DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF A 10 KWp PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM: PV

BATTERY SIZING AND LOAD AUDIT FOR A SCHOOL BUILDING

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are seventeen global goals developed by the United

Nations General assembly to promote a sustainable future for all. The goals were established in

2015, and it is projected that their wide scale deployment will be accomplished by the year 2030

(H´ak, Janouˇskov´a, and Moldan 2016). In relation to the SDGs, renewable energy development

allows achieving energy security not only for domestic use but for transportation, environment,

construction, economy, mechanical work, and industry (Salvarli, & Salvarli, 2020). Renewable

energies generated from solar (Ahmed et al., 2020), wind, hydro, tidal, geothermal, and biomass

help supply energy demand and facilitate the development of communities and protection of the

environment on a global scale. In many global locations, solar photovoltaic (PV) is the cheapest

source of electricity generation, excluding Antarctica ([U.S.E.I.A, 2021). Unfortunately,

legislative targets for a renewable share in the power mix, although essential, remain below

expectations as technologies are growing at a significantly faster rate than laws regulating them.

Nevertheless, promoting the development and utilization of renewable energy is now a common

consensus, and countries are engaging to explore renewable energy potential (Destek, 2020;

Douvi et al., 2021), especially because Economic growth and energy demand are correlated

(AlKhars, et al., 2020).

So far, Global electricity generation from solar PV is an order of magnitude lower than

conventional technologies where it accounted for 2.8% at the end of 2019 (Statistical review of

world energy, 2020). Several factors lie behind the plummeting cost and fast ramp up of this

technology. One particularly interesting factor is the fact that PV is modular, also referred to as

‘‘granular.’’(Wilson et al., 2020). Identical solar panels of hundreds of watts are combined, by

the dozens in rooftop installations, or by the millions in utility-scale power plants.

As solar energy generation keeps growing globally to meet energy needs, economic barriers to

its deployment are also decreasing. Despite its growing penetration in the global marketplace,

rarely discussed is an expansion of solar energy engineering, principles beyond process and

enterprise to account for both economic and ecological systems, including ecosystems, goods

and services. A solar PV system includes the main components of PV modules, a solar

inverter, convertors, storage devices, charge controller, and cables and a bias of system (BoS),

which can generate AC and DC power (Aghaei et al., 2020). However, the desired efficiency

of PV systems relies on many factors as well as understanding the component functionality and

configuration. Moreover, comprehension of the monitoring techniques and reliable engineering

methods are crucial to assure the service life of the PV systems.

Solar PV array may be configured as a stand-alone or grid-tied system. Whichever connection is

selected; a battery storage system is necessary to store excess electrical energy. When a

standalone system is used, a battery will ensure storage of excess energy, especially whenever a

connected load demands less than the generated PV power (Shen, 2009). Hence, a battery

improves the reliability of the system since the solar resource is naturally intermittent. From a

life cycle cost perspective, a battery storage system proved to be the most expensive component
of the PV system (Koko, 2022). Therefore, the main challenge is the proper sizing of a battery

storage system for the solar PV array size and load demand. Additionally, sizing of the battery

without an energy optimization approach has proved to result in higher system cost and low net

present value (NPV) of the system.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria is a country with energy deficit, where lack of access to adequate, reliable, and good

quality electricity poses a great challenge to social and economic development. The available

electrical generation capacity in the country ranges between 3500 MW and 5000 MW (Africa P,

2018) and in 2017, only about 55% of the Nigerian population had electricity access. Currently,

the estimated per capita consumption is placed at 151 kWh per year which ideally, should be

about five times higher than the current level. Natural gas dominate on-grid power generation

capacity making up 86% of capacity, while three large hydropower plants which include Jebba,

Shiroro and Kainji plants make up 14% capacity (PWC 2017). The economy of Nigeria is

described as one heavily dependent on generators due to the epileptic nature of electricity

(Joseph, 2014). In the Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO), generators are the

major source of electricity generation and as such has been a source of noise pollution (Amakom

et al., 2019) and high carbon emission (Amakom et al., 2022). Owing to the never-ending

increases in diesel/petrol price in recent times all across the country and the associated ecological

effects of generator usage, this study is geared towards using renewable energy to power the

department of physics.
1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to install a 10KwP photovoltaic system in the Department of Physics,

