Study of The Forming Characteristics of Small-Caliber Ammunition With Circumferential MEFP

materials
Article
Study of the Forming Characteristics of Small-Caliber
Ammunition with Circumferential MEFP
Guangsong Ma, Guanglin He *, Yukuan Liu and Yachao Guo
School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 10081, China;
kfmaguangsong@163.com (G.M.); yukuanliu@foxmail.com (Y.L.); 3120160128@bit.edu.cn (Y.G.)
* Correspondence: heguanglin@bit.edu.cn

Received: 9 January 2020; Accepted: 9 February 2020; Published: 17 February 2020
Abstract: To study the influence of the structural parameters of the ammunition liner of small-caliber
ammunition on the forming characteristics of the projectile, an integrated circumferential multiple
explosively formed projectile (MEFP) warhead with an integrated shell and the liner was initially
designed, and the wall thickness of the liner is variable. LS-DYNA finite-element software is used
to simulate the integral circumferential MEFP of the preliminary design, based on the numerical
simulation results, the influence of the thickness at the center of the liner, and the curvature radius
of the liner on the shape and velocity of the formed projectile. The numerical simulation results
show that when the thickness of the center of the liner is constant and the curvature radius increases
gradually, the velocity of the formed projectile decreases and the length: Diameter ratio of formed
projectile decreases gradually. When the curvature radius of the liner remains unchanged, the velocity
of the formed projectile decreases with the increase of the thickness of the center of the liner, and
the shape of the formed projectile does not change significantly. The results show that when the
design of integrating the shell and the liner was adopted for the integral circumferential MEFP
warhead, the shape of the formed projectile is greatly affected by the curvature radius of the liner
(curvature radius of inner and outer walls of the liner), but less by the thickness of the center of the
liner. The velocity of the formed projectile is affected by the curvature radius of the inner and outer
walls of the liner and the thickness of the center of the liner. Moreover, the influence of the thickness
of the center of the liner on the velocity of the formed projectile is greater than that of the curvature
radius of the outer wall of the liner.
Keywords: Small-caliber ammunition; integral circumferential MEFP; variable wall thickness;

numerical simulation; forming characteristics
1. Introduction
Conventional small-caliber ammunition is used to destroy the target with fragments generated
during the explosion. However, in the face of armed personnel with stronger protective performance,
fragments alone cannot cause enough damage to them. To penetrate the armed personnel with better
protection, the fragments formed by small-caliber grenades need more kinetic energy, and there are
two ways to improve the kinetic energy, i.e., to improve the mass of the fragments, and increase the
speed of the fragments. For small-caliber ammunition, the detonation energy generated by the charge
is also fixed due to the size and the fixed charge quantity. If the mass of the fragment is increased,
the fragment flying velocity will inevitably decrease; if the mass of fragments is reduced, the speed of
fragments can be improved to some extent, but the improvement of the ability of armed personnel with
stronger penetration protection capability is still limited. A large number of small-caliber ammunition
fragments and, despite many fragments hitting the target, the kinetic energy of each fragment is too
small to penetrate the protective equipment of the armed personnel. Since the 1980s, researchers from
Materials 2020, 13, 891; doi:10.3390/ma13040891 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 891 2 of 24
all over the world have studied multiple explosively formed projectile (MEFP) warheads [1]. Therefore,
the small-caliber ammunition has been designed as the structure of MEFP. Although the number of
the final formed projectile is limited, the projectile velocity is very high. With the improvement of
the precision of the proximity fuse, the probability of a limited number of formed projectiles hitting
the armed personnel is also increased, so that the projectiles can not only hit the armed personnel,
but also penetrate the protective equipment of the armed personnel. At present, the research on MEFP
warheads can be divided into two categories in the dispersion direction of formed projectiles. The first
one is that the liner is arranged along the axis of the charge [2–9], and the explosively formed projectile
(EFP) flies away in the axial direction of the charge; the second one is that the liner is arranged along
the circumferential direction of the charge [10–14], and the EFP flies along the radial direction of
charge. In related literature [2–9,15–17], there are many research works on the forming characteristics
of the projectile when it is scattered along the charge axis. Li Peng [13] et al. applied eccentric
initiation technology to the MEFP warhead through static detonation experiment and numerical
simulation, and found that the eccentric initiation could improve the molding results of MEFP, and
greatly improved the velocity of the shaped projectile and the penetration depth of the target plate in
the directional region. Liang Zhen Gang et al. [11,12] studied the forming law of MEFP from the aspect
of parameters of the liner by simplifying the model of the MEFP warhead and combining numerical
simulation with experiment, and found that the thickness of the liner affected the forming velocity of
the projectile, and the thickness of the liner and the radius of curvature together affected the shape
of the projectile. Yin Jianping [13] et al. analyzed the forming law of the MEFP warhead from the
aspect of the parameters of the liner by numerical simulation, the influence of the parameters of the
liner on the formation of the circumferential MEFP was studied, by statistical analysis of the formed
assembly EFP, the regulation of the curvature radius, thickness, and caliber of the liner’s influence to
the forming of circumferential MEFP, and the appropriate relatives among parameters were obtained.
Zheng Can Jie [14] et al. studied the arrangement, number of layers, and initiation mode of the liner by
numerical simulation. The results show that the comprehensive performance of staggered sub-EFP is
better than that of parallel sub-EFP; the velocity of sub-EFP increases with the increase of the number
of layers arranged in the liner; the axial velocity of sub-EFP formed by line initiation is higher than that
of three-point initiation.
In the study of the MEFP warhead in the literature [2–17], there are two significant features.
One is that the wall thickness is equal to the shell and liner, and the other is that the liner is designed
separately from the shell. For the small-caliber ammunition with large demand, because the size of
the liner is very small, if the shell and liner separated design is adopted, the production efficiency
may be affected in mass production. However, if the shell and liner integrated design is adopted,
the production process will be simplified, and the production efficiency will be improved. In the study
of MEFP warhead forming characteristics in the literature [2–17], the wall thickness is equal to the
shell and liner, and the forming characteristics of liner with variable wall thickness are rarely reported.
Therefore, LS-DYNA software will be used in this study to simulate the forming characteristics of the
circumferential MEFP when the liner is of variable wall thickness.
2. Structural Design and Analysis

In the study of the molding characteristics of the circumferential MEFP in the literature [13–17],
the influence of the change of the relevant parameters of the liner on the forming characteristics of the
MEFP is mainly analyzed. Therefore, in this study, the design of the integral circumferential MEFP
warhead is shown in Figure 1 when the liner has a certain caliber. The charging height is 52 mm,
the diameter of the charging is 37 mm, the liners are arranged along the charging circumference, 4 rows
in total along the charging axis, 12 liners in each row along the charging radial direction, giving a total
of 48 liners.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 3 of 24
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Figure
Figure
Figure 1. 1.
1. Structural
Structural
Structural design
design
design ofof
of integral
integral
integral circumferential
circumferential
circumferential MEFP
MEFP
MEFP warhead.
warhead.
warhead.
ToTo study
study the
the forming
forming characteristics
characteristics ofofthetheprojectile
projectile
projectile when
when
when the
thethe liner
liner
liner isis
is ofof
of variable
variable
variable wall
wall
wall thickness,
thickness,
thickness,
the
the parameters
parameters ofofthethe shell
shell and andliner are
liner are
are designed
designed asas shown
shown inin Table
Table When
1. 1.
WhenWhen the
the
the curvature
curvature
curvature radius
radius
radius ofof
of
the
the
the outer
outer
outer wall
wall
wall ofof
of the
thetheliner
liner
liner is is less
less than
than the
the curvature
curvature radius
radius
radius ofof
of thethe inner
inner wall,
wall,
wall, the
the
the thickest
thickest
thickest part ofof
part
part of the
the
the
liner is
liner is less
less
less than
than the shell thickness.
than the shell thickness. The
The
The wall
wall
wall thickness
thickness
thickness of
ofofthe
thethe shell
shell
shell part
partpart is 1.5
is is mm,
1.51.5 mm,
mm, the
the diameter
the diameter
diameter of
ofofthe
the
the
liner
liner
liner is is
is 99 mm,
mm,
9 mm, and
andand the
thethethickness
thickness
thickness ofof
of the
the
the center
center
center ofof
of the
thethe liner
liner
liner isis
is 11 mm,
1mm,
mm, 1.15
1.151.15 mm
mm mm and
and
and 1.3
1.3 mm
1.3
mmmm respectively;
respectively;
respectively;
the
the
the curvature
curvature
curvature radius
radius
radius ofof
of the
thethe inner
inner
inner wall
wall
wall ofof
of the
thethe liner
liner
liner isisis
88 mm,
8mm,
mm, 1010
10 mm,
mm,mm, 1212
12 mm
mm mm and
andand 1414
14 mm
mmmm respectively,
respectively,
respectively,
and
and the
the thecurvature
curvature
curvature radius
radius ofofthe
the theouter
outer
outer wall
wall
wall ofof
of the
the theliner
liner
liner isisis
66mm,
6mm,
mm, 88mm,
8mm,
mm, 8.5
8.58.5mm
mm mm and
andand 12
12 12mm
mmmm respectively,
respectively,
respectively,
asas shown
shown inin Table
Table 1. 1.
Table
Table 1. Structural
1. 1.
Table Structural parameter
Structural
parameter design
parameter ofof
design
design of integral circumferential
integral
integral MEFP.
circumferential
circumferential MEFP.
MEFP.
Basic Parameters Center Thickness Curvature Radius of
Curvature
Curvature Curvature Radius of
Curvature
Curvature
Scheme Center
Center
of MEFP of Liner (∆t) Inner Wall of Liner (R1) Outer Wall of Liner (R2)
Radius
Radius ofof Inner Radius
Inner Radius ofof Outer
Outer
Basic
Basic Parameters
Parameters ofof
1 MEFP
MEFP Scheme Thickness
Scheme Thickness ofof
8 mm 6 mm
Wall
Wall ofof Liner（ Wall
Liner（ Wallofof Liner（
Liner（
Liner
Liner (∆t)
(∆t)
2 10 mm R1） R1） R2）
R2）
8 mm
1 mm
3 11 12 mm 8 mm 8 mm 6 mm
6 mm
10 mm
The charging
4 22 1010
mm mm 8 mm
8 mm
height is 52 mm, 1 mm 14 mm
1 mm 12 mm
the diameter of the 3 3 1212
mm mm 1010
mmmm
5 8 mm 6 mm
charging is 37 mm, 44 1414
mm mm 1212
mmmm
The
theThe charging
charging
shell thickness height
height is is
65252
mm,mm, 10 mm 8 mm
5
1.155 mm 8 mm
8 mm 6 mm
6 mm
the
is the
1.5 diameter
diameter
mm, and of theof
thethe charging
charging
7 is is 12 mm 10 mm
diameter ofshell
the 66 1010
mm mm 8 mm
8 mm
3737mm,mm, thethe shell thickness
thickness8 is is
1.51.5 1.15
1.15 mm mm 14 mm 1212 12 10
mm
liner is 9 mm 77 mm mm 10
mmmm
mm,
mm, andand thethe diameter
diameter ofof
thethe
9 88 8 mm 1414
mm mm 6 1212
mm mmmm
liner
liner is is 9 mm
9 mm
10 99 10 mm 8 mm 8 mm 6 mm
6 mm
8 mm
1.3 mm
11 1010 1010
mm mm 8 mm
8 mm
1.31.3
mm mm 12 mm 10 mm
1111 1212
mm mm 1010
mmmm
12 14 mm 12 mm
1212 1414
mm mm 1212
mmmm
The
The
The structure
structure diagram
structure
diagram ofof
diagram
of the
the liner
the
liner ofof
liner
of the
the circumferential
the MEFP
circumferential
circumferential charge
MEFP
MEFP shown
charge
charge inin
shown
shown in Table 11 is
Table
Table is shown
1 is shown
shown
in Figure
inin 2.
Figure
Figure 2. 2.
R1R1
= 8= mm,
8 mm,
R2R2
= 6= mm
6 mm
R1R1 = 10
= 10 mm,
mm, R2R2
= 8= mm
8 mm
R1R1 = 12
= 12 mm,
mm, R2R2 = 10
= 10 mmmm
R1R1 = 14
= 14 mm,
mm, R2R2 = 12
= 12 mmmm
(a)(a)
Figure 2. Cont.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 4 of 24
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24
R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm.
(b)
R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm.
(c)
Figure 2. Structure diagram of the liner: (a) Structural diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1 mm at
Figure 2. Structure diagram of the liner: (a) Structural diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1 mm
the center; (b) Structural diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1.15 mm at the center; (c) Structural
at the center; (b) Structural diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1.15 mm at the center; (c) Structural
diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1.15 mm at the center.
diagram of the liner with a thickness of 1.15 mm at the center.
It can be seen from the structural diagram shown in Figure 2 that the shell thickness of the integral
It can be seen from the structural diagram shown in Figure 2 that the shell thickness of the
MEFP ammunition designed by the integration of shell and liner is 1.5 mm, while the thickness at
integral MEFP ammunition designed by the integration of shell and liner is 1.5 mm, while the
the center are 1 mm, 1.15 mm and 1.3 mm respectively. Therefore, when the curvature center of inner
thickness at the center are 1 mm, 1.15 mm and 1.3 mm respectively. Therefore, when the curvature
wall of liner is in the same straight line with the center of liner, the curvature center of outer wall of
center of inner wall of liner is in the same straight line with the center of liner, the curvature center
liner deviates from the straight line. Therefore, when R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm, with the increase of the
of outer wall of liner deviates from the straight line. Therefore, when R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm, with the
thickness at the center of the liner, the thickness from the center to the edge of the liner first decreases
increase of the thickness at the center of the liner, the thickness from the center to the edge of the liner
and then increases, and the thinnest part of the liner is gradually away from the center of the liner.
first decreases and then increases, and the thinnest part of the liner is gradually away from the center
When R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, and ∆ t = 1.3 mm, the thickness of the liner first decreases and then
of the liner. When R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, and Δ t = 1.3 mm, the thickness of the liner first decreases
increases. When R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆ t = 1 mm, 1.15 mm, the thickness of the liner increases
and then increases. When R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, Δ t = 1 mm, 1.15 mm, the thickness of the liner
gradually from the center to the edge. When R1 = 12 mm, 14 mm respectively, R2 = 10 mm, 12 mm
increases gradually from the center to the edge. When R1 = 12 mm, 14 mm respectively, R2 = 10 mm,
respectively, with the increase of the center thickness of the liner, the liner thickness gradually increases
12 mm respectively, with the increase of the center thickness of the liner, the liner thickness gradually
from the center to the edge.
increases from the center to the edge.
3. Numerical Model of Integral Circumferential MEFP Warhead
3. Numerical Model of Integral Circumferential MEFP Warhead
3.1. Finite-Element Model of Integral Circumferential MEFP Warhead
3.1. Finite-Element Model of Integral Circumferential MEFP Warhead
At present, the mainstream grid construction software includes HyperMesh, FEMB, Truegrid,
ICEM, Atetc.
present, the preprocessing
[18]. The mainstream grid construction
required by LS-DYNAsoftware includes
solver can beHyperMesh,
carried out by FEMB, Truegrid,
various means.
ICEM, etc. [18]. The preprocessing required by LS-DYNA solver can be carried
Therefore, the preprocessing required by this numerical calculation is carried out by combining out by various means.
Therefore, the (ANSYS
ANSYS/ICEM preprocessing required byPA,
14.5, Pittsburgh, thisUSA)
numerical calculation (HyperMesh
and HyperMesh is carried out12.0,by combining
Altair, MI,
USA). First, the hexahedral grid of the designed integral circumferential MEFP warhead is dividedMI,
ANSYS/ICEM (ANSYS 14.5, Pittsburgh, PA, USA) and HyperMesh (HyperMesh 12.0, Altair, by
USA). First, thewhich
ANSYS/ICEM, hexahedral
will be grid of the
divided. Thedesigned
mesh is integral
importedcircumferential
into HyperMesh MEFP
in thewarhead is divided
format of. K file to
by the
set ANSYS/ICEM,
preprocessing which will
of the be divided.model.
finite-element The mesh is imported
To reduce into HyperMesh
the amount of calculationin in
thethe
format of. K
numerical
file to set the preprocessing of the finite-element model. To reduce the amount
simulation, according to the symmetry of the integral circumferential MEFP structure, the quarter of calculation in the
numerical simulation,
finite-element according is
model established to shown
the symmetry
in Figure of3.
the integral
The circumferential
finite-element MEFP structure,
model shown in Figure 3the
is
quarter finite-element
divided into three parts: model established
the main charge,istheshown in Figure
shell and 3. The
the liner, andfinite-element
the air domain. model
Amongshown
them,in
Figure
the 3 isand
charge divided
the airinto three
adopt theparts: the grid,
Eulerian mainandcharge, the shell
the shell andliner
and the the adopt
liner, and the air domain.
the Lagrangian grid,
Among
all them,
of which arethe charge and
hexahedral the elements
solid air adopt with
the Eulerian
eight nodes.grid, In
and the shellthe
addition, and the liner adopt
multi-material the
Euler
Lagrangian grid, all of which are hexahedral solid elements with eight nodes. In
algorithm is used to simulate the forming process of integral circumferential MEFP warhead projectile. addition, the multi-
material Euler algorithm is used to simulate the forming process of integral circumferential MEFP
warhead projectile.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 5 of 24
Figure 3. Finite-element
Finite-element model of integral circumferential MEFP warhead.
3.2. Material Model

