Islamic University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 334
Manufacturing Technology

Chapter 4,
Machining of
metals

Dr. Abdulrahman Aljabri

❑ The three basic categories of material removal processes:

 Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool,

e.g., turning, milling, drilling from a starting work part so
the remaining part has the desired geometry

 Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive

particles, e.g., grinding

 Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other

than sharp cutting tool to remove material (water Jet
cutting, Laser Cutting, Electro Chemical Machining,
Electrical-Discharge Wire Cutting)
 What distinguishes machining from other
manufacturing processes?
▪ In machining, material is removed from the work part
so that the remaining material is the
desired part geometry.

 What are the two basic categories of cutting tools in

machining?
▪ The two categories are (1) single-point tools, used in
operations such as turning and
boring; and (2) multiple-edge cutting tools, used in
operations such as milling and drilling.
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Positive rake angle:
The positive rake angle has sharp cutting edge and
also offers less chip deformation during the machining
process.

Cutting force required is less in positive rake angle. So,

the power requirement during machining is also less.

Positive rake angle is generally used to cut soft

materials as rake surface experiences high pressure
during positive rake angle machining.

Positive rake angle also helps in achieving better

machinability. Machinability is the ease with which a
metal can be cut (machined) permitting the removal of
the material along with a good finish.
Negative rake angle:
Unlike the positive rake angle, negative rake angle
offers a strong tool tip due to which the tool becomes
more resilient under impact loading. It also resists
plastic deformation at high cutting temperature due to
thick cutting edge which can absorb as well as
dissipate more heat.

Negative rake angle increases the tool life. But due to

large wedge angle, shear deformation of chip increases
and thus higher force is required.

Negative rake angle provides discontinuous chips,

which is bad in terms of machinability.

Negative rake angle is generally used to cut hard

materials.
 Variety of work materials can be machined
◦ Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
◦ Screw threads
◦ Accurate round holes
◦ Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
 Wasteful of material
◦ Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
◦ A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming
 Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
◦ Other processes create the general shape of the
starting workpart
◦ Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
 Most Important Machining Operations:
◦ Turning
◦ Drilling
◦ Milling
◦ shapers and planers
◦ Sawing
◦ Grinding
 1) Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
• Performed on a machine tool called a lathe Machine
• Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
– Facing
– Contour turning
– Chamfering
– Threading
Engine Lathe
1. Bed: The bed supports all major components of the lathe. Beds have a large mass and
are built rigidly, usually from gray or nodular cast iron. The top portion of the bed has
two ways
2. Carriage: Consists of an assembly of cross-slide and tool post
➢ The tool post, usually with a compound rest that swivels for tool positioning and
adjustment.
➢ The cross-slide moves radially in and out
3. Headstock: have a hollow spindle to which Work-holding devices, such as chucks and
collets, are attached, and long bars or tubing can be fed through for various turning
operations.
4. Tailstock: It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead center) or may be free
to rotate with the workpiece (live center).
 Drills and reamers can be mounted on tailstock quill to drill axial holes in the
workpiece
 A quill is a hollow cylindrical part with a tapered hole
5. The feed rod and Lead Screw.: is powered by a set of gears from the headstock. It
rotates during the operation of the lathe and provides movement to the carriage and the
cross-slide by means of gears
  Workpiece Material
 Tool Material
 Tool dimensions
 Surface Finish
 Accuracy
 Capability of Machine Tool

 Three forces acting on a cutting tool

 Cutting force, Fc: acts downward on the tool
tip. This is the force that supplies energy
required for cutting operation.
 Thrust force, Ft: acts in longitudinal
direction. This force is also called the feed
force because it is in the feed direction.
 Radial force, Fr: acts in radial direction and
tends to push the tool away from the
workpiece
  DN
D – Diameter (mm) v= m/min
N – Revolutions per Minute (rpm)
1000

f – the distance the tool advances for every rotation of

workpiece (mm/rev)
D1 D2

perpendicular distance between f

machined surface and uncut Feed
surface of the Workpiece
d = (D1 – D2)/2 (mm)
D1 D2

d Depth
of Cut
 Cutting speed
Workpiece
Depth of cut (d)
N
Machined
surface
Chuck Feed (f ) Chip
Tool Depth of cut
 Volume of material removed in one revolution
MRR =  D d f mm3
Where:
D – Diameter (mm)
Depth of Cut d = (D1 – D2)/2 (mm)
Feed f (mm/rev)

 Job makes N revolutions/min

MRR =  D d f N (mm3/min)

