What we know:

● Conservation of energy:
The total energy in an isolated system remains constant; you can neither create nor
destroy energy, it is only converted from one type of energy to another.

● Gravitational potential energy:

Definition: The energy an object has because of its position in the gravitational
field relative to some reference point.
Symbol: Ep
Unit: J (joule)
Formula: Ep = mgh
m → mass (kg)
g → gravitational acceleration 9,8 m⋅s-2
Nature: Scalar

● Kinetic energy:
Definition: The energy an object possesses as a result of its motion.
Symbol: Ek
Unit: J (joule)
Formula: Ek = ½ mv2
m → mass (kg)
v → speed (m∙s-1)
Nature: Scalar

● Mechanical energy:
Definition: The sum of the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.
Symbol: Em
Unit: J (joule)
Formula: Em = Ek + Ep = ½ mv2 + mgh = m(½ v2 + gh)
Nature: Scalar

● Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

The total mechanical energy in an isolated system remains constant.

Em1 = Em2
Ek1 + Ep1 = Ek2 + Ep2

● Isolated system
A system that does not interact with its surroundings i.e. there is no transfer of
energy or mass between the system and its surroundings.

1
Symbol: W
Unit: J (joule)
Definition: Work done on an object by a constant force is the product of the magnitude of
the force, the magnitude of the displacement and the angle between the force
and the displacement.
Formula: W = F∆x cosθ
F → force (N)
∆x → displacement (m)
θ → angle between the force and the displacement

Be mindful of the fact that work is ALWAYS done BY a force acting ON an object (grammer).

Note: 1 J = 1 N⋅m
W = F∆x cosθ
(J) = (N)(m)

Assume that an object is moving from left to right along the surface in a straight line under
the influence of a constant force with magnitude F. The direction of the force is the SAME as
that of the direction of the displacement.

The work done is given by W = F∆x cosθ, where θ = 0°, therefore W = F∆x.
The full force is responsible for the displacement of the object.

When the force F and the displacement have DIFFERENT directions we get the following:

2
The work done is given by W = F∆x cosθ, where θ ≠ 0°. The component of the force
PARALLEL to the displacement is effective in moving the object.

Seeing as that work is a scalar quantity it is important to always substitute positive values for
both the force and displacement.

Solving questions and calculating work:

#1. Read the questions carefully and identify the important information.
#2. Analyse the diagram given; if no diagram is given DRAW your own.
#3. Draw a free body diagram.
#4. List the variables - pay attention to units.
#5. Start with the basic formula
#6. Substitute and calculate the answer.

Example 1:
Chris tries to impress Jane with his new car, but the engine dies in the middle of an
intersection. While Jane steers in a straight line, Chris pushes the car 19 m to clear the
intersection. If he pushes in the direction of motion with a constant force of 210 N, calculate
how much work he is doing on the car.

Δx = 19 m
F = 210 N
θ = 0°

W = FΔx cosθ = (210)(19)cos(0) = 3 990 J

∴ 3 990 J work is done by Chris on the car.

3
Example 2:
CAlculate the amount of work done by Chris in the previous example if the angle between
the direction of his force on the car and the direction of motion is 20°.

Δx = 19 m
F = 210 N
θ = 20°

W = FΔx cosθ = (210)(19)cos(20) = 3749,374 J

∴ 3 749,37 J work is done by Chris on the car.

Note the following for work calculations:

- The force must be constant in both magnitude and direction and must act on the
object during the entire displacement.
- Only a force with a component parallel to the direction of displacement of the object
does work on the object.
- The equation W = FΔx cosθ is used throughout to calculate work done. It allows for
all situations, including where the force and displacement are not in the same
direction.

4
Positive, Negative and Zero work
Work is a scalar quantity, but depending on the size of the angle, θ, work could be positive,
negative or zero. The sign does not indicate direction. Rather, it indicates the energy
transferred into or removed from the system.

W = FΔx cosθ

Positive work: The kinetic energy of the object increases.

Negative work: The kinetic energy of the object decreases.

NET WORK / TOTAL WORK (Wnet)

Calculating the net work done by several forces acting on the same object can be done
using one of the following two methods:

Method 1:
Wnet = W1 + W2 + W3 + …
W1 = F1Δx cosθ
W2 = F2Δx cosθ
W3 = F3Δx cosθ

The total work (net work) is the algebraic sum of the work done by each force.

Method 2:
Wnet = FnetΔx cosθ

The vector sum of the forces are calculated, Fnet, and then used to calculate the net work
done.

Example 3:
A book is pushed 1,5 m from left to right along a horizontal table by a horizontal force of 2 N.
The opposing frictional force is 0,4 N.

5
3.1 Is any work done by the normal force on the book and by the weight on the book?
3.2 Calculate the work done on the book by the force of 2 N.
3.3 Calculate the work done by frictional force on the book.
3.4 Calculate the net work done on the book.

