CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Power travels from the power plant to house through an amazing system called the
power distribution grid. For power to be useful in a home or business, it comes off the
transmission grid and is stepped-down to the distribution grid. This may happen in several
phases. The place where the conversion from "transmission" to "distribution" occurs is in a
power substation. It has transformers that step transmission voltages (in the tens or hundreds
of thousands of volts range) down to distribution voltages (typically less than 10,000 volts).
It has a “bus” that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions. It
often has circuit breakers and switches so that the substation can be disconnected from the
transmission grid or separate distribution lines can be disconnected from the substation when
necessary. Transformers being one of the most significant equipment in the electric power
system, needs protection as a part of the general system protection approach. More over the
increasing population and their unavoidable demands have lead to an increasing demand on
electrical power. With this increase the needs, the existing systems have become overloaded.
The overloading at the consumer end appears at the transformer terminals which
can affect its efficiency and protection systems. Due to overload on the transformer, the
efficiency drops and the windings gets over heated and may get burnt. It takes a lot of time to
repair and involves a lot of expenditure. Transformers are occasionally loaded beyond
nameplate ratings because of existing possible contingencies on the transmission lines, any
failure or fault in power systems, or economic considerations. One of the reported damage or
tripping of the distribution transformer is due to thermal overload. To eliminate the damaging
of transformers due to overloading from consumer end, it involves the control against over
current tripping of distribution transformer. Rise in operating temperature of the transformer
due to overloading has an influence on ageing of transformers.
Therefore, two transformers work efficiently under overload condition and
damage can be prevented. If there is a further increase in load beyond the capacity of two
transformers there will be a priority based load shedding of consumers which will provide un-
interrupted power supply for the hospitals, industries etc.,

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 1
1.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
The diagram represents the block diagram of the project,

Figure 1.1 Block diagram

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 2
1.2 COMPONENTS

➢ MICROCONTROLLER

Here we are using PIC16F7X 8-bit microcontroller which is the most

elementary part of these whole APFC system.The microcontroller consists of the program.It
send a signal to the relay according to the requirement.

➢ RECTIFIER

So, after taking the input from step down transformer it is going to be rectified
and produces the pulsating DC voltage as the output.

➢ FILTER

By using the rectifier, we get only pulsating DC as the output but not getting pure
DC voltages. So, we are using filters for removing the unwanted AC–components and
produces pure DC voltage.

➢LCD

The LCD is used for displaying the status of the load percentage of the system and
shows that which transformer is in ON condition.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 3
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

[1]. S.R.Balan, P.Sivanesan, R.Ramprakash, B.Ananthakannan and

K.MithinSubash,“ GSM Based Automatic Substation Load Shedding and
Sharing Using Programmable Switching Control”, Journal of Selected
Areas in Microelectronics, Volume 6, Issue 2, pp. 59-61, 2014.
The transformer is a static device, which converts power from one level to
another level. The aim of the project is to protect the transformer under overload condition by
load sharing. Due to overload on transformer, the efficiency drops and windings get
overheated and may get burnt. Thus, by sharing load on transformer, the transformer is
protected. This will be done by connecting another transformer in parallel through a micro-
controller. The micro controller compares the load on the first transformer with a reference
value.

When the load exceeds the reference value, the second transformer will share
the extra load. Therefore, the two transformers work efficiently and damage is prevented. In
this project three modules are used to control the load currents. The first module is a sensing
unit, which is used to sense the current of the load and the second module is a control unit.
The last module is micro-controller unit and it will read the analogue signal and perform
some calculation and finally gives control signal to a relay. A GSM modem is also used to
inform the control station about switching. The advantages of the project are transformer
protection, uninterrupted power supply, and short circuit protection.

When designing low-voltage power system to the supply large load currents,
paralleled lower-current modules are often preferred over a single, large power converter for
several reasons. These include the efficiency of designing and manufacturing standard
modular converters which can be combined in any number necessary to meet a given load
requirement and the enhanced reliability gained through redundancy.

[3] Ashish R. Ambalkar, Nitesh M. Bhoyar, Vivek V. Badarkhe and Vivek B.

Bathe, “Automatic Load Sharing of Transformers”, International Journal for
Scientific Research & Development, Volume 2, Issue 12, pp. 739- 741,2015.

The system consists of microcontroller, transformers, circuit breakers, relay,

Current Transformer (CT), GSM modem and LCD display. The transformers are step down
transformers in which only one transformer is operating under normal condition. The input
to the transformer is fed through a circuit breaker to which a relay is connected. The circuit
breaker is in closed position for transformer which is operating. Here the transformer feeds
five loads which are provided with individual circuit breakers for protection. A stand by
transformer is connected in parallel to the main transformer through a circuit breaker. In
order to measure the current through the transformer a current transformer is connected to the
secondary of the operating transformer.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 5
 The current transformer measures the load current continuously and is fed to
the microcontroller through a rectifier circuit. The output from the current transformer can
also be fed directly to inbuilt ADC pins of controller, instead of using a rectifier. A GSM
connected to the controller enables communication between the system and control room.
The maximum load limit is entered to the controller through a keypad and an LCD display
gives an indication of the same. The microcontroller continuously compares the CT value
with the maximum limit entered. Whenever the current exceeds the maximum limit, the main
transformer gets overloaded and the second transformer shares the total load equally. At the
same time the GSM sends a message to the control room.

When there is a further increase in load beyond the rated capacity of two
transformers, microcontroller will give control signal to the circuit breaker of respective load
to open, based on the priority level set by the user. When the load decreases and comes to
normal value which is less than the maximum limit, the first transformer will shut down
automatically.

This type of alternative switching method avoids the possibility of thermal

overloading by providing enough time for the transformer to cool naturally. Each time the
transformer is overloaded or switched a message is sent to the control room about the mode
of operation. Thus it enables efficient operation of existing transformer and provides un-
interrupted power supply to hospitals, industries and other important areas.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 6
 CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 7
 CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The following circuit diagram represents the connection circuit of the project,

Figure3 .1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 8
3.1 POWER SUPPLY OF THE CIRCUIT

The below figure represents the power section of the circuit,

Figure 3.1.1 POWER SUPPLY

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 9
3.1.1 RECTIFIER
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the
cycle. A transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a
common center tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode conducting
in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center point C
producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is
100% efficient as shown below figure 3.1.2.

Figure 3.1.2 RECTIFIER

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load
resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A
of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward
direction as indicated by the arrows.

