Sexual Disorders

Sexual Development
● In 355 b.c., Aristotle argued that the sex of a child was the result of the temperature of
semen at the time of conception. Hot semen resulted in males, and cool semen resulted
in females.
● Mothers provide an X chromosome to all their offspring; fathers determine the offspring’s
sex by providing either another X ( producing a female) or a Y chromosome (producing a
male).
● The initial receipt of an XX or an XY genotype begins a cascade of hormonal, structural,
and behavioral events. These pivotal sex chromosomes, along with the other 22 pairs of
human chromosomes.
● Maleness and femaleness are often viewed inaccurately as distinct and separate
categories. In fact, the fetus is initially undifferentiated in regard to sex.
○ Without exposure to male hormones, all babies would be born with outwardly
female physical appearance and female behavior.
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
● In the vast majority of cases, the transmission of the sex chromosomes to a child is
uneventful. However, in a minority of cases, variations occur.
● We have no record of a viable organism that has a single Y chromosome. However, when
a child receives only a single X chromosome (XO) instead of the usual pair (XX or XY),
the result is Turner syndrome, a condition first described by American endocrinologist
Henry Turner in 1938.
○ Turner syndrome: A condition caused by an XO genotype, characterized by
frequent abnormalities of the ovaries and infertility.
○ Currently unidentified regions on the X chromosome are responsible for the
development of the ovaries, and having a single X appears to interfere in this
process.
● Klinefelter syndrome, first identified by Harry Klinefelter in 1942, is one of the most
common genetic abnormalities related to the sex chromosomes, occurring in 1.79 out of
1,000 male births.
○ Klinefelter syndrome features an XXY genotype. These individuals are male, but
they usually experience reduced fertility and require hormone treatment at
puberty to promote the development of secondary male sex characteristics (facial
Sexual Disorders

hair, deeper voice, development of external genitalia) and to inhibit female

characteristics such as breast development.
○ A condition in males caused by an XXY genotype, characterized by frequent
problems with fertility, secondary sex characteristics, and verbal skills.
● Like Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome is associated with normal intelligence that
may be marked by mild cognitive difficulties and social awkwardness.
● In the case of Klinefelter syndrome, the cognitive difficulties usually take the form of
delayed and reduced verbal skills. Left-handedness is more common among males with
Klinefelter syndrome than in the general male population.
● Men with the XYY genotype are fertile, but they are slightly more likely than typical men
to produce sperm with sex chromosome abnormalities.
● Down syndrome, a genetic abnormality characterized by having three copies of
Chromosome 21 instead of the normal pair. In comparison to genetic abnormalities like
Down syndrome, abnormalities due to a third sex chromosome appear to have relatively
mild effects.

Three Stages of Prenatal Development

● Male and female structural development involves three distinct processes: the
development of gonads, of internal organs, and of external genitalia.
○ In a rare condition known as intersex, elements of both male and female
development occur in the same fetus.
The Development of the Gonads
● Up until the sixth week after conception, both male and female fetuses have identical
primordial gonads that have the capacity to develop into either ovaries, the female
gonads, or testes, the male gonads.
○ Ovaries Female gonads; the source of ova and sex hormones.
○ Testes Male gonads; source of sperm and sex hormones.
● At about six weeks after conception, a gene on the short arm of the Y chromosome,
known as the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, or SRY, is expressed in
male embryos.
● Testis- determining factor, the protein encoded by the SRY gene, switches on additional
genes that cause the primordial gonads to develop into testes. In female embryos, which
Sexual Disorders

