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2012 .8. 1
Korea Development Institute School of Public Policy and Management,
Korea Reprographic and Transmission Rights Association

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2012.8.1
한국개발연구원 국제정책대학원,
한국복사전송권협회
 History

Introduction

For hundreds of thousands of years, ethnic Koreans have lived on

the Korean peninsula. The earliest people planted the seeds for
Korea 's history and culture by engaging in cultural exchanges with
neighboring countries and defending the region against foreign
invasions. Various states occupied the peninsula during this time,
but after the unification of the Three Kingdoms in the middle of the
7th century, Unified Silla ruled the country as one nation. In the late
19th century, Korea tried to distance itself from modernization, but
was eventually colonized by Japan, and only liberated at the end of
World War II, in 1945. The Cold War, however, divided the nation
into two countries, North Korea and South Korea. The Korean War
(1950-1953) followed soon after. In spite of so much adversity,
South Korea has achieved stunning economic growth in the
aftermath of the civil war and now boasts a stable democracy.

Today , nations interact with other nations in the name of

globalization. To succeed in this world, it is just as important for a
nation to introduce its cultural assets to the world as it is to accept
the cultural assets of other nations. Cultural assets teach us about
our ancestors, which, in tum, is what history is all about. This
chapter briefly describes the history of Korea from the early
Paleolithic Age to the establishment of current government in 2008.
1. The Dawn of Korean History

Around 700,000 years ago, people lived in periphery areas around

the Korean peninsula. As evidence of this, Paleolithic artifacts have
been excavated all around the peninsula . In contrast to the
Paleolithic Period, Neolithic sites have been found along the seas or
around large rivers. The Bronze Age, which dates from 2000 BC, is
probably best known for dolmen, a famous burial site for chiefs.
This huge burial monument, which would have required a massive
amount of manpower to build, clearly shows that hierarchical
societies were a feature of this period.

With the arrival of the Bronze Age, tribal societies appeared in

some areas of Manchuria and in the northwest of the Korean
peninsula. Dangun integrated these tribes and founded Gojoseon, or
Old Joseon, the first Korean kingdom. According to the Dangun
foundation myth, Gojoseon was built with unique cultural features.
For example, the appearance of a bear and a tiger in the myth
indicates that· the state worshipped animals. In addition, evidence
points towards the fact that early Korea was an agrarian nation.

With the help of bronze weapons, Gojoseon conquered

neighboring tribes. Iron metallurgy was introduced in the 2nd
century BC. Gojoseon achieved wealth and power by engaging in
trade with small states in the southern part of the peninsula and with
the Chinese Han Dynasty. However, Gojoseon collapsed when the
Han Dynasty invaded in I08 BC.

After the fall of Gojoseon, many chiefdoms with iron metallurgy

capabilities maintained their independence. Iron farming tools
increased yields enormously, and the population was increasing at
the same time. Also, iron weapons were widely used in intertribal
warfare, with the victor claiming control over the vanquished.
While some parts of Manchuria were occupied by people from
Goguryeo and Buyeo, the northern part of the Korean peninsula was
controlled by Dongye and Okjeo. Samhan (Mahan, Byeonhan, and
Jinhan) was founded in the south.

2. The Three Kingdoms, Unified Silla, and Balhae

Tribal societies were gradually integrated into the Three Kingdoms.

Goguryeo was the first nation to organize itself as a kingdom .
Utilizing the geographical features of the Yalu River basin, Goguryeo
successfully expanded to the East Sea and finally conquered Dongye
and Okjeo. The kingdom adopted Buddhism as a national religion
and established Taehak, an education institution, to cultivate talented
individuals. Goguryeo also proclaimed its own legal system.

Gwanggaeto the Great not only orchestrated Goguryeo's

territorial expansion into Manchuria, but by helping Silla resist
Japanese invasions, he also earned the deference of the southern
part of the peninsula. Goguryeo enjoyed a golden age during King
Gwanggaeto's reign. In fact, the king's heroic exploits were carved
into the monument of King Gwanggaeto in Jilin, Manchuria. King
Jangsu, the son of King Gwanggaeto , moved the capital to
Pyongyanseong and concentrated on expanding southward. In the
late 5th century, the kingdom became a great power in Northeast
Asia by taking possession of the central parts of the Korean
peninsula and Manchuria. As Goguryeo became more powerful and
prosperous , China's Unified Sui and Tang dynasties invaded
Goguryeo. Goguryeo repelled both and devoted its energy to
building a defensive wall at the border called Cheolli Jangseong in
preparation for another invasion. Goguryeo's victory meant a great
deal not only to Goguryeo but to the Korean peninsula as a whole
because it represented a victory against China's enormous power.
 Baekje was founded by Onjo, the son of Goguryeo's progenitor,
Jumong. Onjo expanded the territory southwards and designated
Wiryeseong (within the vicinity of today's Seoul) as its capital. The
kingdom gradually defined itself by annexing the Han River basin
and expanding further to Liaoxi, China and to certain areas of
Japan. Due to Goguryeo's southward expansion, Baekje lost control
of the Han River basin and moved its capital, first to Ungjin
(present-day Gongju) and then later to Sabi (present-day Buyeo).
Subsequently, the kingdom was determined to restore the peninsula
as one nation that could carry out cultural exchanges with Silla and
China. Indeed, it was during this time that Baekje passed on several
important cultural assets to Japan, including Buddhism and Chinese
characters.