When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in
the same direction for both half-cycles.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 10
 As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms
combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a ―bi-phase circuit. As the
spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in by the other
diode the average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now double that of the single
half-wave rectifier circuit and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.

2𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑐 = =0.637𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0.9𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 3.1
𝜋

Where VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary windingand VRMS is the
rms value.

The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave
rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage value. To
obtain a different DC voltage output different transformer ratio can be used. The main
disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a given
power output is required with two separate but identical secondary windings making this type
of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit
equivalent.
There are certain factors like supply provided that can be either of positive value or
negative, presence of essential components and the type of configuration used, based on
which the types of rectifiers are classified. Hence these come under the category of the
properties of the rectifiers. Based on the number of diodes present in the circuit give rise to
the initial classification of the rectifier as:
1. Single phase rectifier
2. Three phase rectifier
The various types of rectifiers include a half-wave rectifier, full-wave based on center
tapped and bridge concept. These rectifiers are compared based on its number of diodes
present in the circuitry. Various factors lie ripple current, RMS current, maximum efficiency
of the rectifier, average current value are the properties based on which rectifier’s are
calculated.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 11
3.1.2.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Figure 3.1.3 LM7812

1. LM7812
• LM7812 is an accurate power transistor with synchronous rectification features as
well as a wide frequency response. The maximum output voltage of LM7812 IC is
around 12V DC with a minimum input voltage range of 0.25V to 3V.

• The LM7812 IC is considered to be a next-generation supply, where it provides the

opportunity to improve the efficiency of the traditional single-phase supply while
meeting the demands of the multi-phase or alternating current power system.

• The LM7812 IC can be a better choice for battery voltage monitoring applications.
The LM7812 IC has a set of connectors and pins which makes it easy to connect with
different circuit boards as well as circuits on a specific board.

• It offers different values of frequency response to rectify the voltages.

2. LM7812 FEATURES
• The main features of LM7812 are explained here with detailed.
• Its low standby current value is eight amperes.
• Its extreme input supply volts value is thirty-five volts dc.
• Output volts are twelve volts.
• It employed in different electronic circuits and projects.
• It is a less expensive device.
• If get overheat then stop the operation.
• The value of its output current is 1.5A.

3. LM7805
As the name suggests, LM7805 is an industry-standard linear voltage regulator. It is a
member of the 78xx devices with a constant output voltage. The xx represents the output
voltage value of devices in the 78 families.The LM7805 is a three-terminal linear voltage
regulator IC, and it works with AC currents.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 12
 It is a common component in circuits that require positive voltage regulators.The 7805
regulator comes in different versions. The TO-92 version is made of plastic hence works better
with low-power circuits.

Figure 3.1.4 LM7805

➢ LM7805 FEATURES
• Output Current up to 1.5 A
• Available in Fixed 5-V, 12-V, and 15-V Options
• Output Voltage Tolerances of ±2% at TJ = 25°C (LM340A)
• Line Regulation of 0.01% / V of at 1-A Load (LM340A)
• Load Regulation of 0.3% / A (LM340

3.2 CAPACITOR

Figure 3.2.1 CAPACITOR

The capacitors can act as high-pass filters, to pass high frequencies and block DC,
they can act as low-pass filters, to pass DC signals and block AC. Instead of placing the
capacitor in series with the component, the capacitor will be placed in parallel.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 13
 Figure 3.2.2 HIGH PASS FILTER

The above is a high-frequency capacitive filter. Remember that current takes the
path of least resistance. Since a capacitor offers very low resistance to high frequency signals,
high frequency signals will go through the capacitor. In this way, with the circuit in this
configuration, the circuit is a high frequency filter. Low frequency current signals will not go
through the capacitor, because it offers too much resistance to low frequency signals. Only
high frequency signals go through.

3.3 LED

Figure 3.3.1 LED

The LED is a PN Junction diode which emits light when an AC current passes through
it in the forward direction. In the LED, the recombination of charge carrier takes place. The
electron from the N-side and the hole from the P-side are combined and gives the energy in
the form of heat and light. The LED is made of semiconductor material which is color less,
and the light is radiated through the junction of the diode.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 14
 CHAPTER 4
POWER SYSTEMS

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 15
 CHAPTER 4
POWER SYSTEMS

4.1 POWER GENERATION

We divide the power system into three parts; power generation, transmission, and
distribution. Actually, in power generation, one form of energy gets converted into electrical
energy. We produce electrical energy from various natural sources. We classify these sources
into two types renewable sources and non-renewable sources. In a present power system,
most of the electrical energy gets generated from non-renewable sources like coal, oil, and
natural gases.
But these sources are limitedly available. So, we have to use these sources carefully and
always find an alternate source or move on to renewable sources.
The renewable sources include solar, wind, water, tidal, and biomass. These sources are the
environment-friendly, free and infinite resources available. Let us get more information about
renewable sources.

4.1.1 Solar Energy System

It is the best alternative source for power generation. There are two ways, to generate
electrical energy from sunlight.
• We can create electricity directly by using photovoltaic (PV) cell. The photovoltaic
cell is made up of silicon. Many cells are connected in series or parallel to make a
solar panel.
• We can produce heat (solar thermal) with the help of mirrors in the sunlight, and we
use this heat to convert water into steam. This high-temperature steam rotates the
turbines.
Advantages of Solar Energy System
1. The transmission cost is zero for a stand-alone solar system.
2. Solar electricity generation system is environment-friendly.
3. The maintenance cost is low.
4. It is an ideal source for remote locations that cannot link to the grid.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy System
1. Initial expenses are high.
2. Require large area for bulk production.
3. Solar electricity generation system is weather-dependent.
4. Solar energy storage (battery) is costly.
Wind turbines are used to convert wind energy into electrical energy. Wind flows due to
temperature changes in the atmosphere. Wind turbines turn wind energy into kinetic energy.
The rotating kinetic energy rotates the induction generator, and that generator converts kinetic
energy into electrical energy.

4.1.2 WIND ENERGY

Wind is a clean source of energy. It has no effect of the greenhouse on the atmosphere.
It is a substitute for fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, etc. Although, coal,
petroleum, and natural gas, etc. are the primary source of fuel for producing electricity, but
the availability of such fossil fuel is limited. Globally, 67% of electricity generated from
fossil fuels, 13% from nuclear energy and rest of 20% from a renewable energy source such
as hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc. So we see how much the world

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 16
depends on fossil fuel for producing electricity and that is why we focus on wind and other
renewable energy sources to generate electricity to overcome the dependence on fossil fuels.
Running cost of producing electricity with wind energy is quite low. Once the turbines are
installed, and there is no much maintenance required for a long time.