 In terms of v MRR is given by

MRR = 1000 v d f (mm3/min)
 N = Rotational speed of work-piece, rpm
 ƒ = Feed, mm/rev or in/rev
 υ = Feed rate, or linear speed of tool along work-piece length, mm/min
or in/min = ƒN
 V = Surface speed of work-piece, m/min or ft/min = π DoN (for max
speed)= π DavgN (for average speed)
 L = Length of cut, mm or in
 Do = Original diameter of work-piece, mm or in
 Dƒ = Final diameter of work-piece, mm or in
 Davg = Average diameter of work-piece, mm or in = (Do + Dƒ)/2
 d = Depth of cut, mm or in = (Do - Dƒ)/2
 t = Cutting time, s or min = L/ƒN
 MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min = π Davg d ƒN
 Torque = N. m or lb.ft = (Fc) (Davg/2)
 Power = k W or hp = (Torque) (ω), where ω = 2 πN radians/min
EXAMPLE
A 150 mm long, 12.5 mm-diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in
diameter to 12.0 mm by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N = 400 rpm,
and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 200 mm/min. Calculate the cutting
speed, material-removal rate and cutting time.
Solution:
The cutting speed at the machined diameter is V = πDON/1000
V= (3.14*12.5*400)/1000 = 15.7 m/min

The depth of cut is d = (12.5-12) / 2 = 0.25mm

The feed is f = 200/400 = 0.5 mm/rev.

-6
MRR = π DavgdƒN = 3.14*12.25*0.25*0.5*400 = 1924 mm3/min = 2*10 m3/min
OR
-6
MRR = dfV = 0.25 * 0.5 * 15.7*1000 = 2*10 m3/min

The actual time to cut is t = L / fN = 150 / 0.5*400 = 0.75 min

Roughing and Finishing Cuts.
 In machining, the usual procedure is to first perform one or
more roughing cuts at high feed rates and large depths of cut
(and therefore high material removal rates), but with little
consideration for dimensional tolerance and surface
roughness.
 These cuts are then followed by a finishing cut, at a lower feed
and depth of cut in order to produce a good surface finish.
 Turning Process Capabilities

• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy in various operations

depend on:
1. characteristics and condition of the machine tool
2. stiffness
3. vibration and chatter
4. process parameters
5. tool geometry and wear
6. cutting fluids
7. machinability of work-piece material
8. operator skill
 2-DRILLING

Drilling is a metal cutting

process carried out by a
rotating cutting tool to
make circular holes in
solid materials.

Tool which makes hole is

called as drill bit or twist
drill.
• Through holes - drill exits the opposite side of work
• Blind holes – drill does not exit work on opposite side

Two hole types: (a) through hole and (b) blind hole
A power operated machine tool which holds
the drill in its spindle rotating at high speeds
and when actuated move linearly against the
work piece produces a hole.
 Classification of Drilling Machines
a) Based on construction:

Portable, Sensitive, Radial, Up right, Gang,

b)Based on Feed:

Hand and Power driven

Drill holes from 1.5
to 15mm
Drill holes upto
50mm

Table can move

vertically and
radially
It the largest and
most versatile used
fro drilling medium to
large and heavy work
pieces.
 Gang Drilling Machine

In this almost single

purpose and more
productive machine a
number (2 to 6) of
spindles with drills
(of same or different
size) in a row are made
to produce number of
holes progressively or
simultaneously
Operations on Drilling Machine
• It is a process of smoothing the
surface of drilled holes with a tool.
• Tool is called as reamer.
• Initially a hole is drilled slightly
smaller in size.
• Drill is replaced by reamer.
• Speed is reduced to half that of the
drilling.
•Used to enlarge a hole
It is process carried on a
drilling machine to increase
the size of an already drilled
hole.
Initially a hole is drilled to
the nearest size and using
a boring tool the size of the
hole is increased.
•This process involves
increasing the size of a hole
at only one end.
•Cutting tool will have a small
cylindrical portion called
pilot.
•Cutting speed = two-thirds
of the drilling speed for the
same hole.
•This is an operation of making the
end of a hole into a conical shape.
•Cutting speed = half of the cutting
speed of drilling for same hole.
•Special angled cone shaped
enlargement at the end of the
hole
•Cutting edges at the end of
conical surface.
•Cone angles of 60°, 82°, 90°,
100°, 110°, 120
•It is a finishing operation
to produce flat round
surface usually around a
drilled hole, for proper
seating of bolt head or nut.
•It is done using a special
spot facing tool.
•For cutting internal thread
•Multi cutting edge tool.
•Tapping is performed either
by hand or by machine.
•Minor dia of the thread is
drilled and then tapping is
done.
 v=DN
where v = cutting speed, in./min
(mm/min); D = drill diameter, in. (mm);
and N = spindle revolution.
fr = N f

where fr = feed rate, in./min (mm/min); f = feed, in./rev. (mm/rev.)

