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LIBRARY;
•

AN INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTING FOR COURT PERSONNEL

Prepared by:

William Popp, Research Director

John Haynes, Research Assistant

THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR STATE COURTS

NORTHEASTERN REGION
209 Bay State Road
Boston, Massachusetts 02215

January 31, 1974

Librory
National Center for Stote Courts
300 Newport Ave.
Williamsburg, VA 23185
CONTENTS

Preface

1 Introduction

3 Study Approaches

4 Information Processing:
An Overview

6 Evaluation Process:
Cost-Effectiveness,
Project Management,
Program Measurement

8 System Analysis and

Design

9 Computer Programrr.ing

11 Large-Scale Computers

12 Minicomputers

14 Teleprocessing
15 Modeling

16 Courts and Computers

17 Privacy

18 State of the Art

19 Critique
PREFACE

This bibliography is by no means complete. Yet,

there are sections -- especially INFORMATION PROCESS:
AN OVERVIEW -- which can be of immediate help to court
personnel. Further, at this stage of development, we
can solicit feedback from a limited group of adminis­
trators as to the content, form, complexity of the
bibliography.
We intend to continue work on this pUblication.
The bibliography is structured so that members of staff
can research a particular section, or even an area of
a section, as time allows.
INTRODUCTION

This bibliography describes pUblications relating to

automated information processing and the courts. Computers
and their related activities are our main concern. Courts
have not used the computer as widely as many other insti­
tutions, such as banks, insurance companies and educationa~
institutions. However, with the advent of Law Enforcement
Assistance Administration (LEAA) funding, the courts have
begun to use the computer. Statistics, jury utilization,
calendaring are now processed by computer at selected
courts. Much more remains to be done. To this end, this
publication is intended to assist personnel of courts fam­
iliarize themselves with information technology.

The subject matter covers a wide range of topics,

beginning with an overview, continuing with individual
topics, such as mini-computers and privacy. The types
of publications are also diverse: books, magazines,
manufacturers' pamphlets.

The intended audience: jUdges, court administrators,

and their staffs. Some of the publications serve solely
as an introduction to data processing: others address
court problems directly. The diversity of material is
intended to serve differing needs. For instance, an admin­
istrative judge may read only the pUblications suggested
in the overview section. A court administrator may choose
to use the bibliography for a particular subject area, such
as-~ ~ mini-computers. A data processing neophyte may choose
to use the bibliography as an introduction to data proces­
sing. The next section, STUDY APPROACHES, suggests strat­
egies to meet these differing objectives.

No educational requisities are needed for these read­

ings. ~fuere special mathematical training is needed to
understand in depth a particular phase of data processing,
we have chosen authors who discuss such a subject in a
conceptual manner in the text and in a detailed manner in
an appendix. A good example is Hitch and Hac Kean's "The
Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age".

Acquisition of knowledge in another discipline is

never an easy task. One must be able to cull from the lit­
eraturethe appropriate sources for study. This is certain­
ly the case with respect to information processing. There
is a vast reservoir of knowledge: a few excellent, many
adequate sources. The task being, of course, to select the

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>.
most valuable for the reader. Our criteria -- lucid,
concise, current pUblications -- has not always been
possible within the particular SUbject areas. However,
the bibliography is not without publications of high
quality. "Information," and "Some Speculations About
Artificial Intelligence and Legal Reasoning," are two
such sources.
Not a finished product, rather one in need of con­
stant updating, is our characterization of this biblio­
graphy. To this end, the last section, termed CRITIQUE,
is included. We hope that the readers will share with
us their thoughts, whether complimentary or negative.
Your conunents along with our: research will be. reflected
in future editions.

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STUDY APPROACHES

This section is incomplete.

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INFORMATION PROCESSING: ~~ OVERVIEW

Information processing by computer is ubiquitous.

