Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Review article

Dissimilar welding of aluminium to steel: A review

Yue Yang, Zhen Luo *, Yixuan Zhang, Jie Su
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The combination of aluminium (Al) and steel is a promising solution in the automotive industry for reducing the
Aluminium weight of automotive body structure and fuel consumption. The dissimilar welding of Al/steel poses significant
Steel challenges because of the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) between iron and aluminium. The article
Intermetallic compounds
summarizes the formation and growth mechanisms of Fe–Al IMCs. This paper reviews the progress on dissimilar
Friction stir welding
Laser welding
welding of Al/steel by various welding methods, including friction stir welding (FSW), laser welding (LW) and
Microstructure resistance spot welding (RSW). This paper focuses on the joining mechanisms, interlayer materials, micro­
structure and mechanical properties associated to each method. The influence of process parameters, tool ge­
ometry, composition of the filler material, joint type, composition of the interlayer or coating, RSW with cover
plate and external energy fields on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joint is also reviewed. In
addition, the temperature control range of Al/steel interface for various welding processes is summarized sys­
tematically. Furthermore, several suggestions for further research directions on the dissimilar welding of Al/steel
are provided.

1. Introduction [10–12]. Lightweight materials are widely used in vehicle structural

The global manufacturing industry has faced two significant chal­
lenges over the past few years: energy shortages and environmental
crisis. These issues have been recognized as crucial factors affecting
development in this field [1,2]. Considering the premise of advanced
automobiles, focusing on environmental protection should be of primary
concern. As such, one important strategy has been the weight reduction
of automobiles. If the weight of a car is reduced by 10 %, its fuel effi­
ciency can improve by 6 % to 8 % [3]. Low weight can not only reduce
fuel consumption but also CO2 emissions and air pollution. Nowadays, to
reduce the CO2 emissions of passenger vehicles, their average fuel
economy target and production volume have become major challenges
for most countries. Fig. 1 shows the varying trends in fuel economy
targets for passenger vehicles over the period of 2015–2025 across
different countries [4]. Among them, China's average CO2 emission
target for 2020 was 116 g/km, representing a 30 % decline from the
levels recorded in 2015.
Recently, the automotive industry has begun to explore using light­
weight materials for vehicles to achieve the above goals. Automotive
lightweight materials can be divided into three types: (i) light alloys
[5–7] (aluminium (Al) alloys, magnesium (Mg) alloys, etc.); (ii)
advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) [8,9]; (iii) composite materials
components, including dashboards, bumpers, engines, body shells,
wheels, suspension systems, brakes, steering systems, batteries, seats,
gearboxes, and so on, (Fig. 2).
Al alloys have become the most widely used lightweight materials in
automotive structural components [13]. Gradually replacing traditional
steel as an alternative with superior properties, Al alloys have become
one of the dominant lightweight materials in the automotive industry.
However, they have high cost approximately twice that of steel. More­
over, considering factors of safety and cost, it is almost impossible to
fully replace steel in structural applications.
Steel, as the primary structural material in the automotive industry
can provide excellent mechanical properties to meet the strength re­
quirements at a lower cost. High-strength steel is commonly used for
automobile body structures not only because it is an inexpensive ma­
terial but also it has excellent machinability and superior impact ab­
sorption capacity [14,15]. In general, there is an inherent trade-off
between strength and ductility in various steels [16]. When selecting
materials for a car body structure, it is important to consider various
factors such as the raw materials, production, maintenance and cost. The
most effective approach to meet the demand for lightweight materials is
combining Al alloys and steel. As such, the integration of dissimilar
metals in multi-material design is becoming a popular method that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Luozhen8882022@126.com (Z. Luo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.12.060
Received 16 September 2023; Received in revised form 26 November 2023; Accepted 22 December 2023
Available online 12 January 2024
1526-6125/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Y. Yang et al.
Fig. 1. The varying trends of fuel economy targets for passenger vehicles over
the period of 2015–2025 across different countries [4].
provides desirable and unique material properties.
2. Main issues of Al/steel dissimilar welding
The strategy of lightweight multi-materials is a promising method to
construct low-weight automobiles in recent years [17]. In particular, the
combination of Al and steel is becoming a promising approach toward
