are staying longer. 850 AD
fleet of 350 ships captured Canterbury and London. 870, Alfred inherited the
Kingdom of Wessex. Vikings had habit of splitting up when they had a victory. 874 some
moved back to Northumbria and Scandinavia with gold and slaves.
Viking Jarl Guthrun sights on Wessex for the attractive land and possible agriculture.
Alfred9s court was celebrating Epiphany and the Vikings attacked the 6 th of January.
Alfred had to leave and Vikings took over the courts.

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Guerrilla warfare in Wessex, which is under the control of the Vikings. 878, six months
later, had pieced together some resistance and reunite an army to fight back Vikings.
They gathered 7000 men. Battle of Eddington totally defeated the Viking invasion.
Jarl Guthrum surrendered, he was not killed, and had to convert to Christianity.
Alfred defeated the viking leader. It was an attempt to contain their invasion. Edington
had to put a stop to Viking9s seep across the island.
WHY WAS KING ALFRED GIVEN THE TITLE OF

<GREAT=?
Alfred bought 14 years of peace and constructed 30 defensive forts (Boroughs) it

was a defensive plan. The idea was that nobody walked more than a day from fort to
fort. Alfred created a part time army with horses and an alternate duty. There was a
Border established between Anglo-Saxon England and the Danelaw. Alfred re-took
London. Alfred now is the King of <ALL ENGLISH PEOPLE NOT UNDER THE
SUBJECTION TO THE DANES=. He is the Rex Anglorum. Alfred was also an
educator. Established schools for children of nobility. Authorized massive
transcription and translation project. Bible translated into English and not in Latin.
Standardized different legal systems and produced the standard Common Law.
Changed role of King from warrior leader to representative of God.
14 years later:
Alfred descended by Edward the elder, now a Wessex line of succession. Launched
mainly successful raids into danish territory. His sister became the Queen of Anglian
Mercia and launched attacks in Danish territory and created various forts. Edward
captured Derby 917, only it remains Norse strongholds north of Humber.
5 boroughs weakened, Ragnall, had stablished kingdom of York. Edward built more
forts and created more borderlands with the Nort. 920, Edward was accepted as
overlord of kings of Scots, Strathclyde, Britons and Bamburgh (danish). Edward
succeeded by son Aethelstan 924.
Aethelstan inherited all England south of the Humer. Organised marriage alliance
between his sister and the ruler of York. Sithric of York died in 927, Athelstan drove
out his successor and claimed the kingdom. 934 raided Scotland. In revenge,
Constantine (Scotland), the king of Stratchclyde, Dublin Vikings and Norse of Scotland.
937 mass landings on Wirral. Battle lasyed all day between the pro and anti-Athelstan
factions. English eventually successful, 5 kings killed on battle field. Aethelstan declared

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himself the imperator Orbis Britanniae. In his lifetime he also absorbed The Britons and
Lancashire and gained overlordship of Welsh kingdoms.
ALFRED THE GREAT KING OF WESSEX
Born at Wantage, Berkshire, in 849, Alfred was the fifth son of Aethelwulf, king
of the West Saxons. At their father's behest and by mutual agreement, Alfred's elder
brothers succeeded to the kingship in turn, rather than endanger the kingdom by
passing it to under-age children at a time when the country was threatened by
worsening Viking raids from Denmark. Since the 790s, the Vikings had been using
fast mobile armies, numbering thousands of men embarked in shallow-draught
longships, to raid the coasts and inland waters of England for plunder.
Such raids were evolving into permanent Danish

settlements; in 866, the Vikings seized York and
established their own kingdom in the southern part
of Northumbria. The Vikings overcame two other
major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, East Anglia and
Mercia, and their kings were either tortured to death
or fled. Finally, in 870 the Danes attacked the only
remaining independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom,
Wessex, whose forces were commanded by King
Aethelred and his younger brother Alfred. At the
battle of Ashdown in 871, Alfred routed the Viking
army in a fiercely fought uphill assault. However,
further defeats followed for Wessex and Alfred's
brother died.
To consolidate alliances against the Danes, Alfred married one of his daughters,
Aethelflaed, to the ealdorman of Mercia. Alfred himself had married Eahlswith, a
Mercian noblewoman, and another daughter, Aelfthryth, to the Count of Flanders, a
strong naval power at a time when the Vikings were settling in eastern England. The
Danish threat remained, and Alfred reorganised the Wessex defences in
recognition that efficient defence and economic prosperity were
interdependent.
To improve literacy, Alfred arranged, and took part in, the translation (by
scholars from Mercia) from Latin into Anglo-Saxon of a handful of books he
thought it 'most needful for men to know. These books covered history,
geography. Alfred established a legal code, adding his own administrative
regulations to form a definitive body of Anglo-Saxon law. It is for his valiant

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defence of his kingdom against a stronger enemy, for securing peace with the
Vikings and for his farsighted reforms in the reconstruction of Wessex and
beyond, that Alfred - alone of all the English kings and queens - is known as
'the Great9. As King of Wessex at the age of 21, Alfred (reigned 871 -99) was a
strongminded but highly strung battle veteran at the head of remaining resistance to
the Vikings in southern England.
THE BATTLE OF THE 10TH CENTURY. ANGLO-SAXONS

VS VIKINGS
Aethelread the Unready was the last Wessex king (978-1016). During his reign were
new danish raids, they had bigger armies than before. Aethelred means noble
counsel. People gave them the nickname of un-raed meaning no counsel or ill-
advised counsel. 994, 1002, 1007, 1012 much heavier Viking attacks. There were
single large Vikings armies looking for danegeld. Danegeld being paid greater and
greater, e.g., 994 4500 kg of silver.
Aethelred ordered the massacre of all Danish living in England, 13 November 1002.
Thousands Anglo-Danish slaughtered. 1002 Aethelred married Emma of Normandy,
uniting royal houses of Wessex and Normandy.
UNDER DANISH RULE: Sweyn Forkbeard king of Denmark, mass invasion in

1013, SE England strong resistance from Aethelred9s son Edmund Ironside. English
resistance eventually collapsed after 12 battles and some key Earls went over to Sweyn9s
side. Sweyn conquered all England. Aethelred fled to Normandy (to his in-laws).
Sweyn died in 1014 but son Canute took the English Crown in 1016, we have a new
king and he9s Danish.
Canute converts into Christianity. Canute married Aethelred9s widow Emma of

Normandy- now he has the political alliance, Wessex, Normandy and Scandinavia
are united. Became king of England and king of the Danish Empire. England became
part of North Sea Scandinavian Empire (Norway, England, Denmark and part of
Sweden). He run England using Anglo-Saxon state structure by now it is well-developed
and a rich country, well-developed system of tax collection. No ethnic cleansing of
English population. Initially some Earls were murdered. 30 years of relative peace Cnut
well-informed by Anglo-Saxon Aeldermen and Thanes. He produced a common law
among Danelaw and Anglo-Saxon laws.

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CHANGE OF REGIME: Cnut died in 1035 succeeded by son Harold Harefoot died
in 1040 and then Harthacnut died in 1042, there is no successor for Wessex Dinasty.
Danish control of England 1016-1042. Harthcnut died with no successor. Earl Godwine,
Canut right-hand man, agreed that Edward should be the king. Edward became the
penultimate Anglo-Saxon king.
Edward The Confessor crowned 1043, a very religious man. He was 37 and
unmarried. He needed Godwine9s helps to control the church and the state. Godwine
offered him his daughter9s hand in marriage and Edward accepts.
1066, the battle of Hastings
Edward could have no child. He looked to Duke Robert of Normandy as protector. He

had grown up in Norman Court. Normans had been Vikings who eventually settled in
France.
NORMAN INFLUENCE: Gradual Normal influence in English court. 1051 William

of Normandy sailed to England, he was told by Edward that he would be heir to
throne. During 1050s both William and Danish King Harold Hardradder had designs on
English throne. Edward remaining years devoted to spiritual matters. Created an abbey
on Thorney Island. During latter years of reign, Earl Godwine9s son Harold became
the most powerful man in Angle-Land.
1064 Harold comes to William9s of Normandy court. They were brother in arms.
William makes Harold swear Oath of Allegiance. End of 1065 enormous storm
destroyed lot of country, bad omen number 1. January 1066 Edward the Confessor is
dying, on death bed seem to have declared Harold as his successor. The Hairy Star
Halley9s Comet appeared, bad omen number 2. Harold is focused on protecting South
Coast.

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Duke William of Normandy heard Harold9s succession, he broke the OATH.

William felt betrayed by Harold. Started preparing invasion fleet. An incredible
project to invade. Got Pope9s support, now a holy crusade. Pope helped him to
convince other Normand, Bretons and Flemish. Harold had about 3000 hus-carls and
fought on foot, rest of army fyrd (temporary army). Fyrd had to do 40 days military
service a year. In Northern France William was putting together an invasion force. 400
ships, 4000 men and 6000 horses. William waited fir southerly wind but never came.
NORSEMEN INVADE: Fyrd9s 40 days are over had to return to harvest, now end of
fighting season (winter). 19 September Harold9s brother Tostig and Harald
Hardraader and 10.000 Vikings landed in North. Normans have more sophisticated
military and technology.
NORSE VICTORY: First battle 1066-Fulford near York 20 September. Viking

victory and Harald asked for 500 hostages to pick up at Stamford Bridge. Left 30%
of army behind to guard boats. When got there, Harold9s army had arrived. Had
covered 230 km in 5 days. Battle of Stamford Bridge famous for defence or bridge by
one Berserker. Bloody victory for Harold, Tostig and Hardraader killed. Harold lost
some of his finest warriors. Only 24 boats made it back to Norway. END OF VIKING
INVASIONS IN BRITAIN.
William9s armada set sail on 27th September. Came into Sussex. He built a Mottle and
Bailey castle. Foraged and harried nearby countryside. Nobody to oppose them.
Harold now back in London. Instead of waiting, Harold thought it better to keep Harold
bottled up in South East, he was impatient, he could have got more warriors.
12th October without wating for Northern army, Harold moved south. 14th October
Battle of Hastings. Long and bloody battle. Shield, sword, axe and spear. Bottom of
hill the Normans, Bretons and Flemish cavalry and archers. 8 hours of battle. NORMAN
VICTORY. Harold and 2 brothers and various members of Anglo-Saxon nobility
were killed. Harold famously wounded by an arrow in the eye. However, he was
decapitated and chopped to pieces.
William won the war, he defeated Harold

but he has not conquered England. William
lost 25% of men, lost more from Dysentery
(agua contaminada). He moved and harried
South-East England. Ring of destruction
round London. To starve London into
surrender. The remaining Witan (nobles)
members submitted to William. 1066
crowned Rex Anglorum in Westminster.

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William fought off king Malcom of Scotland. General policy of Motte and Bailey
occupation. Symbols of normal repression. Would have used forced Anglo-Saxon labour
to build them.
NORMAN OCCUPATION (entra a examen, la

Valentina me lo dijo)
William still didn9t have control of all country. Began construction of Tower of
London. Would spend rest of reign fighting off rebellions in England and
Normandy. Gradually Anglo-Danish-Saxons aristocracy dispossessed of land. Land
divided up among fellow invaders.
William took 50% of land for himself. 25% to the church because he got the help of
the pope. 25% divided among 190 followers. England is Outremer. 10709s rising of
Anglo-Danes in north killed about 700 Normans. Slaughtered men, boys and
livestock, destroyed villages, burnt crops and salted the land, ethnic cleansing. He
has conquered the kingdom. William even fought off king Malcom of Scotland. General
policy of Motte and Bailey construction.
Domesday Book→ William imposed a Geld. Land tax to defend the kingdom. Complete
inventory of land shire by shire. By 1086 only 2 remaining Anglo-Saxon landowners. His
men sent out throughout country. He has conquered the kingdom. From here we know
about areas of country laid waste (WASTA)
William dies→ died on campaign in Normandy 1087. Funeral, his body was
putrefying. Son William Rufus inherited England. Son Robert received Normandy;
Son Henry received money.
Normanisation: 1087 full Normanisation in positions of power and landowning.

