Islamic University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 334 & 3631 ‫همك‬

Manufacturing Technology

Chapter 2, Welding
Technology –Part 2
Dr. Abdulrahman Aljabri
 Fusion welding Processes

⚫ Definition : Fusion Welding is defined

as melting together and coalescing
materials by means of heat
⚫ Energy is supplied by thermal or
electrical means
⚫ Fusion welds made without filler
metals are known as autogenous
welds.
unite
 Arc welding processes

⚫ SMAW (MMAW) – Shielded (manual) metal arc welding

⚫ SAW - submerged arc welding
⚫ GTAW - gas tungsten arc welding (TIG)
⚫ GMAW - gas-metal arc welding (MIG, MAG)
⚫ FCAW - flux cored arc welding
 4. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)/Stick welding
• Definition:
– Consumable electrode coated with chemicals
that provide flux and shielding
– The filler metal (here the consumable
electrode) is usually very close in
composition to the metal being welded. Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process ( also known as
stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).
 Functions of the electrode coating
1. Providing a suitable gaseous atmosphere for the arc and molten weld
pool
2. Acting as a scavenger flux to clean the base metal and a refiner for the
molten metal (deoxidation)
3. Forming a slag which protects the hot weld metal during solidification
4. Assisting in improving the electrical stability of the arc
5. Providing a means of adding alloying elements to improve the
mechanical properties of the weld metal
6. Increasing the productivity of the welding operation by adding the iron
powder
 ⚫ SMAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
POSITION 1= all positions. 2= flat and
horizontal position only

E X X X X
Electrode COATING
CHARACTERISTICS
Minimum ultimate Tensile strength of deposited weld (70,000 psi / 60,000 psi

Example: E6010
E: Electrode
60 : Minimum ultimate Tensile strength of deposited weld 60,000 psi (60 ksi)
1: position, all position
0: coating characterization (cellulose electrode)
Example: E11028
E: Electrode E6010 used in the first pass to get deep
110 : Minimum ultimate Tensile strength of deposited weld 110,000 psi (110 ksi) penetration
2: position, flat and horizontal only E7018 used for high strength steel welding to
8: coating characterization (low hydrogen type) avoid cold cracks
The first two or three digits refer to the minimum tensile strength of the filler metal, e.g., we know that the filler metal
E7018 is an electrode with a minimum tensile strength of 70,000psi given from the first 3 values “E70”. The next digit
represents the position in which the electrode can be used.

For position, the value “1” indicates that the electrode is suitable for any position. The value of “2” indicates that the
filler metal is molten metal and is so fluid that the electrode can only be used in the flat position for all welding types
and the horizontal position for fillet welds. The value “4” indicates that the electrode is suitable for welding in a
downhill progression.

The next value depends on which process you are using, however, in each case the last value indicates the
Chemical/Operating Characteristics of the filler metal material.
Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a
minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (410 MPa) which is operated using DCEP, and
provides deep weld penetration with a forceful arc capable of burning through light
rust or oxides on the workpiece.

E6011 is similar except its flux coating allows it to be used with alternating current in
addition to DCEP.

E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal fillet welds using
AC, DCEN, or DCEP.

Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which
provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding
 Advantages and disadvantages
of SMAW
Advantages
⚫ The equipment is relatively simple,
inexpensive and portable
⚫ Gas shielding or granular flux is
not required
⚫ The process is less sensitive to wind
and draft
⚫ Good quality weld can be obtained
⚫ It can be used in areas of limited
access
⚫ The process is suitable for most of
the commonly used metals and
alloys
⚫ It can be used in all positions
Disadvantages
⚫ Operator duty cycle and overall
deposition rates for covered
electrodes are usually less than
welding processes utilizing a
continuous electrode
⚫ Some electrodes have a high
hydrogen levels
⚫ High degree of welder skill
required
⚫ Covered electrodes have a
relatively high fumes generation
rate
 5- Submerged arc welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc-

welding process that uses a continuous,
consumable bare wire electrode, and arc
shielding is provided by a cover of granular
flux. The electrode wire is fed automatically
from a coil into the arc. The flux is introduced
into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by
gravity from a hopper, as shown in Figure
 5. Submerged arc welding:

⚫ Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of

silica, lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and
other compounds.
⚫ Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow
through nozzle
⚫ Thick layer of flux covers molten metal
⚫ Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep
penetration of heat into the work piece
⚫ Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed
automatically through a tube
⚫ Used to weld flat and long welds
⚫ Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines
 Advantages and disadvantages of Submerged arc
welding
Advantages Disadvantages
⚫ High deposition rates and productivity can ⚫ Limited to the flat and horizontal
be achieved positions only
⚫ Low hydrogen deposit ⚫ Equipment is relatively expensive and
⚫ Sound welds are easily obtained requires special devices for seam
⚫ Little fume is generated and arc radiation
tracking
and spatter are generally not a problem ⚫ Set-up time can be significant
⚫ Qualified welder is not required ⚫ Access to certain joints is limited due
to the size and inflexibility of
equipment
 6. Gas Metal Arc Welding
(MIG/MAG)
⚫ GMAW- Gas Metal Arc Welding uses the
heat of an electric arc between a continuous
bare wire filler metal electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained entirely from an
externally supplied inert gas (argon or
helium) (called MIG) or reactive gases (CO2 ,
O2) or a combination (called MAG) .