3.2. Material Model
In the finite-element
In the finite-element model
modelofofintegral
integralwith
withshell
shelland
andliner
liner circumferential
circumferential MEFPMEFP warhead
warhead as
as shown in Figure 3, 8701 explosive [19,20] is selected, high explosive material model
shown in Figure 3, 8701 explosive [19,20] is selected, high explosive material model and JWL (Jones and JWL
(Jones
WilkinsWilkins Lee) state
Lee) state equation
equation are used,
are used, material
material parameters
parameters areare shown
shown in in Table2,2,and
Table and JWL
JWL state
state
equation expression is shown in Equation
equation expression is shown in Equation (1). (1).
Table 2. Material parameters for 8701 explosive.

Table 2. material parameters for 8701 explosive.
Material ρ (g/cm3 ) D (cm/µs) P (GPa) E (GPa) A (GPa) B (GPa) r1 r2 ω v0
D CJ E A B
Material
Explosive 1.71 (g/cm ) (cm/ ) 28.6
30.83 8.5
(GPa) (GPa) 524.23 (GPa)
(GPa) 7.678 34 1.1 0.34 1
Explosive 1.71 0.83 28.6 8.5 524.23 7.678 34 1.1 0.34 1
General pressure expression of JWL equation of state [18]:
General pressure expression of JWL equation of state [18]:
ω −r1 V ω −r2 V ωE
!
p = A 1− e +B 1− e + (1)
A 1 r1 V 1 r2 V V (1)
where A, B, rA,
Where 1 , rB,
2 , and, ω are material
, and constants;
ω are material V is theVinitial
constants; is therelative volume;volume;
initial relative E is the Einitial
is thespecific
initial
internal energy. is the initial explosive density,
specific internal energy. ρ is the initial explosive CJ
ρ P is the
density, detonation pressure and D is the detonation
is the detonation pressure and D is the
speed, p is the
detonation hydrostatic
speed, is thepressure.
hydrostatic pressure.
The material
materialof ofthe
theshell
shelland
andthe liner
the is copper,
liner thethe
is copper, material model
material is JOHNSON_COOK,
model is JOHNSON_COOK, the state
the
equation is described by GRUNEISEN, and the unit type is Lagrange
state equation is described by GRUNEISEN, and the unit type is Lagrange grid. The material grid. The material parameters
are shown inare
parameters Table shown3, theinexpression
Table 3, theof GRUNEISEN
expression ofequation
GRUNEISEN of stateequation
in compression
of statestate is shown in
in compression
Equation (2), and the expression in expansion state is shown in Equation
state is shown in Equation (2), and the expression in expansion state is shown in Equation (3). (3).
Table 3.
Table Material parameters
3. Material parameters for
for Copper.
Copper.
Material ρ (g/cm3 ) G (GPa)
G A (MPa)
A BB(MPa) n C m Tm (K) Troom (K) Γ c0 (cm/µs) S
Material 8.93 C S1.49
Copper (g/cm3) 46.5
(GPa) 90
(MPa) 292
(MPa) 0.31 0.025 1.09 (K)
1356 (K)
293 2.02 (cm/
0.39 s)
Copper 8.93 46.5 90 292 0.31 0.025 1.09 1356 293 2.02 0.39 1.49
Expression of GRUNEISEN equation of state in compressed state [21,22]:
Expression of GRUNEISEN equation of
state in compressed state [21,22]:
γ0 α 2
h i
ρ0 C µ 1 + 1 − 2 µ − 2 µ
2
1 1 2
p= 2 2 + (γ0 + αµ)E (2)
µ2 µ3 (2)
1 − (S1 − 1 )µ − S2 µ+1 − S3 2
1 (µ+1)1
Expression of GRUNEISEN equation

equation of state
state in
in expansion
expansion state:
state:
(3)
p = ρ0 C2 µ + (γ0 + αµ)E (3)
Where E is the initial internal energy, C is the intercept of the curve, , , and are
where E is the initial
the coefficients internal
of the slope energy, C iscurve,
of the the intercept
is the of the vs − vp curve,
GRUNEISEN S1 , Sand
coefficient, 2 , andα isS3the
arefirst-
the
coefficients of the slope of the
order volume, correction of . s v − vp curve, γ0 is the GRUNEISEN coefficient, and α is the first-order
volume,
MAT correction of γ0 . is adopted for air materials. Air material parameters are shown in Table 4
_NULL model
[19]. The equation of state is described by linear polynomials, which is EOS_LINEAR_
POLYNOMIAL, and the element type is Euler grid.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 6 of 24
MAT _NULL model is adopted for air materials. Air material parameters are shown in Table 4 [19].
The equation of state is described by linear polynomials, which is EOS_LINEAR_ POLYNOMIAL, and
the element type13,isx FOR
Materials 2020, Euler grid.
PEER REVIEW 6 of 24
Table4.4.Material
Table Material parameters
parametersofofair.
air.
Material ρ (g/cm3 )
Material γ Cp (kJ/kg·k) Cp (kJ/kg·k)T(K) T(K) E0 (kJ/kg−1 )
(g/ ) (kJ/kg·k) (kJ/kg·k) (kJ/ )
Air 1.225 1.4 1.005 0.718 288.2 206,800
Air 1.225 1.4 1.005 0.718 288.2 206,800
4. Numerical Simulation
4. Numerical Results
Simulation ResultsofofIntegral
Integral Circumferential MEFP
Circumferential MEFP Warhead
Warhead
4.1. Forming Results