Tm = (t + A)/fr for a through hole

Tm = d /fr for a blind hole

where Tm = drilling time, min; t = work thickness, in. (mm); fr = feed rate, in./min (mm/min); Ad =
the distance the drill must feed into the work before reaching full diameter; and D = hole depth.

Ad = 0.5 D tan (90 -  /2)

where  = drill point angle. MRR = ( D2 fr)/4
 Milling is a metal removal process by means of
.
using a rotating cutter having one or more
cutting teeth Cutting action is carried out by
feeding the workpiece against the rotating cutter.

Thus, the spindle speed, the table feed, the

depth of cut, and the rotating direction of the
cutter become the main parameters of the
process. Good results can only be achieved with
a well balanced settings of these parameters.
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple
cutting edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed

 Creates a planar surface

◦ Other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape

 Other factors and terms:

◦ Interrupted cutting operation

◦ Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth"
◦ Machine tool called a milling machine
2 MAIN GROUPS OF MACHINE.

1. Horizontal spindle machines

2. Vertical spindle machines

The basic components of these machines are as
follows:
 Worktable: on which the workpiece is clamped
using T-slots. The table moves longitudinally relative
to the saddle.
 Saddle: supports the table and can move in the
transverse direction.
 Knee: supports the saddle and gives the table vertical
movement so that the depth of cut can be adjusted
and workpieces with various heights can be
accommodated.
 Overarm: used on horizontal machines; it is
adjustable to accommodate different arbor lengths.
 Head: contains the spindle and cutter holders. In
vertical machines, the head may be fixed or can be
adjusted vertically, and it can be swiveled in a
vertical plane on the column for cutting tapered
surfaces.
a) Peripheral milling
– Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
– Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
b) Face milling
– Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
– Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
Horizontal Milling Machine
The cutter is mounted on a spindle whose
axis of rotation is parallel to work piece
surface
 Conventional Milling (Up Milling)
 Max chip thickness is at the end of the cut
 Advantage: tooth engagement is not a
function of workpiece surface
characteristics, and contamination or scale
on the surface does not affect tool life.
 Cutting process is smooth
 Tendency for the tool to chatter
 The workpiece has a tendency to be pulled
upward, necessitating proper clamping.
Horizontal Milling Machine

 Climb Milling (Down Milling)

 Cutting starts at the surface of the
workpiece.
 Downward compression of cutting forces
hold workpiece in place
 Because of the resulting high impact
forces when the teeth engage the
workpiece, this operation must have a
rigid setup, and backlash must be
eliminated in the table feed mechanism
 Not suitable for machining workpiece
having surface scale.
Vertical Milling Machine
The cutter is mounted
on a spindle whose axis
of rotation is
perpendicular to work
piece surface.
 Milling Operations
a)Slab Milling
Basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter •
width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides

b)Slotting
• Width of cutter is less than workpiece width,
creating a slot in the work

c)End Milling
• Cutter diameter is less than work
width, so a slot is cut into part

d) Profile Milling
Form of end milling in
which the outside
periphery of a flat part
is cut
Milling Operations
e) Pocket Milling
• Another form of end
milling used to mill
shallow pockets into flat
parts
f) Surface Contouring
• Ball-nose cutter fed back
and forth across work
along a curvilinear path at
close intervals to create a
three-dimensional surface
form
 4) Shaping and Planing
• Similar operations
• Both use a single point cutting tool moved
linearly relative to the work part

(a) Shaping, and (b) planing.

The shaper is a mobile cutter, the workpiece is moved to perform the cutting
process, a shaper is a light-duty machine, the shaper just can use only one
cutting tool at a time; however the planer is different, it is a fixed planer that
moves the workpiece closer to the planer for cutting, a planer is a heavy-duty
Typical tooling: single point high speed
steel tools

Shaper Planer
  Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a series of narrowly
spaced teeth
 Tool called a saw blade
 Typical functions:
◦ Separate a work part into two pieces
◦ Cut off unwanted portions of part

Fig. (a) power hacksaw –linear

reciprocating motion of hacksaw
blade against work
 Fig. (b) band saw (vertical) – linear continuous
motion of band saw blade, which is in the form of
an endless flexible loop with teeth on one edge

Fig. (c) circular saw – rotating saw blade provides

continuous motion of tool past work part
 Machining Operations &
Parameters
Operation Type Speed Feed Depth of Cut
Turning: Surface speed Parallel to the Tool penetration
(periphery) of workpiece axis below original
workpiece rotates
workpiece work surface
single point cutting

Drilling: Surface speed Parallel to the Tool penetration

(periphery) of tool axis below original
tool rotates
tool work surface
single pass cutting (depth of hole)