FUTO. With the specific objectives of:

1. Having an uninterrupted power supply in the Department.

2. Having a cost effective power supply system in the Department and

3. Increasing the body of knowledge of solar photovoltaic system installation.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study is very important as it will not only provide stable electricity supply to the

Department of Physics FUTO, but also a hands on approach on the PV installations and

economic benefits of renewable energy systems.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study is limited to the installation of a 10 KwP PV system in the department of Physics

FUTO using solar panels, Inverters, Charge controllers, coaxial cables and Battery storage

systems.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Despite all the potential benefits that an energy storage system could offer to a net meter

customer, the penetration of storage systems is still low mainly due to the high upfront costs of

installing a battery system (Schopfer et al., 2018). Besides, installing an energy storage system

would also require a purchase of a multimode inverter to replace or add on top of the most

commonly used current grid-connected inverters which further increases the upfront investments.

Hence, before going ahead with purchasing a battery, the financial returns or other metrics in

regards to the battery capabilities need to be carefully evaluated.

With the increasing implementation of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, comprehensive methods

and tools are required to dynamically assess their economic and environmental costs and benefits

under varied spatial and temporal contexts.

2.2 Battery Sizing and Cost Effectiveness

Ren et al. (2020) studied the integrated system dynamics modeling with life cycle

assessment and life cycle cost assessment to evaluate the cumulative energy demand, carbon

footprint, water footprint, and life cycle cost of residential grid-connected (GC) and standalone

(SA) solar PV systems. The system dynamics model was specifically used for simulating the

hourly solar energy generation, use, and storage during the use phase of the solar PVs. The
modeling framework was then applied to a residential prototype house in Boston, MA to

investigate various PV panel and battery sizing scenarios. When the SA design is under

consideration, the maximum life cycle economic saving can be achieved with 20 panels with no

battery in the prototype house, which increases the life cycle economic savings by 511.6% as

compared to a baseline system sized based upon the engineering rule-of-thumb (40 panels and 40

batteries), yet decreases the demand met by 55.7%. However, the optimized environmental

performance was achieved with significantly larger panel (up to 300 units) and battery (up to

320 units) sizes. These optimized configurations increase the life cycle environmental savings of

the baseline system by up to 64.6%, but significantly decrease the life cycle economic saving by

up to 6868.4%. There is a clear environmental and economic tradeoff when sizing the SA

systems. When the GC system design is under consideration, both the economic and

environmental benefits are the highest when no battery is installed, and the benefits increase with

the increase of panel size. However, when policy constraints such as limitations/caps of grid sell

are in place, tradeoffs would present as whether or not to install batteries for excess energy

storage.

The optimal sizing algorithms of grid-connected photovoltaic-battery system for residential

houses were studied by Li (2019). The study was targeted at minimizing the total annual cost of

electricity. With the use of a genetic algorithm involving a time series simulation of the entire

system using data collected through one year. Genetic algorithm jointly optimizes the sizes of the

photovoltaic and the battery systems by adjusting the battery charge and discharge cycles

according to the availability of solar resource and a time-of-use tariff structure for electricity.

Houses without pre-existing solar systems are considered. The results show that jointly

optimizing the sizing of battery and photovoltaic systems can significantly reduce electricity
imports and the cost of electricity for the household. However, the optimal capacity of such

photovoltaic battery varies strongly with the electricity consumption profile of the household,

and is also affected by electricity and battery prices.

Aghamohamadi (2020) studied a two-stage adaptive robust optimization (ARO) for optimal

sizing and operation of residential solar photovoltaic (PV) systems coupled with battery units.