➢ Advantages of Wind Energy System

1. Wind energy is an unlimited, free and clean source of energy.
2. The operating cost is almost zero.
3. A wind electricity generating system can generate power in a remote location.

➢ Disadvantage of Wind Energy System

1. It cannot produce the same amount of electricity at all time.
2. It needs a big open area.
3. It makes noise.
4. The construction process of a wind turbine is expensive.
5. It gives lower electricity output.
6. It poses threats from flying birds.

4.1.3 Hydro Energy System

The power obtained from river or ocean water is called hydropower. Hydro
power plants are work based on the gravitational effects. Here we store water in a dam
or reservoir. When we allow falling the water, the movement of this water as it flows
downstream towards the penstock causes kinetic energy that rotates the turbines.

➢ Advantages of Hydro Energy System

1. It can be used in the service instantly.
2. After this process, water can be used for irrigation and other purposes.
3. Dams are designed for an extended period and so it can contribute to the generation of
electrical energy for many years.
4. Running and maintenance costs are low.
5. No fuel transportation is required.

➢ Disadvantages of Hydro Energy System

1. The initial cost of a hydel power plant is high.
2. Hydropower plants are located in the hilly area, and it is very far from the load.
3. So, they require a long transmission line.
4. The construction of dams can flood towns and cities.
5. It is also weather-dependent.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 17
4.1.4 Coal Energy System
A thermal power plant produces electricity by burning coal in the boiler. Heat is used
to convert water into steam. This high pressure and high-temperature steam flowing into the
turbine spins a generator to produce electrical energy.After it passes through the turbine, the
steam gets cooled in a condenser and reuse in the boiler to generate steam again. Thermal
power plant works according to Rankine cycle.

Advantages of Coal Energy System

1. Coal is cheap.
2. It has less initial cost compared to renewable power plants.
3. It requires less space than a hydel plant.
4. We can construct a thermal power plant at any place because coal can be transport to
the plant irrespective of its location.
5. Construction and commissioning of thermal power plants take lesser time than a hydel
plant.

Disadvantages of Coal Energy System

1. Coal is a non-renewable energy source.
2. The operating cost is high and variable according to the price of fuel.
3. It pollutes the atmosphere due to smoke and fumes.
4. t requires a huge quantity of water.

4.1.5 Nuclear Energy System

The working of nuclear power is almost the same as a thermal power plant. In a thermal
power plant, coal is used in the boiler to produce heat.
In a nuclear power plant, uranium is used in the nuclear reactor to generate heat. In both
power plants, heat energy gets converted into electrical energy.
1kg of uranium can produce energy same as the energy produced by burning of 4500 tonnes
of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy System

1. It requires less space than a thermal power plant and a hydropower plant.
2. It can produce an unusually high amount of electrical energy from a single plant.
3. It does not emit CO2
4. A nuclear power plant needs a small quantity of fuel.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy System

1. It has a high initial construction cost.

2. It has high operating and maintenance costs
3. It has radioactive waste.
4. It has a high risk of radio-activity and explosion.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 18
4.1.6 Installed Electric Capacity in India

Source Generation (GWh)

Coal 944,861
Oil 275,531
Gas 49,094

Diesel 40,223

Nuclear 37,916
Hydro 122,313
Mini-hydro 7,673

TABLE 4.1 Yearly Gross Electricity Generation By Source (GWh) (2016-2017)

4.2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Cables are used for transmitting electricity from generating station to consumer. They
can be laid through underground or overhead. Underground cables are consisting of one or
more conductors are laid with an insulation to isolate the conductor. They are well
surrounded by a metallic strip to protect the cable from the physical aspects. The metallic
strip is called armored.
Overhead lines are nothing but a conductor laid on the top of earth by installing
transmission tower. In overhead line inductor plays major roles and in underground cable the
capacitor plays major role. To minimize a large charging current produced in high voltage
cables, the length of the cable should be minimized. That’s why underground cables are
preferred for low and medium voltage and the overhead transmission is preferred for high
voltages.

4.2.1 ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

Substation is a place or station which is used to transmit & distribute the power. It is a
middle part of the electrical power generation and consumers. It contains many electrical
devices such as electrical panels, transformers, insulator, isolators, Earth switch etc. In
Substations we can transform the voltage from high to low, or low to high. A substation may
include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower
distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
➢ Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. In this, all the
voltage of the incoming and outgoing lines are same. These transmission substations are used
for isolating lines, fault clearance, line maintenance etc.
➢ Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the
distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to
the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution
station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.
DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 19
➢ Collector Substation
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may
be required. It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite
direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of
construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation
steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also
provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm. In
some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.
➢ Converter Substation
Converter substations may be associated with HVDC converter plants, traction
current, or interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power
electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to
direct current or the reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed frequency to
interconnect two systems; nowadays such substations are rare.
➢ Railway Substation
Electrified railways also use substations, often distribution substations. In some
cases, a conversion of the current type takes place, commonly with rectifiers for direct
current (DC) trains, or rotary converters for trains using alternating current (AC) at
frequencies other than that of the public grid. Sometimes they are also transmission
substations or collector substations if the railway network also operates its own grid and
generators to supply the other stations.

4.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The part of the power system that distributes electric power for local use is called
as distribution system. Generally, a distribution system is the electrical system between the
substation fed by transmission system and the consumer’s meters. A typical distribution
system is shown in the figure.

Figure 4.1 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 20
4.3.1 COMPONENTS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Distribution Sub-Station
A distribution sub-station is the electrical system which transfers power from
transmission system to the distribution system of an area.
Feeders
A feeder is a conductor which connects the distribution sub-station to the area
where power is to be distributed. The current in a feeder remains the same
throughout its length because no tapings are taken from it. The main consideration
in the design of a feeder being its current carrying capacity.
Distribution Transformers
The distribution transformer is a step-down transformer in which primary and
secondary are delta and star connected respectively. It is also termed as service
transformer. The output voltage of distribution transformer is 440 V in 3-phase system
whereas 230 V in 1-phase system in India.
Distributor
A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken for supply to the consumers.
Due to the taping is done at various places in a distributor, the current being not same
throughout its length. The main design consideration of a distributor is the voltage drop
across its length because the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6 % of rated voltage
at the consumer’s terminals.
Service Mains
Service Mains is a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumer’s meter.