Silla, which originated in Saroguk, was founded by a partnership

between the Park, Seok, and Kim clans. Silla was the last of the
three kingdoms to establish its own national system, but Silla got
outshone in the 6th century. The kingdom instituted an organization
called Hwarangdo, a martial art with spritual, intellectual, and
artistic elements to it, in an efforts to nurture young people. It also
officially approved Buddhism as a state religion to prevent
ideological divisions. Furthermore, Silla annexed the Han River
basin and enlarged its territory all the way to the Nakdong River
basin.

Gaya was a developed state for its time and located along the
lower end of the Nakdong River. However, Silla annexed Gaya
with its iron metallurgy achievements and advanced trading system.
Still, Gaya culture had a decisive influence on Silla's culture, with
some of these cultural features eventually being exported to Japan.
 While Goguryeo was in constant struggle with China, Silla was
frequently attacked by Baekje. Then, Silla allied itself with Tang
China and finally conquered Baekje. Riding on this wave of
momentum, Silla eventually conquered Goguryeo. Yet it was at this
same time that Goguryeo faced an internal power struggle within
the country. After a string of victories, Tang China attempted to
gain control over and rule Silla, but Silla allied itself with Goguryeo
and Baekje and soon drove the Chinese forces from the peninsula.
In 676, Sill a then absorbed the southern part of the Daedong River.
Although Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms was achieved
with the help of outside force, simply becoming the first unified
state on the Korean peninsula was a substantive accomplishment in
and of itself.

After unification, Silla strove to protect its expanded territory by

regulating its military forces and the local government system.
Gyeongju, the capital of Silla and home of the kingdom's
aristocracy, became a giant metropolis. Exchanges with Tang China
became more vibrant. Many young people from the aristocracy
went to Tang China to study religion and other academic fields. A
"Silla Town" was even built in China's Shandong province.

Meanwhile, displaced Goguryeo remnants allied themselves with

the Mohe tribe, which led to the emergence of Balhae in 698. In an
attempt to maintain its origins, Balhae tried to follow the spirit of
the birth kingdom, Goguryeo. In fact, Balhae signed a diplomatic
agreement with Japan not as Balhae but as Goguryeo. Earlier,
Balhae had been in conflict with Tang China, but later their
relationship became amicable. To fortify its national structure,
Balhae even embraced the traditional teachings of Tang China.
Territorial expansion was accomplished in remarkable fashion when
Balhae recovered most of Goguryeo's original lands. However, by
the end of the 9th century, and as a result of weakened national
power, Balhae was ultimately conquered by the Khitan tribe in 926.
 Unified Silla faced political chaos as a result of a power struggle
among aristocrats. During this crisis, some local power holders who
usually opposed the central government tried to solidify their
strength, including Gyeonhwon, who founded Later Baekje in
Jeolla-do Province and Gungye, who founded Later Goguryeo in
Gangwon-do and Gyeonggi-do provinces. Silla ended up becoming
a much smaller territory in Gyeongsang-do Province. It was at this
time that the Korean peninsula entered the Later Three Kingdoms
period.

3. Gory eo: Land of Empire

Later Goguryeo's founder, Gungye, lost the support of the public

due to his tendency for violence. Wang Geon would eventually
revolt and usurp Gungye's throne. Wang Geon named the new
nation Goryeo and moved the capital to his home base of Songak
(present-day Kaesong) . Goryeo always opposed Later Baekje yet
maintained friendly relations with Silla. Eventually, the king of Silla
handed over his fallen kingdom to Wang Geon. Meanwhile, there
was a struggle between Gyeonhwon and his sons in the Later
Baekje kingdom. Goryeo seized upon this infighting. Wang Geon
annexed Later Baekje in 936 AD, and the Korean peninsula was
reunited once again.