This process can be semi-automatic or

automatic. GMAW process deposits the weld
metal in the joint by one of the following
modes: spray transfer, globular transfer and
short circuiting transfer.
 Transfer mode in welding

In MIG welding, there are Three different basic modes to transfer weld metal (filler
material) across the arc to the base material. These transfer modes are Short Circuit,
Globular and Spray Arc. When MIG welding, a continuous solid wire electrode is
fed through a welding gun along with shielding gas, normally an Argon mix. The
materials are joined together when the consumable solid wire connects with a
current which creates an “arc" between the weld metal and the base material. The
different transfer methods are how the weld metal from the consumable electrode is
transferred to the base material over the arc. There are no settings on a MIG welder
to choose a transfer method - each method is achieved through voltage / amperage
(wire feed speed) setting adjustments and the type of shielding gas mixture used.
 BASIC WELDING
GMAW
⚫ GMAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION

CHEMICAL
STRENGTH COMPOSITION

Electrode ERXXS-X
ELECTRODE ROD SOLID
WIRE
Example ER70S-1
E: Electrode, R: ELECTRODE ROD
70 : Minimum ultimate Tensile strength of deposited weld 70,000 psi (70 ksi)
S: solid wire, 1: chemical composition
 Advantages and disadvantages
of GMAW
Advantages
⚫ High deposition rates can be achieved
⚫ Low hydrogen deposit
⚫ Absence of slag covering reduces cleaning
time
⚫ Relatively low fume generation rate
⚫ Applicable to all important metals such as
stainless steel, Al and Cu
⚫ Long welds can be made without starts
and stops
⚫ Minimal welder skill is required
Disadvantages
⚫ Out of position welding requires
special techniques
⚫ Much more sensitive to operating
parameters
⚫ Inert gases can be expensive
⚫ Much more sensitive to wind
⚫ Equipment is more complex and
expensive
 7. Flux–cored Arc – Welding
⚫ Flux cored arc welding is similar to a gas metal arc welding
like a tube
⚫ Electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux
⚫ Cored electrodes produce more stable arc improve weld contour and produce better
mechanical properties
⚫ Flux is more flexible than others
⚫ Used for open site (windy condition) welding
GMAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION

ERXXT–X
Where:
E: Electrode,
R: ELECTRODE ROD
XX : Minimum ultimate Tensile strength of deposited weld
XX,000 psi (XX ksi)
T: Tubular wire,
X: chemical composition
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
Flux cored arc welding or FCAW. All flux core welding is done on equipment that is
similar to and sometimes identical to the equipment used in MIG, or gas metal arc
welding.

Flux core welding has some important differences from MIG welding. In flux core welding
the wire electrode is fed through a wire feed unit. Usually this wire feeder requires
knurled rollers that can grip the tubular wire without flattening or damaging it.

There are two main types of flux core arc welding.

• Self shielded known as FCAW-S, and
• gas shielded known as FCAW-G. In this method, a shielding gas, of carbon dioxide or a
combination of argon and carbon dioxide, is used in addition to the vaporizing flux in the
electrode core.
 Cont’. Flux Cored Arc Welding

Flux cored arc welding combines the benefits of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
submerged arc welding (SAW), and gas metal arc welding (GMAW). These include:

• The use of fluxing agents to dissolve and remove oxides and undesirable substances.

• A thin slag layer to shield the hot weld bead.

• The ability to weld continuously for long periods.

• Control of metallurgical qualities by using various fluxing and alloying elements.