Continued Anglo-Saxon administrative system. Now had statistical power of
Domesday Book. Latin language of religion and education. Norman French
language of court and law. English still vernacular. Norman words beef, mutton and
pork, cow, sheep, pig. Anglo-Saxon names: Leofric, Aethelstan, Aethelred. French
names: Robert, Henry, Richard, William or Nicholas.

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Eventually Anglo-Norman caste developed. Knights practiced chivalry. 2nd and 3rd
Normans taking English wives.
William Rufus: rode from Rouen to claim treasury at Winchester

then crown. Capable warrior leader and administrator. Much of his
reign spent extracting taxes to pay for ward on Welsh and Scottish
borders. Unpopular with the church by selecting favorites courts.
Fleeced monasteries for taxes. He was gay. Never married or
produced issue. Introduced Forest Law (England was still about
25-30% forest) Capital offence to kill a deer or collect wood or go
hunting (blinding or chopping hand off for stealing from the
forest). He was killed by an arrow when he was hunting in New
forest in 1100. Crowned Henry I a few days later.
Henry Succession: his son William Atheling drowned in 1120 along with other Norman
nobility. Crew reportedly blind drunk. A moment that changed History would tear
Norman dynasty apart. Daughter Matilda only heir, got court to swear allegiance to her
as a successor. Henry I died in 1135. Stephen the first new king.
Stephen I: a good man. London and some nobles rallied to him. Some Anglo-Norman
barons started to rebel against Stephen. Matilda is married to Geoffrey Plantagenet in
1125 in Anjou (rivals of Normans)
ANARCHY: This division of loyalty brought about The Anarchy, a civil war.
Period of siege and counter-siege. Barons took advantage of breakdown in stability.
Breakdown in state structure, all England is fighting against each other. Barons took
advantage of breakdown in stability and did what they liked. Period of castle building,
private armies, vendettas, plunder and harrying. Petty skirmishes and long sieges.
In the end, this was William the Conqueror9s legacy. Two grand-children fighting for
crown. Chaos, carnage, famine, extortion. Eventually Civil war finish in 1135-1148.
Agreed that Stephen would remain King but Henry Plantagenet would succeed him.
Stephen died in 1154, he was the last of Normal Kings.

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THE PLANTAGENETS
New dynasty would rule England for next 300 years. Normans had made Monarchy
stronger. Maintained Anglo-Saxon structure. Created beautiful cathedrals castles
and abbeys. Language, courtesy and chivalry made it more civilized. Has made
society more and chivalry made it more civilized. Had openly oppressed Anglo-
Saxons.
December 1154 Henry II began his reign. Henry a product of hybrid Anglo-French
culture. Married Eleanor of Aquitaine and his Empire grew bigger. Henry re-
imposed himself on Anglo-Normal Barons. Would only permit Royal Castles and
illegal castles were demolished. Got homage from princes of Wales.
By now the Church as strong as if not stronger than Monarchy. Had its own courts
and justice system. His closest political ally Thomas Becket rose to Chancellor. Becket
from merchant London family to Archbishop of Canterbury.
Symbolic of how Anglo-Saxons could now rise through ranks. Henry wanted to end
injustice of church trials. Henry had 4 sons. 1169 announced how would divide
kingdom. Henry Normandy and Anjou and Richard Aquitaine. Division went wrong.
Becket continued to oppose Henry from exile. Becket allowed return Christmas 1170.
Welcomed as a hero, went round Kingdom ex-communicating bishops who had
supported Henry.

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4 knights took King at his word. Killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
Europe stunned by murder of Archbishop by own King in own cathedral. Sons were
in open rebellion against him. Henry later repented responsibility and was whipped
by monks.
ROBIN HOOD (exam no la leyenda pero el contexto): High

taxation oppressing to pay for Crusades and the forest law, take food or wood from
the forest because the forest belonged to the King. Time of Bad Prince John and
Robber Barons. Overpowerful Sheriffs. He was a symbol of Anglo-Saxon resilience
against Norman oppression. Robbed from rich and gave to poor. Based in Sherwood
Forest. MAGNA carta, the forest Charter 1217, no-one is above the law no arrest
without trial, habeous corpus, gave normal people access to forests (wood for
heating and building)
The forest in the Middle Ages included very extensive areas of cultivated land as well as
wood and waste land. They were the private preserve of the king and his officers, and
were protected by a harsh series of forest laws, against which there could be no appeal -
not even to the ecclesiastical courts. Forest law was extremely unpopular, among all
sections of society, but it achieved its purpose of retaining vast areas of semi-wild
landscape over which the king and his court could hunt. Yet the very wildness of the land
made it a perfect place for fugitives to hide out, and this is why areas such as Sherwood
Forest and Bairnsdale feature so prominently in outlaw legend.
RICHARD I: Henry II dies in 1189, he died of a broker heart. Succeeded by his son
Richard, Richard I the Lionheart. Rued for ten years, spent most of his time on
Crusade, only 6 months in England. Used England to bankroll other adventures.
Fought against Saladin on the Third Crusade. Absentee King, his brother John was
the regent in England.
1192 Richard captured by Duke of Austria. Ransom set at 32 of Gold (rescate del rey).
Would take a generation to pay off. Came back, faced up and forgave brother John.
Richard eventually died in 1199 on campaign in France.
KING JOHN I: Next King of the Plantagenet. 1204 lost a lot of Normandy, Anjou
and Brittany to French King. John I or John Softsword or Bad King John. Tried to
fleece church like his father. Disagreement with the Pope, managed to get an interdict
on England (no church activity). Pope invited king of France to invade England. Some
barons preferred French King as successor. Had killed his own nephew, Arthur. Had 32
sons of Welsh leaders held as hostage killed. Needed even more taxation, attempt to
reconquer lost lands in France. Eventually, Baron9s believed John incapable of
recovering lost lands.

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MAGNA CARTA: is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of

England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by Archbishop of
Canterbury Stephen Langton to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of
rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from
illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the
Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their
commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First
Barons' War.
Now faced open rebellion, forced to meet Baron9s at Runnymede in 1225. John made to
sign Magna Carta a contract between the King and the Barons: Magna Carta,
English Great Charter, charter of English liberties granted by King John on June 15,
1215, under threat of civil war and reissued, with alterations, in 1216, 1217, and 1225.
By declaring the sovereign to be subject to the rule of law and documenting the liberties
held by <free men,= the Magna Carta provided the foundation for individual rights in
Anglo-American jurisprudence.
Established Council of 25 Barons to monitor King9s actions. Effectively first

Parliament. Limit to King9s powers. Taxation had to be approved by Council.
Provides Human Rights. John overturned Magna Carta. English invited Louis of France
to invade England. Open war broke out. In 1216 most south England in French hands.
John died soon after poisoned. John9s son Henry was now the king (9 years old). It
was the preference of King of France. Now Magna Carta put into effect.
HENRY III: For 20 years the Magna Carta is respected. 1232 Henry III preparing to
take power back from nobles. Determined to break free from Magna Cart. Had
close circle of French family. Re-built Westminster Abbey. Developed cult of Edward
the Confessor. Barons feel disempowered and alienated. Nobles found a leader in Simon
de Montfort. Montfort and leading barons swore the oath of mutual loyalty. King
controlled by Council and Parliament. Now Parliament met three times a year. At time
it was innovative in Europe. Seen as humiliating for a King (losing the power to barons)

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King eventually went to war. Lost to Monfort in Battle of Lewes in 1264. Henry
surrended.
King forced to hand over his son Edward. 1265 new groups were enfranchised. Knights
and Burgesses invited to have representation. Edward formed an army, and he finally
defeated the rebels at the Battle of Evesham 1265. De Montfort captures, killed,
mutilated and dismembered. Edward became a hero- Father of English Parliament.
EDWARD I AND II AND III:
-Edward I. Authority of Monarchy restored. (born June 17, 1239, Westminster,

Middlesex, England4died July 7, 1307, Burgh by Sands, near Carlisle, Cumberland),
son of Henry III and king of England in 127231307, during a period of rising
national consciousness. He strengthened the crown and Parliament against the old
feudal nobility. Declared war on Wales, he subdued Wales, destroying its autonomy; and
he sought (unsuccessfully) the conquest of Scotland. 1277-1282 two big war campaigns.
Wales crushed under brutal military operation. Language and culture oppressed.
Scotland at this time paid tribute to English Kings even though it9s independent. 1291
succession crisis in Scotland. Edward himself claimed to choose the next King. Chose
John Balliol. Scotland rose in rebellion, and Edward invaded in 1295. Now direct
control of Scotland.
EXAMEN→ Dispute with King of France. Needed taxation to fight in war. Had to
call the Parliament. Main contributions were Barons, Burgesses and Country
Gentlemen. They were the Model Parliament. They would have a stake in running
the country. Edward became father of English Parliament. Robert de Bruce became
figurehead of Scottish opposition. Crowned King of Scotland in 1306. Edward died on
Campaign against de Bruce.
-Edward II, byname Edward of Caernarvon, (born April 25, 1284, Wales-died
September 1327, England). King of England from 1307 to 1327. Although he was a man
of limited capability, he waged a long, hopeless campaign to assert his authority over
powerful barons. He was openly gay. Didn9t want to be King. He exiled and returned.
Edward tried to regain reputation by going on campaign in Scotland. Met de Bruce in
1314 in Battle of Bannuckburn, it was a victory for Scots, huge loss. King fled and
seen as a coward and his wife had a lover. His wife, Isabella and the lover Mortimer
went to France. Started preparing an invasion army. September 1326, returned and gaced
little resistance. Edward deposed; Isabella seized crown in name of eldest son Edward III.
Legally declared that had broken solemn act with his own people. First reigning
monarch had been removed from throne. Imprisioned and murdered in 1337.
Edward III came to throne by overthrowing the Barons at age of 17.
-Edward III, byname Edward of Windsor, (born November 13, 1312, England and died
June 21, 1377, Sheen, Surrey), king of England from 1327 to 1377. Hoped he would be
like Edward I. Had sights on Scotland again. New longbow was obligatory to practice
archery in order to invade France. Edward banned practice of other sports, just archery

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Would provide some sense of national Unity. Edward III led England into
the Hundred Years9 War with France. Common soldiers became essential. Big battle
at Halidon Hill 1333. England9s archers very effective.
Edward declared himself king of France. Start of 100 Year9s war. Parliament would
have to pay for it. Edward9s need for money to invade France. Battle in 1340. Turned
war into joint national effort. English was outnumbered 1 to 8. 4000 French knights dead
on battlefield. English goes into battle with cross of St George, it became English flag.
War in France made England rich and equal in strength as France, a morale boost.
Edward9s popularity very high, England now gaining national identity. Dominance
over Wales and Scotland. Another victory at Potiers 1356. King of France captured.
Left French state on verge of collapse. Edward died in 1376. Succeeded by grandson
Richard
THE PLANTAGENETS A DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILY:
Over 100 years 7 kings. Only 3 died in their beds. 3 murdered. 1 on the battlefield. 3
usurped the crown. Formed background to Shakespeare9s history plays. Plantagenet
house tore itself apart in a slow painful suicide of their family.
BLACK DEATH:
England had been ravaged by Black Death. Various outbreaks 1350 and 1360, 33% -
55% population died. Serious later implications and a deeply affected state. Economy
very weak so drop in taxes and income. Government tried to recover income. Introduced
Poll Tax 1377 (an unfair system). Law limiting waged to pre-Plague levels.