All segments of the American economy -- manufacturers,
banks, schools, laboratories -- use computers of various
sizes and performance. Applications such as processing
checks, assisting lawyers with legal research, monitor­
ing an intensive care ward, are computerized. The list
is seemingly endless. Many times when reading or hear­
ing of computers, one encounters terms such as hardware,
software, systems analysis, modeling. The reader will
have these terms defined for him. More important, this
section will acquaint the reader with the scope and di­
versity of computer applications. A thorough reading of
this section will enable the reader to converse intelli­
gently about the various aspects of information process­
ing.

Three publications, each with a purpose, comprise

this section. ABOUT COMPUTERS describes how a computer
works, in clear, readable language. INFORMATION depicts
the scope of information processing -- how computers are
used in schools, science and organizations. The read­
ings from the HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW introduce the reader
to management considerations of computer use. Each source
is valuable in its own right; together these publications
are an excellent introduction to information processing.

The sources, annotated appropriately, are:

Fields, Craig, ABOUT COMPUTERS, Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop

Publishers.

Mr. Craig's book is a jewel. Philip and Phyllis Mor­

rison, in the December, 1973, edition of the SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN, reviewed this book. Their assessment: itA small
bargain of clear and knowledgeable writing • • . , this
paperback manages to say a great deal about computers as
they are, without superficiality and without superfluous
detail."

ABOUT CO~WUTERS describes how a computer works very

well indeed. His examples, such as the similarity of the
operation of a player piano and a computer, are especially
well chosen.

Editors of Scientific American, IllFORMATION, San Francisco:

W. H. Freeman.

This highly recommended book serves well as an intro­

ductory survey to the past and present use of computers. ,

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· The articles are informative, provocative, and lucid.
The book is aimed at an audience who want an understand­
ing of computers without the technical detail. Although
brief, many of the articles cover the subject in surpris­
ing depth. The book may be used both as an overview of
information processing and as a starting point for study
of a single aspect of the field. A bibliography is in­
cluded if the reader is inclined to pursue any of the
fields discussed.

Computer Management Series, Parts I and II, HARVARD

BUSINESS REVIEW.
This compilation of articles is a good introduction
to executive-level prob~ems with respect to information
processing. Although a bit dated, the compilation still
has a great deal of validity. We recommend these arti­
cles:
Managing to Manage the Computer
How to Organize Information Systems
Can Management Information Be Augmented?
Computers in Top-Level Decision Making
The Computer Comes of Age
Plugging the Leaks -- Computer Security
The Economics of-Sharing Computers
Get the Computer System You Want

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EVALUATION PROCESS: COST-EFFECTIVENESS,
PROJECT MANAGEMENT, PROGRAM MEASUREMENT

- . . .

This section is directed to three important func­

tions of the Court Administrator: evaluating needs,
monitoring projects and measuring the results. Cost~
effectiveness is a technique for weighing alternative
methods of accomplishing an end. The classic example
is the choice of deterrence systems: bombers versus
missiles. The methodology might be used very profit­
ably for this perennial problem of many courts: whether
to buy or rent a computer.

Competent project management is critical to the

success or failure of a computerization project. Often
this job is one of the duties of the Court Administra­
tor. Many management techniques, such as PERT (Program
Evaluation and Review Technique) and CPM (Critical Path
Method), are helpful in this respect. These techniques
pinpoint bottlenecks and other possible~trouble spots.
A knowledge of these techniques is a valuable tool when
called upon to control a project. ~

Program measurement is all too often forgotten.

The pull of new tasks always appears more compelling
than the measurement of the recently completed. This
tendency will be lessened with time as more and more
State Planning Agencies (SPA's) are,requiring an evalua­
tion of funded activities. In the future, the adminis­
trator who measures well will be in the administrator
who is funded. The ability to measure a project's worth
will become an increasingly more valuable talent -~ espe­
cially if an administrator is to maintain his "grants­
manship" skills.

The sources, annotated appropriately, are:

SYSTEM EVALUATION (a section of a government publication)

This narrative is a cogent introduction to cost­

effectiveness. Along with a description, an example of a
cost-effective evaluation is included.

Hitch, C.J., and McKean, R.W., THE ECONOMICS OF DEFENSE IN

THE NUCLEAR AGE, New York: Atheneum.