lack the SRY gene and its ability to produce a testis-determining factor, alternate genes
guide the development of the primordial gonad into ovaries.
Differentiation of the Internal Organs
● Until about the third month of development in humans, both male and female fetuses
possess a male Wolffian system and a female Müllerian system.
○ Wolffian system (WOLF-ee-un): The internal system that develops into seminal
vesicles, vas deferens, and the prostate gland in males.
○ Müllerian system (muhl-LAIRee-an): The internal system that develops into a
uterus, fallopian tubes, and the upper two thirds of the vagina in the absence of
anti-Müllerian hormone.
● During the third month, the male’s relatively new testes begin to secrete two hormones,
testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone. Testosterone, one of several types of male
hormone or androgen, promotes the development of the Wolffian system.
○ Anti-Müllerian hormone initiates the degeneration of the Müllerian system.
● Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) disrupts the normal development of the
Wolffian system in males. In AIS, a defective gene produces abnormal androgen
receptors.
○ As a result, the fetus’s tissues are blind to the presence of androgens. Fetuses
with AIS have an XY genotype and normal testes. The testes release androgens
and anti-Müllerian hormone in a normal manner, but the lack of functional
androgen receptors prevents the development of the Wolffian system.
○ Although adult individuals with AIS are infertile, their external appearance is
quite typically female.
○ AIS provides a clear view of the difference between chromosomal sex and gender
identity, our sense of being male or female.
○ AIS occurs in 1 out of 60,000 male births, it is estimated that 1 out of every 500
women competing at international levels of sport have AIS.
Development of the External Genitalia
● The development of the external genitalia follows the differentiation of the gonads
during the sixth week after conception. The male external genitalia include the penis
and scrotum. The female external genitalia include the labia, clitoris, and outer part of
the vagina.
Sexual Disorders

● A particular androgen, 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone, must be recognized by receptor

sites for the male external genitalia to develop normally. A reaction between testosterone
from the testes and the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase produces
5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone.
● If genetic females are exposed prenatally to excess androgens, their external genitalia
become masculinized. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a recessive heritable
condition in which the fetus’s adrenal glands release elevated levels of androgens.
○ The clitoris is enlarged, the labia look similar to a scrotum, and in some cases,
there is no vaginal opening. Behavior can also be affected because females with
CAH more frequently describe themselves as tomboys, engage in more
male-interest play, and are more likely than other women to engage in bisexual
and lesbian behavior.
○ However, it is important to remember that the majority of women with CAH are
heterosexual, and that the majority of bisexual and lesbian women do not have
CAH or other, similar conditions.

Development at Puberty
● At puberty, additional hormonal events lead to maturation of the genitals and the
development of secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics include
facial hair and a deeper voice for males and wider hips and breast development for females.
● The average age of puberty has dropped dramatically over the past century and a half,
from about 16 to about 12 years of age.
● Possible explanations for this drop in age at puberty include increased rates of obesity.
Accumulation of enough body fat to support reproduction might serve as a signal for
puberty. When body fat is abnormally low, as in anorexia nervosa, puberty is delayed.
● Exposure to compounds similar to female hormones in meat and dairy products,
shampoo, plastics, and insecticides might also trigger earlier puberty. All edible tissues
from animals contain a type of estrogen, or female hormone, called estradiol, so we can
assume that humans have always experienced some level of exposure to outside sources
of sex hormones.
● At the onset of puberty, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released by the
hypothalamus.
Sexual Disorders

○ This hormone initiates the release of two gonadotropic hormones by the anterior
pituitary gland, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH).
■ follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): A hormone released by the anterior
pituitary that stimulates the development of eggs in the ovaries and sperm
in the testes.
■ luteinizing hormone (LH) (LOOtin-eye-zing): A hormone released by the
anterior pituitary that signals the male testes to produce testosterone and
that regulates the menstrual cycle in females.
● In males, this burst of additional androgens stimulates muscular development, maturity of
the external genitalia, facial hair, and enlargement of the larynx, which leads to a deeper
voice. In conjunction with LH and FSH, testosterone begins to regulate the production of
sperm.
● In females, estradiol produces breast growth, maturity of the external genitalia, maturity of
the uterus, and changes in fat distribution and quantity. In both sexes, estradiol slows down
skeletal growth. Individuals who experience early sexual maturation stop growing at
earlier ages.
● A very rare condition known as 5-alpha-reductase deficiency affects the last step, the
maturation of the external genitalia. This condition, first observed in an extended family
group living in the Dominican Republic, affects a male’s ability to produce the enzyme
5-alpha-reductase.
○ This enzyme converts testosterone into 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone. As we saw
previously, 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the masculinization of
the external genitalia in the fetus. Without sufficient 5-alpha-reductase, these
individuals are born with ambiguous external genitalia and are typically raised as
females.
● At puberty, increased levels of testosterone activate the development of secondary sex
characteristics in a typical manner. In a surprising turn of events, about 60 percent of the
children raised as girls develop normal male external genitalia and take on a male
gender role.
Sexual Disorders