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PEASANT9S REVOLT:
Plague greatly reduced labour force. Could demand higher waged or even freedom.
More mobile and demanding more rights. Poll tax 1 shilling per adult worker. When
tax collectors came to collect, all those eligible would hide in woods. 1281, rising in
Essex and Kent against poll tax collectors. Protest grew bigger, word spread. Leader
emerged: Wat Tyler and John Ball. Grew to large-scale revolt by Peasants and the
middling Fork. Their target was not King Richard but noble clique around Him.
They all marched on London. Destroyed property of Sheriffs on way. It was an
organized revolt. Looted and burnt Savoy Palace. Archbishop of Canterbury and
Chancellor executed in Tower in London. Barons seemed powerless.
First meeting between King and rebels aborted. Destroyed al records offices. 2nd
meeting, Wat Tyler confronted King with rebel9s demands. After some initial
negotiations, Tyler killed by King9s major of London. King took control: <You shall
have no other Captain but me=. Mayor of London raised an army. A 3rd meeting rebels
told by King to go home or would face retribution. Many did. Forces sent out to
villages, and the remaining leaders killed. First of various popular rebellions.
KING RICHARD9S OPPOSITION AND REVENGE: Belief in king as God on Earth.

Believed more that Richard should be a first among equals. Separation between Richard
and his court with other leading Barons, turned into real wat. 1387, 2 sides met near
Oxford, Henry led rebel forces and won. Richard now powerless without army,
personal affairs put into hands of a board of guardians. Kingdom to be ruled by a
Committee of Lords. 1397 Richard strong enough to strike back. Barons who had
opposed him were arrested and charged with treason, executed or exiled. Henry
exiled.
Richard confiscated all the important family9s lands. Richard over-reached himself.
Landowners had cause to fear for their property. Henry is ready to return from exile.
Small fleet of 10 ships and took various castles, reclaimed his own baronial lands.

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Marched South. Richard took protection in Welsh castle and hided. King became
prisoner. King Richard had to abdicate. Parliament transformed landless exile to King
IV in 12 weeks.
HENRY IV:
He is now the King. He killed Richard. Slowly starved to death. 1400 Welsh rose up
against English Rule. 1403 Henry Hotspur of Percy family had joined up with the Welsh,
they invaded England. Challenged Henry9s rights to throne. Hotspur killed. Henry
developed either leprosy or a serious skin disease.
HENRY V:
1413, the son succeeded his father. Fought against Hotspur and the Welsh. Pardoned
his father9s enemies. Turned to conquest of France again. Still claimed ancestral lands,
which included crown of France. He talked to the French to obtain the crown, if not, to
war, France said no. 1415 invaded France in the Battle of Agincourt. Again, English
outnumbered 1: 3. Returned to Normandy 1417, swept through Normandy, main
towns fell.
WAR OF ROSES: (NO EXAM)
Wars of the Roses, (1455385), in English history, the series of dynastic civil wars whose
violence and civil strife preceded the strong government of the Tudors. Fought between
the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne, the wars were named many
years afterward from the supposed badges of the contending parties: the white rose of
York and the red rose of Lancaster. oth houses claimed the throne through descent from
the sons of Edward III. Since the Lancastrians had occupied the throne from 1399, the
Yorkists might never have pressed a claim but for the near anarchy prevailing in the mid-
15th century. After the death of Henry V in 1422 the country was subject to the long and
factious minority of Henry VI (August 14223November 1437), during which the English
kingdom was managed by the king9s council, a predominantly aristocratic body. That

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arrangement, which probably did not accord with Henry V9s last wishes, was not
maintained without difficulty. Like Richard II before him, Henry VI had powerful
relatives eager to grasp after power and to place themselves at the head of factions in the
state. The council soon became their battleground.
Great magnates with private armies dominated the countryside. Lawlessness was rife and
taxation burdensome. Henry later proved to be feckless and simpleminded, subject to
spells of madness, and dominated by his ambitious queen, Margaret of Anjou, whose
party had allowed the English position in France to deteriorate.
Between 1450 and 1460 Richard, 3rd duke of York, had become the head of a great
baronial league, of which the foremost members were his kinsmen, the Nevilles, the
Mowbrays, and the Bourchiers. Among his principal lieutenants was his nephew Richard
Neville, the earl of Warwick, a powerful man in his own right, who had hundreds of
adherents among the gentry scattered over 20 counties. In 1453, when Henry lapsed into
insanity, a powerful baronial clique, backed by Warwick, installed York, as protector of
the realm. When Henry recovered in 1455, he reestablished the authority of Margaret9s
party, forcing York to take up arms for self-protection. The first battle of the wars, at St.
Albans (May 22, 1455), resulted in a Yorkist victory and four years of uneasy truce
A new phase of the civil war began in 1459 when York, goaded by the queen9s
undisguised preparations to attack him, rebelled for the last time. The Yorkists were
successful at Blore Heath (September 23) but were scattered after a skirmish at Ludford
Bridge (October 12). York fled to Ireland, and the Lancastrians, in a packed parliament
at Coventry (November 1459), obtained a judicial condemnation of their opponents and
executed those on whom they could lay hands.
Warwick9s power was insecure, however, for the Lancastrians found it difficult to trust
one who had so lately been their scourge, while many of the earl9s Yorkist followers
found the change more than they could bear. There was thus little real opposition to
Edward, who, having secured Burgundian aid, returned from Flushing to land at
Ravenspur (March 1471) in a manner reminiscent of Henry IV. His forces met those of
Warwick on April 14 in the Battle of Barnet, in which Edward outmaneuvered Warwick,
regained the loyalty of the duke of Clarence, and decisively defeated Warwick, who was
slain in the battle. On the same day, Margaret and her son, who had hitherto refused to
return from France, landed at Weymouth. Hearing the news of Barnet, she marched west,
trying to reach the safety of Wales, but Edward won the race to the Severn. In the Battle
of Tewkesbury (May 4) Margaret was captured, her forces destroyed, and her son killed.
Shortly afterward Henry VI was murdered in the Tower of London; Margaret remained
in custody until being ransomed by Louis XI in 1475. Edward9s throne was secure for the
rest of his life (he died in 1483).
In 1483 Edward9s brother Richard III, overriding the claims of his nephew, the
young Edward V, alienated many Yorkists, who then turned to the last hope of the
Lancastrians, Henry Tudor (later Henry VII). With the help of the French and of Yorkist
defectors, Henry defeated and killed Richard at Bosworth Field on August 22, 1485,
bringing the wars to a close. By his marriage to Edward IV9s daughter Elizabeth
of York in 1486, Henry united the Yorkist and Lancastrian claims. Henry defeated a

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Yorkist rising supporting the pretender Lambert Simnel on June 16, 1487, a date which
some historians prefer over the traditional 1485 for the termination of the wars.
THE TUDORS:
Henry VIII and his famous six wives: Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Boleyn,
Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr. He has an obsession with having a
male heir.
RELIGIOUS CONFLICT:
Martin Luther, Protestantism 1510s. Henry VIII, Catholic but broke with Roman
Church, declared himself head of church in England, dissolved monasteries.
Edward VI, Protestant reformation, short lives. Mary I return to Catholicism,
Bloody Mary. Queen Elizabeth, Protestant reformation.
England would change irrevocably and forever during 16th century. Tudor period
looked back on as a Golden Age. England slowly found its voice as a nation, grew in
confidence and importance in Europe. Henry9s quest for male heir would change course
of history. 1000s killed for religious beliefs and 10000s would lose their what of life
(monks).
Henry VIII: Henry was not expected to be King. Brought up with mother and
sisters. Had scholarship in classics. Healthy, sporty, good-looking and intelligent
young man. Proclaimed King at 17 in 1509, very popular. Married brother9s widow
Catherine 1509. Catherine 6 years older than him. Match cemented Anglo-Spanish unity
against France.

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Grew up on tales of King Arthur and chivalry. Ambitions to re-conquer France, still
had King of France title. 1511 got permission from Parliament to raise taxes,
invaded. Initial success in the Battle of the Spurs, regained some lost territory. From
1511 onwards Catherine started to have miscarriages. Organised whole French campaign.
He appointed Lord Chancellor by Henry, supreme in church and state. Had Hampton
Court built his wealth. By now new King of France, Francis I and new King of
Hapsburg Empire Charles V. Charles V was Catherine9s nephew. Ruled Spain,
Netherlands, Germany and most of Italy. Enormous public relations, 1535 Charles V
crushed French army and captured French King.
Henry fell out of love with Catherine. Age difference. Catherine now 40. Had been
continuously pregnant during 10 years, only 2 survived. Only Pope could ratify
divorce. Luther9s protest well-known. Henry and Cardinal Wolsey strongly anti-
Lutheran. Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn. Mid 1520s Henry9s reign going
nowhere. Couldn9t event persuade Anne to sleep with him, she refused till she was
married to him.
Cardinal Wolsey asked by Pope to adjudicate, Great Chamber York House, first trial of
his marriage 1527. Henry confident Wolsey would annul marriage. Wolsey eventually
adjourned case, too difficult for him to judge. Troops of Charles V had taken Rome. Pope
now effectively a prisoner of Catherine9s nephew, unlikely to grant divorce.
1531, church council had to accept Henry as supreme head of church in England.
1532, Anne slept with Henry, soon pregnant has Elizabeth, 1533 married in secret
Catherine still legally married to Anne.
Thomas More tried by Parliament, executed for treason a Catholic martyr. Henry now
more Machiavellian than his father. Monasteries owned 25% of land in England. 1536
Henry dissolving monasteries. Monasteries gradually closed down and literally
stripped.
THOMAS CROMWELL: Thomas Cromwell, in full Thomas Cromwell, earl of

Essex, Baron Cromwell of Okeham, (born c. 1485, Putney, near London4died July 28,
1540, probably London), principal adviser (1532340) to England9s Henry VIII, chiefly
responsible for establishing the Reformation in England, for the dissolution of the
monasteries, and for strengthening the royal administration. At the instigation of his
enemies, he was eventually arrested for heresy and treason and executed. IMPORTANT
BECAUSE HE INSTIGATED THE DISSOLUTION OF MONASTERIES
DISSOLUTION OF MONASTERIES:
Cromwell sent out government representatives to investigate monastic houses.

Monasteries gradually closed down and literally stripped of the wealth. Opposition
qualified as treason. Detrimental to local economies. Crown possessed all monastery
land and wealth. Crown needed money so a lot of land quickly resold.

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Rebellion called The Pilgrimage of Grace sprung up in The North 1536 against the
KING and the conversion to Protestantism. Peasants, nobles and ex-monks. Demanded
return of the <old religion= and re-establishment of monasteries. Rebel army marched
South. Faced King9s army at Doncaster. 30.000 men in open rebellion, rebels chose to
negotiate. CHATHOLOCISM OLD RELIGION-PROTESTANTISM NEW
RELIGION. King killed all leaders.
Meanwhile Anne had failed to give Henry a son. Beheaded May 1536 after 3 years
of marriage. In 24 hours, he married Jane Seymour. October 1537 gave birth to
Prince Edward but Queen Jane died few days later. Henry VII was the head of the
Church, <SUPREME HEAD HERE ON EARTH OF THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND= Protestantism is growing.
-Henry9s next wife was Anne of Cleves, a Protestant Confederation of Germany.