The founder of Goryeo wanted to preserve the greatness of

Goguryeo. Thus, the new nation designated itself as an empire, not
a kingdom. The capital was called Hwangdo (literally, Imperial
Capital) and royal and aristocratic families were conferred with
noble titles in the Chinese imperial manner. In addition, the empire
used its own era names, which were different from those of China,
and held distinct ritual ceremonies. Goryeo expanded northward
and eventually established a second capital in Pyongyang, the old
capital of Goguryeo. Furthermore, to weaken the power of local
officials, the empire emancipated slaves. The beginning of the
national civil service examinations system provided a fairer
recruiting system for ranking officials. However, the imperial
family, sons of meritorious vassals, and high-ranking officials
enjoyed a system of privilege called eumseo, which allowed them to
become ranking officials without taking the examination.

When Goryeo was founded, the Khitan established the Liao

Dynasty in Manchuria. Because Liao felt threatened by the alliance
between Goryeo and Song China, the Khitan invaded Goryeo.
However, Goryeo's diplomat Seo Hui's negotiations with the
Khitan had the Liao withdraw its army and allowed Goryeo to
expand its borders. Later, Liao attacked Goryeo several times,
within the latter winning every battle. After Liao fell into decline,
the Jurchens founded the Jin Dynasty and invaded Goryeo. For
protective measures , the empire built nine fortresses on the
northeast side of the border. At the end of the struggle, the two
nations reached a state of peaceful relations. Goryeo traded with
Song China, Jin China, Japan and even Arabia. In fact, this was the
first time in history that the name "Corea"- later changed to
"Korea"- was used and only came about when Arabian merchants
pronouncing the name Goryeo.

After Goryeo adopted Buddhism as its state religion, its influence

spread widely. For example, a Lotus Lantern Festival was held at
the beginning of every year. Also, Palgwanhoe, an important ritual
ceremony mixing Buddhism and folk religious beliefs, was held
regularly . Earlier, Goryeo celadon was originally made with
Chinese ceramic technology , but later it took on its own
characteristics and was recognized in China as a great cultural asset
of Goryeo. Other shining instances of advancements made during
this time include one of the earliest printing presses (xylography)
and the Tripitaka Koreana.
 In the 12th century, Goryeo society faced several conflicts.
Eminent families boasting high-ranking officials tried to seize
power and threaten the royal authority. At the same time,
Pyongyang officials revolted against the government's pliable
attitude towards China. In addition, military officials who had
constantly been overlooked by administration officials began
complaining vociferously. They would actually rise up in rebellion
and seize power, and the central government was unable to suppress
this power struggle. Furthermore, avaricious military officials tried
to exploit public goods, leading to protests among the lower classes.
A rebellion was actually ignited by a slave of Choi Chung-heon,
who was a military official leader, in the capital city of Gaegyeong
(present-day Kaesong).

Meanwhile, enormous changes were taking place in China. The

Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty expanded after subjugating all of China
and then tried to annex Goryeo. Goryeo moved its capital to
Ganghwado Island and held out for 40 years. In the end, however,
Goryeo was defeated. After the Mongol invasion, the emperor of
Goryeo was forced to marry a princess of the Yuan Dynasty, and
the subsequent ruling system was downgraded to the level of "son-
in-law of the Emperor." At this time, followers of Yuan assumed
power. They took land from the people to run a huge farm and
made slaves out of the citizens.

Although several reforms were initiated against the pro-Yuan

forces, all of them failed . Honggeonjeok, the Red Headband bandits
from China, and Japanese pirates invaded Goryeo. Later, the army
that defeated these foreign enemies gained the confidence of the
public. General Yi Seong-gye formed a new political organization
with noblemen well versed in Neo-Confucianism. Eventually, Yi
Seong-gye usurped the throne and in 1392 established the Joseon
Dynasty.
4. Joseon, the Confucian State

Yi Seong-gye, the founder of Joseon, moved the capital to Hanyang

(present-day Seoul) because it is and was located at the center of the
Korean peninsula. According to the theory of divination, which is
based on topography, Hanyang was seen as the most propitious
location on the peninsula. Thus, Hanyang has remained the capital
of Korea up until now.

In the early stages of the new dynasty, there was a power struggle
with vassals and the sons of the king. The chaos subsided with the
accession of Sejong the Great. King Sejong encouraged the pursuit
of academies and developed a political system based on Confucian
ideas. He made a prodigious effort to stabilize people's standard of
living by improving agricultural techniques and reforming the tax
system. Yet one of King Sejong's greatest contributions was the
creation of Hangeul , the Korean alphabet. Soon, Hangeul was
widely disseminated among the people and it is still in use today.