4.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Classification based on the nature of current
• DC distribution system
• AC distribution system
Classification based on the type of construction
• Over-head system
• Under-ground system
Classification based on the scheme of connection
• Radial system
• Ring main system
• Inter-connected system

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 21
4.3.3 TYPES OF AC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Primary Distribution System

The primary distribution system is the part of AC distribution system which operates
at voltages slightly higher than general utilization.
The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount power to be
transferred and distance of substation required to be fed. The commonly used primary
distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. The primary distribution is done by 3-
phase 3-wire system because of economic considerations.
Secondary Distribution System
The secondary distribution system includes those ranges of voltage at which consumer
utilizes the electrical energy. In India, the secondary distribution employs 440V (3-phase)
& 230V (1-phase), 3-phase 4-wire system.
Requirements of a Distribution System
Some of the requirements of a good distribution system are :

• Proper Voltage
The voltage variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible. The
statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6 % (India) of the rated voltage at consumer’s
terminals.
• Availability of Power on Demand
The electric power must be available to the consumers in any amount that they may
require from time to time.
• Reliability
The modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation. This
calls for reliable service as much possible.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 22
 CHAPTER 5
TRANSFORMER

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 23
 CHAPTER 5
TRANSFORMER

5.1 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static electrical machine which is used for either increasing or
decreasing the voltage level of the AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in
the current at constant frequency.

5.1.1 PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

A typical transformer essentially consists of following main parts,

• Magnetic Core.
• Transformer Windings.
• Transformer Body / Tank and Dielectric Oil.
• Oil Conservator Tank.
• Breather.

Magnetic Core
The core of the transformer is made up of magnetic materials having high
permeability. As the transformer is subjected to the AC supply, thus its core is built up of thin
lamination stacked together to reduce the eddy current losses in the core. The windings of the
transformer are wound on the core of the transformer. The core of the transformer mainly
serves two purposes as,

• It provides support to the windings.

• It provides a low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.

Transformer Windings
The transformer consists of two windings viz. the primary winding and the secondary
winding. The winding connected to the source of AC supply is called as the primary winding
while the winding of the transformer to which the load is connected is known as the
secondary winding. The AC voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied across
the primary winding.
Depending upon the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings, an
alternating EMF (E2) being induced in the secondary winding of the transformer. This
induced EMF (E2) results a load current I2, hence a terminal V2 would appear across the load.
If V2> V1, the transformer is said to be step-up transformer. On the other hand, if
V1 > V2, the transformer is said to be step-down transformer.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 24
5.1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER
The working of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual inductance between
two coils which are magnetic coupled.
FARADAY’S FIRST LAW
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is
induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced, which is called induced
current.
FARADAY’S SECOND LAW
The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
𝑑∅
e =N 5.1
𝑑𝑡
where,
e= the emf or electromotive force
φ= the magnetic flux
N = the total number of turns in the coil

5.2 IDEAL TRANSFORMER CONDITIONS

• The permeability of transformer core is assumed to be infinity
• Iron losses in the transformer core are assumed to be zero
• Resistance of transformer windings are assumed to be zero
• Magnetic leakage flux in transformer is completely zero
• The magnetization curve of transformer core is assumed to be linear

➢ CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TRANSFORMER

Figure 5.1 Basic Circuit Diagram Of Transformer

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 25
 According to the principle of mutual inductance, when an alternating voltage is
applied to the primary winding of the transformer, an alternating flux ϕm which is called as
the mutual flux is produced in the core as shown in figure 5.1. This alternating flux links both
the windings magnetically and induces EMFs E1 in the primary winding and E2 in the
secondary winding of the transformer according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. The EMF (E1) is called as primary EMF and the EMF (E2) is known as secondary
EMF and being given as,
E1=−N1dφm/dt 5.2
&
E2=−N2dφm/dt 5.3
From the above expression it can be seen that the magnitude of EMFs E1 and
E2 depend upon the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer respectively, i.e., if N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, thus the transformer will be a step-up
transformer and if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1, thus the transformer will be a step-down
transformer.
If a load is now connected across the secondary winding, the EMF E2 will cause a
load current I2 to flow through the load. Therefore, a transformer enables the transfer of
power from one electric circuit to another with a change in voltage level

. Figure 5.2 Transformer

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 26
 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
ᶯ= 5.4
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑣2 𝑖2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2
ᶯ= 5.5
𝑣2 𝑖2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 +𝑝𝑖 +𝑝𝑐

5.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

Equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations describing the
performance of the device. The behaviour of the transformer under load and are helpful in
arriving at the transformer equivalent circuit.

REFERRED TO PRIMARY

The equivalent circuit diagram can further be simplified by transferring the

resistance R0 and reactance X0 towards left end, as shown. The error introduced by doing so
is very small and can be neglected.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 27
 REFERRED TO SECONDARY

Since transformation ratio is K, so primary resistive and reactive drops as referred to

secondary will be K times, i.e., K I1 R1 and K I1 X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal
to KI2, then we have primary resistive and reactive drops referred to secondary equal to
K2 I2 R1 and K2 I2 X1 respectively.

Figure 5.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

5.4 CONDITIONS FOR PARALLELLING

For parallel connection of transformers, primary windings of the Transformers are

connected to source busbars and secondary windings are connected to the load bus-
bars.Various conditions that must be fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of
transformers:
1. Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (both primary and secondary Voltage Rating
is same).
2. Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
3. Identical Position of Tap changer.
4. Same KVA ratings.
5. Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same).
6. Same Frequency rating.
7. Same Polarity.
8. Same Phase sequence.
Some of these conditions are convenient and some are mandatory .The convenient are:
Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio, Same Percentage Impedance, Same KVA Rating, Same
Position of Tap changer. The mandatory conditions are: Same Phase Angle Shift, Same
Polarity, Same Phase Sequence and Same Frequency.When the convenient conditions are not
met paralleled operation is possible but not optimal.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 28
5.5 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

This project works on the principle of parallel operation of transformers. The system
consists of microcontroller, transformers, circuit breakers, relay and LCD display. The
transformers are step down transformers in which only one transformer is operating under
normal condition. The input to the transformer is fed through ac mains to which a relay is
connected. The switch is in closed position for transformer which is operating.