Once Henry met her, was disappointed. Cromwell was executed in 1540 and he regret
Cromwell9s execution.
-Catherine Howard wife 5. Executed 2 years after marriage 1542. She was charged
with treason and adultery.
-Catherine Parr, wife 6. Reconciled Henry with 2 daughters. Henry brought them
back to 2nd and 3rd in line so it goes like: Edward-Mary-Elizabeth.
Henry died in 1547 due to diabetes or syphilis. His death gave England a sort of
stability. Each of their heirs prepared to use Royal Supremacy to impose their beliefs.
Prince Edward began to rule under Protestant regency and 1000s would die for their
religious beliefs.

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EDWARD IV:
Edward is crowned at Westminster Abbey 1547. Edward being tutored by thorough
Protestants. Church is Protestant established. Reforms included abolition of clerical
celibacy, Mass and imposition of compulsory serviced in English. Bible now
widespread in English. Book of Common Prayer proved lasting. Edward fell ill and
died.
DIFFERENCES PROTESTANTISM AND CATHOLICISM:

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Now that Edward has died, they want to maintain Protestantism due to the fact that
Mary would return England to pre-reformation. Edward named his cousin Jane Grey as
his heir and excluded his sisters.
MARY I
Lady Jane Grey Queen for 9 days.

Mary raised an army and pulled a coup
d9état to obtain the title. Now Mary
Queen. Parliament quickly revoked all
religious reformations. Direct return to
Rome. Back to Catholicism. 1554
England officially returned to Rome.
She was 38 years. Her duty was to reproduce heir to maintain <The Old Religion=.
Philip II of Spain now King of England. It was not a popular move but <The Queen is
a Spaniard at heart and loves another realm better than this=. Marriage took place July
1554. Set about purging the realm of heretics. Burning began 1555. Bishops burnt and
general population. Even King Philip thought Mary went too far and would divide
Kingdom.
Bible now in English is heretic-some people died for simple possession. Mary and
her government very unpopular. Announced twice she was pregnant but nothing
happened. Philip left to govern Spain. Mary probably suffering from ovarian cancer.
Mary9s reign a truly miserable time. Died in 1558 of ovarian cancer. She had managed
to issue two Death Warrants. Succeeded by her sister Elizabeth.

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2ND SEMESTER
ELIZABETH THE 1ST 1558-1603
She was not catholic. She was imprisoned in the tower of London because Mary
considered her a threat. Upon her half-sister's death in 1558. Elizabeth succeeded to
the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted
advisers led by William Cecil, whom much later she created 1st Baron Burghley. One of
her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of
which she became the supreme governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was
to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and
produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. Although
Protestantism was the main religion, the civilians were still Catholics in ceremony.
She founded the basis of consumerism, modern economy, agricultural system, financial
systems, defense and attack system, population moving to cities as a result of enclosure.
Elizabeth ruled over a golden age. There is a Renaissance in art during Elizabeth9s
time. She wrote, intelligent, educated, dancer. Elizabeth knew how to get people on
her side and that is crucial. Very popular Queen and was called Good Queen Bess.
She was the one to refuse England with Spain. She had many lovers who was called THE
VIRGING QUEEN and she did not marry and no successor. She protected her realm
against foreign invasions. Defeated Spanish Armada in 1588.
She had a <peaceful= realm, there was constant threatens and attacks in the North
to kill Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. She had the right to
succession to the English throne, she was related to Henry the VII, she was catholic since
her childhood and very practicing, raised in France. Supported by the Catholics and to
overtake Elizabeth9s throne. There was a rebellion and Mary of Scots was accused of
being the brain behind. She was influenced by her husband, who was beheaded by her.
Mary of Scots, in the end, was imprisoned and finally executed. If she was not
executed, there would have been a Civil War.
JAMES I-VI: 1605-1625
Elizabeth9s Heir was James VI of Scotland and I of England (son of Mary Queen of
Scots). He was brought up as a Protestant. He had almost no relationship with his
mother because she fled when he was 1 year. He inherited many debts and that was a
problem, because she loved luxury. He was gay and Scottish lovers. People hated him
because he was Protestant and Scottish. He had to raise taxes to obtain money with
indirect taxes. It was unconstitutional, because the King had to do what the Parliament
decided to. In 1610 confronted the Parliament and he told them: you have no right to stop
me, the King, to keeping taxing the people.
For James, he was King and there would be nobody more supreme on Earth than
him, he thought was divine, the only one who could answer to God. He did never
become an absolute King and he was not a good King. He united the religions of the
Protestants and Catholics in England, he also united Scotland and England and the

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first idea of United Kingdom, he put an end to Spanish9s conflict. The United
Kingdom flag was created. James translated the Bible in a neutral way to reconcile
for Catholics and Protestants. He was a Rex Pacificus. During James reign colonies
such as Virginia founded in NA and protestant plantation in Ulster. James died in 1625
and the Union between Scotland and England was not a reality, yet.
THE GUNPOWDER PLOT 1605:
There was a terrorist attempt to blow the Parliament up using dynamite. Guy
Fawkes was in the army, he was a military, while fighting for the Spanish, was a
member of a group of provincial English Catholics who was involved in the
failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.
Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for mainland Europe, where he fought for
Catholic Spain in the Eighty Years' War against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low
Countries. He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England
without success. He planned to assassinate King James I and replace it with a
Catholic monarch to the throne. Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder that
they stockpiled there. The authorities were prompted by an anonymous letter to
search Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5th November, and they found
Fawkes guarding the explosives. He was questioned and tortured for 3 days and
confessed to wanting to blow up the House of Lords.
Immediately before his execution on 31 January, Fawkes fell from the scaffold where
he was to be hanged, drowned, opened up, burnt and exhibited in front of civilians. Since
that day, the failure has been commemorated in the UK as Guy Fawkes Night since
5 November 1605, when his effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire, commonly
accompanied by fireworks.

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CHARLES I:
Charles was crowned in February 1626. He was born into the House of Stuart as the
second son of King James VI of Scotland. Soon became frustrated with Parliament
unwilling to grant him more taxation, he believed in the divine power of a King. An
unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish
Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that
demonstrated the marriage negotiations' futility. Two years later, he married
the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France.
When they crowned him, he put on the regalia of Edward the Confessor. Charles decided
to try to rule without Parliament. He tries to play a role of divinity. He loved fashion,
elegance and order. After his succession in 1625, Charles was against the Parliament
of England. He believed in the divine right of kings, and was determined to govern
according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in
particular imposing taxes without parliamentary consent as the Ship Tax. 1637
Edinburgh rioted against the use of the Common Prayer Book. Eventually Charles
gave up due to rebellions.
He ruled without Parliament for 11 years. His actions as those of a

tyrannical absolute monarch. He spent taxes money in art and cloths for his wife. His
religious policies were coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic. Charles needed
to fight against the Scottish and recall the Parliament to pay the War, but he had an
opposition of the Parliament, they were in favour of the Scots. Scots are fed up with
having to do what an English King tells them to do. This was the beginning of the
revolution. Two sides: Parliamentarians and the Monarchists.
From 1642-1645, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments
in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force
that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament.
Charles temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. He forged an alliance with

Scotland, but by the end of 1648 but the Parliamentarian New Model Army had
consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted,
and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and
the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic.
There were 2 sides of the Parliament: The House of Commons (Upper-middle class)
and The House of Lords. Kings could not tax directly to the citizens. Popularly elected
legislative body of the bicameral British Parliament. Although it is technically the
lower house, the House of Commons is predominant over the House of Lords.

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CROMWELL:
Oliver Cromwell, (born April 25, 1599, Huntingdon, Huntingdonshire, England4died
September 3, 1658, London), English soldier and statesman, who led parliamentary
forces in the English Civil Wars and was lord protector of England, Scotland,
and Ireland (1653358) during the republican Commonwealth. He was raised by
middle-upper class family that possessed lands. He was a very intelligent individual at
that time. He came to Cambridge University. 1620 he was married and James the I dies.
Charles the I took the throne. Apparently, he was very ill and nearly died, that
experience changed his life and he became a very strict defender of the Puritan faith.
1628 became part of the Parliament. As one of the generals on the parliamentary side
in the English Civil War against King Charles I, Cromwell helped to bring about the
overthrow of the Stuart monarchy, and, as lord protector, he raised
his country9s status once more to that of a leading European power from the decline
it had gone through since the death of Queen Elizabeth.
In religious matters, Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan, believed that individual Christians

could establish direct contact with God through prayer and that congregations
should choose their own ministers, whose principal duty was to inspire the laity by
preaching. He distrusted the Church of England hierarchy and advocated abolishing
the episcopate but was never opposed to a state church.
Cromwell9s Commonwealth was an attempt to create a Republic in England. It was

the first idea of a republic in Europe. That was a revolution, for European eyes this
would have been a dangerous time and monarchies were frightened. During that time
England was not an economic stable country. There could have been a domino effect in
Europe to change monarchies to republics. Cromwell did try to get a Republic in the
name of ordinary people so that they could be free to choose their own
representation and free from the chuckles of monarchies that believed in the divine
right of the King and taxation. Cromwell finished <ruling with a whip= because
England was in the need of a powerful ruler.
Oliver Cromwell9s victories at home and abroad helped to enlarge and sustain
a Puritan attitude of mind in Great Britain and North America that long influenced
political and social life in both places. Having restored political stability after
the English Civil Wars, he contributed to the evolution of constitutional
government and religious toleration. It was a military dictatorship. 1656 the
Parliament made Cromwell King and surrounded himself with a divinity belief. He
had a Puritan life. 1658 he died and his son took over the land. 1660 Charles II in
the throne.

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ENGLISH CIVIL WAR/ENGLISH REVOLUTION:

The English Civil Wars occurred from 1642 through 1651. fighting that took place
in the British Isles between supporters of the monarchy of Charles I (and his son
and successor, Charles II) and opposing groups in each of Charles9s kingdoms,
including Parliamentarians in England, Covenanters in Scotland, and Confederates
in Ireland. The English Civil Wars are traditionally considered to have begun in England
in August 1642, when Charles I raised an army against the wishes of Parliament,
ostensibly to deal with a rebellion in Ireland. But the period of conflict actually began
earlier in Scotland, with the Bishops9 Wars of 1639340, and in Ireland, with the Ulster
rebellion of 1641.
The fighting during this period is traditionally broken into three wars: the first
happened from 1642 to 1646, the second in 1648, and the third from 1650 to 1651.
The first major battle of the English Civil Wars fought on English soil was the Battle
of Edgehill, which occurred in October 1642. Forces loyal to the English Parliament,
commanded by Robert Devereux, 3rd earl of Essex, delayed Charles I9s march on
London.
Cromwell9s resounding victory at Worcester (September 3, 1651) and Charles II9s

subsequent flight to France not only gave Cromwell control over England but also
effectively ended the wars of4and the wars in4the three kingdoms. It has been
estimated that the conflict in England and Wales claimed about 85,000 lives in combat,
with a further 127,000 noncombat deaths. As many as 15,000 civilians perished in
Scotland, and a further 137,000 Irish civilians may well have died as a result of the wars
there. In all nearly 200,000 people.
These were the last civil wars ever fought on English, but not Scottish or Irish, soil,
and they have bequeathed a lasting legacy. Ever since this period, the peoples of the
three kingdoms have had a profound distrust of standing armies, while ideas first mooted
during the 1640s, particularly about religious toleration and limitations on power, have
survived to this day.