 Advantages and disadvantages of Flux Cored Arc
Welding
Advantages
 High-quality weld deposit with excellent
appearance
 Relatively high electrode efficiency and
process duty cycle
 Excellent weld penetration
 The arc is visible and easy to use
 Deposition rate is up to four times greater
than Stick Welding
 Less pre-cleaning of metal required
Disadvantage
 Irregular wire feed – typically a
mechanical problem
 More costly filler material/wire as
compared to GMAW
 The equipment is less mobile and
more costly as compared to
SMAW.
 Creates more fumes and the
amount of smoke generated can
far exceed that of SMAW, or
GMAW.
 Thin plate does not weld by FCAW
 8. Non-consumable electrodes
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

⚫ GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) uses an electric arc

between a non consumable electrode (tungsten) and the work.
Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Filler
metal is added as needed. Welds may be made with or without filler
metal as required.
⚫ The most significant feature in GTAW is that the electrode
(tungsten) used is not intended to be consumed. Only the filler metal
is consumed
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
⚫ An autogenous weld is a form of welding, where the
filler material is either supplied by melting the base
material, or is of identical composition. The weld may be
formed entirely by melting parts of the base metal and no
additional filler rod is used.
 Electrode Positive (DCEP) vs Electrode
Negative (DCEN) welding with E6012 electrodes
⚫ As for the required polarity welding with
electrodes, almost all stick welding is done with
Reverse polarity or DC electrode positive (DCEP).
This is because the electrons flowing from the
negative work to the positive electrode help to
deposit the metal at a regular pace and, it
actually helps to increase penetration.

⚫ DCEP provides a more stable arc in general in

stick welding, but for welds requiring light
penetration, use DCEN if the electrode is
designated to run either polarity.
 What would happen if you would weld
an E6012 on DCEP?
⚫ During welding in DCEP you notice a bad start
and little control over the weld pool. The
electrode also seems to burn off on the site if you
loose angle.
⚫ The result is quite stunning. On the DCEN, as
supposed to, the bead is nice, tight and equal.
⚫ On DCEP you will notice that the slack is much
harder to remove and the bead has gone
everywhere and there is a hole at the end,
because stopping the weld causes a long arc. Also
there is a lot more spatter.
DC Welding
DC currents have the electrons flowing in a steady single direction. It has constant polarity,
which can be either positive or negative. DC is often used in low voltage devices, such as cell
phone batteries and remote controls.
DC polarity is used in most welding applications. It produces a smoother welding output
compared to AC. It creates a more stable arc, easier welding and less spatter. You can also
either use DC negative for faster deposition rates when welding thin sheet metal or use DC
positive for more penetration into the steel.

AC Welding
In AC, the flow of electrons keeps switching directions, going back and forth. It can change its
polarity 120 times per second. Every time the polarity goes from DC negative to DC positive,
the output for a split second has zero amperage. This no output moment results in that the arc
tends to wander or extinguish. To overcome this problem, look for electrodes specifically
designed for AC welding. They have special coating that keeps the arc ignited. However, the
arc will still have more fluctuation and flutter than on DC polarity.
 DC is used for TIG welding Mild Steel/Stainless material and AC would be used for welding Aluminium.

Direct Current – Electrode Negative (DCEN)

This method of welding can be used for a wide range of materials. The TIG welding torch is connected to the
negative output of the welding inverter and the work return cable to the positive output.

When the arc is established the current flows in the circuit and the heat distribution in the arc is around
33% in the negative side of the arc (the welding torch) and 67% in the positive side of the arc (the work
piece).

This balance gives deep arc penetration of the arc into the work piece and reduces heat in the electrode.

This reduced heat in the electrode allows more current to be carried by smaller electrodes compared to
other polarity connections. This method of connection is often referred to as straight polarity and is the
most common connection used in DC welding.
Direct Current – Electrode Negative (DCEN)
This method of welding can be used for a wide range of materials. The TIG welding torch is connected to the
negative output of the welding inverter and the work return cable to the positive output.

When the arc is established the current flows in the circuit and the heat distribution in the arc is around
33% in the negative side of the arc (the welding torch) and 67% in the positive side of the arc (the work
piece).

This balance gives deep arc penetration of the arc into the work piece and reduces heat in the electrode.

This reduced heat in the electrode allows more current to be carried by smaller electrodes compared to
other polarity connections. This method of connection is often referred to as straight polarity and is the
most common connection used in DC welding.
Direct Current – Electrode Positive (DCEP)
When welding in this mode the TIG welding torch is connected to the positive output of the welding
inverter and the work return cable to the negative output.

When the arc is established the current flows in the circuit and the heat distribution in the arc is around
33% in the negative side of the arc (the work piece) and 67% in the positive side of the arc (the welding
torch).

This means the electrode is subjected to the highest heat levels and therefore must be much larger than
with DCEN mode even when the current is relatively low to prevent the electrode overheating or melting.
The work piece is subjected to the lower heat level so the weld penetration will be shallow.
The solution for these types of materials would be the deep penetrating arc of DCEN
mode plus the cleaning of DCEP mode. To obtain these benefits AC welding mode is
used.