Uncertainties of PV generation and load were modeled by user-defined bounded intervals

through polyhedral uncertainty sets. The model determined the optimal size of PV-battery

system while minimizing operating costs under the worst-case realization of uncertainties. The

outer min problem characterizes sizing variables as “here-and-now” decisions to be obtained

prior to uncertainty realization. The inner max-min problem, however, determines the operation

variables in place of “wait-and-see” decisions to be obtained after uncertainty realization. An

iterative decomposition methodology is developed by means of the column-and-constraint

technique to recast the trilevel problem into a single-level master problem (the outer min

problem) and a bilevel subproblem (the inner max-min problem). The duality theory and the Big-

M linearization technique are used to transform the bilevel subproblem into a solvable single-

level max problem. The immunization of the model against uncertainties is justified by testing

the obtained solutions against 36 500 trial uncertainty scenarios in a postevent analysis. The

proposed postevent analysis also determines the optimum robustness level of the ARO model to

avoid over/under conservative solutions.

Tang et al. (2019) found that the high upfront costs of batteries have limited the investment

in retrofit residential energy storage systems for solar customers. Battery size is one of the most

important factors that impact the financial return since it determines the major operational
capabilities of the solar-coupled storage system. To select the optimal battery size for a

photovoltaic solar customer, it is important to perform an analysis taking account of the

customer’s on-site generation and consumption characteristics. However, in most cases there are

insufficient pre-existing data of the required quality making it difficult to perform such analysis.

A model that can achieve satisfactory battery sizing results with a limited amount of net meter

electricity data was used in their study. The model uses K-means clustering on customer net

meter electricity data to discover important information to extrapolate limited input net/gross

meter energy data and uses this in a techno-economic simulation model to determine the optimal

battery size. The results indicate that the proposed model outperforms the alternative baseline

model and can work with as little as one month of net meter energy data for both of the evaluated

tariff structures. On average, the model results in 0.10 normalized root mean squared error in

yearly battery savings and net present values, 0.07 normalised root mean squared error in annual

electricity costs and a r-squared value of 0.717 in finding the optimal size of batteries.

2.3 PV Efficiency and Battery Sizing

Integration of renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic (PV) generation with variable

power demand systems like residential electricity consumption requires the use of a high

efficiency electrical energy system such as a battery. Parmeshwarappa (2021) studied such

integration using vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) as the energy storage system with

specific focus on the sizing of the power and energy storage capacities of the system components

Several scenarios have been simulated using power and energy scale factors. Battery response, in

terms of its power, state of charge and efficiency, has been monitored in each run. Results show

that the stack power rating should be based on peak charging characteristics while the volume of

electrolyte should be based on the expected daily energy discharge through the battery. The PV
source itself should be sized at about 25% more energy rating than the average daily load. The

ability to design a VRFB with a high power-to-energy ratio makes it particularly attractive for

PV-load integration.

Jain et al. (2020), determined the appropriate size of the renewable energy and related energy

storage for the efficient, economical and reliable operation of the electrical power system using a

simple yet effective sizing strategy for distributed battery energy storage system (BESS) in the

distribution networks under photovoltaic (PV) penetration. Their result showed a negative impact

of inappropriate selection of a battery sizing.

A battery storage has emerged as the most widely-used storage option, due to its flexible and

complementary functionality for renewable energy systems such as solar PV and wind power. In

order to ensure the efficient operation of batteries in energy systems, a proper battery model is

essential in predicting realistic battery performance under various operating conditions. Accurate

knowledge of the state of charge, state of power, and battery efficiency is a necessity for the

development of advanced grid management applications. The battery life cycle cost and the self-

sufficiency ratio is to be analyzed and optimized as objective functions, and battery capacity

constitutes as a decision variable. In this efforts will be made to use the most standardized, yet

simple battery sizing system for optimal battery efficiency and cost minimization.
 Chapter Three

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Site Assessment

In designing a PV system, pinpointing where and where to place the panels is an extremely

important step since the later components will be streamlined based on this step of the process.

While performing the site assessment, there are a few things one should keep in mind such as the

following:

1. Shade Analysis: Shading can be a problem for the solar panels as they decrease the

maximum power that can be generated. Several factors contribute to this issue, the most

common cause of shade on a solar panel are; a) Shade from neighboring trees and

buildings in vicinity, b) typical cloudy weather, and c) shade from adjacent solar panels

(Solar Choice, 2016). These factors were thoroughly investigated for maximum power

output. The tool most utilized in the shade analysis was the solar pathfinder which gives

the direction of the sun throughout the year and how much any specific area will receive

sunlight throughout the year.