The definitive work with respect to cost-effectiveness.

The book discusses cost-effectiveness in relation to na­
tional defense purchasing decisions. This does not lessen
the worth of the publication to the Court Administrator.
The reader quickly dis~~rns that the technique is applicable

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to all activities where a choice of alternatives must
be decided upon.
We suggest that the reader attack Chapters 1, 7,
8 and 9 first. That may be sufficient for his/her pur­
poses. If the reader is interested in furthering his/
her knowledge of cost-effectiveness, the balance of the
book will serve him/her well~

Halcomb, J., PERT-O-GRAPH, Sunnyvale, Calif.: Halcomb

·Associates.
PERT-O-GRAPH is a handy little guide' to project
control ·techniques. The organization is certainly
unique: flipcharts, half-page contents, even a pocket
for PERT-O-GRAPH II, a calculation aid.

Los Angeles County Sheriff's Departmen~, "Program Mea­

surement and Evaluation," National Advisory Commission
on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, CRIMINAL JUSTICE
SYSTEM. ­ I

This article is a well-structuredlblueprint for the

implementation of evaluation and measu~ement techniques .
within the criminal justice system. T~e sample program
evaluation which follows the narrative is a model of bre­
vity and cogency. A caveat: this narrative requires a
good deal of attention for a profitable reading.

For continued funding by LEAA, measurement of com­

pleted projects is required. This requirement will no
doubt be stressed more in the future. The adroit admi­
nistrator will certainly want to keep abreast of LEAA's
requirements.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

System analysis is used·to describe manyactivities p

some of which are closely related, some not. In this'
section, system analysis (and design) refers to the acti­
vity necessary to define an unstructured process so that
computer programs may be written to transform such a process
into an automated system. Typically, flow charts or any
of a number of manufacturer supplied techniques are used
to document the process. Then, these facts are sifted so
that an. intelligent choice can be made as to type of com­
puter, program language, file structure and other related
activities.

The Administrator should be familiar with the con­

cepts and the jargon. This will enable"him to communicate
with system analyst types. More important, this knowledge
will enhance his ability to control this segment of a pro­
ject.

The sources, annotated appropriately, are:

"Evaluation of Business System Analysis Techniques

CO~~UTING SURVEYS

This article documents the evolution of system anal­

ysis techniques from the inception of the computer industry
to the present. If the reader is interested in pursuing
this subject, a bibliography follows the article.

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CO~~UTER· PROGRAMMING

Programming is central to information processing.

Without programs, computers are sterile - stripped of their
ability to produce anything of value. With programs, com­
purers are powerful information.processors.

Computer programs are sequences of instructions which

direct the computer to perform a specific task. Each
different set of instructions is called a language.
FORTRAN and COBOL are perahps the most widely known although
many other languages exist~ Each language is designed to
meet a specific purpose, much like each different make of
automobile meets certain needs.

There is a great deal of literature in existence

with respect to programming, some of which can be helpful
in trying to understand this discipline. But programming,
like driving, is a skill which is best learned and, indeed,
only completely understood, by doing. Experiencing the
frustration of bugs and the exhilaration of success is
more valuable than a good deal of verbiage. We would rec­
ommend that the reader, if serious in his quest for an under­
standing of programming, take an introductory programming
course at a local college or university.

With a knowledge of programming and a bit of experience

the Administrator will be better prepared to monitor on­
going-programming activities.

The sources, appropriately annotated, are:

Strachey, Christopher, "Systems Analysis and Programming",

INFOID1ATION, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco

If you haven't read this article, do so. If

you have, re-read it. In both cases, the article serves as
a good introduction to programming.

The article opens a window and allows one a glimpse

of the process of programming. This view includes an
accurate documentation of difficulties associated with
"debugging tl •

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Fields, Craig, ABOUT COMPUTERS, Cambridge, Mass.: Win­
throp Publishers.
This book is also recommended in the section,
INFORMATION PROCESSING: AN OVERVIEW. If the reader
skipped that section or skimmed the book, a thorough
reading is certainly a worthwhile endeavor at this
point.