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CHARLES II:
Charles the I had his head chopped off and it was a shocking moment for Europe.
Everyone was wondering what would happen now, the attempt of the Republic failed and
Charles the II was in the throne after the Restoration of the English Monarchy.
The Scotts were horrified with this event and they did not like that at all. Cromwell was
not kind to them and a majority did not agree with Cromwell. Charles the II was invited
to be a Scotts King and he signed an agreement. Cromwell went north waging war
on the Scotts and a lot of people were killed and Charles II fled to France. 1652
Cromwell announced a Commonwealth Republic with England and Scotland as a
union. It was supposed to be a Commonwealth, however, the money is directly going
to London and it is not divided equally and not get it back, it was a financial ruin to
Scotland and there were religious divisions. Culturally, they did not understand each
other. 54 Scottish ministers were in the English Parliament.
In 1660, Charles II came back into London from France to be in the English throne.
He is the King of England and Scotland. The King really dislike Scotland because he
considered those lands wild and unrefined. According to him, Kings were vessels to God.
Charles II left his secretary of state to go to Scotland to enforce absolutism in the
Church and State of Scotland. 1685 Charles II died of a stroke.
KING JAMES:
1685 Charles II died of a stroke. There was no direct legitimate descendance. The
only descendance was his brother James and he is Catholic but he had to pretend
being a Protestant. At that moment there was still a delicate situation regarding religion,
because James was Catholic and this would be a problem. James went up to Scotland
as a commissioner. James inherited the Throne without much opposition. He was
expected to convert Scotland to Catholicism and Scotland played a passive role in the
Glorious Revolution in 1688. The Scottish administration collapsed when he fled to
France. In 1689 Scottish voted that James had actually given up his crown because
he went to France. In 1701 James would die at the beginning of the Enlightenment period

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KING WILLIAM II (1689-1702) AND QUEEN MARY:
Scotts offered the throne to William and Mary as they are German Protestants.
James favoured the Catholics and the new Kings are Protestants. A majority of Scotland
were Jacobites (support James). William and Mary are now in the Scottish throne.
An invitation, signed by a representative selection of James9s opponents, was dispatched
on July 10 (Old Style), and on November 5 (November 15, New Style) William and his
army landed at Brixham on Tor Bay in Devon and proceeded almost unopposed
to London. James fled to France, and the so-called Convention Parliament, summoned in
January 1689, declared that James had abdicated and offered the vacant throne, with an
accompanying Declaration of Right, to William and Mary. They were proclaimed in
February and crowned on April 21. The crown of Scotland was offered to them in the
same month. The Jacobites would disintegrate after losing a battle. The Battle of
Boyne was a very important battle, these Jacobites were defeated by William II and
his army in 1690. William fell off his horse and died in 1702. They had no children.
THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION:
Glorious Revolution, also called Revolution of 1688 or Bloodless Revolution, in

English history, the events of 1688389 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the
accession of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange
and stadholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. After the accession of James
II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population. Seven
eminent Englishmen, including one bishop and six prominent politicians of both Whig
and Tory persuasions, wrote to William of Orange, inviting him to come over with an
army to redress the nation9s grievances. It was Glorious because there was almost no
war or blood during the conflict.

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BILL OF RIGHTS 1689
The Bill of Rights 1689, also known as the Bill of Rights 1688, is a landmark Act in
the constitutional law of England that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who
would be next to inherit the Crown. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689
and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by
the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to
become joint sovereigns of England.
The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights
of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections,
and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the
prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and confirmed that "Protestants may have
arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law". It also includes
no right of taxation without Parliament's agreement.
WAR OF THE BRITISH SUCCESSION:
Between 1689 and 1697, British soldiers joined a European alliance against French
expansionism. At the same time, extensive fighting took place in Scotland and Ireland
between the supporters of King William III and the deposed James II. After seizing the
crown during the Glorious Revolution of 1688, King William III set about defeating the
forces of his exiled rival, James II, in Scotland and Ireland. James's supporters were
commonly known as Jacobites, a title derived from the Latin version of his name.
The fighting that broke out in these countries can be viewed as part of the Nine Years
War (1689-97). This was a wider European conflict in which the Holy Roman Empire,
the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Savoy, Sweden and a number of German states
allied themselves against France and the expansionist ambitions of its ruler, King Louis
XIV.
The war in Scotland:
Following his flight to France, James II commissioned John Graham of Claverhouse,

Viscount Dundee, as commander of his forces in Scotland. In the spring of 1689, Dundee
raised an army of Highlanders to take on the soldiers of the new Williamite government.
On 27 July, after several months of indecisive manoeuvring, he attacked and routed the
government forces of General Hugh Mackay in the pass of Killiekrankie. Dundee,
however, was killed in the attack. And although the Jacobite army received
reinforcements at Blair, its effectiveness was severely reduced as a result of his death.

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The war in Ireland:

Meanwhile, in March 1689, James II had landed in Ireland. He intended to use it as a base
from which to recover the English throne.
The composition of the rival armies in Ireland reflected the wider European war.
William's forces included Irish, English, Dutch, Danish and German troops, while large
French contingents fought on the Jacobite side.
William9s army:
In August 1689, William's main army landed at Carrickfergus led by Marshal Frederick
Duke of Schomberg, a veteran German commander. A shortage of supplies and the
rawness of many of his English troops prevented Schomberg from doing anything more
than holding a bridgehead. Many of his men died in the army's autumn camp at Dundalk.
The following June, William himself landed at Carrickfergus to take over direction of the
war, bringing with him veteran reinforcements. He advanced south against James, who
retreated before him.
The Boyne:
On 1 July 1690, the Jacobites attempted to defend a position on the river Boyne, near the
town of Drogheda. Although it was strong in cavalry, James's army was outnumbered by
William's and lacked effective artillery.
The Boyne was fordable and William used his numerical superiority to make a wide
outflanking movement against the Jacobite left, pinning down many of James's best
troops. Overcoming stiff resistance, the remaining Williamite forces broke through the
centre and right of the Jacobite position, forcing James to retreat.
William was wounded in the leg during the battle. His second-in-command, the 75-year-
old Duke of Schomberg, was killed rallying his troops during the struggle.
Peace:
Although the French were relatively successful in battle, they lacked the financial
resources of the English and the Dutch. By the mid-1690s, France was also wracked by
famine. However, the English and Dutch were financially exhausted by the fighting, too.
And when Savoy defected from the Grand Alliance, all parties were keen for a
settlement.
By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), Louis XIV retained some of his war gains,
including Alsace. But he was forced to return Lorraine to its ruler and give up any gains
on the east bank of the Rhine. Louis also accepted William as the rightful ruler of
England, while the Dutch acquired a fortress system in the Spanish Netherlands to
help secure their borders.
JACOBITE→ FOLLOWERS OF KING JAMES
WILLIAMITE→ FOLLOWERS OF KING WILLIAM

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QUEEN ANNE 1702-1714
Younger daughter of James VII by first wife Anne Hynd. In 1701 England wanted
protestants Sofia of Hanover but Scots wanted James VII son. However, n 1702 she
inherited the throne. 15-year-old in Scotland-enjoyed balls but she was ill. When she
was 18, she married Prince George of Denmark. She had 18 pregnancies but only survived
a child that died at the age of 11. There was a problem of peace keeping in Scotland-
conflicting interests, endangered union of crowns. Anti-unionists were defeated and
Scotland agreed to Great Britain with one Parliament.
Great Britain wanted freedom of trade, same coin and weights and measures.
Scotland had 45 member of the Parliament and 16 elected peers. In 1707 there was
a Treaty of Union. However, there was no economic benefits to the Scots, they are
disappointed. Jacobites continued to support for James Francis Edward. 1714 Queen
Anne died and Sofia died a few weeks previously. Sofia9s son George became the
King: George I of England.

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GEORGE I OF ENGLAND:
George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of

Hanover, and Sophia of the Palatinate, a granddaughter of King James I of England.
George married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1682. The English
Parliament9s Act of Settlement (1701), seeking to ensure a Protestant succession to
the throne in opposition to the exiled Roman Catholic claimant (James Edward, the
Old Pretender), made George third in line for the throne after Princess Anne (queen from
1702314) and his mother.
George lack of English helped the development of British parliamentary system.

George I did not preside over cabinet meetings so one minister began to preside.
This was the beginning of the office of The Prime Minister. Robert Walpole
regarded as the first BRITISH PRIME MINISTER.
During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701314) George fought with distinction
against the French. England9s Whig politicians began to court his favour, but many Tories
remained loyal to the Old Pretender. When George9s mother died on June 8, 1714, he
became heir to the throne, and on the death of Queen Anne. Although
the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1719 were readily suppressed, he was far from
popular in England. Ugly rumours concerning his treatment of his wife were
widely disseminated, and the greed of his two German mistresses reflected badly on his
court.
He attempted diligently, however, to fulfill his obligations to his new kingdom. Since
he could not speak English, he communicated with his ministers in French. Shortly
after this faction was reconciled to George in 1720, the South Sea Company suffered
a financial collapse. In the ensuing scandal it became apparent that George and his
mistresses had taken part in South Sea Company transactions of questionable legality, but
Walpole9s skill in handling the House of Commons saved the king from disgrace. As a
result, George was forced to give Walpole and Townshend a free hand in the ministry.
George died of a stroke on a trip to Hanover. In addition to his son

and successor, George II, he had a daughter, Sophia Dorothea (168731757), wife of
King Frederick William I of Prussia and mother of Frederick the Great.

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GEORGE II OF HANOVER:
George II 1683-1760. King of Great Britain
and elector of Hanover from 1727 to 1760.
Although he possessed sound political judgment,
his lack of self-confidence caused him to rely
heavily on his ministers, most notable of whom
was Sir Robert Walpole.
During the first two decades of his reign George

II followed foreign and domestic developments
closely. He supported Walpole9s policy of peace
and retrenchment and allowed the minister to
use crown patronage to build up his majority in
Parliament. Walpole won acknowledgment of
George9s legitimacy from many influential
Tories who had been Jacobites4supporters of
the exiled Stuart pretender to the English throne.
George II, at the age of 60, was the last British
sovereign to fight alongside his soldiers, at the
Battle of Dettingen in 1743 in Germany,
against the French.Like his father, for much of
his reign George's political options were limited by the strength of the Jacobite cau se
with which many of the Tories supported, overtly or secretly (James Stuart the Old
Pretender, and then his son, Charles Edward Stuart)..
George's reign was threatened in 1745 when Charles Edward Stuart, the Young
Pretender, landed in Scotland. After some initial success (which led to the national
anthem in its current form becoming popular among the Hanoverian loyalists),
Charles was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746. Subsequent Jacobite
plots had no realistic prospect of success. The foundations of the industrial
revolution were laid during George's reign, with new levels of production in
industries such as coal and shipbuilding and also in agriculture. At the same time,
there was, a rapid rise in population.
Overseas, trade was boosted by successes such as Clive's victories in India at Arcot
(1751) and Plassey (1757), which placed Madras and Bengal under British control,
and Wolfe's capture of French-held Quebec in 1759 (part of a successful campaign
which transferred Canada with its wealthy trade in fish and fur from French to
British rule).As the country prospered and George's reign lengthened, his early
unpopularity (he did not travel far in England, and much preferred Hanover) changed
into a general respect.The King's eldest son, Frederick, died in 1751. George's
grandson, George III, therefore inherited the throne, on George's death in 1760