Here the transformer feeds a load. A standby transformer is connected in parallel to

the main transformer through a relay. In order to measure the current through the transformer
a current sensor i.e., a potentiometer is connected to the secondary of the operating
transformer. The potentiometer gives the load current continuously and is fed to the
microcontroller. LCD display gives an indication of percentage of load.

The microcontroller continuously observes the potentiometer. Whenever the current

exceeds a certain limit on main transformer, the main transformer gets overloaded and the
second transformer shares the total load equally. When there is a further increase in load
beyond the rated capacity of two transformers microcontroller will give control signal to the
relay to open. Thus it enables efficient operation of existing transformer and provides un-
interrupted power supply to load.[2]

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 29
 CHAPTER 6
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 30
 CHAPTER 6
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

An ideal transformer is very efficient so they don’t have energy losses, which
means the power supplied to the transformer’s input terminal must be equivalent to the
power supplied to the transformer’s output terminal. So the input power and output
power in an ideal transformer are equal including zero energy losses. There are two
major losses in a transformer. They are Copper losses & Iron losses.
The below figure 6.1 shows that losses in transform,

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
6.1 COPPER LOSS
The copper losses are I2R losses in a transformer windings due to winding resistance.
The Cu-loss in transformer= I2R 6.1
The copper loss value is not constant, and it varies as the load on the transformer
is increased. That is why the copper loss is also called a variable loss. he total copper loss
(I2R) loss in the transformer is load dependent. The copper losses are proportional to the
square of the RMS current flowing in the winding and also proportional to the resistance
of the winding. The resistance of the conductor varies with the rise in temperature. The
copper loss in the transformer is proportional to the square of the current flowing through
the winding. When the load on the transformer is increased the copper loss varies because
of the increased current and increased resistance caused by temperature rise.

6.2 IRON (or) CORE LOSSES

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic properties of
the materials used to construct the core of the transformer and its design. So these losses
in transformer are fixed and do not depend upon the load current. So core losses in
transformer which is alternatively known as iron loss in transformer can be considered as
constant for all range of load.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 31
Hysteresis loss in transformer is denoted as,

Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

6.2
Where, Kh=Hysteresis constant.
K=Eddy current constant.
Kf = form constant.

Copper loss can simply be denoted as,

IL2R2′ + Stray loss 6.3

Where, IL = I2 = load of transformer, and
R2′ is the resistance of transformer referred to secondary.
Now we will discuss Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss in little bit more details
for better understanding the topic of losses in transformers.

6.3 HYSTERESIS LOSS IN TRANSFORMER

Hysteresis loss in transformers can be explained in different ways. We will discuss
two of them, one is the physical explanation, and the other is the mathematical explanation.

Determination of Hysteresis Losses

Figure6.2 HYSTERIS LOSSES

Consider a ring of a ferromagnetic specimen of circumference L meter, cross-

sectional area a m2 and N turns of insulated wire as shown in the figure 6.2 beside,
Let us consider, the current flowing through the coil is I amp, Magnetizing force
,

6.4

Let, The flux density at this instant is B,

total flux through the ring, Φ = BXa Wb

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 32
 As the current flowing through the solenoid is alternating, the flux produced in the
iron ring is also alternating in nature, so the emf (e′) induced will be expressed as,

𝑑∅
e’= −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐵𝑎)
−𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
−𝑁𝑎
𝑑𝑡
According to lenz law this induced emf will oppose the flow of current, therefore, in
order to maintain the current I in the coil, the source must supply an equal and opposite emf.
Hence applied emf,
𝑑𝐵
𝑒 = 𝑒 ′ = 𝑁𝑎 6.5
𝑑𝑡
Energy consumed in short time dt, during which the flux density has changed,

6.6

Thus, total work done or energy consumed during one complete cycle of magnetism is,

6.7
Now aL is the volume of the ring and H.dB is the area of the elementary strip of B – H
curve shown in the figure above,

Therefore, Energy consumed per cycle = volume of the ring × area of hysteresis
loop. In the case of transformer, this ring can be considered as magnetic core of transformer.
Hence, the work done is nothing but the electrical energy loss in transformer core and this is
known as hysteresis loss in transformer.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 33
6.4 EDDY CURRENT LOSS
In transformer we supply alternating current in the primary, this alternating current
produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core and as this flux links with secondary
winding, there will be induced voltage in secondary, resulting current to flow through the
load connected with it. Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer; may also link with
other conducting parts like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As alternating flux links
with these parts of transformer, there would be a locally induced emf. Due to these emfs,
there would be currents which will circulate locally at those parts of the transformer. This
circulating current will not contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as heat.
The equation of the eddy current loss is given as

𝑷𝒆 =𝑲𝒆 𝑩𝟐𝒎 𝒕𝟐 𝒇𝟐 V watts 6.8

Where,

Ke – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic
material like volume and resistivity of core material, the thickness of laminations.
Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2.
T – thickness of lamination in meters.
F – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz.
V – the volume of magnetic material in m3

6.5 STRAY LOSS

The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The
percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so they
can be neglected.
6.6 INTRODUCTION TO EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers form the most important link between supply systems and load.
Transformer’s efficiency directly affects its performance and aging. The transformer’s
efficiency, in general, is in the range of 95 – 99 %. For large transformers with very low
losses, the efficiency can be as high as 99.7%. The input and output measurements of a
transformer are not done under loaded conditions as the wattmeter readings inevitably suffer
errors of 1 – 2%. So for the purpose of efficiency calculations, OC and SC tests are used to
calculate rated core and winding losses in the transformer. The core losses depend on the
transformer rated voltage, and the copper losses depend on the currents through the
transformer primary and secondary windings.
Hence transformer efficiency is of prime importance to operate it under constant
voltage and frequency conditions.
The rise in the temperature of the transformer due to heat generated affects the life of
transformer oil properties and decides the type of cooling method adopted. The temperature
rise limits the rating of the equipment. The efficiency of transformer is simply given as:

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 34
 6.9
• The output power is the product of the fraction of the rated loading (volt-ampere),
and power factor of the load.
• The losses are the sum of copper losses in the windings + the iron loss + dielectric
loss + stray load loss.
• The iron losses include the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the transformer.
These losses depend on the flux density inside the core. Mathematically,