3.1 No. Both are perpendicular to the direction of motion, θ = 90°.

3.2 WF = FΔx cosθ = (2)(1,5)cos(0) = 3 J
3.3 Wf = fΔx cosθ = (0,4)(1,5)cos(180) = - 0,6 J
3.4 Method 1:
Wnet = WF + Wf = 3 + (-0,6) = 2,4 J

Method 2:
Fnet = F - f = 2 - 0,4 = 1,6 N
Wnet = FnetΔx cosθ = (1,6)(1,5)cos(0)= 2,4 J

OR

Fnet = -F + f = -2 + 0,4 = -1,6 N

Wnet = FnetΔx cosθ = (1,6)(1,5)cos(0)= 2,4 J

NB note that it is always important to substitute POSITIVE values for F and Δx even
if they are negative.

NOTE the following:

When an object is slowing down the acceleration is negative and therefore the net force
will be negative resulting in an angle θ = 180°. When the object is speeding up the
acceleration is positive and therefore the net force will be positive and the angle θ = 0°.

6
Definition: The net/total work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s
kinetic energy.
OR
The work done on an object by a resultant/net force is equal to the change in
the object’s kinetic energy.

Formula: Wnet = ΔEk = Ekf - Eki = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2

When the work done is positive, the energy will increase and therefore be added.
When the work done is negative, then energy will decrease and therefore be removed.
When the work done is zero, then no energy is transferred.

Example:
A small wagon with a mass of 2,5 kg moves in a straight line on a frictionless, horizontal
surface. It has an initial velocity of 3 m·s-1 and is then pushed for 4 m by a horizontal force
with a magnitude of 2,5 N in the direction of the initial velocity. Calculate the wagon's final
speed.

m = 2,5 kg
vi = 3 m·s-1
Δx = 4 m
F = 2,5 N

Wnet = ΔEk = Ekf - Eki = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2

FnetΔxcosθ = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2
(2,5)(4)cos(0) = ½ (2,5)vf2 - ½ (2,5)(3)2
vf = 4,12 m·s-1

7
Gravitational Potential Energy:
Definition: The energy an object has because of its position in the gravitational
field relative to some reference point.
Symbol: Ep
Unit: J (joule)
Formula: Ep = mgh
m → mass (kg)
g → gravitational acceleration 9,8 m⋅s-2
Nature: Scalar

When an object is lifted, e.g. from a height hi to hf, work is done on the object and therefore
its gravitational potential energy increases.

The work done by an applied force in order to lift an object at constant velocity:
WF = FΔxcosθ
WF = mg(hf - hi)cos(0°)
WF = mghf - mghi
WF = Epf - Epi
WF = ΔEp

(The applied force will be equal to weight, in magnitude only. An upward force equal in
magnitude to the gravitational force on the object is required to lift an object at a constant
velocity.)

When an object is lifted the work done by the gravitational force at constant velocity is:
Ww = mg(hf - hi)cos(180°)
Ww = - ΔEp

This equation can be phrased by saying that the work done by the weight of an object (or the
gravitational force on the object) is equal to the negative of the change in the gravitational
potential energy of the object.

8
Mechanical energy:
Definition: The sum of the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.
Symbol: Em
Unit: J (joule)
Formula: Em = Ek + Ep = ½ mv2 + mgh = m(½ v2 + gh)
Nature: Scalar

Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

The total mechanical energy in an isolated system remains constant.

An isolated system is one that does not interact with its surroundings i.e. there is no transfer
of energy or mass between the system and its surroundings (no friction is present).

(First of all, a system consists of at least two objects. To be isolated means that it is
separated from its environment in such a way that no energy can flow in or out of the
system; hence, the total amount of energy in the system does not change. That is possible
only when there is no external net force on the objects in the system. The phrase external
net force means a force that comes from something outside the system itself; from
something other than the objects within the system itself).

Em1 = Em2
Ek1 + Ep1 = Ek2 + Ep2

Consider a situation where an object is projected vertically upwards, ignoring air resistance.
The speed is a maximum at the point of projection. As the object ascends, the speed
decreases as kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential energy. At the
point where the object's speed equals zero, the maximum height is reached. On its way
down, this energy conversion is reversed and the object's speed increases as gravitational
potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy. Upon returning to the point of
projection, the speed is the same as the speed at which it was projected.

How is this possible? The only force doing work on the object is its weight. During the
upward motion of the object, weight is doing negative work on the object. Kinetic energy
decreases according to the work-energy theorem, while gravitational potential energy
increases with the same amount, because the object gains height. During the downward
motion, weight is doing the same amount of positive work and kinetic energy increases,
while gravitational potential energy decreases with the same amount, because the object
loses height. The net work (total work) done by weight for the full duration of motion is
therefore zero. Another way of saying this is that the net work done by a conservative force
along a closed path is zero.

Thus, a "two-way" conversion from kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy and back
occurs. As the one type of energy decreases, the other type of energy increases with the
same amount. Based on Em = Ek + Ep, the mechanical energy of the object remains constant
during the motion.