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GEORGE III
King of Great Britain and Ireland (176031820)
and elector (176031814) and then king (18143
20) of Hanover, during a period
when Britain won an empire in the Seven Years9
War but lost its American colonies and then,
after the struggle against Revolutionary and
Napoleonic France, emerged as a leading power
in Europe. During the last years of his life (from
1811) he was intermittently mad, and his son, the
future George IV, acted as regent.
George was a child of strong feelings but of slow

mental development. This unequal growth of
brain and heart made him difficult to teach and
too easy to command and produced in him an
appearance of apathy; he could not read properly
until he was 11. His affection for his immediate
family circle dominated his life. At his accession
in 1760 in the midst of the Seven Years9
War (1756363), between Great Britain and
Prussia on one side and France, Austria, and
Russia on the other, George did not know his own capacity nor the incapacity of his hero
Under Bute9s influence he imagined that his duty was to purify public life and to
substitute duty to himself for personal intrigue. The two great men in office at the
accession were the elder Pitt and Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle.
George III worked for an expedited end to the The Seven Years9 War (1756-63), taking
a position that forced his influential war minister William Pitt the Elder (who wanted to
broaden the conflict) to resign in 1761. The next year George appointed Lord Bute as his
prime minister, the first in a quick succession of five ineffective ministers. In 1764 Prime
Minister George Grenville introduced the Stamp Act as a way of raising revenue in
the American colonies. The act was fervently opposed in America, especially by the
pamphleteers whose paper would be taxed. Parliament would repeal the act two years
later, but mistrust persisted in the colonies.
In 1770 Lord North became prime minister, beginning a 12-year period of parliamentary
stability. In 1773 he passed an act taxing tea in the colonies. The Americans complained
of taxation without representation (and staged the Boston Tea Party), but north held firm
with George9s backing. The American Revolution began on April 19, 1775, with
the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The next year, the Declaration of
Independence laid out the Americans9 case for freedom, portraying George III as an
inflexible tyrant who had squandered his right to govern the colonies.

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The king was reluctant to come to terms with his army9s defeat in the Battle of
Yorktown in 1781. He drafted an abdication speech but, in the end, decided to defer to
Parliament9s peace negotiations. The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the United States
and ceded Florida to Spain. In 1800 Ireland was incorporated into Great Britain and
became the Great Britain with one Parliament in London. Catholicism was
restricted everywhere. There was an increasing poverty in contrast to the enrichment of
the powerful. George suffered a second major bout of insanity in 1804 and recovered, but
in 1810 he slipped into his final illness. A year later his son, the future George IV, became
prince regent, giving him effective rule for the War of 1812 and Napoleon9s final defeat
at Waterloo in 1815. George III died blind, deaf and mad on January 29, 1820.
ENLIGHTENMENT:
Enlightenment, European intellectual movement of the 17th318th century in which

ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and man were blended into a worldview that
inspired revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. Central to
Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reason. For Enlightenment
thinkers, received authority, whether in science or religion, was to be subject to the
investigation of unfettered minds. In the sciences and mathematics, the logics of
induction and deduction made possible the creation of a sweeping new cosmology. The
search for a rational religion led to Deism; the more radical products of the application of
reason to religion were scepticism, atheism, and materialism. The Enlightenment
produced modern secularized theories of psychology and ethics by men such as John
Locke and Thomas Hobbes, and it also gave rise to radical political theories.
Locke, Jeremy Bentham, J.-J. Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Thomas
Jefferson all contributed to an evolving critique of the authoritarian state and to
sketching the outline of a higher form of social organization based on natural rights.
One of the Enlightenment9s enduring legacies is the belief that human history is a
record of general progress.

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CONTEXT INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and
handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. These
technological changes introduced novel ways of working and living and fundamentally
transformed society. This process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there
spread to other parts of the world. The main features involved in the Industrial
Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural.
The technological changes included the following: (1) the use of new basic materials,
chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and
motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and
the internal-combustion engine, (3) the invention of new machines, (4) a new
organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division
of labour and specialization of function, (5) important developments
in transportation and communication
There were also many new developments in nonindustrial spheres, including the
following: (1) agricultural improvements that made possible the provision
of food for a larger nonagricultural population, (2) economic changes that resulted
in a wider distribution of wealth, the decline of land as a source of wealth in the face
of rising industrial production, and increased international trade, (3) political
changes reflecting the shift in economic power, as well as new state policies
corresponding to the needs of an industrialized society, (4) sweeping social changes,
including the growth of cities, the development of working-class movements, and the
emergence of new patterns of authority, and (5) cultural transformations of a broad
order.
Firstly, it is important to mention that there was an Agricultural Revolution: Mid-

Eighteenth Century: age old method began to change. Further enclosure: larger estates
out of open fields, and communal pasture. Land desirable good, (rise of population and
feudal ties broken). New race of landowners. Large component of parliament.
Unprotected cottagers and free holders. Enclosed land, crop rotation and rich landowners
= more productivity, market forces. New kinds of crops (alfalfa). Mid-century 8the
labours of one third of the population in the field were now able to furnish sustenance for
the remaining two thirds9 (Ackroyd, 45). More scientific approach (Robert Bakewell).

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WHY DID IT BEGIN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION?
!!!!!Because they had a Constitutional Monarchy and the Pope did not control the
state, England could invest in progress. Making money was not considered immoral.
There was a system called: Laissez-faire economy, which would function as the main
mentality of the English economy; the Government does not intervene in the market
(public works, price, trade) but private companies/enterprises who dictated the
price. The philosophy of that moment was to punish the poor and that they were
guilty of their own demise. Rise of Colonialism and slave trading. Movement of: self-
made man. There was the creation of marketing. No control over trade, wages,
conditions in factories, salaries, hours they worked, age, interest rate. !!!!!!!!!!!!
The term Industrial Revolution refers to the process of change in modern history
from a farming and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine
manufacturing. The process began in Britain, where the Industrial Revolution was
largely confined from the 1760s to the 1830s. From Britain the revolution spread
gradually throughout Europe and to the United States and other parts of the world. The
most important of the changes that brought about the Industrial Revolution were (1) the
invention of machines to do the work of hand tools, (2) the use of steam and later of other
kinds of power, and (3) the adoption of the factory system. There was a need to bring
up coal in a faster and efficient way from the coal mines. Consequently, they needed
machines and created: The steam machine, Rottrerham plough, Flying shuttle,
Spinning Jenny and Threshing machine. They created canals to transport materials
because the roads were terrible at that moment. There was an agricultural
revolution which was essential for the development of the revolution, it was all due
to the new machines that enabled farmers to explore new methods, more land and
mass production. There would not have been a revolution without the agricultural
revolution, with new machines to take over people9s work and the fact that you no
longer manage your farm you finish being a slave worker for a richer landowner.
Technological changes during the Industrial Revolution also included the wide use
of basic materials, such as iron and steel. Consequently, a more powerful blast
furnace was created which enabled to create more iron more efficiently. Coal
burned slowly so they invented: the internal-combustion engine also emerged as
new energy sources. Industrialization led to a new organization of work known as
the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of
function.
Important developments in transportation and communications occurred: the

steam locomotive, the steamboat, automobile, airplane, telegraph, radio, outlets,
newspaper, magazines and telephone. Technological changes tremendously increased
the use of natural resources. With the spread of industrialization in empire-building
countries, overseas colonies were exploited for their raw materials and became markets
for manufactured products. Economic changes resulted in a wider distribution of

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wealth, the decline of land as a source of wealth in the face of rising industrial
production, and increased international trade. Government had to defend and
preserve the security of the State (Adam Smith). Work was a duty almost as
important as God, this philosophy was all about self-improvement and hard work.
It started the stock market.
ADAM SMITH 3 WEALTH OF NATION:
Smith, SMITH AND THE FREE MARKET: Adam Smith9s ideas about the division of
labor helped to create modern western capitalism. The division of labor deals with the
way in which various tasks are shared among different parties in society. Smith believed
that, if unconstrained by state controls, a free market encourages specialization and
society benefits. His ideas influenced economics well into modern times. Durkheim
(185831917).
a Scottish moral philosopher by trade, wrote the book to describe the industrialized
capitalist system that was upending the mercantilist system. Mercantilism held that
wealth was fixed and finite, and that the only way to prosper was to hoard gold
and tariff products from abroad. According to this theory, nations should sell their goods
to other countries while buying nothing in return. Predictably, countries fell into rounds
of retaliatory tariffs that choked off international trade.
• The central thesis of Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" is that our individual need
to fulfill self-interest results in societal benefit, in what is known as his "invisible
hand".
• This, combined with the division of labor in an economy, results in a web of
mutual interdepencies that promotes stability and prosperity through the market
mechanism.
• Smith rejects government interference in market activities, and instead states
governments should serve just 3 functions: protect national borders; enforce civil
law; and engage in public works (e.g., education).
•
Smith argued that by giving everyone freedom to produce and exchange goods as they
pleased (free trade) and opening the markets up to domestic and foreign competition,
people's natural self-interest would promote greater prosperity than with stringent
government regulations. Smith wanted people to
practice thrift, hard work, and enlightened self-interest.
He thought the practice of enlightened self-interest was
natural for the majority of people. Smith saw the
responsibilities of the government as being limited to
the defense of the nation, universal education, public
works (infrastructure such as roads and bridges), the
enforcement of legal rights (property rights and
contracts), and the punishment of crime. he third
element Smith proposed was a solid currency twinned
with free-market principles. By backing currency with
hard metals, Smith hoped to curtail the government's

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ability to depreciate currency by circulating more of it to pay for wars or other wasteful
expenditures.
SLAVE TRADING
The slave trade throughout the British Empire. Slavery itself would persist in the
British colonies until its final abolition in 1838. However, abolitionists would
continue campaigning against the international trade of slaves after this date. The
slave trade refers to the transatlantic trading patterns which were established as
early as the mid-17th century. Trading ships would set sail from Europe with a cargo
of manufactured goods to the west coast of Africa. There, these goods would be
traded, over weeks and months, for captured people provided by African traders.
European traders found it easier to do business with African intermediaries who
raided settlements far away from the African coast and brought those young and
healthy enough to the coast to be sold into slavery. Conditions were squalid and many
people did not survive the voyage. On the final leg of the transatlantic route, European
ships returned home with cargoes of sugar, rum, tobacco and other 'luxury' items.
It has been estimated that, by the 1790s, 480,000 people were enslaved in the British
Colonies.
The majority of those sold into slavery were destined to work on plantations in the
Caribbean and the Americas, where huge areas of the American continent had been
colonized by European countries. These plantations produced products such as
sugar or tobacco, meant for consumption back in Europe. Those who supported the
slave trade argued that it made important contributions to the country's economy and to
the rise of consumerism in Britain
The role of many slaves themselves in bringing slavery to an end is often overlooked.
Resistance among slaves in the Caribbean was not uncommon. Indeed, slaves in the
French colony of St Domingue seized control of the island and it was eventually declared
to be the republic of Haiti. Figures such as
Olaudah Equiano and Mary Prince, by
adding their eye witness accounts to
abolitionist literature, also made a major
contribution to the abolition campaign.