2. Sun hours: Sun hours are important to know how much radiance will be required to

generate the needed output wattage. This parameter gives us the knowledge of number of

hours an area will receive maximum sunlight (Franklin, 2017). With advances in
 technology we have this data available online and anyone can use it. In this study the sun

hours were obtained from the Timeanddate data base

(https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/nigeria/owerri)

Tilt angle: Tilt angle is the setting of the panels one needs to have to get the maximum

radiance. Ideally the tilt angle is the latitude of the geographic location. It is suggested to

have an adjustable panel frames as the sun hours keep changing with respect to the tilt as

the sun goes down (Franklin, 2017). Because the panels were mounted at the rooftops,

the tilt angle of the roofs were used.

3.2 Energy Calculations

The consensus is to add wattage of the equipment that are going to be powered using the PV

system. For this task, the baseload calculators that are available on the internet were used

(https://www.wholesalesolar.com/solar-information/starthere/offgrid-calculator). On the website

every device has fixed power consumption that can be found on its name plate details. The data

for all the devices available were retrieved. The number of each appliance that are going to be

used and number of hours the appliance is supposed to remain ON were supplied to the

calculator to obtain the energy consumption. Up on filling the required data the website

generates a table that give the total Watt-hours that are going to be used i.e. the total energy

consumed or the wattage of the PV system.

3.3 Panel Sizing

Once the total load to be energized using the PV system is calculated the next step is finding out

what area of solar panels would be required to generate that much amount of power. Since it is

an inherent property of any panel to have internal losses. This factor was considered during the
panel sizing. A total of 8 400W panels of size 1956*992*40 mm were selected for the purpose of

this project.

3.4 Battery Sizing

PV battery system assesses various strategies from a financial perspective. The valuable

existence of the battery is limited to 5,000 cycles or in the planned living time of 20 years. The

maintenance of photovoltaic and rechargeable annual activities and expenditure systems is set at

1.5% per the speculative cost. Assume that the cost system for the battery and PV is comparable

to their size. Following is a formula that will enable to calculate what size of battery they should

have.

Total Watt−hours per day used by appliances × Days of autonomy

Battery capacity ( Ah )=
0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage
3.1

3.5 Inverter

Inverter deals with following main tasks of energy:

 Convert DC from PV module to AC

 Ensure that the cycle of alternating current cycles is 60 cycles

 Reduce voltage variations

 Ensure that the condition of the AC waveform is suitable for the application
Most system-connected inverters can be introduced externally, and most of the off-grid inverters

are not weather-resistant, because of this, the inverter used in this project was housed indoors.

Inverters used for solar PV systems are usually based upon the total wattage of the solar panels,

as the inverter will be continuously converting the power generated. The second consideration,

was the voltage level of the system. Since system was designed to generate 4000 Watts at a

voltage level of 12 V, the inverter selected was rated 48 V, 4000 Watts.

3.6 Charge Controller

The charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or charger, is only

necessary for the system which involves a battery. The main capacity of the charge controller is

to counteract the battery spoofing. The basic function of charge controller is to monitor charging

and discharging of the battery. It prevents the battery from being completely charged or

discharged. This is important because over charging can lead to destruction of the battery and

under charging decreases the battery life. Another important reason to use a charge controller is

to prevent a reverse current flowing from battery to the system. There are two types of

controllers that are widely available in the market; 1) Pulse width Modulation (PWM), 2)

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). A pulse width modulation charge controller is set to

match the input power of the battery irrespective of the power generated by the panels. Because

of the inherent loss in power observed in this type of charger, the Maximum Power Point

Tracking (MPPT) charger which helps to get the optimum charging power for any given point of

time and offers better efficiency was used for this project.

3.7 Field Effiecincy

To calculate the field efficiency for a stand-alone solar system, the ratio of the actual energy

output of the system to the maximum possible energy output under ideal conditions were

determined. The field efficiency gives an indication of how effectively the solar system is

converting sunlight into usable electrical energy.

The field efficiency was calculated using the following formula

actual energy output

field efficiency= × 100 % 3.2
maximum possible energy output

To calculate the actual energy output, you need to know the total energy produced by the solar

system over a given period. This can be obtained from the solar system's monitoring data or

electricity generation records.