Hysteresis Loss

6.10
Eddy Current Loss

6.11
Where kh and ke are constants, Bmax is the peak magnetic field density, f is the
source frequency, and t is the thickness of the core. The power ‘n’ in the hysteresis loss is
known as Steinmetz constant whose value can be nearly.The dielectric losses take place
inside the transformer oil. For low voltage transformers, it can be neglected.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 35
 CHAPTER 7
ARDUINO

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 36
 CHAPTER 7
ARDUINO

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Arduino is an open source computer hardware and software company, project, and
user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and
microcontroller kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and
control objects in the physical and digital world. The project's products are distributed as
open-source hardware and software, which are licensed under the Gnu’s Not Unix (GNU)
Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the Gnu’s Not Unix (GNU) General Public
License (GPL), permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software distribution by
anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form, or as do-it-
yourself (DIY) kits.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards
are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards or Breadboards (shields) and other circuits. The boards feature
serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models,
which are also used for loading programs from personal computers. The microcontrollers are
typically programmed using a dialect of features from the programming languages C and
C++. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides an
integrated development environment (IDE) based on the Processing language project.

The Arduino project started in 2003 as a program for students at the Interaction
Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices
and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using sensors and
actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include simple
robots, thermostats, and motion detectors. 11 The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea,
Italy, where some of the founders of the project used to meet. The bar was named after of
Ivrea, who was the margrave of the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014

7.1.1 Features of the Arduino UNO

• Microcontroller: ATmega328 Operating Voltage: 5V Input Voltage (recommended):

7-12V Input Voltage (limits): 6-20V
• Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
• Analog Input Pins: 6
• DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 Ma
• DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
• Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
• SRAM: 2 KB (ATmega328)
• EEPROM: 1 KB (ATmega328)

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 37
The below figure shows the arduino circuit,

Figure 7.1 ARDUINO

7.2 ARDUINO HARDWARE PART

Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are distributed
under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the
Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also
available.

Although the hardware and software designs are freely available under copyleft
licenses, the developers have requested the name Arduino to be exclusive to the official
product and not be used for derived works without permission. The official policy document
on use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to incorporating work by
others into the official product. Several Arduino-compatible products commercially released
have avoided the project name by using various names ending in -Duino.

Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8,

ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, ATmega2560) with varying amounts of flash
memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was
introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row pins or female headers that facilitate
connections for programming and incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with
add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be individually
addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz
crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the Lilypad, run at 8 MHz and
dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies

uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the Arduino
UNO is the Opti boot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via a serial
connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level shifter circuit to
convert between RS232 logic levels and transistor–transistor logic (TTL) level signals.
Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented using
USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232.

Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial Bo Arduino, use a
detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods. When used
DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 38
with 14 traditional microcontroller tools, instead of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR in-
system programming (ISP) programming is used.

The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other
circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins, six of
which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs, which can also be
used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of the board, via female 0.1-inch (2.54
mm) headers. Several plug-in application shields are also commercially available. The
Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Bo Arduino boards may
provide male header pins on the underside of the board that can plug into solderless
breadboards.

Many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards exist. Some are

functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably. Many enhance the
basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in school-level education, to simplify
making buggies and small robots. Others are electrically equivalent but change the form
factor, sometimes retaining compatibility with shields, sometimes not. Some variants use
different processors, of varying compatibility.

➢ Circuit Diagram of Arduino

The below circuit shows that Ardunio,

Figure 7.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ARDUINO

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 39
7.3ARDUINO SOFTWARE PART
The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-platform
application (for Windows, macOS, Linux) that is written in the programming language Java.
It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It includes a code editor
with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching and replacing text, automatic
indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and provides simple one-click
mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino board. It also contains a message
area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and a hierarchy of
operation menus. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU General Public
License, version 2. The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules
of code structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project,
which provides many common input and output procedures.

User-written code only requires two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the
main program loop, that are compiled and linked with a program stub main () into an
executable cyclic executive program with the GNU toolchain, also included with the IDE
distribution. The Arduino IDE employs the program avr dude to convert the executable code
into a text file in hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a loader
program in the board's firmware.

➢ Sketch
A program written with the Arduino IDE is called a sketch. [58] Sketches are saved
on the development computer as text files with the file extension. ino. Arduino Software
(IDE) pre-1.0 saved sketches with the extension. pde. 16 A minimal Arduino C/C++
program consist of only two functions: setup(): This function is called once when a sketch
starts after power-up or reset. It is used to initialize variables, input and output pin modes,
and other libraries needed in the sketch. loop (): After setup () has been called, function loop
() is executed repeatedly in the main program. It controls the board until the board is powered
off or is reset.

➢ Blink example
Most Arduino boards contain a light-emitting diode (LED) and a load resistor
connected between pin 13 and ground, which is a convenient feature for many tests and
program functions. A typical program for a beginning Arduino programmer blinks a LED
repeatedly. This program uses the functions pin Mode (), digital Write (), and delay (), which
are provided by the internal libraries included in the IDE environment. This program is
usually loaded into a new Arduino board by the manufacturer.

7.4 DISPLAY UNIT

The term LCD stand for Liquid Crystal Display. It is one kind of electronic display
module used in an extensive range of applications like various circuits & devices like mobile
phones, calculators, computers, TV sets, etc. These displays are mainly preferred for multi-
segment Light Emitting Diodes and seven segments. The main benefits of using this module
are inexpensive; simply programmable, animations, and there are no limitations for
displaying custom characters, special and even animations, etc.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 40
 Figure 7.3 LCD

LCD 16×2 PIN DIAGRAM

The 16×2 LCD pinout is shown below,

• Pin1 (Ground/Source Pin): This is a GND pin of display, used to connect the GND
terminal of the microcontroller unit or power source.
• Pin2 (VCC/Source Pin): This is the voltage supply pin of the display, used to connect
the supply pin of the power source.
• Pin3 (V0/VEE/Control Pin): This pin regulates the difference of the display, used to
connect a changeable POT that can supply 0 to 5V.
• Pin4 (Register Select/Control Pin): This pin toggles among command or data register,
used to connect a microcontroller unit pin and obtains either 0 or 1(0 = data mode, and
1 = command mode).
• Pin5 (Read/Write/Control Pin): This pin toggles the display among the read or writes
operation, and it is connected to a microcontroller unit pin to get either 0 or 1 (0 = Write
Operation, and 1 = Read Operation).
• Pin 6 (Enable/Control Pin): This pin should be held high to execute Read/Write process,
and it is connected to the microcontroller unit & constantly held high.
• Pins 7-14 (Data Pins): These pins are used to send data to the display. These pins are
connected in two-wire modes like 4-wire mode and 8-wire mode. In 4-wire mode, only
four pins are connected to the microcontroller unit like 0 to 3, whereas in 8-wire mode,
8-pins are connected to microcontroller unit like 0 to 7.
• Pin15 (+ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to +5V
• Pin 16 (-ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to GND.