4.1. Forming of Integral
Results Circumferential
of Integral Circumferential MEFP Warhead
MEFP Warhead
The numerical
The numericalsimulation adopts
simulation adoptssingle
singlepoint
point initiation, andthe
initiation, and theunit
unitis is − µsg.−The
cmcmμs g. forming
The forming
results of the
results of 12
thestructures shown
12 structures shownininTable
Table11are
areshown
shown in in Figure
Figure4.4.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(i) (j) (k) (l)
FigureFigure 4. Forming
4. Forming results
results of of integralcircumferential
integral circumferential MEFP
MEFPwarhead
warhead projectile: (a) Scheme
projectile: 1 forming
(a) Scheme 1 forming
results;
results; (b) Scheme
(b) Scheme 2 formingresults;
2 forming results; (c)
(c)Scheme
Scheme3 forming results;
3 forming (d) Scheme
results; 4 forming
(d) Scheme results; (e)
4 forming results;
Scheme 5 forming results; (f) Scheme 6 forming results; (g) Scheme 7 forming results; (h) Scheme 8
(e) Scheme 5 forming results; (f) Scheme 6 forming results; (g) Scheme 7 forming results; (h) Scheme 8
forming results; (i) Scheme 9 forming results; (j) Scheme 10 forming results; (k) Scheme 11 forming
forming results; (i) Scheme 9 forming results; (j) Scheme 10 forming results; (k) Scheme 11 forming
results; (l) Scheme 12 forming results.
results; (l) Scheme 12 forming results.
The structure of the integral circumferential MEFP is center symmetric, and the initiation point
The structure of the integral circumferential MEFP is center symmetric, and the initiation point
is in the straight line where the center of symmetry is located. Therefore, in the simulation results,
is in the
theforming
straightresults
line where the
of the 12 center
rows of symmetry
of liner is one
are similar, so located.
of themTherefore,
is selectedin as the simulation
the research results,
object,
the forming
as shown results of the
in Figure 12 rows
4, where of liner areinsimilar,
1#EFP-4#EFP so one of
(a–l) represents thethem
formingis selected
results of asone
theof
research
the rowsobject,
as shown in Figure
of liner. As can 4,be where 1#EFP-4#EFP
seen from the moldinginresults
(a–l) represents the forming
shown in Figure 4, whenresults of one of
the curvature the rows
radius of of
liner.inner
As canwallbeand outer
seen fromwall of molding
the the shell isresults
constant, the shape
shown of the4,formed
in Figure whenprojectile
the curvature changes with the
radius of inner
increase
wall and outerof wall
the thickness at the
of the shell center of the
is constant, theshell,
shape as of
shown in Figure
the formed 4: a,e,i; b,f,j;
projectile c,g,k; with
changes As shown in
the increase
Materials 2020, 13, 891 7 of 24
(d), thickness
of the (h) and (l).atWhen the wall
the center thickness
of the shell, asofshown
the shaped shell4:isa,e,i;
in Figure constant, the length
b,f,j; c,g,k; diameter
As shown ratio
in (d), (h)ofand
the formed projectile decreases gradually as the curvature radius of the inner and outer walls of the
(l). When the wall thickness of the shaped shell is constant, the length diameter ratio of the formed
liner increases, as shown in Figure 4a–d; e–h; i–l. It can be seen from the forming results shown in
projectile decreases gradually as the curvature radius of the inner and outer walls of the liner increases,
Figure 4 that when the integrated design of the shell and the liner has variable wall thickness, the
as shown in Figure 4a–d; e–h; i–l. It can be seen from the forming results shown in Figure 4 that when
projectile forming shape of the integral circumferential MEFP warhead is not only related to the
the integrated design of the shell and the liner has variable wall thickness, the projectile forming shape
curvature radius of the inner and outer walls of the liner, but also affected by the change of the center
of the integral circumferential MEFP warhead is not only related to the curvature radius of the inner
thickness of the liner. That is to say, when the liner has variable wall thickness, the shape of the
and outer walls
formed of the
projectile liner, butby
is affected also
theaffected
curvature by radius
the change
of theofinner
the center thickness
wall, the of the
curvature liner.ofThat
radius the is
to say,
outerwhen the liner
wall and has variable
the thickness of thewall thickness,
center of the linerthehave
shape of the formed
a common effect. projectile
Accordingistoaffected by the
the forming
curvature radius of the inner wall, the curvature radius of the outer wall and
effect of the integral circumferential MEFP warhead shown in Figure 4, when the curvature radius the thickness of the center
of
of the liner have a common effect. According to the forming effect of the integral
the inner wall of the liner is between 10 mm and 12 mm, and the corresponding curvature radius of circumferential MEFP
warhead
the outershown
wall inofFigure 4, when
the liner the curvature
is between 8 mm and radius
10 mm,of the
the inner
shapewall
of the of formed
the linerprojectile
is between 10 mm
is more
and 12 mm, and the corresponding curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner is between 8 mm and
reasonable.
10 mm,When the shape of the formed
the initiation projectile
point is arrangedisatmore reasonable.
the center of the charge circle where the center point of
theWhen
1#EFP theliner is as shown
initiation point isinarranged
Figure 3,atdue to the of
the center different
the chargepositions
circle of the detonation
where wave of
the center point
thecontacting
1#EFP liner theisliner, the projectile
as shown in Figurewill formtoathe
3, due certain anglepositions
different of dispersion
of the during the forming
detonation process.
wave contacting
theExcept
liner, for
the1#EFP flying
projectile along
will formthea horizontal
certain angle direction, the otherduring
of dispersion formedthe projectiles
forming shown in Figure
process. Except
4 all have a certain flying angle. Therefore, when the fuse detonates
for 1#EFP flying along the horizontal direction, the other formed projectiles shown in Figure the warhead in the near burst
4 all
havemode, the killing
a certain flyingrange of the
angle. target can
Therefore, be appropriately
when the fuse detonatesincreased
the under
warhead the in
appropriate height
the near burst of
mode,
burst.
the killing range of the target can be appropriately increased under the appropriate height of burst.
1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP FormingVelocity
Forming Velocityofofthe
theIntegral
IntegralCircumferential
Circumferential MEFP
MEFP Warhead
Warhead
The
The 1212 design
design schemesshown
schemes shownin
inTable
Table11 and
and the
the corresponding
correspondingvelocity
velocityofof1#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP shown
-4#EFP shown
in the forming results of each scheme in Figure 4 are shown in Figure
in the forming results of each scheme in Figure 4 are shown in Figure 5. 5.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5. Cont.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 8 of 24
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
(k) (l)
Figure5.5.Projectile
Figure Projectileforming
forming velocity
velocity of
of integral
integralcircumferential
circumferentialMEFPMEFPwarhead:
warhead: (a)(a)
Scheme
Scheme1 forming
1 forming
velocity;(b)
velocity; (b)Scheme
Scheme22forming
forming velocity;
velocity; (c)
(c) Scheme
Scheme33forming
formingvelocity; (d)(d)
velocity; Scheme
Scheme4 forming velocity;
4 forming velocity;
(e)(e) Scheme
Scheme 5 forming
5 forming velocity;
velocity; (f) Scheme
(f) Scheme 6 forming
6 forming velocity;
velocity; (g) Scheme
(g) Scheme 7 forming
7 forming velocity;
velocity; (h) 8
(h) Scheme
Scheme 8 forming velocity; (i) Scheme 9 forming velocity; (j) Scheme 10 forming velocity;
forming velocity; (i) Scheme 9 forming velocity; (j) Scheme 10 forming velocity; (k) Scheme 11 forming (k) Scheme
11 forming
velocity; velocity;12(l)forming
(l) Scheme Schemevelocity.
12 forming velocity.
It It
cancanbebeseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure5,5,When
When R1R1 =
= 88mm,
mm,R2 R2==6 6mm,
mm,the projectile
the forming
projectile velocity
forming reaches
velocity reaches
a stable state around 16 μs; when R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, the projectile forming velocity
a stable state around 16 µs; when R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm, the projectile forming velocity reaches reaches a a
stable state around 14 μs; when R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm, the projectile forming velocity
stable state around 14 µs; when R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm, the projectile forming velocity reaches reaches a a
stable state around 11 μs; when R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm, the projectile forming velocity reaches a
stable state around 11 µs; when R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm, the projectile forming velocity reaches a
stable state around 10.5 μs. The velocity of the formed projectile after it reaches stability is shown in
stable state around 10.5 µs. The velocity of the formed projectile after it reaches stability is shown in
Table 5.
Table 5.
Table 5. 1#EFP-4#EFP formed velocity.
Projectile Number Radius of Curvature ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm
Projectile Number Radius of Curvature ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆ = 1.3 mm
R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2326 m/s 2228 m/s 2357 m/s
R1 = 8R1
mm, = 6 R2
= 10R2mm, mm= 8 mm 2326 m/sm/s
2081 2228m/s
2068 m/s 1961 2357
m/s m/s
1#EFP
R1 = 10
R1mm,
= 12 R2 = 8R2
mm, mm= 10 mm 2081 m/sm/s
2052 2068m/s
2022 m/s 1926 1961
m/s m/s
1#EFP
R1 = 12
R1mm,
= 14R2 = 10
mm, R2mm
= 12 mm 2052
2035
m/sm/s 2012
2022m/s
m/s 1920 1926
m/s m/s
R1 = 8 mm, R2
R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm = 6 mm 2035 m/sm/s
2359 2241 m/s
2012 m/s 2469 m/s
1920 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm 2114 m/s 2110 m/s 2097 m/s
2#EFP R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2359 m/s 2241 m/s 2469 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2105 m/s 2053 m/s 2035 m/s
R1 = 10
R1mm,
= 14 R2 = 8R2
2040 2110m/s
2041 m/s 2014 2097
m/s m/s
2#EFP
3#EFP R1 = 12R1
mm,= 8R2 = 10
mm, R2mm
= 6 mm 2105 m/sm/s
2517 2053m/s
2421 m/s 2586 2035
m/s m/s
R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2040 m/s 2041 m/s 2014 m/s
Materials 2020, 13, 891 9 of 24
Table 5. Cont.
Projectile Number Radius of Curvature ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆ = 1.3 mm

R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2517 m/s 2421 m/s 2586 m/s9 of 24
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm 2115 m/s 2115 m/s 2246 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2113 m/s 2108 m/s 2053 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2113 m/s 2108 m/s 2053 m/s
R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2094 m/s 2088 m/s
R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2094 m/s 2088 m/s 20462046
m/sm/s
R1 =R18 mm, R2 =R2
= 8 mm, 6 mm
= 6 mm 2573 m/sm/s
2573 2472 m/s
2472 m/s 25942594
m/sm/s
R1 =R110=mm, R2 =R2
10 mm, = 8 mm
8 mm 2161
2161 m/sm/s 2158
2158m/s
m/s 21022102
m/sm/s
4#EFP
4#EFP
R1 =
R112=mm, R2 =R2
12 mm, = 10 mm
10 mm 2130
2130 m/sm/s 2111
2111m/s
m/s 20172017
m/sm/s
R1 = 14 mm, R2
R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm= 12 mm 2120 m/sm/s
2120 2104 m/s
2104 m/s 20112011
m/sm/s
From the velocity of the forming projectile of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Table 5, it can be obtained
From the velocity of the forming projectile of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Table 5, it can be obtained
that the velocity curve of the formed projectile of 1#EFP-4#EFP as shown in Figure 6.
that the velocity curve of the formed projectile of 1#EFP-4#EFP as shown in Figure 6.
1#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius 2#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius
2400 2500
2350 Δt=1.0mm 2450 Δt=1.0mm
V elocity of EFP/(m /s)
2300 Δt=1.15mm 2400 Δt=1.15mm

2250 Δt=1.3mm 2350 Δt=1.3mm
2200 2300
2150 2250
2100 2200
2050 2150
2000 2100
1950 2050
1900 2000
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Curvature radius of inner wall of liner/mm Curvature radius of inner wall of liner/mm
(a) (b)
3#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius 4#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius
2600 2600
2550 Δt=1.0mm 2550 Δt=1.0mm
2500 Δt=1.15mm 2500 Δt=1.15mm

2450 2450
2400 Δt=1.3mm 2400 Δt=1.3mm
2350 2350
2300 2300
2250 2250
2200 2200
2150 2150
2100 2100
2050 2050
2000 2000
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Curvature radius of inner wall of liner/mm Curvature radius of inner wall of liner/mm
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure6.6.1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP velocity
velocitycurve ofof
curve the center
the centerofofthe
theliner
linerwith
withdifferent
differentthickness:
thickness:(a)(a)1#EFP
1#EFP
velocity
velocitycurve;
curve;(b)
(b)2#EFP
2#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve;
curve;(c)(c)3#EFP
3#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve;(d)
curve;(d)4#EFP
4#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve.
curve.
AsAscan
canbebeseenseenfrom
fromthetheforming
formingvelocity
velocitycurve
curveofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown shownininFigureFigure6.6.With
Withthethe
increaseofofthe
increase theradius
radiusofofcurvature,
curvature,the thevelocity
velocityofofformed
formedprojectile
projectiledecreased.
decreased.When Whenthetheradius
radiusofof
curvatureofofthe
curvature theinner
innerwall
wallofofthe
theliner
linerincreases
increasesfrom
from8 8mmmmtoto1010mm mm(the
(theradius
radiusofofcurvature
curvatureofofthe
the
outer wall of the liner increases from 6 mm to 8 mm), the velocity of the formed
outer wall of the liner increases from 6 mm to 8 mm), the velocity of the formed projectile decreases projectile decreases
greatly;when
greatly; whenthe theradius
radiusofofcurvature
curvatureofofthetheinner
innerwall
wallofofthe
theliner
linerincreases
increasesfromfrom1010mmmmtoto1414mmmm
(the radius of curvature of the
(the radius of curvature of the outer outer wall of the liner increases from 8 mm to 12 mm), the velocity
liner increases from 8 mm to 12 mm), the velocity of of the
formed projectile decreases
the formed projectile decreases less.less.
Fromthe
From theforming
formingprojectile
projectilevelocity
velocityofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown shownininTable
Table5,5,the
thevelocity
velocitycurves
curvesofofthe
the
center of the liner with thickness of 1.0 mm, 1.15 mm and 1.3 mm respectively are shown in Figure 7.7.
center of the liner with thickness of 1.0 mm, 1.15 mm and 1.3 mm respectively are shown in Figure
velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius for 1#EFP-4#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius for 1#EFP-4#EFP
2750 2600
2700 Δt=1.0mm,R1=8mm,R2=6mm 2550 Δt=1.15mm,R1=8mm,R2=6mm
2600
V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

2500 Δt=1.0mm,R1=14mm,R2=12mm 2400
2450 Δt=1.15mm,R1=14mm,R2=12mm
2350
2400 2300
2350 2250
2300
2250 2200
2200 2150
2150 2100
2100 2050
2050
2000 2000
1950 1950
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO. EFP NO.
outer wall of the liner increases from 6 mm to 8 mm), the velocity of the formed projectile decreases
greatly; when the radius of curvature of the inner wall of the liner increases from 10 mm to 14 mm
(the radius of curvature of the outer wall of the liner increases from 8 mm to 12 mm), the velocity of
the formed projectile decreases less.
From the forming projectile velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Table 5, the velocity curves of the
Materials 2020, 13, 891 10 of 24
center of the liner with thickness of 1.0 mm, 1.15 mm and 1.3 mm respectively are shown in Figure 7.
velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius for 1#EFP-4#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius for 1#EFP-4#EFP
2750 2600
2600