Hormones and Sexual Behavior

● Sex hormones play both organizational and activating roles in sexual development. In
prenatal and early postnatal development, sex hormones organize circuits in the brain that
differ according to sex. These circuits are then activated by the sex hormones at the
onset of puberty.
● Sex hormones are classified as steroids, chemicals that are synthesized from cholesterol
in the gonads and in lesser amounts, in the adrenal glands.
Sexual Disorders

Regulation of Sex Hormones by the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

● The hypothalamus exerts control over the release of sex hormones through its secretion
of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Light sensed by the retina increases
GnRH secretion through its action on melatonin, a neurohormone implicated in the
regulation of sleep and produced by the nearby pineal gland
● GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus travels to the anterior pituitary gland. In response
to GnRH, the anterior pituitary releases the gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
● In males, LH signals the testes to produce testosterone. Both testosterone and FSH are
required for the maturation of sperm. In females, LH and FSH control the menstrual
cycle.

The Menstrual Cycle and Female Fertility

● The menstrual cycle represents a very stable and predictable fluctuation in events
controlled by LH and FSH.
● On the first day of menstruation, the anterior pituitary gland increases secretion of
FSH. When this hormone circulates to the ovaries, they respond by developing follicles,
small clusters of cells that each contain an egg cell, or ovum.
Sexual Disorders

● Increased LH levels initiate the release of the ovum, or ovulation, about two weeks after
the first day of the last menstruation. Estradiol released by the ovaries signals the uterus
to thicken in anticipation of a fertilized embryo.
● After the release of the ovum, the ruptured follicle is now called the corpus luteum,
which means “yellow body.”
● The corpus luteum releases estradiol and a new hormone, progesterone. Progesterone
promotes pregnancy (gestation) by preventing the development of additional follicles and
by further developing the lining of the uterus.
○ If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum stops producing estradiol
and progesterone. When levels of these hormones drop, the uterine lining cannot be
maintained, menstruation will start, and the entire cycle will repeat.
Correlations Between Mood, Menstruation, and Childbirth
● Approximately 5 to 8 percent of women experience premenstrual syndrome in response
to shifts in the hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle.
○ Premenstrual syndrome: A condition in which some women experience physical
and psychological symptoms immediately prior to the onset of menstruation.
● Premenstrual syndrome is characterized by physical symptoms of bloating and breast
enlargement and tenderness as well as psychological symptoms of depression and
irritability.
● Severe cases of premenstrual mood changes are diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric
disorder (PMDD). Women with PMDD experience more depression, changes in appetite
(consuming more calories total and more calories from fat), and impaired cognitive
performance than women who do not suffer from this disorder.
○ These symptoms are consistent with a hypothesis linking serotonin dysfunction
with PMDD, leading to the current treatment of medication with SSRIs (ibid.)
● Within one year of the delivery of a baby, approximately 10 to 15 percent of women
experience postpartum depression as hormones shift from the pregnant state back to
normal monthly cycles.
● Postpartum depression appears to be quite mild in the vast majority of cases. Terp and
Mortensen (1998) evaluated psychiatric admissions for women who had given birth in the
previous 91 days and compared these rates with admissions data for women who had not
given birth in this period.
Sexual Disorders

Female Contraception
● Women who are exclusively breast-feeding their infants (no water, juice, solid foods, or
formula) and are not menstruating have less than a 1 to 6 percent chance of becoming
pregnant.
● Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) work by providing hormones that interfere with
normal ovulation. There are two types of commonly used oral contraceptives, the
combination pill and the progestin-only pill.
○ The combination pill contains two synthetic hormones, an estrogen and progestin
(a hormone similar to progesterone). This pill prevents the maturation of follicles
and ovulation.
○ The progestin-only pill prevents the thinning of cervical mucus that typically
accompanies ovulation. Subsequently, the passage of sperm into the uterus and
fallopian tubes becomes less likely.
● All oral contraceptives reduce a woman’s testosterone levels. As a result, some women
using oral contraceptives experience less acne, a condition that is correlated with
testosterone levels.
● A woman’s sexual interest is influenced by her testosterone levels, and a small number of
women using oral contraceptives report reduced sexual drive.
● In the Norplant method, six matchstick-sized tubes are implanted in a woman’s upper
arm under local anesthesia. The tubes release a progestin over a period of six months.
Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA or Depo-Provera contraceptive injection) is
administered by injection at three-month intervals.
● Emergency contraception is administered within 72 hours of intercourse. The
“morning after” pill actually consists of a series of typical birth control pills taken at
specified time intervals.
○ Copper-bearing intrauterine wires are also used for emergency contraception
purposes.
○ Mifepristone, also known as RU-486 or the abortion pill, interrupts
pregnancies up to nine weeks following conception by blocking the action of
progesterone.
Sexual Disorders