7.4.1 FEATURES OF LCD16X2

The features of this LCD mainly include the following.

The operating voltage of this LCD is 4.7V-5.3V
• It includes two rows where each row can produce 16-characters.
• The utilization of current is 1mA with no backlight
• Every character can be built with a 5×8 pixel box
• The alphanumeric LCDs alphabets & numbers

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 41
 • Is display can work on two modes like 4-bit & 8-bit
• These are obtainable in Blue & Green Backlight
• It displays a few custom generated characters

16×2 LCD COMMANDS

The commands of LCD 16X2 include the following.
• For Hex Code-01, the LCD command will be the clear LCD screen
• For Hex Code-02, the LCD command will be returning home
• For Hex Code-04, the LCD command will be decrement cursor
• For Hex Code-06, the LCD command will be Increment cursor
• For Hex Code-05, the LCD command will be Shift display right
• For Hex Code-07, the LCD command will be Shift display left
• For Hex Code-08, the LCD command will be Display off, cursor off
• For Hex Code-0A, the LCD command will be cursor on and display off
• For Hex Code-0C, the LCD command will be cursor off, display on
• For Hex Code-0E, the LCD command will be cursor blinking, Display on
• For Hex Code-0F, the LCD command will be cursor blinking, Display on
• For Hex Code-10, the LCD command will be Shift cursor position to left
• For Hex Code-14, the LCD command will be Shift cursor position to the right
• For Hex Code-18, the LCD command will be Shift the entire display to the left
• For Hex Code-1C, the LCD command will be Shift the entire display to the right
• For Hex Code-80, the LCD command will be Force cursor to the beginning ( 1st line)
• For Hex Code-C0, the LCD command will be Force cursor to the beginning ( 2nd line)
• For Hex Code-38, the LCD command will be 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

7.4.2 LCD CONNECTION

Figure 7.4 LCD CONNECTION

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 42
 The connection to microcontroller requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O
lines for the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data
bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4- bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines
(3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will
require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).

7.4.3 PROGRAMMING IN THE LCD

We mainly call the following functions while using a LCD

1. lcd_clear(); : This will clear the display and bring the cursor back to (0,0)
2. lcd_gotoxy(int,int); : This will take the cursor to the desired row and column.
For example the following will take the cursor to (11,1) i.e. 12th column of
second line.

Fig 7.5 Programming in LCD

lcd_gotoxy(11,1);
Now anything you write to the LCD will be printed at (11,1).
3. lcd_putsf(String); : To print the String at the current position of the cursor. Using this
function, you can output a constant String as :
For example, lcd_putsf(―0003‖); will yield
4. lcd_putchar(char); : To print a character at the current position of the cursor. We mayalso
specify the ASCII value of the character.
A String in C is an array of characters. To declare a String, you will use char[<max size of the
string>] <name>
String can be assigned as:
A = ‖Hello‖;
Or, when initializing, as:
char[] a = ‖Hello World‖;
5. lcd_puts(String); : This is generally used to print a variable String. (Note: requires you to
include the file ―stdio.h‖ in your program)

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 43
 CHAPTER 8
RELAY CIRCUIT

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 44
 CHAPTER 8
RELAY CIRCUIT

8.1 RELAY

Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other

operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must
be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on
another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to
perform logical operations.

Figure 8.1 RELAY

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits
with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays
with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in
one direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the
same input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where
interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts.

Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil
device, the relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and
will reset when the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is
applied to the reset coil the contacts will transition.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays”. The BC547 is used to drive relays. The main purpose of BC547 in relay
circuit is to provide sufficient current that is needed to toggle relay state. The micro
controllers can supply only few mA of current so we need a relay driver circuit in order to
turn on the relay.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 45
8.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RELAY CIRCUIT

The circuit diagram represents the relay circuit connection,

Figure 8.2 RELAY CIRCUIT

8.3 RELAY DRIVER

The semiconductor device like a transistor is one kind of switch which controls
electrically. It consists of three terminals like an i/p, o/p & a control line. These are named as
the emitter (E), collector(C) and base (B). A transistor works like a switch as well as an
amplifier to convert the waves from audio to electronic.
Transistor are smaller in size, long life and can operate with low voltage supplies.The
first transistor was designed with Ge (germanium). In modern electronics, it is the basic

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 46
building block and used in various electrical and electronic systems. This article
discusses an overview of BC547 transistor working and its applications.

8.3.1 BC547 TRANSISTOR

The BC547 transistor is an NPN transistor. A transistor is nothing but the transfer of
resistance which is used

Figure 8.3 BC547 TRANSISTOR

The similar transistors are like BC548 & BC549. This transistor works in a fixed DC
voltage in the preferred region of its characteristics which is called the biasing Further, the
series of this transistor can be divided into three groups based on the current gain like
BC547A, BC547B & BC547C.
8.3.2 BC547 TRANSISTOR PIN CONFIGURATION
The BC547 transistor includes three pins which include the following.

Figure 8.4 BC547 PIN CONFIGURATION

• Pin1 (Collector): This pin is denoted with symbol ‘C’ and the flow of current will be
through the collector terminal.
• Pin2 (Base): This pin controls the transistor biasing.
• Pin3 (Emitter): The current supplies out through emitter terminal.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 47
8.4 WORKING STATES OF TRANSISTOR
The working states of BC547 transistor include the following.
• Forward Bias.
• Reverse Bias.
In a forward bias mode, the two terminals like emitter & collector are connected to allow
the flow of current through it. Whereas in a reverse bias mode, it doesn’t allow the flow of
current through it because it works as an open switch.

8.5 FEATURES
The features of the BC547 transistor include the following.
• The gain of DC current (hFE) = 800 A
• Continuous Ic (collector current) = 100mA
• VBE (emitter-base voltage) = 6V
• IB (base current) = 5mA
• The polarity of the transistor is NPN
• The transition frequency is 300MHz
• It is obtainable in semiconductor package like-92
• Power dissipation is 625mW

Precautions of this transistor

The precautions of this transistor include the following.
• To run the transistor for a long time in a circuit, it is very important that it doesn’t
increase the load more than 100mA.
• The voltage should not exceed to 45V DC across the transistor.
• The base resistor should be used for providing the necessary current intended for
saturation.
• Maintain the temperature from the above +150oC to -65 oC.
• Always verify the three terminals of the transistor while connecting in-circuit
otherwise the performance can be reduced and the circuit can be damaged.