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LARGE-SCALE COMPUTERS

This section is incomplete.

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MINI-COMPUTERS

Mini-computers are a recent addition to the infor­

mation processing industry. The mini, as the name im­
plies, is a small computer with many of the capabilities
of large computers (typified by IBM).· The important·
distinction is not the size but the price. Minis, dep~
ending on the choice of peripherals, sell for between I
$5,000 and $150,000. This price range is a substantial
reduction from previous computing machinery prices.
And with this being the case, many possible users
heretofore not able to afford a computer are opting
for the mini.

First used for monitoring industrial processes,

such as control of steel rolling, these small computers
now process many applications that were reserved for
large-scale computers. The uses are indeed manifold
such as intelligent terminals for large computers,
communication processors, small business systems,
teaching machines.

Minis meet a critical need of the courts well ­

control of its automated information processing. By
contrast to the use of a large computer, which in many
cases a court must share with other governmental depart­
ments, the mini can be dedicated to solely processing
the information needs of the courts. The mini is small
enough to reside in the court. Access to the computer,
frequency of report generation, definition of new
requirements and other related activities can be comple- .
tely controlled by the Court Administrator. ..

The sources, appropriately annotated, are:

Kenny, D.P., MINICOMPUTERS: LOW COST COMPUTER POWER

FOR MANAGEMENT. American ManaqementAssoci~tion
The author is a pragmatist. His book reflects this
bent in many ways. Mr. Kenny knows that the level of
competence in a firm often dictates the choice of compu­
ter. His comparisons address meaningful questions, such
as assembly versus high-level languages. His inclusion
of case studies describes actual situations, one of which
may well describe an environment familiar to the reader.
In short, his book is well worth reading.

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Farwell, Richard, "Operating Systems: the Key to
Minicomputer Systems,"SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TODAY,
August, 1973.

This article discusses an important aspect of

minicomputers -- their executive system. The executive
dictates how facile the computer is to the user • The .
programming languages, the linlits to these languages,
the type of real-time usage possible, are all by-products
of the operating system.

Hollingsworth, Dennis, MINICOMPUTERS: A REVIEW OF CURRENT

TECHNOLOGY, SYSTEMS, AND APPLICATIONS, Santa Monica, Calif.:
Rand Corp.

Pages 3-4 and 84-88 and the bibliography are the most
appropriate sections for Court Administrators. The balance
of the book is technical in nature. ~~ile it may be of
some value to an administrator, the balance would be of
more interest to a technical person.

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TELEPROCESSING

This section is incomp1ete~

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MODELING

This section is incomplete.

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COURTS AND COMPUTERS

. This section is incomplete.

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PRIVACY

This secti on is incom plete .

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STATE OF THE ART

The state of the art is the leading edge of a

discipline. Experimenting with laser technology,
probing the structure of the atom, developing more pro­
ductive strains in agriculture are all considered state­
of-the-art activities.

In the case of information processing, paralleling

human thought processes, artificial intelligence, is a
continuing and fascinating area of experimentation. Pro­
grams have been written to play chess, design machines,
simulate learning. While much of artificial intelligence
is not germane to immediate court projects, we thought a
representative sample might be of interest to our readers.

The sources, appropriately annotated, are:

Buchanan, B. G., and Hedrick, T. E., "Some Speculation

About Artificial Intelligence for Legal Reasoning,"
STANFORD LAW REVIEW, November, 1970.

This well-written article describes the evolution

and current problems of automated legal research. The
authors then suggest new avenues for research.

Harmon, L. D., "The Recognition of Faces," SCIENTIFIC

AMERICAN, November, 1973.

This article describes the exceptional ability of

the human mind in discovering solutions to ambiguous si­
tuations. The capabilities of the computer are also
discussed. Marrying the two, in this endeavor, proved
to be a valuable methodology.

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CRITIQUE

Your comments - good, bad, or indifferent -

will be appreciated. Please send your critique to:

William Popp
National Center for State Courts
209 Bay State Road
Boston, Massachusetts 02215

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