During the Joseon era ( 1392-191 0), the social hierarchy became
firmly fixed. Yangban, or noblemen, represented the highest status
and enjoyed special privileges before the law. They could take the
gwageo, the national civil service examination. Jungin was a level
below yangban and they could become local government clerks.
Much of the remaining population was refered to as yangin, who
were farmers, merchants, or craftsmen, and their responsibilities
included taxation and forced labor. The lowest class was called
cheonmin (the lowest of the lowest class), including nobi (slaves),
baelgeong (butchers), gisaeng (female enertainers), and gwangdae
(clowns).
 Those who contributed to the foundation of the new dynasty
enjoyed the majority of power. They used their privilege to
purchase larger and larger properties. However, by the end of the
15th century, many local neo-Confucian scholars, called sarim, who
had not participated in the foundation of the country, gradually
began to participate in the central government by passing the
administrative exam. They originally strove to disseminate
Confucian philosophy and to foster the edifying of customs in local
communities. Sarim acquired power and became involved in the
central government. Many politicians opposed these local officials,
but sarim influence was growing and ultimately became the leading
faction.

Once sarim solidified their position in the central government,

they split into several factions. At first, the factions were separated
by different academic views, and these divisions soon devolved into
political conflict. Surprisingly, the controversy and confrontation
between factions brought about some positive results in terms of
advanced academic research and fair competition. Yi Hwang and Yi
Ii were two leading scholars of Confucian studies and they carried a
lot of weight in Japan's Confucian circles as well. Still, as the gap
between the factions grew, a number of negative aspects became
exposed.

Diplomatically, Joseon supported the China's Ming Dynasty.

Through this allegiance (toadyism), Joseon assured its national
safety and its standing in Northeast Asia. Also, Joseon absorbed
some advanced traditions from Ming China. To protect the country
from the Jurchens in Manchuria, Joseon used both threats and
placations (a good-neighbor policy). At the time, Korea's borders
were basically what they are today. Joseon also enjoyed continuous
relations with Japan and other Southeast Asian countries.
 But Japan's unification brought about a significant crisis in
Northeast Asia. ln 1592, Japan began the first of many invasions of
Joseon (Hideyoshi Invasion). Japan intended to use these invasions
as a stepping stone to enter China. At first, Joseon was stunned by
the surprise attack and asked the Ming Dynasty for help. Naval
victories for Joseon in Jeolla-do Province blocked Japanese supply
routes. Even Confucian scholars and Buddhist monks formed
militias to fight the Japanese. When Chinese Ming military support
arrived, they also helped the counterattack.

After seven years of fighting, Japanese troops finally retreated

and the war was over, one which had caused significant damage and
suffering to Northeast Asia. Unfortunately, Joseon suffered more
than anyone else. Its arable land was reduced to one-third of its
original area. In Japan, there was a subsequent civil war and a shift
in central power. In China, the Ming Dynasty was now threatened
by the rising strength of the Jurchens.

After the war, Gwanghaegun became the new king and tried to
manage the crisis. Diplomatically, he maintained neutrality with the
country's old ally, Ming China, and a newly emerging power, the
Jurchens. However, most faction leaders opposed any alliance with
the Jurchens, who frequently attacked Joseon, and deposed the king.
China's Qing Dynasty, founded by the Jurchens, began to assail
Joseon for having amicable relations only with the Ming Dynasty.
After losing the war, Joseon eventually affirmed its loyalty to the
Qing Dynasty.

After the two major wars, the administrative system in Joseon

changed. Rational competition and communication between
factions disappeared, and just one faction became dominant. To
solve this problem, King Yeongjo and his grandson, King Jeongjo,
chose members of the elite from every faction equitably. King
Jeongjo also established an institution called Gyujanggak to nurture
new officials. The tax system was reorganized so that for products it
was fixed only to rice. Furthermore, the government had to buy all
necessary products directly from the market. After these reforms,
there was a greater amount of currency in circulation. In addition,
when a man applied to serve in the military, the military tax was
reduced in half.

Industry developed best when the political situation was at its

most stable. The volume of products increased greatly after the
irrigation system was restored. Improved agricultural techniques
and better farming tools and fertilizer also played a contributing
factor. Farmers were able to produce a second rotation of crops such
as tobacco, medicinal herbs, and other vegetables, and then sell
them in markets. As product distribution improved, markets open
every five days became more common. Industrial areas like
Hanyang (present-day Seoul), Kaesong, Dongrae (present-day
Busan), and Uiju attracted merchants who traded not only
domestically but with Qing China or Japan as well. With
investments made by wealthy merchants, the mining industry and
handicraft manufacturing also grew in size.

Not surprisingly, economic development altered people's social

status. While impoverished yangban lived like commoners, wealthy
farmers seemed to earn a higher status. Some nobi found new jobs
as merchants or laborers.

Furthermore, social upheavals changed the mindset of scholars.