8.6 APPLICATIONS
This BC547 transistor is used general-purpose, widely used and it is used as an
alternative as well as a substitute to different kinds of transistors. Thus, it can use in different
electronic circuits

• The utmost transition frequency of BC547 is 300MHz so that it will perform well
within RF circuits.
• Amplification of current
• Audio Amplifiers
• Switching Loads < 100mA
• Transistor Darlington Pairs
• Drivers like an LED driver, Relay Driver, etc.
• Amplifiers like Audio, signal, etc..
• Darlington pair

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 48
 • Quick switching
• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

These transistors are used to build various electrical and electronic circuits which
include the following.

• Alarm circuits
• LED flasher circuit
• Water level indicator
• Sensor-based circuits
• Audio Preamp circuits
• RF Circuits
• Touch-sensitive switch circuit
• Heat sensor circuit
• Moisture sensitive alarm
• Street light circuit
• Relay driver based on one channel
• Indication of volume level

Thus, this is all about BC547 transistor and it is an NPN BJT. A transistor is usually used for
amplifying current. A small amount of current at the base terminal of the transistor will
control the high current at collector and emitter terminals of the transistor. These transistors
are specially used for switching as well as amplification purposes. The highest gain of current
is 800A.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 49
 CHAPTER 9
CODE

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 50
 CHAPTER 9

CODE

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
//code devloped by UCET EEE 2022 GROUP-3
// initialize the liquid crystal library & interface lcd pin to arduino digital pins
LiquidCrystal lcd(4,5,6,7,8,9);
float Load1;
int r1=2;
int r2=12;

// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {
// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per second:
lcd.begin(16, 2);

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(r1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(r2,OUTPUT);
}
// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:
void loop() {
// read the input on analog pin 0:

int sensorValue = analogRead(A0);

// print out the value you read:

Serial.println(sensorValue);

Load1=(sensorValue/10);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Load = ");

lcd.print(Load1);

lcd.print("% ");

delay(1);

if(sensorValue<999)

digitalWrite(r1,HIGH);
}

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 51
else
{
digitalWrite(r1,LOW);
// delay in between reads for stability
}
if(sensorValue>500)
{
digitalWrite(r2,HIGH);
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("T1 ON T2 ON");
}
else
{
digitalWrite(r2,LOW);
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("T1 ON T2 OFF");//delay in between reads for stability
}
}

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 52
 CHAPTER 10
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 53
 CHAPTER 10
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

10.1 RESULT

The transformer 1 is turned until 50% of the load as shown in the figure 10.1 and the
second transformer is turned on during the next 50% of the load as shown in figure 10.2.
Relay on indicates the transformer 1 and relay 2 indicates transformer 2.The relay is also used
as a protection device for the load whenever a fault occurs within the circuit and it also cuts
down the power supply to the load when the load current crosses beyond 100% of the full
load (as shown in figure 10.3) of two transformers. Thus, the transformers are protected from
overloading and the load is also protected from any internal faults majorly caused by short
circuits.
S.No TRANSFORMER LOAD ON/OFF

1. TRANSFORMER-1 < 50% ON

2. TRANSFORMER -2 >50% to 100% ON

3. TRANSFORMER-1 >100% OFF

TABLE 10.1 RESULT

Fig 10.1 UPTO 50% OF LOAD

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 54
 Fig 10.2 UPTO 100% OF LOAD

Fig 10.3 >100% OF THE LOAD

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 55
10.2 CONCLUSION
The transformer is a major component in power systems. If the transformer is
repeatedly overloaded, the system will deteriorate faster. A compromised insulating system is
the net outcome of minor incremental improvements in loading capacity over time. For
example, if a certain section of a transformer's insulation fails each time it goes through an
overload cycle, then soon nothing would be able to stop more than its load current from
destroying it. When that happens, the transformer loses its ability to pass on excess voltage to
other parts of the circuit.
Other factors such as temperature and material quality also play a role in
determining how long a transformer can withstand an overload. The amount of voltage a
transformer can handle before failing depends on how it is constructed .So an overload on
transformer is nothing but a failure of transformer in long run. So it is very necessary to
protect the transformer from overloading so this proposed model is effective in protecting the
transformer.

10.3 FUTURE SCOPE

The proposed model is effective in protecting the transformer from overloading and
it can also protect the load from internal short circuits. But if it is installed in a real-life
situation, we cannot know how many times a transformer is overloading.
So in order to know how many times a transformer is getting overloaded and also
how many times load is shut down to protect the transformer we need to add a GSM module.
The features of this project can be increased by adding a GSM module. In which this GSM
module sends a SMS to the related authorities i.e., AE of a substation etc., on the increased
load of the transformer and can help in protecting the transformer before it deteriorates.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 56
REFERENCES

[1] S.R.Balan, P.Sivanesan, R.Ramprakash, B.Ananthakannan and

K.MithinSubash,“ GSM Based Automatic Substation LoadShedding and Sharing
Using Programmable Switching Control”, Journal of Selected Areas in
Microelectronics, Volume 6, Issue 2, pp. 59-61, 2014.

[2] Dr.J.B.V. Subrahmanyam, T.C. Subramanyam, T.C. Srinivasarao,M.Kalavani

and HarithaInavolu, “Auto Control of a Standby Transformer Using
Microcontroller”, International Journal of Advances In Engineering Research, Vol.
2, Issue 5, pp. 1199-1204, 2011.

[3] Ashish R. Ambalkar, Nitesh M. Bhoyar, Vivek V. Badarkhe and Vivek B.

Bathe, “Automatic Load Sharing of Transformers”, International Journal for
Scientific Research & Development, Volume 2, Issue 12, pp. 739- 741,2015.

[4] Rekha.T, BinduPrakash, Asna. S, Dinesh.S and Nandana.S. Prasad, “An

Intelligent Method for Load Sharing of Transformers with Temperature
Monitoring and Automatic Correction of Power Factor”, International Journal of
Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, Volume 4, Issue3, pp. 416-421,
2015

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 57
DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Page 58