Sex Hormones and Female Behavior

● In the females of species that undergo estrus, a period of hours or days in which the
female is receptive to males.
● Estrus coincides with ovulation in many species, making the likelihood of fertilization
quite high. During nonestrus periods, a female will not only reject sexual overtures from
males, but she is also likely to respond aggressively to his advances.
Sexual Interest in Human Females
● Menopause and the surgical removal of the ovaries both exert a dramatic influence on
a woman’s hormone levels yet have little effect on her sexual interest and activity.
● A woman’s testosterone levels have the greatest impact on her sexual activity. A woman’s
ovaries produce testosterone as well as estrogens.
○ Women who receive standard estrogen replacement therapy following the
surgical removal of their ovaries still report less satisfaction with their sex lives
than before surgery.
Estrogens and Cognition
● Markus Hausmann and his colleagues (2000) studied the influence of women’s hormone
levels on the performance of spatial tasks. On tests of mental figure rotations, women
received their best scores when testosterone levels were high and their worst scores
when estrogen levels were high.
○ In contrast to performance on spatial tasks, verbal fluency and manual dexterity in
women appear to be correlated with higher levels of estrogens.
● These hormonal effects are consistent with the observation that males have a slight
advantage in spatial tasks, whereas females have a slight advantage in verbal tasks.
● Estrogens have a protective effect on memory in general, and verbal memory in
particular, in postmenopausal women.
○ Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), particularly in the few years immediately
following menopause, is helpful in preventing later cognitive decline.

Sex Hormones and Male Behavior

● In addition to their important organizational roles in the development of male sexual
structures and characteristics, androgens activate male behavior as well. Androgens
influence male competitiveness, sexual frequency, and cognition.
Sexual Disorders

Androgens and Competition

● Among male collegiate athletes, testosterone levels appear to increase in anticipation of a
competition. Following a competition, testosterone has been shown to increase further in
the winners and decrease in the losers.
● Simply observing a competition influences testosterone levels.
Androgens and Sexual Interest
● Male sexual frequency varies significantly from culture to culture, reminding us that
hormones are just a part of the story.
● As long as a young human male’s testosterone level falls within normal limits, it does not
provide a strong predictor of his sexual frequency. However, the sexual frequency of
older men is more closely correlated with their testosterone levels (ibid.). MPA, or
Depo-Provera, is used not only as a contraceptive method for women, but in larger and
more frequent doses, as a form of chemical castration for male sex offenders.
● Men in stable, long-term marriages have lower testosterone levels than single men or
men who are within a few years of divorce.
○ The first explanation is that being partnered reduces testosterone, perhaps due to
lower levels of competition with other men for mates.
○ The second explanation suggests that men with lower levels of testosterone are
more successful in maintaining stable relationships.
Androgens and Cognitive Behavior
● Men are commonly believed to have slight advantages over women in tasks involving
spatial relations, such as map reading, maze learning, and the mental rotation of objects.
● Further evidence suggesting that this advantage is based on testosterone comes from
research showing improved performance on spatial tasks by older men receiving
testosterone supplements.
● Surprisingly, men who received testosterone supplements also improved their scores on
verbal fluency tests by a factor of 20 percent.
Male Contraceptives
● Currently, the only methods of contraception available to men are condoms, withdrawal,
and vasectomies.
● Among the approaches currently being explored are birth control pills for men
containing progestin (also a key ingredient in birth control pills for women), an “Intra
Sexual Disorders