Some Confucian scholars started to regret their research methods,
which centered on philosophical ideas. They started to support
Silhak, the study of pragmatism. Some scholars pursued self-
cultivation and demanded improvements in the land system. Others
argued that Joseon needed to adopt certain traditions from Qing
China to improve industry. In addition, interest in technology,
medicine, and astronomy came to the forefront. Gukhak, the study
of history and geology on Korea, was also widely researched.

The accession of a young King Sunjo in the 19th century gave the
royal family a dominating power in politics. Power moguls used
their influence to increase their property owenership. For example,
they took bribes and sold government posts in return. Government
officials then took money from common citizens to cover the
bribes. This made the lives of the average people extremely
difficult. People began to refuse to pay taxes and came together to
protest against the government. Some of these people who failed to
pay their enormous taxes became homeless or thieves.

As people's dissatisfaction grew, revolts broke out throughout the

country. The Rebellion of Hong Gyeong-rae in Pyeongan-do
Province in 1811 was one such revolt. The main reason for this
rebellion was the brutal exploitation of farmers and discrimination
based on where they lived. Farmers supporting Hong Gyeong-rae
seized the northern part of peninsula, including Pyeongan-do
Province, but the riots petered out after five months. There was
another rebellion in Jinju, South Gyeongsang-do Province in 1862,
which later spread throughout Gyeongsang-do and Jeolla-do
provinces. In each of these provinces, farmers destroyed local
government offices, denounced officials and demanded lower taxes.
The rebellions were quashed with not a little difficulty, and as a
result, taxes were lowered to some degree.
5. Modernization: Exertion and Frustration

King Gojong's father, Regent Daewongun, initiated a new political

policy to stop aristocrats from monopolizing power and exploiting
the masses. He imposed taxes on yangban, who up until then had
been exempt, and destroyed most seowon, the privileged sites of
local aristocrats. Meanwhile, taxes on farmers were cut. These new
policies received a riotous welcome. However, to intensify the royal
authority , Regent Daewongun enforced the restoration of
Gyeongbokgung Palace, something that filled the public with
resentment.

Regent Daewongun also banned Catholicism and denied all

international demands for trade. Isolationism was his main political
principle. For this reason, several foreign countries like France and
the US attacked Joseon. Regent Daewongun believed that keeping
the country's door closed against Westernization was the only way
to protect his nation's traditions. This, however, only left Joseon
behind a quickly modernizing Japan.

When the regency of Daewongun ended, King Gojong finally

became king. Many began lobbying for an open-door policy with
the outside world. Soon, Japan sent naval troops to Ganghwado
Island to open the ports to trade. After lengthy discussions, Japan
forced Joseon to sign a treaty in 1876, the first of its kind for Joseon
to open the country to modem diplomatic relations. Subsequently,
Joseon established relations with the US in 1882 and with Britain,
Germany, Russia, and France. Later, special districts for foreigners
to reside in and conduct business were built in port cities such as
Busan and Incheon.
 After the opening of the ports, Joseon dispatched delegations to
Japan, Qing China, and the US. Some administrators argued that
more action was needed to modernize the country. Others still
opposed accepting things foreign, including the Japanese ones, and
strove to preserve the country's Confucian culture and laws.

Sometimes the conflict between these opposing views turned

violent. Due to the modernization movement, the old guard felt at a
disadvantage and revolted in 1882 (Imo Incident). In 1884, those
who wanted rapid action took part in a political upheaval (Gapsin
Coup) with the support of Japanese forces. These coup activists
formed their own government, published a reform platform, and
sought their nation's independence from Qing China. Although the
coup ended up with failure, it was the first political reform
movement to plant the seeds for modernization.

During the <;haotic upheaval that occurred inside and outside the
country, a new religion, Donghak, was established. Its dogma was
based on fairness and social reform, with Donghak activists
fomenting a peasant revolution. At first, the revolution was set its
sights against a brutal local ruler of a county in North Jeolla-do
Province. It then spread through Jeolla-do Province and quickly
moved into Gyeongsang-do Province (1894, Donghak Peasant
Revolution). The Joseon government failed to suppress the
revolution and asked Qing China for assistance. When Qing troops
arrived in Joseon, Japan also sent troops. The Korean peninsula
turned into a battlefield of royal forces versus peasant forces, and
Qing troops versus Japanese troops. The Japanese suppressed the
peasant revolution and defeated the Qing troops. After Japan won
the conflict, its political leverage in Joseon rose significantly.
 The newly organized pro-Japanese cabinet pushed modernization
in every part of the country. The cabinet divided the government
into administrations and jurisdictions. It also abolished the gwageo
system, the traditional administrative examination to recruit
officials, which were tainted by corruption and irregularities.
Socially, the government repelled hierarchy system and early
marriage, while allowing widows to remarry in an effort to increase
human rights. However, the major demand, reformation of the land
system, was not achieved.