2500 Δt=1.0mm,R1=14mm,R2=12mm 2400
2450 Δt=1.15mm,R1=14mm,R2=12mm
2350
2400 2300
2350 2250
2300
2250 2200
2200 2150
2150 2100
2100 2050
2050
2000 2000
1950 1950
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO. EFP NO.
(a) (b)
velocity curve of the liner with different curvature radius for 1#EFP-4#EFP
2800
2750 Δt=1.3mm,R1=8mm,R2=6mm
2700 Δt=1.3mm,R1=10mm,R2=8mm
2650
2600 Δt=1.3mm,R1=12mm,R2=10mm
Δt=1.3mm,R1=14mm,R2=12mm
2550
2500
2450
2400
2350
2300
2250
2200
2150
2100
2050
2000
1950
1900
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO.
(c)
Figure 7. Velocity
Figure 7. Velocity curve
curve of
of the
the liner
liner with
with different
differentcurvature
curvature radius
radius for
for1#EFP-4#EFP:(a)
1#EFP-4#EFP:(a) The
The center
center
thickness
thickness of
of liner
liner is
is 11 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) the
the center
center thickness
thickness of
of liner
liner is
is 1.15
1.15 mm;
mm; (c)
(c) the
the center
center thickness
thickness of
of liner
liner
is
is 1.3
1.3 mm.
mm.
It
It can
can bebe seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 77 thatthat when
when the the thickness
thickness of of the
the center
center of of the
the liner
liner isis 11 mm–1.15
mm–1.15 mm, mm,
the
the speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increases gradually, as shown in Figure 7a,b; when the thickness at the
speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increases gradually, as shown in Figure 7a,b; when the thickness at the
center
centerof ofthe
theliner
linerisis1.31.3
mm,mm, thethespeedspeedof the inner
of the wallwall
inner of theof liner is 8 mm,
the liner is 8 the
mm, speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP
the speed of 1#EFP-
increases gradually;
4#EFP increases when the
gradually; when curvature radius ofradius
the curvature the inner
of thewall of the
inner wallliner is 10–14
of the liner mm, the mm,
is 10–14 velocity
the
of 1#EFP-3#EFP increase gradually, and the speed of 4#EFP starts to
velocity of 1#EFP-3#EFP increase gradually, and the speed of 4#EFP starts to decrease, as shown indecrease, as shown in Figure 7c.
It can
Figure 7c. be seen from Figures 6 and 7 that when the shell and the liner adopt the integrated design,
the forming
It can bespeed of EFP
seen from of the6circumferential
Figures and 7 that whenMEFP warhead
the shell and the with
linervariable
adopt the wall thicknessdesign,
integrated of the
liner
the forming speed of EFP of the circumferential MEFP warhead with variable wall thickness of the
is not only affected by the center thickness of the liner, but also by the curvature radius of the
inner wall
liner is notandonlythe curvature
affected by theradius of the
center outer wall
thickness of the
of the liner.
liner, but also by the curvature radius of the
innerItwall
can and
be seen from the velocity
the curvature radius ofcurvethe outerof the formed
wall of theprojectile
liner. and the shaped of the formed
projectile of each scheme that when the curvature radius
It can be seen from the velocity curve of the formed projectile and of inner wall of thethe
linershaped
is 10–12 ofmmthe and the
formed
corresponding
projectile of each curvature
schemeradiusthat when of outer
the wall is 8–10radius
curvature mm, the shapewall
of inner of formed
of the projectile is better,
liner is 10–12 mm andand
the velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP is between 1900–2200m/s.
the corresponding curvature radius of outer wall is 8–10 mm, the shape of formed projectile is better,
In the
and the relevant
velocity literature [2,3,14–17]
of 1#EFP-4#EFP is between on the research of MEFP warhead, researchers studied the
1900–2200m/s.
forming characteristics
In the of MEFP
relevant literature from the aspects
[2,3,14–17] of the parameters
on the research of MEFP (including the thickness,
warhead, researchers diameter,
studied the
curvature radius), spacing, arrangement mode, and number of arrangement
forming characteristics of MEFP from the aspects of the parameters (including the thickness, layers, etc. In the study of
the influence
diameter, of the parameters
curvature of the liner
radius), spacing, on the forming
arrangement mode,characteristics
and number ofofarrangement
the MEFP warhead, when
layers, etc. In
the wall thickness of the liner is equal, the influence of the curvature
the study of the influence of the parameters of the liner on the forming characteristics of the MEFP radius, the diameter, and the
thickness
warhead,of the liner
when on thethickness
the wall forming of characteristics
the liner is of the MEFP
equal, warheadofis the
the influence studied. To further
curvature radius, study
the
the influence
diameter, andof the
the curvature
thickness radiusof the of the on
liner innerthewall, the curvature
forming radiusof
characteristics of the
the outer
MEFPwall and the
warhead is
thickness of the center of the liner on the MEFP warhead, when the liner
studied. To further study the influence of the curvature radius of the inner wall, the curvature radius has variable wall thickness,
24
of schemes
the outerare wallredesigned based onofthe
and the thickness theresearch
center of of the
Partliner
2, Part 3 and
on the MEFPPart warhead,
4, and numerical
when the simulation
liner has
is carriedwall
variable out. thickness, 24 schemes are redesigned based on the research of Part 2, Part 3 and Part 4,
and numerical simulation is carried out.
5. Influence of the Parameters of the Liner on the Shape and Speed of MEFP
5. Influence of the Parameters of the Liner on the Shape and Speed of MEFP
5.1. Structural Design of MEFP
AccordingDesign
5.1. Structural to the of
above
MEFPsimulation results, when R1 = 10–12 mm and R2 = 8–10 mm, the shape of
the shaped projectile is better. To further study the influence of the curvature radius of the inner wall
According to the above simulation results, when R1 = 10–12 mm and R2 = 8–10 mm, the shape
of the shaped projectile is better. To further study the influence of the curvature radius of the inner
wall and outer wall and the different thickness at the center of liner on the shape and speed of the
formed projectile with variable wall thickness, the parameters of the formed projectile are designed
as shown in Table 6.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 11 of 24
and outer wall and the different thickness at the center of liner on the shape and speed of the formed
projectile with variable wall thickness, the parameters of the formed projectile are designed as shown
in Table 6.
Table 6. Structural design of MEFP.
Table 6. Structural design of MEFP.
Basic Parameters Center Thickness Curvature Radius of Curvature Radius of
of MEFP of Liner (∆t) Inner Wall ofCurvature
Center Liner (R1) Radius
Outer WallCurvature
of Liner (R2)Radius
Basic Parameters of MEFP Thickness of of Inner Wall of 6 mm of Outer Wall of
Liner (∆t) Liner（R1） 7 mm Liner（R2）
10 mm
9 mm 6 mm
1 mm 10 mm 7 mm
10 mm
8 mm 9 mm
1 mm 9 mm 10 mm
12 mm
11 mm 8 mm
12 mm
9 mm
12 mm
11 mm
The charging 6 mm
12 mm
height is 52 mm, 7 mm
the diameter of the 10 mm 6 mm
9 mm
charging is 37 mm, 7 mm
the shell thickness 1.15 mm 10 mm 10 mm
The charging
is 1.5 mm, height
and the is 52 mm, the
9 mm
8 mm
diameter of theofcharging
diameter the is 37 mm, 10 mm
1.15 mm 9 mm
the shell liner is 9 mmis 1.5 mm, and the
thickness 12 mm 8 mm
diameter of the liner is 9 mm 11 mm 9 mm
12 mm 12 mm 11 mm
6 mm 12 mm
7 mm 6 mm
10 mm
9 mm 7 mm
10 mm
1.3 mm 10 mm 9 mm
8 mm 10 mm
1.3 mm
9 mm 8 mm
12 mm
12 mm 11 mm 9 mm
12 mm 11 mm
12 mm
5.2. Simulation Results and Analysis
5.2. Simulation Results and Analysis
5.2.1. Forming Results of R1 = 10 mm
According to the structural parameters shown in Table 6, the integral circumferential MEFP is
designed and simulated. When the radius of curvature of the inner wall of the liner is 10 mm and the
thickness at the center of the liner is different, with the increase of the curvature radius of the outer
thickness at the center of the liner is different, with the increase of the curvature radius of the outer
wall of the liner,
wall of the the
liner, forming
the formingresults
resultsare
areshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure 8.
8.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 8. Cont.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 12 of 24
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(i) (j) (k) (l)

Figure
Figure 8. 8. 1#EFP-4#EFPformed
1#EFP-4#EFP formedshape
shape of of the
the liner whichwhich different
differentcurvature
curvatureradius radiusofofouter
outer wall
walland
and
different
different (i) thickness:(a)
center
center thickness:(a)R1 R1 == 10 (j)mm,
10 mm,R2 R2= = 6 mm,
6 mm, ∆t = ∆t1.0=(k)
mm; (b) R1
1.0 mm; (b)= R1 = 10R2
10 mm, mm, =(l)7 R2
mm, = 7∆tmm,
=
1.0 mm;
∆ t =Figure
1.0 mm;(c) R1 = 10 mm,
(c) R1 = 10formed
8. 1#EFP-4#EFP R2 =
mm, R29 mm,
shape ∆t =
= 9ofmm, 1.0 mm; (d)
∆ t which
the liner R1 =
= 1.0 differentR2 = 10 mm, ∆ t
R1 = R2radius
mm; (d)curvature = 1.0 mm;
= 10ofmm, (e) R1
outer∆wall = 10
t = andmm,
1.0 mm;
(e)R2 ==610mm,
R1differentmm, ∆t R2
= 1.15
center = 6mm;
mm,(f)∆ tR1
thickness:(a) ==10
= 1.15
R1 10mm,
mm, R2
mm; (f)
R2 R1== 76 =
mm,
10 mm,
mm, ∆∆tt == 1.0
1.15 =mm;
R2 mm; (b)(g)
7 mm, R1∆R1=t == 10
10 1.15mm,
mm, R2R2
mm; 7=mm,
=(g) 9R1mm, =∆tmm,
=∆t10 =
1.15
R2 =1.0 mm; (h)
mm; (c)
9 mm, R1
∆ R1 = R2
t == 1.15 =
10 mm,10
mm;mm,
R2 (h) ∆t = 1.15
R1 =∆tR2
= 9 mm, mm;
= 1.0 (i)
= mm; R1
10 mm, = 10
(d) R1 mm,
∆ =t R2 R2
= 1.15 = 6 mm,
mm;∆t(i)
= 10 mm, ∆ t
= 1.0 = 1.3
R1mm; mm; (j)
= 10(e)mm, R1
R1 = R2 = 10
10 mm, mm,
= 6 mm,
∆t∆=t = ∆∆tt == 1.3 = ∆9tmm,
∆ tR2
=R2= 7= mm,
1.3 6 mm,(j)
mm; R11.3 =mm;
1.15
10mm;(k)(f)R1
mm, R1= =
R2 =1010
7mm,mm,R2
mm, ∆ =t=9=7mm,
R2 mm,mm;
1.3 1.15mm;
(k) mm;
R1 =(l)
10R1
(g) R1
mm,= =R2 10
R2 =mm,
10
= mm,
9R2
mm, ∆= 1.3
t =∆mm.
t = mm;
1.3
∆t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 10 mm,
(l) R11.15
= R2mm; (h)mm,
= 10 R1 = R2
∆ t==101.3
mm,mm.
It R2
can= be
7 mm,seen∆t from
= 1.3 mm;Figure 8, =when
(k) R1 10 mm, the
R2thickness
= 9 mm, ∆tat themm;
= 1.3 center
(l) R1of= the
R2 =liner
10 mm,is constant,
∆t = 1.3 mm. the shape
of It
the formed projectile does not change significantly with the increase
can be seen from Figure 8, when the thickness at the center of the liner is constant, the shape of the curvature radius of the of
It can be seen from Figure 8, when the thickness at the center of the liner is constant, the shape
theouter
formedwallprojectile
of the liner; doeswhennotthe curvature
change radius of the
significantly with inner
the and outerof
increase walls
the of the liner is
curvature constant,
radius of the
theofshape
the formed
of the projectile
formed does not change
projectile changes significantly
and the with
ratio of the increase
length to of the curvature
diameter of the radiusprojectile
formed of the
outerouter
wallwall
of the liner;
of the
when the curvature radius of the inner and outer walls of the liner is constant,
decreases with theliner; whenofthe
increase thecurvature
thickness radius
at theof center
the inner of and
the outer
liner.walls
It canofbe
theseen
linerthat
is constant,
when the
the shape
the of the
shape of formed
the formed projectile
projectilechanges
changes and
and the
the ratioofoflength
ratio length to to diameter
diameter of of the
the formedformed projectile
projectile
curvature radius of the outer wall and the thickness of the center of the liner are increased, the shape
decreases withwiththetheincrease ofofthethethickness
thickness atat the centerofofthe theliner.
liner. It can be seen that
whenwhenthe the
of decreases
the formed projectileincrease
is greatly affected. The the center
forming speed It can
corresponding be seen
to thethatforming result
curvature radius
curvature of the
radius of theouter wall
outer wallandandthethethickness
thicknessof ofthe
the center
center of of the
theliner
linerare
areincreased,
increased, thethe shape of
shape
shown in Figure 8 is shown in Figure 9.
of the formed
the formed projectile projectile
is greatlyis greatly
affected.affected. The forming
The forming speed speed corresponding
corresponding to the
to the forming
forming result
result shown
shown in Figure 8 is
in Figure 8 is shown in Figure 9. shown in Figure 9.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 9. Cont.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 13 of 24
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
(k) (l)
FigureFigure 9. 1#EFP-4#EFP
9. 1#EFP-4#EFP formedvelocity
formed velocity ofofthe liner
the which
liner different
which curvature
different radius ofradius
curvature outer wall and wall
of outer
different center thickness:(a) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (b) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm, ∆t =
and different center thickness:(a) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (b) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm,
1.0 mm; (c) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (d) R1 = R2 = 10 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (e) R1 = 10 mm,
∆ t = 1.0 mm; (c) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆ t = 1.0 mm; (d) R1 = R2 = 10 mm, ∆ t = 1.0 mm;
R2 = 6 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (f) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (g) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆t =
(e) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (f) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (g) R1 = 10 mm,
1.15 mm; (h) R1 = R2 = 10 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 10 mm,
R2 = R29 mm, ∆ t∆=
= 7 mm, t =1.15 mm;
1.3 mm; (k)(h) 10 =
R1 =R1 mm,R2R2 = =10 mm,∆t∆= 1.3
9 mm, t =mm;
1.15(l)mm; 10 =
(i) =R1
R1 = R2 10 ∆mm,
mm, t = 1.3R2
mm.= 6 mm,
∆ t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm; (k) R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm;
= R2 = 10 mm,
(l) R1 According to the∆ tvelocity
= 1.3 mm.curve of forming projectile shown in Figure 9, when the curvature
radius of the inner wall of the liner is 10 mm, the forming velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP is shown in Table
According
7. to the velocity curve of forming projectile shown in Figure 9, when the curvature
radius of the inner wall of the liner is 10 mm, the forming velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP is shown in Table 7.
Projectile Number Curvature Radius ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm

R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2147 m/s 2080 m/s 2045 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm 2146 m/s 2058 m/s 2011 m/s
1#EFP
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm 2049 m/s 1981 m/s 1964 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2030 m/s 1976 m/s 1944 m/s
Materials 2020, 13, 891 14 of 24

Projectile Number Curvature Radius ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm

Table 7. Cont.
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2147 m/s 2080 m/s 2045 m/s
Projectile Number R1 = 10 mm,
Curvature Radius R2 = 7 mm ∆t = 1 mmm/s
2146 ∆t = 1.15m/s
2058 mm 2011 m/smm
∆t = 1.3
1#EFP
R1 =R1 = 10 R2
10 mm, mm,= 6R2mm= 9 mm 2215 2049
m/sm/s 1981 m/s
2165 m/s 1964
2160m/s
m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2030 m/s 1976 m/s 1944 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm 2149 m/s 2141 m/s 2126 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm 2058 m/s 2045 m/s 2014 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm 2149 m/s 2141 m/s 2126 m/s
2#EFP R1 = R1
10 mm, = 10
= 10R2
mm, R2mm= 9 mm 2050 m/sm/s
2058 2039 m/s
2045 m/s 2006
2014 m/s
m/s
R1 =R110=mm, R2 = R2
10 mm, 6 mm
= 10 mm 2245 m/sm/s
2050 2216 m/s
2039 m/s 2195m/s
2006 m/s
R1 =R1 = 10 R2
10 mm, mm,= 7R2mm= 6 mm 2202 2245
m/sm/s 2216 m/s
2175 m/s 2195
2162m/s
m/s
3#EFP
R1 = 10 mm, R2
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 9 mm = 7 mm 2175 m/sm/s
2202 2175 m/s
2164 m/s 2162 m/s
2134 m/s
3#EFP
R1 = R1 = 10R2
10 mm, mm, R2mm
= 10 = 9 mm 2159 2175
m/sm/s 2164 m/s
2140 m/s 2134
2126m/s
m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 10 mm 2159 m/s 2140 m/s 2126 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2334 m/s 2294 m/s 2250 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 6 mm 2334 m/s 2294 m/s 2250 m/s
R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 7 mm 2279 m/s 2238 m/s 2227 m/s
4#EFP R1 =R110 mm, = 9R2
= 10 R2
2206 2203 m/s
2203 m/s 2184
2184 m/s
m/s
R1 =R1
10 mm, R2 = 10
= 10 mm, R2mm= 10 mm 2171 m/sm/s
2171 2120 m/s
2120 m/s 2101m/s
2101 m/s
According to
According tothe
theforming
formingspeed
speedofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown
shownininTable
Table7,7,
thethe speed
speed change
change rule
rule curve
curve is
is obtained that shown in Figure
obtained that shown in Figure 10. 10.
1#EFP velocity curve of the outer wall of liner with different curvature radius 2#EFP velocity curve of the outer wall of liner with different curvature radius
2200 2250
2175 Δt=1.0mm 2225 Δt=1.0mm
2150 Δt=1.15mm 2200 Δt=1.15mm

2125
2100 Δt=1.3mm 2175 Δt=1.3mm
2075 2150
2050 2125
2025 2100
2000 2075
1975
1950 2050
1925 2025
1900 2000
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Curvature radius of outer wall of liner/mm Curvature radius of outer wall of liner/mm
(a) (b)
2275 2350
Δt=1.0mm 2325 Δt=1.0mm
2250 2300
Δt=1.15mm Δt=1.15mm
2225 Δt=1.3mm 2275
2250 Δt=1.3mm
2200 2225
2175 2200
2175
2150 2150
2125 2125
2100
2100 2075
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
(c) (d)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. 1#EFP-4#EFP velocity curve of the outer wall of the liner with different curvature radius:
(a) 1#EFP
(a) 1#EFP velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (b)
(b) 2#EFP
2#EFP velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (c)
(c) 3#EFP
3#EFP velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (d)
(d) 4#EFP
4#EFP velocity
velocity curve.
curve.
From
From the
the 1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP forming speed curve shown in Figure 10, it can be known that when when thethe
curvature
curvature radius
radius ofof the
the inner
inner wall
wall of
of the
the liner is constant, with the increase
increase of the curvature
curvature radius
radius of
the
the outer
outerwall
wallof of
thethe
liner, the forming
liner, speedspeed
the forming of 1#EFP-4#EFP decreased
of 1#EFP-4#EFP gradually.
decreased When theWhen
gradually. thickness
the
of the center
thickness of the
of the linerofisthe
center 1.0liner
mm,isthe
1.0speed of 1#EFP
mm, the speed decreases from 2147from
of 1#EFP decreases m/s 2147
to 2030
m/sm/s with m/s
to 2030 the
increase
with theof the curvature
increase radius of radius
of the curvature the outer
of wall of thewall
the outer liner,
of which decreased
the liner, by about 5%;
which decreased the speed
by about 5%;
of
the2#EFP
speeddecreased from 2215 from
of 2#EFP decreased m/s to 2050
2215 m/s,
m/s to which decreased
2050 m/s, by about 7.5%;
which decreased the speed
by about of 3#EFP
7.5%; the speed
decreased from 2245from
of 3#EFP decreased m/s to 2159
2245 m/s,
m/s to which decreased
2159 m/s, by about 4%;
which decreased by the speed
about 4%; of
the4#EFP
speeddecreased
of 4#EFP
from 2334 m/s
decreased from to2334
2171m/sm/s,towhich decreased
2171 m/s, whichby about 7%.
decreased byWhen
aboutthe
7%.thickness
When theofthickness
the centerofofthethecenter
liner
is
of1.5
themm,
linerthe speed
is 1.5 mm, of the
1#EFPspeeddecreases
of 1#EFPfrom 2080 m/s
decreases to 1976
from 2080m/s
m/swith the increase
to 1976 m/s withofthe
theincrease
curvature of
Materials 2020, 13, 891 15 of 24
the curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, which decreased by about 5%; the speed of 2#EFP
decreased from
radius of the 2165
outer m/softothe
wall 2039 m/s,
liner, which
which decreased
decreased by about
by about 5%;6%; the speed
the speed of 3#EFP
of 2#EFP decreased
decreased from
from 2216 m/s to 2140 m/s, which decreased by about 3.5%; the speed of 4#EFP
2165 m/s to 2039 m/s, which decreased by about 6%; the speed of 3#EFP decreased from 2216 m/s decreased from 2294to
m/s to 2120 m/s, which decreased by about 7.6%. When the thickness of the center
2140 m/s, which decreased by about 3.5%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2294 m/s to 2120 m/s, of the liner is 1.3
mm,
whichthedecreased
speed of 1#EFP
by about decreases from 2045
7.6%. When m/s to 1944
the thickness of m/s with the
the center of increase
the liner of
is the
1.3 curvature radius
mm, the speed of
of the outer wall of the liner, which decreased by about 5%; the speed of 2#EFP decreased
1#EFP decreases from 2045 m/s to 1944 m/s with the increase of the curvature radius of the outer wall from 2160of
m/s to 2006 m/s, which decreased by about 7.1%; the speed of 3#EFP decreased from
the liner, which decreased by about 5%; the speed of 2#EFP decreased from 2160 m/s to 2006 m/s, which2195 m/s to 2126
m/s, whichby
decreased decreased
about 7.1%; by about 3%; of
the speed the3#EFP
speeddecreased
of 4#EFP from
decreased from
2195 m/s to 2250 m/s to
2126 m/s, 2101decreased
which m/s, which by
decreased by about 6.6%.
about 3%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2250 m/s to 2101 m/s, which decreased by about 6.6%.
According
Accordingto tothe
theforming
formingspeedspeedofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown
shownininTable
Table7,7,the
thevelocity
velocitychange
changecurve
curveofof
#1EFP-4#EFP is obtained that shown in
#1EFP-4#EFP is obtained that shown in Figure 11. Figure 11.
Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP

2500 2450

2250 2200
2200 2150
2150 2100
2100 2050
2050 2000
2000 1950
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO. EFP NO.
(a) (b)
Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP
2400 Δt=1.3mm,R1=10mm,R2=6mm
2350 Δt=1.3mm,R1=10mm,R2=7mm
2300 Δt=1.3mm,R1=10mm,R2=9mm
2250
2200 Δt=1.3mm,R1=10mm,R2=10mm
2150
2100
2050
2000
1950
1900
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO.
(c)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Velocity
Velocitycurve
curveofof1#EFP-4#EFP:
1#EFP-4#EFP:(a) (a)the
thecenter
centerthickness
thicknessofofliner
linerisis11mm;
mm;(b)
(b)the
thecenter
center
thickness
thicknessofofliner
linerisis1.15
1.15mm;
mm;(c) (c)the
thecenter
centerthickness
thicknessofofliner
linerisis1.3
1.3mm.
mm.
ItIt can be
beseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure11a11a
thatthat
when ∆t = ∆t
when 1.0 =mm,
1.0 the
mm, forming speed ofspeed
the forming 1#EFP-4#EFP increases
of 1#EFP-4#EFP
graduallygradually
increases and the increase slows down
and the increase slowswith
down thewith
increase of the curvature
the increase radius of
of the curvature the outer
radius of thewall
outerof
the liner. When R2 = 6 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increased from
wall of the liner. When R2 = 6 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increased from 2147 m/s to 2147 m/s to 2334 m/s, which
increasedwhich
2334m/s, by about 8%; when
increased R2 = 78%;
by about mm, the speed
when R2 = 7from
mm, 1#EFP to 4#EFP
the speed from increased
1#EFP to 4#EFPfrom 2146 m/s to
increased
2279 2146
from m/s, which
m/s to increased
2279 m/s,by about
which 5.8%; when
increased R2 = 95.8%;
by about mm, when
the speed
R2 =from
9 mm, 1#EFP to 4#EFP
the speed fromincreased
1#EFP
from
to 4#EFP 2049 m/s to 2206
increased from m/s,
2049which
m/s toincreased
2206 m/s, bywhich
aboutincreased
7.1%; when by R2
about= 107.1%;
mm,whenthe speed from
R2 = 10 mm,1#EFP
the
to 4#EFP
speed fromincreased
1#EFP tofrom4#EFP 2030 m/s to 2171
increased fromm/s,
2030which
m/s toincreased
2171 m/s,by about
which 6.5%. It by
increased canabout
be seen from
6.5%. It
Figure 11b, when ∆t = 1.15 mm and the curvature radius of the outer wall
can be seen from Figure 11b, when ∆t = 1.15 mm and the curvature radius of the outer wall of the of the liner is between
6–9 mm,
liner the forming
is between 6–9 mm, speed
the of 1#EFP-4#EFP
forming speed of increases
1#EFP-4#EFPgradually. When
increases R2 = 6 mm,
gradually. When theR2
speed from
= 6 mm,
1#EFP
the speed to 4#EFP increased
from 1#EFP from 2146
to 4#EFP m/s tofrom
increased 22792146
m/s, m/s
which increased
to 2279 by about
m/s, which 5.8%; when
increased R2 = 5.8%;
by about 7 mm,
the speed
when R2 =from7 mm,1#EFP
the to 4#EFP
speed increased
from 1#EFP from 2058 increased
to 4#EFP m/s to 2238from m/s,2058
which m/sincreased
to 2238 by m/s,about
which8%;
when R2 =by9 about
increased mm, the8%; speed
when from
R2 =1#EFP
9 mm,tothe
4#EFP
speedincreased
from 1#EFPfrom to
1981 m/s to
4#EFP 2203 m/s,from
increased which1981increased
m/s to
by about
2203 10%; when
m/s, which R2 = 10
increased by mm,
aboutthe speed
10%; from
when R21#EFP
= 10 mm,to 3#EFP increased
the speed from 1976
from 1#EFP m/s toincreased
to 3#EFP 2140 m/s,
which
from 1976increased
m/s to by
2140about
m/s,7.7%,
whichand from 3#EFP
increased to 4#EFP,
by about 7.7%,decrease
and fromfrom 3#EFP2140to m/s to 2120
4#EFP, m/s, which
decrease from
decreased
2140 m/s toby about
2120 m/s,1%.which decreased by about 1%.
It can be seen from Figure 11c, when ∆t = 1.3 mm and R2 = 6 mm, the forming speed of 1#EFP-
4#EFP increased gradually, the speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increased from 2045 m/s to 2250 m/s, which
increased by about 9.1%; when R2 = 6 mm, the forming speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increased gradually,
Materials 2020, 13, 891 16 of 24
It can be seen from Figure 11c, when ∆t = 1.3 mm and R2 = 6 mm, the forming speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP
Materials
increased 2020, 13, x FOR PEER
gradually, REVIEW
the speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increased from 2045 m/s to 2250 m/s, which increased 16 of 24
by about 9.1%; when R2 = 6 mm, the forming speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP increased gradually, the speed of
the speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP increased fromincreased from
2011 m/s 2011 m/s
to 2227 m/s,to 2227 increased
which m/s, whichbyincreased by about
about 9.7%; when9.7%;
R2 = when
9 mm,
R2
the=forming
9 mm, speed
the forming speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP
of 1#EFP-4#EFP increased gradually,increased the gradually, the speed ofincreased
speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP 1#EFP-4#EFP
from
increased from 1964 m/s to 2184 m/s, which increased by about 10.1%; when
1964 m/s to 2184 m/s, which increased by about 10.1%; when R2 = 10 mm, the forming speed of R2 = 10 mm, the forming
speed of 1#EFP-3#EFP
1#EFP-3#EFP increasedincreased gradually,
gradually, the speed theofspeed of 1#EFP-3#EFP
1#EFP-3#EFP increased
increased from m/s
from 1964 1964m/s to 2184
to 2184 m/s,
m/s, which increased by about 8.6%, and the speed of from 3#EFP to 4#EFP，decrease
which increased by about 8.6%, and the speed of from 3#EFP to 4#EFP, decrease from 2126 m/s to from 2126 m/s
to 2101
2101 m/s,
m/s, which
which decreased
decreased byby about
about 1.2%.
1.2%.
From
From the forming speed shown Table
the forming speed shown in in Table7, it7,can
it be
canseen
be that
seenthe forming
that speed curve
the forming speedofcurve
1#EFP- of
4#EFP with the increase of thickness at the center of the liner, as shown in Figure
1#EFP-4#EFP with the increase of thickness at the center of the liner, as shown in Figure 12. 12.
1#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different center thickness 2#EFP velocity curve of the liner with different center thickness
2225 2300
2200 R1=10mm,R2=6mm 2275 R1=10mm,R2=6mm
2175 R1=10mm,R2=7mm 2250 R1=10mm,R2=7mm
Velocity of EFP/(m/s)
V elocity of EFP/(m/s)
2150 2225 R1=10mm,R2=9mm