AC (Alternating Current): It is the preferred welding current for most white

metals, e.g. Aluminum and magnesium. In TIG welding aluminum since AC
supports welding at a higher temperature. Aluminum also has a tenacious oxide
film on the surface and when AC switches to electrode positive, it helps to remove
the oxide and clean the surface.
 Advantages and disadvantages of GTAW
Advantages Disadvantages
⚫ High quality welds ⚫ High degree of welder skill
⚫ Very little post weld cleaning is required
required ⚫ Relatively low deposition rates
⚫ Welding can be performed in all ⚫ Used only for thin thicknesses
positions
⚫ Expensive
⚫ Spatter free
⚫ Can be used with or without filler metal
⚫ Flexible- can be used to weld most
metals
 TIG MIG
What type of welding is in these
pictures

ARC
 11. Resistance Welding
⚫ Developed in the early 1900’s
⚫ A process in which the heat required for welding is produced by means of electrical
resistance across the two components
⚫ RW does not requiring the following:
❑ Consumable electrodes
❑ Shield gases
❑ Flux
Resistance welding is the joining of metals by
applying pressure and passing current for a length
of time through the metal area which is to be
joined. The key advantage of resistance welding is
that no other materials are needed to create the
bond, which makes this process extremely cost
effective
The resistance welding can be divided into:
Resistance spot welding
Resistance seam welding
Resistance projection welding
 a. Resistance Spot Welding
⚫ RSW uses the tips of two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes

⚫ Pressure is applied to the lap joint until the current is turned off in order to obtain a
strong weld
⚫ Surfaces should be clean

⚫ Accurate control of and timing of electric current and of pressure are essential in
resistance welding

Fig: (a) Sequence in the resistance spot welding

 b.Resistance Seam Welding
⚫ RSW is modification of spot welding wherein the electrodes are replaced by rotating
wheels or rollers
⚫ The electrically conducting rollers produce a spot weld
⚫ RSW can produce a continuous seam & joint that is liquid and gas tight

Fig : (a) Seam-Welding Process in which rotating rolls act as electrode (b)
Overlapping spots in a seam weld. (c) Roll spot weld (d) Resistance-welded gasoline tank
 c. Resistance Projection Welding

⚫ RPW is developed by introducing

high electrical resistance at a joint by
embossing one or more projections
on the surface to be welded

⚫ Weld nuggets are similar to spot

welding

Fig: a) Resistance projection Welding b)A welded bracket c) & d) Projection welding of
nuts e) threaded hosses and stack
Welding Defects
 Undercut
• Definition: A groove cut at the toe of the
weld and left unfilled.
• Cause: High amperage, electrode angle, long arc
length, rust
• Prevention: Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal
before welding.

• Repair: Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must

be low hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge
first.
 POROSITY
• They are in form of spheres or elongated pockets
• Caused by gases released during melting of the
weld area but trapped during solidification,
chemical reactions, Contaminants such as grease,
oil in the weld groove, wetted electrodes
Porosity can be reduced by:
1. Proper selection of electrodes
2. Improved welding techniques
3. Proper cleaning and prevention of contaminants
4. Reduced welding speeds
5. Preheating
6. Drying of electrodes
 Incomplete Fusion
• Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive bond with the base metal.
• Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel speed, short arc gap, lack of
preheat, electrode too small, unclean base metal, arc off seam.
• Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.
• Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely
remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.
 Overlap
• Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond the toe of the weld
• Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically, electrode angles and travel speed.
• Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper welding technique
will prevent this problem.
• Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into the base metal. Be careful of
deep grind marks that run transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) to be sure.
 Spattering
• Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the welding operation
which adhere to the base metal surface.
• Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high amperages.
• Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be protected with coverings or hi-
temp paints.
• Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes must be tested as if it were
a weld.
 Incomplete or Insufficient Penetration
• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the required depth into the joint
root

• Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast travel speed, short arc
length.
• Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).
• Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove
and reweld.
 Arc Strike
• Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld zone.
• Cause: Carelessness
• Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be protected using
fire blankets.
• Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded smooth and
tested for cracks. If found, they must be removed and repaired using a
qualified repair procedure and inspected as any other weld.
 Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
• Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld
in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical Down
• Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out tight
areas to gain access to bottom of joint.
• Repair: Remove by grinding. Reweld.
 Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
• Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
AC balance on +, Up slope too high, electrode tip not
snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod, electrode split.
• Prevention: Eliminate the cause

• Repair: Grind out and reweld

 Hot Crack

• Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during solidification.

• Cause:
1. Micro tensile stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling apart
weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid temp.
2. Impurities such as sulfur content in the metal
3. Weld width to depth ratio. When the width to depth ratio is too
small.

• Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensile filler material.

 Cold Crack
• Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has completely solidified
• Cause: 1) high internal stress,
2) hard structure, and
3) hydrogen gasses

• Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less constraint, use a more

ductile weld metal