To prevent Japan from abusing its power in Joseon, the Joseon

government approached Russia. The Japanese authorities, believing
Queen Myeongseong turned to Russia instead of Japan, had the
queen assassinated in 1895 (Eulmi Incident). The new cabinet
abolished several traditional customs including the cutting of men's
topknots. According to Confucian philosophy, cutting or damaging
a body part was a sin, so there was strong opposition to this change.

After the assassination of the queen, King Gojong lived in the

Russian Legation for one year and attempted to gamer support from
the Russians. The king and his supporters prepared a number of
countermeasures against Japan. However, the cost of opposition
was considerable. The government had to hand over the ownership
of all mining and lumber interests to Russia and other Western
countries.

This develoement helped establish Korea's independence

movement. Activists organized a the Independence Club and
published a newspaper, called Dongnip sinmun (The Independence
Newspaper). The Independence Club organized assemblies at
Jongro and argued for greater civil rights and democratic reforms.
They also tried to establish a democratic parliament to reform the
royal authority, whereupon the government disbanded the assembly
by force.

After King Gojong returned to Deoksugung Palace from his one-

year stay at the Russian Legation, he changed the country's name to
the Korean Empire and named himself Emperor. He implemented a
broad range of measures to modernize the country ( 1897). The
emperor built several educational institutions and companies, and
reinforced the military system. However, all these new measures
came to a grinding halt at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War,
as Russia and Japan fought to gain regional hegemony over Korea.

The war ended in victory for Japan, and eventually Japan took
control of Korea's international and domestic affairs (1905).
Emperor Gojong sent delegates to the Hague Peace Conference in
the Netherlands to inform the assembly of the brutality of Japan, but
this effort failed. Subsequently, Japan forced Emperor Gojong to
abdicated the throne and disbanded the Joseon Army in 1907. As
Japan's interference increased, resistance became massive. The
dismissed army formed a private militia and prepared to fight Japan.
At the same time, enlightenment campaigns in education and
communications were launched.
6. Japanese Colonial Rule and the Independence
Movement

Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish the throne and Japan

exploited the jurisdiction and police authority of the Korean
Empire. In 1910, Japan had pro-Japanese government officials sign
the Japan-Korean Annexation Treaty. After the treaty, the Korean
Empire lost its sovereignty and was put under Japanese colonial
rule.

Japan appointed a Governor-General of Korea and banned any

political activity as well as freedom of the press and freedom of
expression. In addition, Japan launched a Land Survey Bureau on
the pretext of clarifying the ownership of land. Land with no
defined owners and owned by the empire were seized by the
colonial government. The governor-general also took control of the
mining industry , the lumber industry, and fisheries, while
monopolizing the tobacco, salt, and ginseng markets to create other
sources of income for the Japanese government. Furthermore, Japan
controlled the establishment of private companies by law to prevent
Koreans ' independent business activities. Despite this suppression,
however, Koreans constantly organized secret associations to carry
out anti-Japanese activities. In Manchuria, a Liberation Army was
formed to show opposition to Japanese rule.

At the end of World War I, the US President Wilson's statement

of self-determination encouraged Korean independence activists.
Many Korean students in Japan were deeply influenced by this
statement and read their own declaration of independence on
February 8, 1919. Religious leaders read a declaration of
independence and the public, including students, raised a storm of
protest, marking the first day of the March Independence
Movement. The movement lasted for several months. The Japanese
police were ruthless in suppressing this demonstration.
 Although the March First Independence Movement was
suppressed, other independence movements sprung up. A head
office for the liberal movement became essential. The Provisional
Government of the Republic of Korea, founded on the ideology of
republicanism and democracy and set up in Shanghai, China, had
Syngman Rhee as its first president. Later, Kim Gu was president, a
position he held for quite a long time. The Provisional Government
had a branch in the US and presented its case for independence to
the US government and the American public. The Dongnip sinmun
newspaper did its part by keeping overseas Koreans up to date
about current events. The Provisional Government had a network in
Korea as well, guiding the liberal movement as a whole.

As a result, a stunned Japanese government altered some of the

ways they enforced colonial rule. For example, freedom of the press
was now allowed, leading to independence activities becoming
more vigorous. Koreans also tried to achieve financial
independence by using Korean-made products. There was even a
fundraising campaign to establish private universities, while others
got together to teach and learn the Korean language in private
institutes.