2125 R1=10mm,R2=9mm
2200 R1=10mm,R2=10mm
2100 R1=10mm,R2=10mm 2175
2075
2050 2150
2025 2125
2000 2100
1975 2075
1950 2050
1925 2025
1900 2000
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
Center thickness of the liner/mm Center thickness of the liner/mm
(a) (b)
2300 2450
R1=10mm,R2=6mm 2425 R1=10mm,R2=6mm
2275 2400
R1=10mm,R2=7mm 2375 R1=10mm,R2=7mm
2250 R1=10mm,R2=9mm 2350 R1=10mm,R2=9mm

R1=10mm,R2=10mm 2325 R1=10mm,R2=10mm
2225 2300
2200 2275
2250
2175 2225
2200
2150 2175
2150
2125 2125
2100
2100 2075
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. 1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve
curveofofthe
thecenter
centerof
of the
the liner
liner with
with different
different thickness:
thickness: (a)
(a) 1#EFP
1#EFP
velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (b)
(b) 2#EFP
2#EFP velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (c)
(c) 3#EFP
3#EFP velocity
velocity curve;
curve; (d)
(d) 4#EFP
4#EFP velocity
velocity curve.
curve.
ItIt can
can be
be seen from Figure
Figure 12,12, When
WhenR2 R2== 66mm,mm,with
withthetheincrease
increaseofofthe thethickness
thicknessatat the
thecenter of
center
the
of theliner, the
liner, speed
the speedofof1#EFP
1#EFPdecreased
decreasedfromfrom21472147m/s
m/stoto 2045
2045 m/s, which decreaseddecreased by by about
about4.8%;
4.8%;
the speed
the speedof of 2#EFP
2#EFPdecreased
decreasedfrom from2215
2215m/sm/s toto 2160
2160 m/s,
m/s, which
which decreased
decreased by by about
about 2.5%;
2.5%; the
the speed
speed
of 3#EFP
of 3#EFPdecreased
decreasedfrom from22452245m/sm/s to
to 2195
2195 m/s,
m/s, which
which decreased
decreased by by about
about 2.2%;
2.2%; thethe speed
speed of of 4#EFP
4#EFP
decreased from
decreased from 2334
2334 m/s
m/s toto 2250
2250 m/s, which decreased by about 3.6%. When When R2 R2 ==77 mm,mm, with
with the
the
increaseof
increase ofthe
thethickness
thicknessatat the
the center
center of the
of the liner,
liner, thethe speed
speed of 1#EFP
of 1#EFP decreased
decreased fromfrom2146 2146
m/s tom/s to
2011
2011which
m/s, m/s, which decreased
decreased by aboutby about 6.3%;
6.3%; the the of
speed speed
2#EFPof 2#EFP
decreased decreased
from 2149 from 2149
m/s m/s to
to 2126 2126
m/s, m/s,
which
which decreased
decreased by aboutby1.1%;
about the1.1%;
speedthe
of speed
3#EFP of 3#EFP decreased
decreased from 2202from m/s to 2202
2162 m/s
m/s,to which
2162 m/s, which
decreased
decreased
by about 1.8%; by about 1.8%; the
the speed speed decreased
of 4#EFP of 4#EFP decreased
from 2279from m/s2279 m/s m/s,
to 2238 to 2238which m/s,decreased
which decreased
by about by
aboutWhen
1.8%. 1.8%.R2 When R2 =with
= 9 mm, 9 mm, thewith the increase
increase of the thickness
of the thickness at the centerat the center
of the of the speed
liner, liner, the speed
of 1#EFP
of 1#EFP decreased
decreased from 2049 fromm/s to 2049
1964m/s to which
m/s, 1964 m/s, which decreased
decreased by about 4.2%; by about 4.2%;of
the speed the speeddecreased
2#EFP of 2#EFP
decreased
from 2058 m/sfromto2058
2014m/s
m/s,towhich
2014 m/s, which by
decreased decreased by about
about 2.2%; 2.2%;of
the speed the speeddecreased
3#EFP of 3#EFP fromdecreased
2175
fromto2175
m/s 2134m/s towhich
m/s, 2134 m/s, which decreased
decreased by about
by about 1.9%; the 1.9%;
speedthe speed of
of 4#EFP 4#EFP decreased
decreased from 2206 from
m/s2206 m/s
to 2184
to 2184
m/s, which m/s,decreased
which decreased
by aboutby 1%.about
When 1%.
R2When
= 10 mm,R2 = 10 mm,
with with theofincrease
the increase of theatthickness
the thickness the centerat
the
of thecenter
liner,of the
the liner,ofthe
speed speed
1#EFP of 1#EFPfrom
decreased decreased from
2030 m/s 2030 m/s,
to 1944 m/s to 1944decreased
which m/s, which bydecreased
about 4.2%; by
about
the speed 4.2%;of the speed
2#EFP of 2#EFPfrom
decreased decreased
2050 m/s fromto 2050
2006 m/s
m/s,to 2006 m/s,
which whichby
decreased decreased
about 2.2%; by about 2.2%;
the speed
the3#EFP
of speeddecreased
of 3#EFP decreased
from 2159from 2159
m/s to m/sm/s,
2126 to 2126
whichm/s, which decreased
decreased by aboutby about
1.5%; the1.5%;
speedtheofspeed
4#EFPof
4#EFP decreased
decreased from 2171fromm/s2171 m/s to
to 2101 2101
m/s, m/s, decreased
which which decreased
by about by3.2%.
about 3.2%.

Materials 2020, 13, 891 17 of 24

thickness at
thickness at the
the center
center of
of the
the liner
liner is
is different,
different, with
with the
the increase
increase of
of the
the curvature
curvature radius
radius of
of the
the outer
outer
wall of the liner, the forming results are shown in Figure
wall of the liner, the forming results are shown in Figure 13. 13.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
(i) (j) (k) (l)

Figure
Figure 13.13. 1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP formed
formed shape
shape of
of the
the liner
liner which
which different
different curvature
curvature radius
radius of
of outer
outer wall
wall and
and
different
different center
center thickness:(a)
thickness:(a)R1R1==1212mm, mm,R2R2 = 8= mm,
8 mm, ∆t ∆t = mm;
= 1.0 1.0 mm;(b) R1
(b)=R1 12 =mm, R2 = R2
12 mm, 9 mm, ∆t =
= 9 mm,
∆ t mm;
1.0 = 1.0(c)
mm;R1 (c) = 12
= 12R1mm, R2mm, mm,= ∆11
= 11 R2 t =mm,
1.0 mm;∆ t (d)
= 1.0
R1 mm;
= R2 =(d)
12R1mm,= R2∆t ==1.012mm;
mm,(e)∆ R1
t == 1.0
12 mm,
mm;
(e) =R18 =
R2 mm,
12 mm, R2 =mm;
∆t = 1.15 8 mm,(f)∆R1t == 1.15
12 mm,
mm;R2 (f)=R1 = 12 mm,
9 mm, R2 =mm;
∆t = 1.15 9 mm,(g)∆R1t == 1.15
12 mm,
mm;R2(g)= R1 = 12 mm,
11 mm, ∆t =
R2 = 11 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (h) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm,
1.15 mm; (h) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 12 mm,
∆ t ==91.3
R2 mm,mm;∆t (j)
= 1.3 = 12 (k)
R1mm; mm,R1R2 = 9mm,
= 12 mm,R2∆=t 11= 1.3
mm, mm;∆t = 1.3R1
(k) = 12(l)mm,
mm; R1 =R2 R2== 11 mm, ∆∆tt ==1.3
12 mm, 1.3mm.
mm;
(l) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm.
It can be seen from Figure 13, when R1 = 12 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm, with the increase of the curvature
radiusIt of
canthe
be outer
seen from
wall Figure 13, when
of the liner, R1 = 12
the shape ofmm, ∆t = 1.0projectile
the formed mm, withhas theno
increase
obvious of the curvature
change; with
the increase of the thickness of the center of the liner and the curvature radius of the outer wall ofwith
radius of the outer wall of the liner, the shape of the formed projectile has no obvious change; the
the increase
liner, the shapeof the
of thickness
the formed of projectile
the centerchanges.
of the liner
WhenandR1 the=curvature
12 mm, ∆radius of thewith
t = 1.3 mm, outerthewall of the
increase
liner,
of thethecurvature
shape of the formed
radius of projectile
the outerchanges.
wall of When R1 = 12
the liner, themm, ∆t =of1.3the
shape mm, with the
formed increase of
projectile is
the curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, the shape of the formed projectile
approximately spherical. According to the forming results of different thickness at the center of the is approximately
spherical.
liner According
and different to the forming
curvature radiusresults
of the of different
outer thickness
wall when R1 =at10
the
mm center of the liner
as shown and different
in Figure 9, With
curvature
the increase radius
of theofcurvature
the outerradius
wall when
and the = 10 mm as
R1 thickness of shown in Figure
the center 9, With
of the liner the same
at the increase of the
time,
curvature radius and the thickness of
influence on the formed projectile is greater. the center of the liner at the same time, the influence on the
formedTheprojectile
forming is greater.
speed corresponding to the forming result shown in Figure 13 is shown in Figure
14. The forming speed corresponding to the forming result shown in Figure 13 is shown in Figure 14.
Materials 2020, 13, 891 18 of 24
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
(k) (l)
Figure 14. 1#EFP-4#EFP formed velocity of the liner which different curvature radius of outer wall
and different center thickness:(a) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (b) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm,
∆ t = 1.0 mm; (c) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm, ∆ t = 1.0 mm; (d) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.0 mm;
(e) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (f) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (g) R1 = 12 mm,
R2 = 11 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (h) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm,
∆ t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm; (k) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm;
(l) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆ t = 1.3 mm.
Figure 14. 1#EFP-4#EFP formed velocity of the liner which different curvature radius of outer wall
and different center thickness:(a) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (b) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆t
= 1.0 mm; (c) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (d) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆t = 1.0 mm; (e) R1 = 12 mm,
Materials 2020, 13, 891
R2 = 8 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (f) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (g) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm, ∆t 19= of 24
1.15 mm; (h) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆t = 1.15 mm; (i) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm; (j) R1 = 12 mm,
R2 = 9 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm; (k) R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm; (l) R1 = R2 = 12 mm, ∆t = 1.3 mm.
According to the velocity curve of forming projectile shown in Figure 14, when the curvature
radius of the inner wall of the liner is 12 mm, the forming velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP is shown in Table 8.
According to the velocity curve of forming projectile shown in Figure14, when the curvature
radius of the inner wall ofTable
the liner is 12 mm, formed
8. 1#EFP-4#EFP the forming velocity
velocity of121#EFP-4#EFP
for R1 = mm. is shown in Table
8.
Projectile Number Radius of Curvature ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm
Table 8. 1#EFP-4#EFP
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm formed velocity
2137 m/s for R1 = 122062
mm.m/s 2004 m/s
R1 = 12Radius
Projectile Number mm, R2of= Curvature
9 mm 2065
∆t m/s
= 1 mm ∆t 2035 m/s
= 1.15 mm ∆t = 1941 m/s
1.3 mm
1#EFP
R1 = R1 = 12 R2
12 mm, mm,= 11
R2mm
= 8 mm 20512137
m/s m/s 2062 m/s
2007 m/s 2004 m/s
1924 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 12 mm = 9 mm 2035 m/s m/s
2065 2035 m/s
1989 m/s 1941 m/s
1907 m/s
1#EFP
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm21412051
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm m/s
m/s 2007 m/s
2066 m/s
1924 m/s
2057 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2035 m/s 1989 m/s 1907 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm 2083 m/s 2050 m/s 2008 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm 2053 m/s 2046 m/s 2003 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm 2083 m/s 2050 m/s 2008 m/s
2#EFP R1 = R1
12 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2050 m/s m/s 2040 m/s 1986 m/s
= 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm 2053 2046 m/s 2003 m/s
R1 =R112 =
mm, R2 = 8R2
12 mm, mm
= 12 mm21502050
m/s m/s 2118 m/s
2040 m/s 2103
1986 m/s
m/s
R1 =R112 =
mm, R2 = 9R2
12 mm, = 8 mm 21052150
mm m/s m/s 2118 m/s
2096 m/s 2103 m/s
2062 m/s
3#EFP
R1 = 12 mm, R2
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm = 9 mm 2060 m/s m/s
2105 2096 m/s
2055 m/s 2062 m/s
2011 m/s
3#EFP
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm20552060
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 12 mm m/s
m/s 2055 m/s
2020 m/s
2011 m/s
1979 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 12 mm 2055 m/s 2020 m/s 1979 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm 2155 m/s 2144 m/s 2136 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 8 mm 2155 m/s 2144 m/s 2136 m/s
R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 9 mm 2123 m/s 2112 m/s 1992 m/s
4#EFP R1 = R1
12 mm, R2 = 11 mm 2095 m/s m/s 2079 m/s 1989 m/s
= 12 mm, R2 = 11 mm 2095 2079 m/s 1989 m/s
R1 = R1
12 mm,
= 12 R2
mm,= 12
R2mm
= 12 mm20432043
m/s m/s 2019 m/s
2019 m/s 1947
1947 m/s
m/s
According to
According to the
theforming
formingspeed
speedofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown
shownininTable
Table8,8,
thethe speed
speed change
change rule
rule curve
curve is
is obtained that shown in Figure
obtained that shown in Figure 15. 15.
2200 2200
2175 Δt=1.0mm 2175 Δt=1.0mm
2150 Δt=1.15mm 2150 Δt=1.15mm