From the work-energy theorem it follows:

9
Wnet = ΔEk
Ww = ΔEk
-ΔEp = ΔEk
-(Epf - Epi) = Ekf - Eki
Eki + Epi = Ekf + Epf

This indicates that the mechanical energy at any position is equal to mechanical energy at
any other position if weight is the only force doing work on the object.

Note the following:

● When weight is the only force doing work on an object, mechanical energy is
conserved and the equation for the conservation of mechanical energy,
Eki + Epi = Ekf + Epf
is valid and the work-energy theorem, Wnet = ΔEk, is also valid.
● When applied and frictional forces, in addition to weight, are doing work on an object,
mechanical energy cannot be conserved and the equation for the conservation of
mechanical energy, Eki + Epi = Ekf + Epf, is not valid. In such cases, Wnet = ΔEk, is still
valid, as it deals with the work done in total (net work) by all the forces acting on the
object.

10
● A useful formula can be developed for the work done by a non-conservative force
such as friction. Consider a situation where a body is falling towards the earth while
the air resistance cannot be ignored. Two forces are acting on the body; friction and
weight.

From the work-energy theorem:

Wnet = ΔEk
Wf + Ww = ΔEk
Wf + (-ΔEp) = ΔEk
Wf = ΔEk + ΔEp
In general it then becomes: Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp

11
Example:
You throw a 0,15 kg ball straight up in the air, giving it an initial upward velocity of 20 m·s-1.
1. Calculate the height reached by the ball if air resistance is ignored.
2. Suppose a frictional force of 0,53 N is acting on the ball during its upward motion.
Calculate the height reached.

Solution:
1. Method 1: Conservation of mechanical energy
Ek(top) + Ep(top) = Ek(bottom) + Ep(bottom)
½ mv(top)2 + mgh(top) = ½ mv(bottom)2 + mgh(bottom)
½ (0,15)(0)2 + (0,15)(9,8)h = ½ (0,15)(20)2 + (0,15)(9,8)(0)
h = 20,41 m

Method 2:
Wnet = ΔEk
Ww = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2
mgΔycosθ = ½ mvf2 - ½ mvi2
(0,15)(9,8)Δycos(180) = ½ (0,15)(0)2 - ½ (0,15)(20)2
Δy = 20,408 m

Method 3:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp = ½ mvtop2 - ½ mvbottom2 + mghtop - mghbottom
0 = 0 - ½ (0,15)(202) + (0,15)(9,8)htop - 0
h = 20,41

2. Method 1:
Wnet = ΔEk
Ww + Wf = ½ mv2top - ½ mv2bottom
mgΔycosθ + fΔycosθ = ½ mv2top - ½ mv2bottom
(0,15)(9,8)Δycos(180°) + (0,53)Δycos(180°) = 0 - ½ (0,15)(202)
Δy = 15 m = h

Method 2:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp = ½ mvtop2 - ½ mvbottom2 + mghtop - mghbottom
Wf = ½ mvtop2 - ½ mvbottom2 + mghtop - mghbottom
fΔycosθ = ½ mvtop2 - ½ mvbottom2 + mghtop - mghbottom
(0,53)(Δy)cos(180°) = 0 - ½ (0,15)(202) + (0,15)(9,8)h - 0
Δy = h = 15 m

12
Symbol: P
Unit: W (watt)
Definition: The rate at which work is done or energy is expended.
𝑊
Formula: 𝑃 = ∆𝑡
1 W = 1 Jᐧs-1
Nature: Scalar

Power can be expressed in terms of force and velocity.

Pave = Fvcosθ

For this equation the values are substituted as positive values regardless of the vector signs
because cosθ accounts for the direction.

But the equation can also be written as:

Pave = Fv

In which case you need to take the vector nature of the quantities F and v into consideration.
Both are correct but the second is preferred by examiners.

Example:
An athlete, mass of 50 kg, runs vertically up a spiral staircase to the top of a building, height
443 m, in 15 minutes. She starts from rest and stops at the top of the staircase. Calculate
her average power if you ignore friction.

Method 1:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
= 0 + mghtop - mghbottom
= 0 + (50)(9,8)(443) - 0
= 217 070 J

𝑊 217 070
𝑃 = ∆𝑡
= 15 ×60
= 241, 189 𝐽

Method 2:
Wnet = ΔEk
WF + Ww = 0
WF + mgΔycosθ = 0
WF + (50)(9,8)cos(180°) = 0
WF = 217 070 J

13
Different scenarios has different approaches:

● Minimum power to pump water:

This type of question is often asked in exam papers. To calculate the power required
of a meteor to pump water from a borehole of known depth at a required rate we use:
𝑊
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp and 𝑃 = ∆𝑡
.
The force applied by the pump is a non-conservative force and so the work done by
the pump equals the change of mechanical energy of the water. Assume that the
change in kinetic energy is negligible unless stated otherwise or information is given
to calculate it.
● To keep an object moving at constant speed along a rough horizontal surface or a
rough incline plane we use Pave = Fvave.

14