Milling: Surface speed Perpendicular to Tool penetration

(periphery) of the tool axis below original
tool rotates
tool work surface
multi-point cutting
 Non-conventional Machining
Chemical Milling
Photochemical Blanking
Electrochemical Machining
Pulsed Electrochemical Machining
Electrochemical Grinding
Electrical-Discharge Machining
Electrical-Discharge Grinding
Electrical-Discharge Wire Cutting
Laser-Beam Machining
Electron Beam Machining
Plasma Arc Cutting
Water Jet Machining
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Abrasive Jet Machining
Four types of nontraditional machining

Type Process

Chemical Chemical machining

Mechanical Water-jet machining

Abrasive-jet machining
Ultrasonic machining
Electrical Electrical chemical machining
Electron beam machining
Thermal Electrical discharge machining
Laser beam machining
Plasma arc machining
Ion beam machining
Why?!!!!!!!!!!!!

• High hardness and the strength of the material

• Work-piece too flexible
• Complex shape
• Surface finish and dimensional tolerances
• Undesirable Temperature rise and dimensional
tolerances
 1.Chemical machining
• Used to produce shallow cavities (<12 mm) on large areas.
• A maskant is applied over areas you don’t want to machine.
• Place the part in a chemical bath (acid or alkali depending upon the metal)
• Control temperature and time of exposure to control material removal

Fig : (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-to
weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling
aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been
formed into shape by processes such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the
chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost.
 2. Electrochemical machining
• This process is works on the principle of electrolysis

• Uses an electrolyte and electrical current to ionize and remove metal atoms

• Can machine complex cavities in high-strength materials (Not affected by

the strength, hardness or toughness of the material)

• High rate of electrolyte movement in tool work piece gap washes metal ions
away from the work piece ( ANODE)

• This is washed just before they have a chance to plate on the tool ( cathode)

• Shaped tool made of brass , copper , bronze , or stainless steel

• Electrolyte is pumped at a high rate through the passages in the tool

• Machines having current capacities as high as 40,000 A and as low as 5A are

available
• Material removal rate is 2.5-12 mm/min depending on current density.
 2. Electro-Chemical Machining

Fig : Schematic illustration of the

electrochemical-machining
process. This process is the
reverse of electroplating.
Fig : Typical parts made by electrochemical machining.
(a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB;
note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin
slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral
airfoils on a compressor disk.
 3. Electrical-Discharge Machining
• Can be used on any material that conducts electricity
• Uses a shaped electrode and electric sparks to remove metal;
discharges sparks at about 50-500 kHz
• The tool (electrode) usually acts as a cathode and is immersed in
a dielectric fluid.
• DC voltage (~300V) is applied in modulated pulses.
• The dielectric breaks down (sparking at around 12,000 deg F)
when gap is small.
• The sparks erodes the workpiece in the shape of the tool.
• The tool is progressively lowered as the workpiece erodes.
• A dielectric (nonconductive) fluid removes debris and acts as an
insulator until the potential difference is high enough
• Material removal rate is typically 300 mm3/min
• Tool wear ratio 3:1 with metallic electrodes, 100:1 with graphite
electrodes
 3. Electrical-Discharge Machining

(a) (b) (c)

Fig : (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process.

This is one of the most widely used machining processes, particularly for
die-sinking operations. (b) Examples of cavities produced by the
electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two
round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum the
aluminum piece shown in front. (c) A spiral cavity produced by ECM
using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread.
4- Electrical-Discharge Wire Cutting
• The wire moves through the workpiece like a band saw,
removing material by electrical discharge
• Dielectric fluid is applied to the work area
• The wire is generally used only once; it is inexpensive
 5. Laser-Beam Machining
• Uses a concentrated beam of light to vaporize part of the
workpiece
• Usually produces a rough surface with a heat-affected zone
• Can cut holes as small as .005 mm with depth/diameter ratios of
50:1

Design Considerations:
- Non-reflective workpiece surfaces are
preferable
- Sharp corners are difficult to produce;
deep cuts produce tapers
- Consider the effects of high
temperature on the workpiece material
 6. Plasma Arc Cutting
• Uses plasma (ionized gas) to rapidly vaporize material
• Material removal rates are much higher than those for laser beam machining
and electron beam machining; produces good surface finish and thin cut
width
 7. Water Jet Machining
• A pressurized jet of water cuts a groove in the material
• Effective for many nonmetallic materials
• Cuts can be started at any location; does not produce heat;
produces very little burring

Abrasive Water Jet Machining

• The water jet contains abrasive particles;
this increases the material removal rate
• Can cut metallic, nonmetallic, and
advanced composite materials
• High pressure water (20,000-60,000 psi).
• Can cut extremely thick parts (5-10 inches
possible).
THE END