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WILLIAM IV:
William IV lived from 21 August 1765 to 20 June 1837 and was King of the United
Kingdom and of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. William was the third son
of King George III and younger brother and successor of King George IV: he was also
the last king and penultimate monarch of the House of Hanover. Personally opposed to
parliamentary reform, he grudgingly accepted the epochal Reform Act of 1832, which,
by transferring representation from depopulated <rotten boroughs= to industrialized
districts, reduced the power of the British crown and the landowning aristocracy over the
government. he entered the Royal Navy at the age of 13, fought in the American
Revolution. When he left the sea in 1790, however, he had become unpopular with many
other fellow officers and had angered his father by his numerous love affairs. On
William9s death, therefore, the British crown passed to his niece Princess Victoria,
and the Hanoverian crown passed to his brother Ernest Augustus, duke of
Cumberland.
REFLECTION INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
Before the Industrial Revolution, production was made through simple tools and with the
contribution of family members at homes or workshops nearly in every part of the world.
After the Industrial Revolution, production was moved to machines and factories.
Sophisticated machines were manufactured in the 18th century. In parallel with the
invention and development of steam engines, these machines were used with steam
power. Great industrial cities were founded with the Industrial Revolution. An important
proportion of the population started to work in industry at the end of the 18th century and
beginning of the 19th century (Günay, 2002). This era has been an important term for
humankind because an age of technological innovations and industrial development

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started with the main discoveries and inventions of Industrial Revoluation such as steam
engine, cotton yarn spinning machines, coke and steel production.
Textile was the main industry of Great Britain in Victorian Age. Cotton, wool and other
fibers which came from the colonies were turned into cloth or other fabrics through
cleaning, combing, spinning etc. Mechanical improvements in textile industry preceded
the Industrial Revolution. Adam Smith and James Watt were the main responsible
scientists for destroying the old Britain, and building a new one, and directing the world
toward industrialization. While Smith formed the revolution in economic thought and
Watt engineered the steam engine. Thus, steam power lowered the production costs and
prices, and expanded the markets. A spirit of innovation led to inventions, inventions led
to factories, and factories led to a need for direction and organization. The expanded
market called for more workers, more machines and a larger production scale on a regular
basis. Capital was needed to finance these larger undertakings, and the individuals who
could command the capital began to bring workers and machines together under one
common authority. he first traces of utilitarianism in economics can be seen in Adam
Smith9s Wealth of Nations which affected the structure of the industrial thought as one
of its baselines. Smith9s inferences about the individual type who thinks about his/her
benefits provided an alternative for the ethics which relied on the natural legal philosophy
of the age
BRITISH POLITICS AND REFORM IN THE 19th CENTURY
Political/social circumstances: Industrial powerhouse

The 19th century saw Britain9s emergence as the world9s
first industrial nation, and, consequently, its foremost economic
power for most of the 1800s. Along with its industrial might, it built
a great military strength, and a vast and populous overseas empire.
It was a stirring story, of triumph of endeavor and hard work,
which was to be celebrated in the writings of Samuel Smiles and
others in the late 19th century. Many in the Victorian age were
happy to see theirs as a <golden age.= The small print tells a
different story: of enterprise, undoubtedly, but also of ruthless
exploitation and fearful suffering of British people, as well as
of imperial injustice and cruelty abroad
The Reform Act 1832: The Representation of the People Act 1832, known as the first
Reform Act or Great Reform Act:
• disenfranchised 56 boroughs in England and Wales and reduced another 31 to

only one MP
• created 67 new constituencies

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• broadened the franchise's property qualification in the counties, to include small

landowners, tenant farmers, and shopkeepers
• created a uniform franchise in the boroughs, giving the vote to all householders
who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more and some lodgers
• Limited suffrage. Rotten Borough (areas with little population and over-
parliamentary representation). The Corn Laws 1815: Tarriff9s on corn favoured
landowner9s anti-free trade. Allowed 1 in 6 adults males to vote. No more Rotten
Borough, lower property requirement to vote, no suffrage for working class or
women. As a consequence, divided society in England. People would become
objects of the society.
The Tories: conservatives who controlled the Parliament VS The Whigs: liberals
The Chartist: The Chartist movement was the first mass movement driven by the
working classes. It grew following the failure of the 1832 Reform Act to extend the
vote beyond those owning property. A peaceful movement to get into the Parliament.
It was essential for working classes. Movement for political reform. Chartism was
the first movement both working class in character and national in scope that grew
out of the protest against the injustices of the new industrial and political order
in Britain. While composed of working people, Chartism was also mobilized around
populism as well as clan identity. The movement was born amid the economic depression
of 1837338, when high unemployment and the effects of the Poor Law Amendment Act
of 1834 were felt in all parts of Britain. Lovett9s charter provided a program acceptable
to a heterogeneous working-class population. There was no financial assistance. <Peace
and Order= was the motto of the Chartists. It was a peaceful movement <seek to
remove the evils on behalf of everybody=. 5 of the 6 points they wanted was a reality.
• All men to have the vote (universal manhood suffrage)

• Voting should take place by secret ballot
• Parliamentary elections every year, not once every five years
• Constituencies should be of equal size
• Members of Parliament should be paid
• The property qualification for becoming a Member of Parliament should be
abolished
1842: Mines act (no more children and women in mines)
1846: Corn laws repealed
1847: 10 hours Act (women and children could only work 10 hours a day)
The Suffragette: A suffragette was a member of an activist women's organisation in the

early 20th century who, under the banner "Votes for Women", fought for the right to vote

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in public elections in the United Kingdom. The term refers in particular to members of
the British Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), a women-only movement
founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst, which engaged in direct action and civil
disobedience.
WORKHOUSES:
The Victorian Workhouse was an institution that was intended to provide work and
shelter for poverty-stricken people who had no means to support themselves. With
the advent of the Poor Law system, Victorian workhouses, designed to deal with the
issue of pauperism, in fact became prison systems detaining the most vulnerable in
society.
The harsh system of the workhouse became synonymous with the Victorian era, an
institution which became known for its terrible conditions, forced child labour, long
hours, malnutrition, beatings and neglect. It would become a blight on the social
conscience of a generation leading to opposition. When enacting the Poor Laws in
some cases, some parishes forced horrendous family situations, for example
whereby a husband would sell his wife in order to avoid them becoming a burden
which would prove costly to the local authorities. The laws brought in throughout
the century would only help to entrench the system of the workhouse further into
society.
By the 18309s the majority of parishes had at least one workhouse which would operate
with prison-like conditions. Surviving in such places proved perilous, as mortality rates
were high especially with diseases such as smallpox and measles spreading like wildfire.
Conditions were cramped with beds squashed together, hardly any room to move and
with little light. When they were not in their sleeping corners, the inmates were expected
to work. A factory-style production line which used children was both unsafe and in the
age of industrialization, focused on profit rather than solving issues of pauperism.
By 1834 the cost of providing poor relief looked set to destroy the system designed
to deal with the issue and in response to this, the authorities introduced the Poor
Law Amendment Act, more commonly referred to as the New Poor Law. The
consensus at the time was that the system of relief was being abused and that a new
approach had to be adopted.
The conditions were harsh and treatment was cruel with families divided, forcing
children to be separated from their parents. Once an individual had entered the
workhouse, they would be given a uniform to be worn for the entirety of their stay.
The inmates were prohibited from talking to one another and were expected to work
long hours doing manual labour such as cleaning, cooking and using machinery.

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<Peace and Order= was the motto of the Chartists. It was a peaceful movement <seek
to remove the evils=
THE CORN LAW:
The Corn Laws were tariffs and restrictions put in place from 1815-1846 in the
United Kingdom. The Corn Laws caused the price of 8corn9, which also includes
barley, corn, wheat, and all other grains, to increase. The Laws were designed to
protect English farmers from inexpensive foreign imports of grain. This was a direct
response to the Napoleonic wars. The British blockade of continental Europe led to
increased profits for their homelands farms, and the farmers wished to retain this higher
rate of profit. These heavy restrictions and later taxes on any corn or grain which
could enter the county made it so the British people could only buy grain from within
its own borders. This raised the price of bread and the overall cost of living.
The Corn Laws limited the disposable income of the British people as a whole and limited
total economic growth. The working class was unable to afford anything other than their
food, forcing them to stop buying manufactured goods and reducing leading
manufacturing profits. However, the Corn Laws made landowners wealthier. At the time,
wealthy landowners had the exclusive right to vote, despite making up just 3% of the
population. So, even though the Corn Laws hurt the working class, the wealthy elite
benefited. The wealthy in parliament did not care for the plight of the working class for a
long time which is why these restrictions went on for so long before Britain adopted a
freer trade policy like what we see today. The suffering of the time led to riots, but it took
time for real organization to legally address the issues. In 1832, the right to vote was
extended to a sizable portion of the merchant class, leading to the eventual conclusion of
the Laws.
IRISH FAMINE:
Irish Potato Famine, (1845349)

Famine that occurred in Ireland
when the potato crop failed in
successive years. Protestant
landowners had 50% Irish soil and
rented the land to poor Catholics.
By the early 1840s almost half the
Irish population, particularly the
rural poor, was depending almost
entirely on the potato for
nourishment. Reliance on only one or
two high-yielding varieties made the
crop vulnerable to disease, including late blight, caused by the water mold Phytophthora
infestans, which ruined the crop. The British government provided minimal relief to
the starving Irish, limited to loans and soup kitchens. The famine was a watershed
in Ireland9s demographic history: about one million people died from starvation or

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famine-related diseases, and perhaps as many as two million emigrated. Population

continued to decline thereafter, and by independence in 1921 the Irish population
was barely half of the 8.4 million it had been before the famine, it was a collapse to
Irish society. Since the Act of Union in 1800, Irelandhad not had its own parliament,
andBritain, untroubled by the blight anddominated by free-trade thinking, was deaf
to pleas for protectionist measures. These might have stopped other foodexports
from Ireland, which were still proceeding on a massive scale.
Irish thought that the famine was due to God as a punishment for their sins. A direct
consequence of the famine, Ireland's population fell from almost 8.4 million in 1844
to 6.6 million by 1851. About 1 million people died and perhaps 2 million more
eventually emigrated from the country. End of 19th century was a Catholic
demonstration by Daniel O9Connell (a lawyer) in an attempt to modernize Ireland.
Many who survived suffered from malnutrition. Additionally, because the financial
burden for weathering the crisis was placed largely on Irish landowners, hundreds of
thousands of tenant farmers and laborers unable to pay their rents were evicted by
landlords unable to support them. Continuing emigration and low birth rates meant
that by the 1920s Ireland's population was barely half of what it had been before the
famine.
QUEEN VICTORIA
Queen Victoria served as monarch of Great Britain and Ireland

from 1837 until her death in 1901. She became Empress of
India in 1877. After Queen Elizabeth II, Victoria is the second-
longest reigning British monarch. Victoria's reign saw great
cultural expansion; advances in industry science and
communications; and the building of railways and the London
Underground. At birth, Victoria was fifth in line to the throne.
However, upon her father9s death in 1820, Victoria became the
heir apparent, since her three surviving uncles 4 who were
ahead of her in succession 4 had no legitimate heirs who
survived childhood. When King William IV died in June 1837,
Victoria became queen at the age of 18.
Lord Melbourne was Victoria9s first prime minister, who

served in 1834 and again from 1835 to 1841. When she first
took the crown at the young age of 18 in 1837, Melbourne helped teach Victoria the
intricacies of being a constitutional monarch. He acted as the queen9s political advisor
and confidant during the early years of her reign. Victoria ascended to the throne at age
18 on June 20, 1837, and she served until her death at the age of 81 on January 22, 1901.
Under Victoria's reign, Great Britain experienced unprecedented expansion in industry,
building railways, bridges, underground sewers and power distribution networks
throughout much of the empire. Seven assassination attempts were made on Victoria's
life between 1840 and 1882. There were advances in science (Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution) and technology (the telegraph and popular press), with vast numbers of
inventions; tremendous wealth and poverty; growth of great cities like Manchester, Leeds