Vas” device that physically blocks the movement of sperm, and pills that reduce a man’s
vitamin A levels and, consequently, his fertility
Anabolic Steroids
● Anabolic steroids, synthetic versions of testosterone that build tissue, have legitimate
medical uses in cases of malnutrition and other tissue loss.
● Over the past 50 years, anabolic steroids have become a staple in the world of sports due to
their ability to promote muscle growth. In spite of efforts to curtail the use of steroids in
sports, new designer drugs are constantly developed to circumvent existing tests.
● Both male and female athletes use anabolic steroids to enhance performance.
● What do these substances do that makes them attractive to athletes? Steroids build
strength and muscle mass and improve recovery time following muscle damage from
weightlifting and other workouts.
● Steroids also produce significant side effects such as acne, enlargement of the clitoris
or penis, a lower voice, unusual hair loss or growth, psychological disturbances, and
enlarged breasts in males.

Sex Differences in the Nervous System

● Observations of the effects of fetal hormones on structural development and sexual
behavior led to the study of the organizing function of hormones on the brain.
● Exposure to androgens masculinizes the brain as well as the internal and external sexual
structures.
● What exactly do we mean by “masculinizing” a brain or nervous system? First, we must
identify features that are sexually dimorphic, which means to display structural
differences between the sexes.
● A number of sexually dimorphic structures have been identified. The sexually
dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA), located in the hypothalamus, is
much larger in male rats than in female rats.
● Human beings do not have an SDN-POA, but they may have an equivalent. Four clusters
of neurons in the preoptic area of the human hypothalamus are known as the interstitial
nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus, or INAH.
○ INAH-2 and INAH-3 are about twice as large in males as in females.
Sexual Disorders

● Sexual dimorphism has also been observed in the spinal cords of mammals. Male rats
have more motor neurons in a structure known as the spinal nucleus of the
bulbocavernosus (SNB) than do female rats.
● The exact mechanism by which androgens masculinize the brain appears to operate
differently in different types of animals. In rodents and some other animals, the chemical
process of aromatization, in which testosterone is transformed into estradiol, produces
masculinization.
● Genetic female rats are protected from the masculinizing effects of their mother’s
circulating estradiol by a substance known as alpha fetoprotein.
○ Alpha fetoprotein (fee-toe-PROteen): A substance circulated by rats that
deactivates estradiol and prevents maternal estradiol from masculinizing female
pups.
● For a number of years, aromatization was believed to be responsible for the
masculinization of the human brain. However, we have already seen one situation that
does not fit this model.

Sexual Orientation
● Sexual orientation refers to a stable pattern of attraction to members of a particular sex.
Sexual orientation is not synonymous with sexual behavior.
● In spite of this prior sexual experience, the sexual orientation of these males as adults
was overwhelmingly heterosexual. Approximately 3 to 4 percent of males and 1 to 2
percent of females in the American population describe themselves as exclusively
homosexual, and about 1 percent describe themselves as bisexual.
Hormones, Sexual Behavior, and Sexual Orientation
● There is evidence from literature on both animal and human that early exposure to
androgens influences adult sexual behavior.
● Exposure to testosterone during a critical period accounts for this sexual dimorphism. If
male rats do not receive exposure to testosterone during this critical period, their
SDN-POA remains small, and their adult sexual behavior is unusual.
● In addition, exposure to testosterone during the critical period increases the size of
SDN-POA in female rats and increases the likelihood that they will engage in sexual
activity with females as adults.
Sexual Disorders

● In humans, the high levels of prenatal androgens typical of males have an impact on the
development of the inner ear. The inner ear itself produces tiny sounds, known as
otoacoustic emissions, as it processes sound into neural impulses. These emissions are
stronger in women than in men.
● Another possible indicator of prenatal exposure to androgens, and the resulting
influence on sexual orientation, is the so-called 2D:4D ratio (D stands for digit). Among
heterosexual women, the ring (4D) and index (2D) fingers are typically about the same
length. In men, the index finger is usually noticeably shorter than the ring finger.
Lesbians tended to show the more masculine pattern of finger length, suggesting that
they might have experienced prenatal exposure to androgens.
● What could cause the differences in prenatal hormonal environments associated with
homosexuality? One interesting clue comes from the observation that birth order
matters for homosexual men. Men who have older brothers are slightly more likely to be
gay than men who have no siblings, younger siblings only, or older sisters.