Different groups of people started to express their needs. Laborers

and peasants launched a representative organization that claimed
financial benefits for lower income people and supported anti-
Japanese demonstrations. Other groups tried to improve the rights
of women and children who had poorly been respected in the
traditional society. Feminists argued that women should have the
same rights as men with respect to learning and standard of living.
Activists for children contended that children represented the
nation's future. As such, Children's Day was inaguarated on May 5.
 Influenced by the Russian Revolution in 1917, communism
spread to certain Korean independence activists. These communist-
backed activists argued both for national independence and social
independence devoid of class distinction. Although this movement
conflicted with the aspirations of other nationalist activists, the main
purpose of the two movements was essentially the same, and they
realized that cooperation would be the only way to overthrow
colonial rule. Thus, despite different points of view, they
accomplished amicable mutual relations and founded an
organization unifying Korean socialists and nationalist factions in
1927. Although this unified organization, called Singanhoe, carried
out several movements, the ideological gap between the leftists and
rightists factions could not be bridged, and in the end, the
organization was split into two yet again.

In the 1930s, the Japanese Government promoted industries that,

until then, had been ignored. They sought to support the sagging
Japanese economy by providing new investment markets in Korea.
Preparations for the looming war with China also played a factor.
Consequently, several industrial facilities were built in Seoul,
lncheon, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula, where raw
materials were plentiful. When war between Japan and China (the
Sino-Japanese War) broke out in 1937, Japan used Korea as a
supply base.

During the war, as part of its colonial assimilation effort, Japan

forcibly changed Korean names to Japanese ones and prohibited
Koreans from learning the Korean language at school. Several
movements sprung up to oppose Japan's attempt to obliterate
Korean culture. For example, Korean linguists strove to research
and teach the Korean language, where also attempting to publish a
Korean dictionary. In addition, Korean historians researched the
country's unique culture and history in an effort to counteract
Japan's blatant distortion of the facts.
 In 1941, Japan attacked a US base in Pearl Harbor, and this drove
Japan into World War II. As the war grew in intensity, Japan used
Korea as a supply line and many Korean men were used for forced
labor. Laborers were dragged to factories and mines all around
Japan and young people, including students, were drafted into the
Japanese Army and into the war theater. The Provisional
Government of Korea organized a National Revolutionary Army to
bolster its Liberation Army, which was scattered throughout China.
Their goal was to declare war on Japan. Scores of Korean soldiers
who escaped from the Japanese Army enlisted in the National
Revolutionary Army, which supported the Allies and fought in
China, India, and Burma. Ultimately, the Revolutionary Army
planned to enter the Korean peninsula and drive Japan out. Sadly,
this never happened and colonial rule only came to an end with
Japan 's surrender on August 15, 1945.

7. Establishment and Development of the Republic

of Korea·

The Allied victory over the Japanese in World War II ended Japan ' s
35-year colonial rule in Korea. To disarm the Japanese troops in
Korea, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied the
peninsula as partners in a trusteeship. With the 38th Parallel serving
as the demarcation line, the US Army occupied the southern part of
the peninsula and the Soviet Union the northern part.

Inevitably, ideologocal conflict between capitalism and

communism in the Korean peninsula worsened . A foreign
ministers' conference was held in late 1945, with representatives
from the US, the UK, and the Soviet Union. A five-year trusteeship
for Korea was proclaimed at the conference and the ideological
conflict intensified. Right wing leaders, including Kim Gu and
Syngrnan Rhee, opposed the trusteeship and strove for immediate
independence. At first, the communists agreed with the nationalists,
but after receiving a message from the Soviet Union, they changed
their minds and supported the trusteeship.

As a mounting confrontation continued to simmer, the US

brought the problem to the UN General Assembly. The UN decided
to organize the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea
and passed a resolution to establish an administration in Korea
through a general election. The Soviet Union, however, refused to
accept the idea of the UN Temporary Commission entering North
Korea. The UN decided to conduct the election in South Korea
only. Those who wanted a unified administration in Korea resisted
the UN proposal. They even arranged negotiations, but to no avail.

After a general election was held in South Korea, the

Constitutional Assembly of Korea was inaugurated. The assembly
framed the constitution and elected Syngman Rhee as the first
president on August 15, 1948. The UN acknowledged President
Rhee's government as the sole legal government of Korea. Thus,
the Republic of Korea secured its legitimacy internationally. On the
other hand, the communists under Kim Il-sung seized power in the
North with the help of the Soviet Union. As soon as the Republic of
Korea was established in South Korea, Kim Il-sung announced the
establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

With two opposite administrative systems operating in one

country, the outbreak of war seemed inevitable, and it would be
North Korea that would ultimately start the war. With the support of
the Soviet Union, North Korea strengthened its military power and
invaded South Korea on June 25 , 1950. When the Korean War
broke out, the UN called an emergency Security Council meeting
and decided to send troops to Korea. In the early stages, South
Korea almost completely collapsed and the government fled to
Susan. But when the UN reinforcements arrived, South Korea
regained Seoul and went on the offensive. The People's Republic of
China then sent troops to North Korea and forced the South to
retreat once again . There was then a war of attrition that ensued
until finally, in July 1953, an armistice was signed near the 38th
parallel. The armistice is still in force today.