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and Birmingham; increased literacy; and great civic works, often funded by industrial
philanthropists.
During Victoria9s reign, Britain expanded its imperial reach, doubling in size and
encompassing Canada, Australia, India and various possessions in Africa and the South
Pacific. The Queen was emblematic of the time: an enthusiastic supporter of the British
Empire, which stretched across the globe and earned the adage: <The sun never sets on
the British Empire.= During Victoria9s reign, the political climate in British
Parliament went through a major transition. The Tory Party split, forming the Liberal and
Conservative parties, and started a succession of opposing administrations. Victoria
played a crucial role as a mediator between arriving and departing prime ministers.
THE VICTORIAN ERA:
Victorian era, in British history, the period between approximately 1820 and 1914,
corresponding roughly but not exactly to the period of Queen Victoria9s reign
(183731901) and characterized by a class-based society, a growing number of people
able to vote, a growing state and economy, and Britain9s status as the most
powerful empire in the world. During the Victorian period, Britain was a powerful
nation with a rich culture. It had a stable government, a growing state, and an expanding
franchise. It also controlled a large empire, and it was wealthy, in part because of its
degree of industrialization and its imperial holdings and in spite of the fact that three-
fourths or more of its population was working-class. Victorian society was organized
hierarchically. While race, religion, region, and occupation were all meaningful aspects
of identity and status, the main organizing principles of Victorian society
were gender and class. As is suggested by the sexual double standard, gender was
considered to be biologically based and to be determinative of almost every aspect of an
individual9s potential and character. Victorian gender ideology was premised on the
<doctrine of separate spheres.= This stated that men and women were different and meant
for different things. Men were physically strong, while women were weak. The
Victorian British Empire dominated the globe, though its forms of rule and
influence were uneven and diverse.
The traffic of people and goods between Britain and its colonies was constant,
complex, and multidirectional. Britain shaped the empire, the empire shaped
Britain, and colonies shaped one another. British jobs abroad included civil and
military service, missionary work, and infrastructure development. Much of this
expansion involved violence, including the Indian Mutiny (1857359), the Morant Bay
Rebellion (1865) in Jamaica, the Opium Wars (1839342, 1856360) in China, and the
Taranaki War (1860361) in New Zealand. India became central to imperial status and
wealth. There was significant migration to the settler colonies of Australia and New
Zealand and later to Canada and South Africa. From 1870 until 1914 continued
aggressive expansion (including Britain9s participation in the so-called Scramble for

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Africa) was assisted by new technologies, including railways and telegraphy. Britain
took control of large parts of Africa (including Egypt, Sudan, and Kenya),
Britain9s status as a world political power was bolstered by a strong economy, which
grew rapidly between 1820 and 1873. This half-century of growth was followed by
an economic depression and from 1896 until 1914 by a modest recovery. With the
earliest phases of industrialization over by about 1840, the British economy
expanded. Britain became the richest country in the world, but many people worked
long hours in harsh conditions. Yet, overall, standards of living were rising. While the
1840s were a bad time for workers and the poor4they were dubbed <the hungry
forties=4overall the trend was toward a less precarious life.
EDWARDIAN AGE:
The Edwardian Age and early C20th 3 Edward would be modern king, the way a king
does
influences society, Edward was modern.
This period would be the period of the suffragettes and the rise of feminism.
King Edward VII and Alexandra 3 Alexandra was very influential, people loved her, she
was a
model as Kate and William who was seen by the people. They did not want to be detached
from the people, they used public transport.
Are we unnoticed by the state. They did not care about the state and the state did not care
about them. They could live where they wanted, do what they wanted, travel freely,
nobody
cared. We are far more controlled now that we9ve ever been, we have kind of got used to
it
little by little.
They had no passports. Nobody checked when they arrived and nobody cared. They do
not
have an Identity card, because it is not compulsory. They didn9t and they still don9t.
Foreigners did not need permission to go to England or to work there. There were people
who
joined the military, but they didn9t have to, they could ignore the defence.
People who had a house, a property, householders occasionally had to do jury service,
that
means they have to go to the court and help judge. That was really the only obligation to
the
state that existed. The state did not intervene in your life in anyway.
They did put a law on food hygiene, some safety rules in factories (but not too many) and
we
know from the reform bill that they did also intervene in the number of hours that an hour

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could work and the reform on the age of kids (even if it did not seem to apply in real life)
and
of course this was in some factories.
The Victorian values still continued. The difference between Ireland and UK were great.
The
Victorian acts were continuing, there was still a sense of manliness, patriotism, of empire
builders. This manliness would go to form associations by men, like boy scouts. Baden
Powell
formed the boy scouts in 1908. It was a very manly thing, train a boy to be a man basically.
There was a lot of difference between the rich and the poor. We can clearly see it thanks
to
the videos. There was a fashion to put a camera outside of the factory and see people
come
out.
Up to 1914: What was Britain like?
From 1909 there was a very little <meagre pension= provided
1911 3 small sick pay and unemployment benefit (very early for Europe).
BUT, from the beginning of the 20 th century, and this would increase with the war, the
state
would increase its intervention (for those who could not help themselves). Until the
problem
that we have nowadays with state intervention (covid)
In mid 19 th century if you were poor, poverty is your fault. Now, things were beginning
to
change because of the suffragettes (they were about feminism and working class rights),
of the
martyrs… People started to believe that poverty was not their fault anymore and that the
way
to get out of poverty was having some kind of state intervention.
KING EDWARD: Queen Victoria had been such an influential royal that anyone who
came after
him had it difficult to make it right.
Edward loved the royal ceremonies. He married Alexandria and they were really popular.
They
did not have power. They enjoyed a luxurious life. They opposed the votes for women.
Culture (yt link very important)
Beginning of the art nouveau, post impressionism, cubism, modernist architecture (as we
can
see in Barcelona), literature: Oscar Wild, James Joyce, Yeats, Wells
It was a time of great literature, art and architecture, and this would be reflected in
Edward.
The royal family would be a symbol of that time. This was a time of popular culture. In
London

lOMoARcPSD|24351096
for example we could see the beginning of a popular theatre named Music Hall. John
Osborne
was a big fan. It was not for royal family it was more for working class, low middle class,
but it
was so fun, post 3 modern (example of Christina with his father)
1914-1918 3 popular songs became very popular. She even knows it ( because it was so
into
the culture) WWI songs.
World war one changed all.
The consequences are still in our lives. It is still there culturally, politically. We are still
there,
look at Crimea.
World war I changed everything.
What was the cause of WWI? Basically, it was a very complex issue and many historians
are
still debating what the cause of WWI was, they really dint quite know, well they do, but
it was
not just one event, they were not really events, it was a build off of various things:
modernity,
technology, masculinities and masculine power. Pretty much like Putin today, not that
far. The
kaser, who was family of queen Victoria, 1818, wanted to catch up with the British naval
power.
The kaser wanted the glory of Germany as a European place and European cities. The
Kyza was
very ambitious of power and imperialism and he had a growing regime.
He wanted to rival British power. There was a build up of power.
The Entainte cordiale 3 Russia and friends, on the other side . Germany, Bulgaria, Otoman
states…
This meant that nobody felt safe. If two sides are building up (as now with nato (Sweden
and
Findland asking for NATO and Russia)
A Serbian anarquist killed the Austrian prince (creo) 3 There was a plan called the
Schieflen
Plan for invasion by Kaser of Russia and France
Germany invaded Belgium on the 4 th of august and people thought that the war would
be over
by Christmas, nobody could believe that a civilized country as Germany could finish off
the wa
it did in WWII. Some people believe WWI and WWII were the same war, which is very
easily
arguable.
The some (the battle of the 1917 film). 19000 young man died on the first day of the
Some and

lOMoARcPSD|24351096
57740 wounded, and many others would die later.

AND AFTER WWI?
Citizens more active: orders from above. People had been used to obey orders from the
government and this remained.
5 million men had entered the army (some under compulsion). Almost nobody was left
without any kind of trauma, in many families there were members lacking. And this
continues
with generations, it does not go easily.
Financial situation meant more state intervention (mainly to help business). People no
longer
wated to just serve the aristocrats and to serve people. The mansions now ere empty of
servants, because men went to the war, women had found a kind of freedom. And this
made a
kind of social reform. If it haven9t been for these people we eould not be sitting here today
studying.
Beginning of the post-colonialist times
Great Depression of 1929 3 which also influenced social reforms.
Ireland broke away: Great conflict 3 now with the Brexit there is a burocratic conflict
with
borders.
Women had vote
Modernization of country: electricity
World War Two!
Welfare state 3 free hospitals, unemployed aids. World war two permitted us to be here
today. 1944 education act would wake a higher education accessible for working class
men.
Women were responsible also for getting the working class men vote.

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Història i cultura de les Illes Britàniques (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona)

Studocu non è sponsorizzato o supportato da nessuna università o ateneo.

HISTORIA I CULTURA ILLES BRITANIQUES

PRE-CELTIC SKARA BRAE-ORKNEYS

Neolithic settlement. About 12 houses-communities. Established 3180 BC till 2500 BC

STONEHENGE: Stonehenge is one of the

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From Switzerland and spread to all Europe. France,

Druids: super-class of priests, political advisors, teachers, healers, arbitrators, right to

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Celtic religion include:

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Invasion and settlement, 43 AD→

The attack on the Druids' stronghold on Anglesey, 60 AD.

The building of Hadrian's wall, 122 AD (see vol 3 Pax Romana).

Boudicca revolt: AD 61 most roman troops fighting in N.Wales,

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Roman London Consolidation: it was really small are

British aristocracy became thoroughly Romanised Romano-British. Developing

Christianity: From AD 213- Christianity became permitted cult in Roman Empire.

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Last Celtic King lost to Saxons in the battle of Welsh

Anglo-Saxon settlements: -ing folk of, -ton settlement,

Anglo-Saxon Society: Highly organized tribal unit in

-Thanes: the upper class, earls, or free warriors

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Role of woman in the society:

Converted Jutish King Ethelbert of Kent and establish a monastery at Canterbury.

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-Monks established churched, monasteries and libraries

-Monks recorded and duplicated illuminated manuscripts at first only written in

-Oral literature was transcribed into written form.

GERMANIC KINGDOMS RISE AND FALL

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Reached North America (c.1000)

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WHY WAS KING ALFRED GIVEN THE TITLE OF

Alfred bought 14 years of peace and constructed 30 defensive forts (Boroughs) it

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ALFRED THE GREAT KING OF WESSEX

Such raids were evolving into permanent Danish

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THE BATTLE OF THE 10TH CENTURY. ANGLO-SAXONS

UNDER DANISH RULE: Sweyn Forkbeard king of Denmark, mass invasion in

Canute converts into Christianity. Canute married Aethelred9s widow Emma of

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1066, the battle of Hastings

Edward could have no child. He looked to Duke Robert of Normandy as protector. He

NORMAN INFLUENCE: Gradual Normal influence in English court. 1051 William

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Duke William of Normandy heard Harold9s succession, he broke the OATH.

NORSE VICTORY: First battle 1066-Fulford near York 20 September. Viking

William won the war, he defeated Harold

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NORMAN OCCUPATION (entra a examen, la

Normanisation: 1087 full Normanisation in positions of power and landowning.

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William Rufus: rode from Rouen to claim treasury at Winchester

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