2125
2100 Δt=1.3mm 2125 Δt=1.3mm
2075 2100
2050 2075
2025 2050
2000 2025
1975
1950 2000
1925 1975
1900 1950
8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
(a) (b)
2200 2225
2175 Δt=1.0mm 2200 Δt=1.0mm
2150 Δt=1.15mm 2175 Δt=1.15mm

2150
2125 Δt=1.3mm 2125 Δt=1.3mm
2100 2100
2075 2075
2050 2050
2025 2025
2000
2000 1975
1975 1950
1950 1925
8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
(c) (d)
Figure 15. 1#EFP-4#EFP velocity curve of the center of the liner with different thickness: (a) 1#EFP
velocity curve; (b) 2#EFP velocity curve; (c) 3#EFP velocity curve;(d) 4#EFP velocity curve.
Figure 15. 1#EFP-4#EFP velocity curve of the center of the liner with different thickness: (a) 1#EFP
Materials 2020, 13, 891 20 of 24
velocity curve; (b) 2#EFP velocity curve; (c) 3#EFP velocity curve;(d) 4#EFP velocity curve.
Fromthe
From the1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPforming formingspeedspeedcurve
curveshown
shownin inFigure
Figure15,15,ititcan
canbebeknown
knownthat thatwhen
whenthe the
curvature radius of the inner wall of the liner is constant, with the increase of the curvature radius ofof
curvature radius of the inner wall of the liner is constant, with the increase of the curvature radius
theouter
the outerwall
wall of the
of the liner,liner, the forming
the forming speed speed of 1#EFP-4#EFP
of 1#EFP-4#EFP decreased decreased
gradually.gradually.
When the When thicknessthe
thickness of the center of the liner is 1.0 mm, the speed of 1#EFP decreases
of the center of the liner is 1.0 mm, the speed of 1#EFP decreases from 2137 m/s to 2035 m/s with the from 2137 m/s to 2035 m/s
with theofincrease
increase the curvatureof theradius
curvature
of theradius of the
outer wall outer
of the wall
liner, of the
which liner, which
decreased decreased
by about 4.8%; the byspeed
about
4.8%;
of 2#EFPthedecreased
speed of 2#EFPfrom 2141 decreased
m/s to from
2050 2141 m/s to decreased
m/s, which 2050 m/s, which
by about decreased
4.3%; the byspeed
aboutof 4.3%;
3#EFPthe
decreased from 2150 m/s to 2055 m/s, which decreased by about 4.4%; the speed of 4#EFP decreasedof
speed of 3#EFP decreased from 2150 m/s to 2055 m/s, which decreased by about 4.4%; the speed
4#EFP
from decreased
2155 m/s to 2043fromm/s,2155which
m/s todecreased
2043 m/s,by which
about decreased
5.2%. When by about 5.2%. When
the thickness of thethecenter
thickness
of theof
the center of the liner is 1.15 mm, the speed of 1#EFP decreases from 2062
liner is 1.15 mm, the speed of 1#EFP decreases from 2062 m/s to 1989 m/s with the increase of the m/s to 1989 m/s with the
increase of the curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, which decreased
curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, which decreased by about 3.5%; the speed of 2#EFP by about 3.5%; the
speed of 2#EFP
decreased from 2066decreased
m/s to from 2066which
2040 m/s, m/s todecreased
2040 m/s, by which
aboutdecreased
1.3%; theby about
speed of1.3%;
3#EFPthe speed of
decreased
3#EFP decreased from 2118 m/s to 2020 m/s, which decreased by about
from 2118 m/s to 2020 m/s, which decreased by about 4.6%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2144 4.6%; the speed of 4#EFP
m/s
to 2019 m/s, which decreased by about 5.8%. When the thickness of the center of the liner is 1.3of
decreased from 2144 m/s to 2019 m/s, which decreased by about 5.8%. When the thickness mm,the
center
the speedof the liner isdecreases
of 1#EFP 1.3 mm, the fromspeed
2004ofm/s
1#EFP decreases
to 1907 m/s withfromthe
2004 m/s toof
increase 1907
them/s with the
curvature increase
radius of
of the curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, which decreased
the outer wall of the liner, which decreased by about 4.8%; the speed of 2#EFP decreased from 2057 by about 4.8%; the speed of
2#EFP
m/s decreased
to 1986 m/s, whichfromdecreased
2057 m/s by to about
1986 m/s,
3.5%;which decreased
the speed by decreased
of 3#EFP about 3.5%; the2103
from speed m/softo3#EFP
1979
decreased from 2103 m/s to 1979 m/s, which decreased by about 5.9%;
m/s, which decreased by about 5.9%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2136 m/s to 1947 m/s, the speed of 4#EFP decreased
which
from 2136by
decreased m/s to 1947
about m/s, which decreased by about 8.8%.
8.8%.
Accordingtotothe
According theforming
formingspeed speedofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFPshown showninin Table
Table 8, 8,
thethe velocity
velocity change
change curve
curve of #of
# 1EFP-4EFP is obtained that shown
1EFP-4EFP is obtained that shown in Figure 16. in Figure 16.
Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP

2300 2225

2225 Δt=1.0mm,R1=12mm,R2=11mm
2200 2150 Δt=1.15mm,R1=12mm,R2=11mm
2150 2100
2125 2075
2100 2050
2075
2050 2025
2025 2000
2000 1975
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO. EFP NO.
(a) (b)
Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP
2250 Δt=1.3mm,R1=12mm,R2=8mm
2225
2200 Δt=1.3mm,R1=12mm,R2=9mm
2175
2150 Δt=1.3mm,R1=12mm,R2=11mm
2125 Δt=1.3mm,R1=12mm,R2=12mm
2100
2075
2050
2025
2000
1975
1950
1925
1900
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
EFP NO.
(c)
Figure16.
Figure 16. Velocity
Velocitycurvecurveof
of1#EFP-4#EFP:(a)
1#EFP-4#EFP:(a) the
the center
center thickness
thickness ofof liner
liner isis11mm;
mm;(b)
(b)the
thecenter
center
thickness
thicknessofofliner
linerisis1.15
1.15mm;
mm;(c)
(c)the
thecenter
centerthickness
thicknessofofliner
linerisis1.3
1.3mm.
mm.
According
Accordingto tothe
thevelocity
velocitycomparison
comparisoncurve curveofof1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP shown
shown in inFigure
Figure16a,
16a,when
whenthethe
thickness of the center of the liner is 1.0 mm, the curvature radius of the liner outer wall is between
thickness of the center of the liner is 1.0 mm, the curvature radius of the liner outer wall is between 8 8 mm
and
mm11andmm, 11the
mm, velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP
the velocity increases
of 1#EFP-4#EFP gradually.
increases However,
gradually. the velocity
However, of 1#EFP-3#EFP
the velocity of 1#EFP-
increases gradually,
3#EFP increases when the
gradually, curvature
when radius ofradius
the curvature the liner outer
of the wall
liner is 12wall
outer mm,iswhile
12 mm, thewhile
velocity
the
of 4#EFP decreases. In Figure 16a, when R2 = 8 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP
velocity of 4#EFP decreases. In Figure 16a, when R2 = 8 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases increases from
2137
fromm/s
2137to m/s
2155tom/s,
2155which
m/s, increased by about
which increased by1%; when
about 1%;R2 = 9 mm,
when R2 = the speed
9 mm, thefrom
speed1#EFP
fromto1#EFP
4#EFPto
increases from 2065
4#EFP increases m/s2065
from to 2123
m/sm/s, whichm/s,
to 2123 increased
which by about 2.7%;
increased by about R2 = 11
when2.7%; mm,R2
when the= speed
11 mm,from
the
1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2051 m/s to 2095 m/s, which increased by about 2.1%;
speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2051 m/s to 2095 m/s, which increased by about 2.1%; when R2 = 12 mm,
the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2035 m/s to 2043 m/s, which increased by about 0.4%.
According to the velocity comparison curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Figure 16b, when the thickness
Materials 2020, 13, 891