Brain Structure and Sexual Orientation

● Simon LeVay asked whether INAH-3 might be different in heterosexual and homosexual
men. He found that INAH-3 was two to three times larger in heterosexual men than in
homosexual men.
● LeVay studied autopsied brains. This obviously prevented him from obtaining a detailed
history of his subjects’ sexual behavior. The homosexual men’s medical records
documented their sexual behavior, as this was relevant to their diagnosis of AIDS, but
those of the presumed heterosexual men did not.
● LeVay raised the possibility that the AIDS condition, which affected his homosexual
participants, could have caused shrinkage of INAH-3. However, he didn’t give this
argument much credibility because INAH-3 in the heterosexual subjects with AIDS
followed the heterosexual male pattern.
● The anterior commissure, a small band of fibers connecting the two cerebral
hemispheres, is also among the structures known to be sexually dimorphic in humans.
Laura Allen and Roger Gorski (1992) reported that the size of the anterior commissure
varies reliably between homosexual and heterosexual males. Unlike the hypothalamus,
the anterior commissure has no direct role in sexual behavior.
Sexual Disorders

Genes and Sexual Orientation

● Genetics appear to influence sexual orientation, although the exact mechanisms are not
well understood and are likely to be quite complex. It is currently unknown whether
genetics can have direct effects on sexual orientation or indirect effects on prenatal androgen
environments.
● The chances of a homosexual male twin having a homosexual brother are 20 to 25 percent
for fraternal twins and about 50 percent for identical twins.
● Compared with mothers with heterosexual sons, mothers of homosexual sons showed
more extreme skewing, in which one X chromosome is much more likely to be
inactivated than the other.

Attraction
● Viewing beautiful people appears to be quite rewarding. Young heterosexual men were
observed with fMRI while looking at the faces of average men, average women, beautiful
men, and beautiful women.
● Viewing the faces of the beautiful women activated areas of the brain involved in
pleasure and reward, including the nucleus accumbens, which participates in addictive
behavior.
● Three- and six-month-old infants spend more time staring at faces adults had judged to
be attractive than at faces judged to be unattractive.
The Importance of Symmetry
● What would these very young infants find so attractive? One possible factor is body
symmetry, or the degree of similarity of one side of the face or body to the other.
● Highly symmetrical bodies are generally healthier, and some researchers believe that we are
programmed to select healthy mates. As a result, we view symmetry as attractive and
beautiful. Symmetrical people have more opportunities for sexual activity.
● Symmetrical men became sexually active at earlier ages than less symmetrical men. Both
symmetrical males and symmetrical females had larger numbers of previous sex
partners.
● Unfortunately, symmetrical men were less attentive to their partners and much more likely
to cheat on them. As the saying goes, beauty is only skin deep.
Sexual Disorders

The Beauty of Fertility and a Good Immune System

● According to Victor Johnston (2000), the preferred female face is youthful, with a delicate
jaw, full lips, and wide-set eyes. The preference for these features could reflect a natural
attraction to younger females, who are most likely to be fertile.
● Women’s responses to male features are not consistent. Some features are preferred in a
short-term relationship (sexual desire) that are not preferred in long-term relationships
(romantic love).
● Women seem to find masculine men, with their square jaws and other
testosterone-related facial features, more attractive as “one night stands” than their less
macho counterparts. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that this attraction to masculine
men results from the ability of women to recognize good genes.
● Testosterone is very hard on the immune system (Gaillard & Spinedi, 1998), so a man with
features indicating high testosterone levels could not survive without an excellent immune
system.
● Balancing this attraction is women’s association of negative characteristics with
masculine features. Women believe that men with very masculine faces would be more
dominant, less faithful, worse fathers, and have colder personalities than their more
feminine looking counterparts.
● Consequently, women might prefer less masculine-looking men for long-term
partnerships because these men are assumed to be less likely to be unfaithful and more
willing to invest in parenting.
● Men pay more attention to women’s figures than women pay to men’s physiques.
● A woman’s figure is far more reflective of her reproductive fitness than a man’s, so
behavioral geneticists argue that it merits more attention. Devendra Singh has suggested
that men prefer women whose waist measurements are approximately 70 percent of their
hip measurements.
● These researchers found that men consistently preferred women with a body mass index
of 20, regardless of waist–hip ratio.
● Some attraction factors are even less obvious than symmetry, figure, and jaw size. We
might be programmed to prefer mates that smell a particular way. However, the use of
floral and other pleasant scents by the perfume industry, not to mention the large
deodorant industry, might be on the wrong track.
● Real sex appeal is probably based on sweat.
Sexual Disorders