The maximum possible energy output is the theoretical energy that the solar system could

produce if it operated at its peak capacity under optimal conditions. It is typically calculated

based on the rated capacity of the solar panels and the number of hours of direct sunlight

available during the given period. The rated capacity of the Solar panels were 400W each and 8

pieces of it gave a rated capacity of 3200W (3.2 kW). This value was taken as the rated capacity

of the panels. A 5 hours maximum peak power period were chosen (from 10 a.m to 2 p.m), while

the total daylight hours with direct sunlight were chosen from 9 a.m to 4 p.m.
 Figure 3.1: A schematic diagram of the standalone PV system

Chapter Four

Results and Discussions

As part of the development of the Physics department at Federal University of Technology,

Owerri, an independent stand-alone solar-PV system of 4 kW has been installed. A field

efficiency calculation as well as a battery sizing calculation have been performed as part of this

study. The results obtained are presented.

4.1 Energy Considerations

Table 1 Energy consideration

Appliance Operation Kilowatts
Appliance Quantity Kilowatts
categories Hours/day Hours/day

LED lights Day 16 0.01 8 1.28

 Cell phone
Day 36 0.005 8 1.44
charger

Solar charger
24 hours use 1 0.001 24 0.024
controller

Desktop computer Day 2 0.200 8 3.2

Laptop computer Day 20 0.065 8 10.4

photocopier Day 2 1.500 2 6

printer Day 2 0.150 3 0.9

Electric fan Day 6 0.100 8 4.8

refrigerator Day 2 0.150 8 2.4

Total kilowatts hours per day 29.16

The total energy consumed within the Head of Department’s (HOD) section of the building and

other offices within the building daily, was estimated to be 29.16 kWh/day. This energy

consumption was found to be higher than what the installed PV system can supply.

29.16 kW ÷ 6 sun hours per day=4.86 kW

4.86 ÷ 0.8 ( systemlosses )=6.075 kW

kWh=6.075 kW ×30 days=182.25 kW /month

The result from the energy considerations shows that the system will be dealing with high

voltage devices, hence a 24 V system was chosen.

4.2 Battery sizing

Using equation 3.1, the battery required for this project was sized as follows

Total Watthours per day used by appliances × Days of autonomy

Battery capacity ( Ah )=
0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage

Where 0.85 and 0.6 are the battery efficiency and depth of discharge respectively. Due to

relatively availability of sunlight in Owerri throughout the year, one (1) day autonomy was

chosen for this project. The day of autonomy is the desired number of days the battery will

provide power during periods of low solar generation or in case of power outages.

29.16 ×1
battery capacity = =2.38 kAh
0.85 × 0.6 ×24

For the PV system to comfortably handle the energy consumption in the HOD’s section and

other offices of the department, a 2.38 kAh battery capacity is required for the system.

4.3 Field Efficiency

Equation 3.2 was utilized in calculating the field efficiency of the installed PV system. This is

given by

actual energy output

field efficiency= × 100 %
maximum possible energy output

Maximum Possible Energy Output = Rated Capacity x Total Hours of Direct Sunlight

Maximum Possible Energy Output =3.2 kW ×210=672 kWh

3.2 kW × 5 ×30
∴ field efficiency = × 100 %=71.42 %
672

For a one month period the field efficiency for the installed PV system was obtained to be

71.42%.
 Chapter Five

Conclusion and Recommendation

Due to the perpetual lack of electricity supply in the Department of Physics, Federal University

of Technology Owerri, and the associated air and noise pollution with the use of fossil based

electricity generators. The students embarked on the installation of a 4 kVA stand-alone PV

system. The system comprised of the solar panels, the charge controller, inverter and battery

storage system. From the energy calculations 29.16 kWh/day is consumed between the HOD’s

section of the department and other offices. The battery capacity required to meet up with this

energy need was estimated at 2.38 kAh capacity while the total field efficiency for the actual

installed solar panels were estimated to be 71.42%

From this study, the installed PV system capacity is still not enough to take care of the basic

energy consumption of the department and it is recommended, that the next set of students

should come together to further increase the capacity of the PV system.

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