The Korean War was a national tragedy that occurred because of

ideological differences. The war ended in the official division of
Korea. To this day, people on both sides cannot come and go as
they please across the border and the damage wrought by the war
was catastrophic. Civilian casualties were estimated at one million
people. Countless people became war orphans. Families were
separated. Land was devastated and economic facilities destroyed.
According to one analysis, 50.5 percent of factories in both North
and South Korea were destroyed . Financial losses totaled 41 0
billion Korean won, or 1.7 times GNP from that time. Yet worse
than the financial losses was the deep resentment and distrust which
arose among citizens on both sides of the border.

After the war, South Korea, especially urban centers, became

Westernized in every aspect, from living customs to pop culture.
President Rhee ' s government moved toward autocracy, and to
secure prolonged rule, the government muzzled the press and
opposing members of the National Assembly. In addition, the
government made a constitutional amendment to extend the term of
the presidency. After a rigged election in 1960, students and citizens
alike were so incensed that it led to what is now called the April
Nineteenth Revolution . The government tried to suppress the
protests by calling in the army and the police. In the end, though,
the president resigned.
 The next government served under the Democratic Party.
However, Democratic Party reforms were insufficient in satisfying
the public and the government failed to establish any kind of
political stability. Major-General Park Chung-hee soon seized
power in a military coup (May Sixteenth Coup) in 1961, and he was
elected president.

President Park's government initiated a series of Five-year

Economic Development Plan and the economy grew tremendously.
Factories were built with foreign aid and the key industries were
fostered. The government invested heavily in science and
technology. The plan at first concentrated on light industry, but later
it concerned itself more with heavy chemical industries such as
machinery, petrochemicals, automobiles, electronics, ship building,
and steel production. As a result, GNP increased by an average of 9
percent per year. This stunning development is often compared to
Germany's "Miracle on the Rhein," which in South Korea was
referred to as the "Miracle on the Han River." The government also
established New Village Movement to improve the quality of life in
rural areas. Through this movement, Korea reached self-sufficiency
in rice, the country's staple food, in the mid-1970s.

Still, the government was far from democratic. In the 1970s,

constitutional amendments were made to maximize presidential
power and ignore the separation of legal, administrative, and
judicial powers. Also, freedom of the press and freedom of
expression were extremely limited. In addition, economic
development was not a genuine solution to all the nation's
problems. The gap between rich and poor was growing and blue-
collar workers still worked in inadequate conditions. Thus,
dissatisfaction among the public increased. The government was
divided by internal conflicts as well, creating a crisis for the
president. Chaos reached a boiling point with the assassination of
President Park on October 26, 1979.
 After the assassination, Major-General Chun Doo-hwan seized
his chance to take over the reins of power. During this process, the
military suppressed a pro-democracy movement in southwestern
Korea, what would later come to be known as the Gwangju
Massacre. It took several years, but President Chun's government
finally accepted demands for democratization in 1987. The next
president was one of the leaders of Chun's military coup, Roh Tae-
woo. Although his government improved North-South relations and
established diplomatic ties with the communist countries, his
military background could not muster sufficient public support.

President Roh was succeeded by the first civilian president, Kim

Young-sam. The main policy of his government was to build a
"New Korea" by correcting upon previous wrong-doings in history.
Former presidents Chun Doo-hwan and Roh Tae-woo were brought
to court. Additionally, the government announced implementation
of the real-name financial transaction system to eliminate
corruption, and launched the autonomous local government system
to help move ,the country toward true democracy. Unfortunately,
global financial difficulties in the late 1990s had a devastating effect
on Korea's financial situation. As a result, Koreans turned to the
opposition leader, Kim Dae-jung, to form the next government. He
set the improvement of democracy and the economy as his
government's primary goals. After him came President Roh Moo-
hyun, whose popularity was based on a policy of participatory
government and balanced development between regions.

The Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun governments were

devoted to establishing democracy throughout the country, but they
failed to communicate with the public their economic and cultural
plans, which is why, in part, people elected the former CEO of one
of Korea's biggest companies, Lee Myung-bak, as president in
2007.
 In the 1970s, traditional culture enjoyed a revival. It served as a
form of self-reflection on excessive Westernization. Traditional
masked dances and traditional percussion quartets were once again
popular in several university towns. In the 1980s, a popular cultural
movement developed in opposition to the military government. The
life of laborer and peasants became popular narratives. After
political democracy was achieved, pop culture spread widely
through K-pop and movies so that today Korean culture is gaining
global attention through what Koreans call hallyu, or "the Korean
Wave."