● Norma McCoy and Lisa Pitino (2002) investigated the effects of underarm secretions of
fertile, sexually active, heterosexual females. Compared with women wearing placebo
scents, women who were wearing the underarm secretions reported significantly increased
sexual activity.
● What accounts for these smell preferences? We seem to react to an aspect of the immune
system that is reflected in body odor. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes
code for our immune system’s ability to recognize intruders. It is to your advantage to
find a mate whose MHC profile is as different as possible from your own because this will
result in the best immune system possible for your children.

Romantic Love, Sexual Desire, and Parenting

● Particularly for adolescents and young adults, very few aspects of life reach the
importance and confusion associated with romantic love, long-term relationships, and
establishing families.
● Romantic love and the bonding of parent and child both involve the establishment and
maintenance of long-term relationships, whereas sexual desire promotes mating and
reproduction.
○ It is possible to experience sexual desire without romantic love, just as it is
possible to experience romantic love without sexual desire
● Romantic love produces characteristic patterns of activity in the human brain. While
undergoing fMRI, participants were shown photographs of people they described as
either friends or true loves.
● The bonding that is associated with both romantic love and parenting is influenced by
two closely related, yet sexually dimorphic pituitary hormones, oxytocin and
vasopressin.
● In humans, vasopressin is expressed more by males and oxytocin by females. For both
sexes, oxytocin appears to enhance bonding. Reduced levels of oxytocin in people with
autism might account for the reduced sociability associated with this condition and might
also explain why males with autism vastly outnumber females
● Oxytocin is released by the pituitary gland into the circulation during orgasm for both
sexes and during childbirth and breastfeeding in women. Women’s oxytocin levels increase
in response to a simple hug from their partners.
Sexual Disorders

● Oxytocin’s influence on both bonding and sex, especially in women, might explain
reports that women are more likely than men to equate sexual desire with feelings of
romantic love.
● A woman’s oxytocin levels during pregnancy and following childbirth predicted maternal
bonding behaviors, including gazing, affectionate touching of her infant, vocalizations,
and positive mood.
● In a circular fashion, the oxytocin levels of young adults who were not currently in
romantic relationships were correlated with their reports of bonding to their parents.
● Evolutionary psychologists maintain that an overriding goal of sexual behavior is the
production of offspring who will survive to reproduce.
○ According to this view, males and females, particularly among mammals, are
subjected to different types of reproductive pressures. These pressures act to
shape different sexual behaviors in males and females.
○ In general, because the cost of reproduction for males consists of some sperm
and a few minutes of a male’s time, the most efficient reproductive strategy for
males is to impregnate as many females as possible.
● For females, the costs of reproduction are quite high. Not only must she maintain a
lengthy pregnancy, but the female also typically bears most of the responsibility for
offspring until they are mature.
○ Females need to choose healthy mates to increase the chances that offspring will
survive. Monogamy would help the mother retain the protection and other benefits
offered by a father. Unfortunately, these characteristics do not always coexist in
the same man.
○ High testosterone males with “healthy” immune system genes are also the least
likely to be monogamous.
● Only 3 percent of mammals practice monogamy, in which a pair mates nearly exclusively
with each other over time. About 12 percent of primate species, including humans, are
most typically monogamous.
● Most humans practice serial monogamy, by which a person has more than one mate
over a lifetime but only one mate at any given time.

Sexual Dysfunction and Treatment

Sexual Disorders

● A pharmacological discovery has made treatment of impotence, or erectile dysfunction,

possible for many men. Erectile dysfunction occurs when a man is unable to achieve an
erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual activity.
● Erections occur as a result of either direct stimulation or cognitive factors.
Parasympathetic neurons in the sacral spinal cord respond to both mechanoreceptors in
the genitals (direct stimulation) and descending input from the brain (cognitive factors).
● These parasympathetic neurons release acetylcholine and nitric oxide (NO) into the
spongy erectile tissues of the penis, which subsequently fill with blood.
● Sildenafil citrate (Viagra) promotes erection by enhancing the effects of NO on the
erectile tissues.