when R2 = 12 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2035 m/s to 2043 m/s, 21 of 24
which
increased by about 0.4%. According to the velocity comparison curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in
Figure
of 16b, when
the center of thethe thickness
liner is 1.15 of
mm,thethe
center of the liner
curvature radius is 1.15
of themm, theouter
liner curvature
wall is radius
betweenof the liner
8 mm
outer wall is between 8 mm and 11 mm, the velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP
and 11 mm, the velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP increases gradually. However, the velocity of 1#EFP-2#EFP increases gradually. However,
the velocity
increases of 1#EFP-2#EFP
gradually, when theincreases
curvaturegradually,
radius of whenthe liner theouter
curvature
wall isradius
12 mm, of the
while liner
theouter wallofis
velocity
12 mm, while the velocity of 2#EFP-4#EFP decreases gradually. In
2#EFP-4#EFP decreases gradually. In Figure 16b, when R2 = 8 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP Figure 16b, when R2 = 8 mm, the
speed from
increases from1#EFP
2062 m/sto 4#EFP
to 2144increases
m/s, which from 2062 m/s
increased by to 21443.8%;
about m/s,when
which R2increased
= 9 mm, the by speed
about from3.8%;
when R2 = 9 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from
1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2035 m/s to 2112 m/s, which increased by about 3.6%; when R2 = 11 mm, 2035 m/s to 2112 m/s, which
increased
the by about
speed from 1#EFP 3.6%; when increases
to 4#EFP R2 = 11 mm, from the speed
2007 m/sfrom 1#EFP
to 2079 m/s,towhich
4#EFPincreased
increasesby from
about2007 m/s
3.5%;
to 2079
when m/s,
R2 = which
12 mm, theincreased
speed from by1#EFP
aboutto3.5%;
2#EFPwhen R2 =from
increases 12 mm,
1989 the
m/s speed
to 2040from 1#EFPincreased
m/s, which to 2#EFP
increases from 1989 m/s to 2040 m/s, which increased by about 2.5%;
by about 2.5%; the speed from 2#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2040 m/s to 2019 m/s, which decreased the speed from 2#EFP to 4#EFP
by about 1%. According to the velocity comparison curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Figure 16c,velocity
increases from 2040 m/s to 2019 m/s, which decreased by about 1%. According to the when
comparison curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP shown in Figure 16c, when the thickness
the thickness of the center of the liner is 1.3 mm, the curvature radius of the liner outer wall is 8 mm, of the center of the liner
is 1.3 mm, the curvature radius of the liner outer wall is 8 mm, the
the velocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP increases gradually. However, the velocity of 1#EFP-3#EFP increasesvelocity of 1#EFP-4#EFP increases
gradually.when
gradually, However, the velocity
the curvature of 1#EFP-3#EFP
radius of the liner outer increases
wall isgradually,
between when 9 mm the andcurvature
11 mm, while radius theof
the liner outer wall is between 9 mm and 11 mm, while the velocity
velocity of 3#EFP-4#EFP decreases gradually; the velocity of 1#EFP-2#EFP increases gradually, while of 3#EFP-4#EFP decreases
gradually;
the velocity ofthe2#EFP-4#EFP
velocity of decreases
1#EFP-2#EFP increases
gradually, when gradually, whileradius
the curvature the velocity
of the liner of 2#EFP-4#EFP
outer wall is
decreases gradually, when the curvature radius of the liner outer
12 mm. In Figure 16c, when R2 = 8 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2004 wall is 12 mm. In Figure 16c,m/s
when to
R2 = 8 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 4#EFP increases from 2004 m/s
2136 m/s, which increased by about 6.2%. When R2 = 9 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 3#EFP increases to 2136 m/s, which increased by
about 6.2%. When R2 = 9 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 3#EFP increases
from 1941 m/s to 2062 m/s, which increased by about 6.1%, while the speed from 3#EFP to 4#EFP from 1941 m/s to 2062 m/s,
which increased
decreases from 2062 by m/s
about 6.1%, while
to 1992m/s, whichthe decreased
speed fromby3#EFP aboutto3.4%.
4#EFPWhen decreases
R2 = 11 from
mm,2062 m/s to
the speed
1992m/s, which decreased by about 3.4%. When R2 = 11 mm, the speed
from 1#EFP to 2#EFP increases from 1924 m/s to 2003 m/s, which increased by about 3.9%, while the from 1#EFP to 2#EFP increases
from from
speed 1924 2#EFP
m/s toto2003 4#EFP m/s, which increased
decreases from 2003 by m/sabout
to 1989 3.9%,
m/s, while
whichthe speed from
decreased by about2#EFP0.7%.to When
4#EFP
decreases from 2003 m/s to 1989 m/s, which decreased by about 0.7%.
R2 = 12 mm, the speed from 1#EFP to 2#EFP increases from 1907 m/s to 1986 m/s, which increased When R2 = 12 mm, the speed
by
from 1#EFP to 2#EFP increases from 1907 m/s to 1986 m/s, which increased
about 4%, while the speed from 2#EFP to 4#EFP decreases from 1986 m/s to 1947 m/s, which decreased by about 4%, while the
speed
by aboutfrom
2%.2#EFP to 4#EFP decreases from 1986 m/s to 1947 m/s, which decreased by about 2%.
From
From the the forming
forming speed speedshown
shownininTable Table 8, 8,
it can be seen
it can that that
be seen the forming
the forming speedspeedcurve of 1#EFP-
curve of
4#EFP with the increase of thickness at the center of the liner, as shown
1#EFP-4#EFP with the increase of thickness at the center of the liner, as shown in Figure 17. in Figure 17.
2200 2200
2175 R1=12mm,R2=8mm 2175 R1=12mm,R2=8mm
2150 R1=12mm,R2=9mm R1=12mm,R2=9mm
2150
2125 R1=12mm,R2=11mm R1=12mm,R2=11mm

2100 2125
R1=12mm,R2=12mm R1=12mm,R2=12mm
2075 2100
2050 2075
2025 2050
2000 2025
1975
1950 2000
1925 1975
1900 1950
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
(a) (b)
2250 2300
2225 R1=12mm,R2=8mm 2275 R1=12mm,R2=8mm
2200 R1=12mm,R2=9mm 2250 R1=12mm,R2=9mm
2225
2175 R1=12mm,R2=11mm 2200 R1=12mm,R2=11mm

2150 R1=12mm,R2=12mm 2175 R1=12mm,R2=12mm
2125 2150
2100 2125
2100
2075 2075
2050 2050
2025 2025
2000 2000
1975
1975 1950
1950 1925
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
(c) (d)
Figure17.
Figure 17.1#EFP-4#EFP
1#EFP-4#EFP velocity
velocity curve
curve of
ofthe
thecenter
centerof
ofthe
theliner
linerwith
withdifferent
differentthickness:
thickness:(a)
(a)1#EFP
1#EFP
velocitycurve;
velocity curve;(b)
(b)2#EFP
2#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve;
curve;(c)
(c)3#EFP
3#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve;
curve;(d)
(d)4#EFP
4#EFPvelocity
velocitycurve.
curve.
As
Ascan
canbebeseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure17,17,
when
when = 8= mm,
R2R2 with
8 mm, thethe
with increase of of
increase thethe
thickness at the
thickness center
at the of
center
the liner, the speed of 1#EFP decreased from 2137 m/s to 2004 m/s, which decreased by about
of the liner, the speed of 1#EFP decreased from 2137 m/s to 2004 m/s, which decreased by about 6.2%; 6.2%;
the
thespeed
speedof of2#EFP
2#EFPdecreased
decreasedfrom
from21412141m/s
m/sto
to2057
2057m/s,
m/s,which
whichdecreased
decreasedby byabout
about3.9%;
3.9%;the
thespeed
speed
Materials 2020, 13, 891 22 of 24
of 3#EFP decreased from 2150 m/s to 2103 m/s, which decreased by about 2.2%; the speed of 4#EFP
decreased from 2155 m/s to 2136 m/s, which decreased by about 0.9%. When R2 = 9 mm, with the
increase of the thickness at the center of the liner, the speed of 1#EFP decreased from 2065 m/s to
1941 m/s, which decreased by about 6%; the speed of 2#EFP decreased from 2083 m/s to 2008 m/s, which
decreased by about 3.6%; the speed of 3#EFP decreased from 2105 m/s to 2062 m/s, which decreased by
about 2.1%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2123 m/s to 1992 m/s, which decreased by about 6.2%.
When R2 = 11 mm, with the increase of the thickness at the center of the liner, the speed of 1#EFP
decreased from 2051 m/s to 1924 m/s, which decreased by about 6.2%; the speed of 2#EFP decreased
from 2053 m/s to 2003 m/s, which decreased by about 2.4%; the speed of 3#EFP decreased from 2060 m/s
to 2011 m/s, which decreased by about 2.4%; the speed of 4#EFP decreased from 2095 m/s to 1989 m/s,
which decreased by about 5.1%. When R2 = 12 mm, with the increase of the thickness at the center of
the liner, the speed of 1#EFP decreased from 2035 m/s to 1907 m/s, which decreased by about 6.3%;
the speed of 2#EFP decreased from 2050 m/s to 1986 m/s, which decreased by about 3.1%; the speed
of 3#EFP decreased from 2055 m/s to 1979 m/s, which decreased by about 3.7%; the speed of 4#EFP
decreased from 2043 m/s to 1947 m/s, which decreased by about 4.7%.
6. Conclusions
In this study, ANSYS/ICEM-HyperMesh is used to mesh and set the boundary conditions of the
small-caliber circumferential MEFP ammunition structure, and LS-DYNA is used to solve the problem.
First, the numerical simulation of 12 kinds of circumferential MEFP ammunition structures (as shown
in Table 1) is carried out. Through the numerical simulation, it was found that when the curvature
radius of the inner wall of the liner was 10 mm and 12 mm, and the corresponding curvature radius of
the outer wall was 8 mm and 10 mm, the shape of the formed projectile was better and the velocity of
the formed projectile ranged from 1900–2200 m/s. On this basis, the influence of the curvature radius
of the outer wall of the liner and the thickness of the center of the liner on the shape and velocity of the
formed projectile was further studied, and the following conclusions were drawn:
(1) It is feasible to use the method of combining ANSYS/ICEM-HyperMesh to divide the
finite-element mesh. The finite-element mesh with high quality can be obtained, and set the boundary
conditions required by LS-DYNA solution, to obtain satisfactory numerical simulation results;
(2) When the liner has variable wall thickness, the shape of the formed projectile is affected by the
curvature radius of the inner wall of the liner, the curvature radius of the outer wall of the liner, and the
thickness at the center of the liner. When the curvature radius of the inner wall and the corresponding
outer wall curvature radius of the liner increase at the same time, the shape of the projectile is greatly
affected, and the speed of the projectile decreases as the curvature radius of the inner and outer walls
of the liner increases;
(3) When the thickness of the center of the liner and the curvature radius of the inner wall of the
liner are constant, the velocity of forming projectile decreases with the increase of the curvature radius
of the outer wall of the liner. When R1 = 10 mm, the speed of the 1#EFP-4#EFP decreased by between
3% and 7.5%; when R1 = 12 mm, the speed of the 1#EFP-4#EFP decreased by between 1% and 9%;
(4) When the curvature radius of the outer wall and the inner wall of the liner are constant,
the velocity of the 1#EFP-4#EFP increases first and then decreases with the increase of the thickness of
the liner center and the curvature radius of the liner outer wall. Therefore, with the increase of the
thickness of the center of the liner and the curvature radius of the liner outer wall, the velocity of the
1#EFP-4#EFP is more affected;
(5) When the curvature radius of the outer wall and inner wall of the liner are constant, the velocity
of 1#EFP-4#EFP decreases with the increase of the thickness of the liner center, and the decrease range
is between 1% and 6.5%. According to conclusion (3), the influence of the increase of the curvature
radius of the outer wall of the liner on the velocity of formed projectile is slightly greater than that of
the increase of the thickness at the center of the liner;
Materials 2020, 13, 891 23 of 24
(6) When the curvature radius of the outer wall and the thickness of the center of the liner are
increased, the shape of the formed projectile is more affected by the thickness of the center of the liner
than by the curvature radius of the outer wall.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.M. and Y.L.; methodology, G.M.; software, G.M.; validation, G.H.,
Y.L. and Y.G.; formal analysis, all authors; investigation, all authors; resources, G.M.; data curation, G.H.;
writing—original draft preparation, G.M.; writing—review and editing, G.H. and Y.G.; visualization, Y.L.;
supervision, G.H.; project administration, Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Study of The Forming Characteristics of Small-Caliber Ammunition With Circumferential MEFP

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Study of The Forming Characteristics of Small-Caliber Ammunition With Circumferential MEFP

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Keywords: Small-caliber ammunition; integral circumferential MEFP; variable wall thickness;

Materials 2020, 13, 891; doi:10.3390/ma13040891 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

2. Structural Design and Analysis

R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm.

R1 = 8 mm, R2 = 6 mm R1 = 10 mm, R2 = 8 mm R1 = 12 mm, R2 = 10 mm R1 = 14 mm, R2 = 12 mm.

3.2. Material Model

Table 2. Material parameters for 8701 explosive.

Expression of GRUNEISEN equation

4.1. Forming Results

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

Projectile Number Radius of Curvature ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆ = 1.3 mm

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2300 Δt=1.15mm 2400 Δt=1.15mm

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2500 Δt=1.15mm 2500 Δt=1.15mm

V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

2550 Δt=1.0mm,R1=12mm,R2=10mm 2450 Δt=1.15mm,R1=12mm,R2=10mm

V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

Table 7. 1#EFP-4#EFP formed velocity.

Projectile Number Curvature Radius ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm

Materials 2020, 13, 891 14 of 24

Projectile Number Curvature Radius ∆t = 1 mm ∆t = 1.15 mm ∆t = 1.3 mm

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2150 Δt=1.15mm 2200 Δt=1.15mm

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2150 2225 R1=10mm,R2=9mm

V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

2250 R1=10mm,R2=9mm 2350 R1=10mm,R2=9mm

5.2.2. Forming Results of R1 = 12 mm

5.2.2. Forming Results of R1 = 12 mm

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2150 Δt=1.15mm 2150 Δt=1.15mm

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2150 Δt=1.15mm 2175 Δt=1.15mm

Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP Velocity curve of 1#EFP-4#EFP

V elocity of EFP/(m /s)

2250 Δt=1.0mm,R1=12mm,R2=9mm 2175 Δt=1.15mm,R1=12mm,R2=9mm

Materials 2020, 13, 891

V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

2125 R1=12mm,R2=11mm R1=12mm,R2=11mm

V elocity of E FP/(m /s)

2175 R1=12mm,R2=11mm 2200 R1=12mm,R2=11mm

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