lightweight, safe, rigid and cost-effective structures [18]. Various
joining techniques have been successfully used to join Al alloys and
steel. To improve the joint strength of conventional joining methods like
riveting and adhesive bonding, various alternative welding methods can
be used such as solid-state welding, fusion welding, or hybrid welding.
However, the dissimilar welding of Al alloys to steel remains a major
challenge due to the substantial difference in the thermophysical prop­
erties of these two types of metal [19–22]. The physical properties of Al
and Fe are listed in Table 1 [23]. There are further significant differences
between Al and steel such as in the melting point and thermal expansion
coefficient, resulting in their poor metallurgical compatibility. More­
over, Al is highly active and easily to produce a dense Al2O3 oxide film.
Al2O3 has a high melting point (2050 ◦ C) and could decrease the joint
strength [24].
Fig. 3 shows a Fe–Al equilibrium phase diagram [25]. During the
solidification process, a variety of intermetallic compounds (IMCs),
namely, Fe3Al, FeAl2, FeAl, FeAl3 and Fe2Al5, are formed. The Al-rich
IMCs form less plastic and tough joints than Fe-rich IMCs [26–28].
Therefore, it is essential to avoid and inhibit the excessive formation and
growth of IMCs at the interface of dissimilar materials.
This review focuses on using various welding methods for joining Al
alloys to steels. The low solid solubility between Al alloys and steels
during welding results in poor weld metallurgical compatibility, while
the huge differences in thermo-physical properties poses greater chal­
lenges. Hot cracks, porosity and other defects are usually introduced by
welding processes. Furthermore, the formation of hard and brittle
Fe–Al IMC during Al alloy and steel welding can significantly deterio­
rate the mechanical properties of the welded joints. Therefore, con­
trolling the formation and growth of IMCs and reducing welding defects
have become an important research field in welding Al to steel.
Previous review articles on the dissimilar joining of Al alloys to steel
have only provide a brief and insufficient analysis. Furthermore, there is
a lack of emphasis on the control of interface temperature, which
affected the growth of IMC layers in the dissimilar welding of Al alloys to
steel. This paper thoroughly reviews the mechanism of friction stir
welding (FSW), laser welding (LW) and resistance spot welding (RSW)
377
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
for dissimilar welding of Al alloys to steel.
This paper mainly summarizes the progress on FSW, LW and RSW for
joining Al alloys and steel (Fig. 4). The advantages, process, mechanism
and corresponding joint microstructure and strength obtained by the
above-mentioned welding methods will be comprehensively reviewed in
the following part.
3. IMC
3.1. IMC formation
In the Fe–Al phase diagram (Fig. 3) [25], two categories of IMCs can
be seen: Fe-rich phases (Fe3Al and FeAl) and Al-rich phases (Fe2Al5,
FeAl2 and FeAl3). The type of IMC formation depends on the local
temperature and material composition during welding [29]. Phases with
lower Gibbs free energy (ΔG) are more likely to form during weld so­
lidification. The order of Gibbs free energies of various Fe–Al IMCs are
as follows [30]:
ΔG0 (Fe2 Al5 ) < ΔG0 (FeAl3 ) < ΔG0 (FeAl2 ) < ΔG0 (FeAl) < 0 < ΔG0 (Fe3 Al)
(1)
Table 2 lists the lattice structure and melting point of Fe–Al IMCs.
Under a eutectic temperature of 1150 ◦ C, the reaction can be expressed
as follows:
Al (liquid) + Fe (solid)→Fe2 Al5 (2)
Fe2 Al5 + Al (liquid)→FeAl3 (3)
Moreover, the FeAl phase could form due to the interdiffusion re­
action of Fe atoms and Al atoms. For example, Pan et al. [29] observed
the FeAl phase at the boundary of Fe2Al5 grains for Al/steel RSWed
joints.
3.2. Formation and growth mechanism of IMC layer
For the dissimilar welding of Al alloys to steel, inhibiting the growth
of IMC is a key technical issue [32], too much IMCs can affect the me­
chanical properties of joints if their buildup is not property controlled
[33]. It is believed that reducing the thickness of Fe–Al IMC layers can
enhance the overall performance of joints [34–37]. However, some
studies have indicated that a thin IMC layer could effectively inhibit the
interface failure by ensuring a strong bond [38–42]. Therefore, under­
standing the mechanism of IMC formation is crucial for enhancing the
properties of joints.
The diffusion time and the chemical composition during the welding
of Al/steel are the two main factors affecting IMC formation. The
schematic illustration of the formation mechanism of Fe–Al IMCs is
shown in Fig. 5 [29]. This can be roughly divided into four stages: (i) Al
atoms and Fe atoms diffuse toward the interface, and the interdiffusion
rate is slow (Fig. 5(a)); (ii) This rate at the interface becomes acceler­
ated, and the Fe atoms reach a saturated concentration in the Al matrix.
At this time, the Fe4Al13 IMC begins to nucleate. The formation of
discontinuous Fe2Al5 IMCs occurs because the diffusion rate of Fe2Al5 is
higher than other Fe–Al IMCs (Fig. 5(b)); (iii) With the increase in
interface welding energy, the discontinuous Fe2Al5 grains show rapid
growth and eventually merge to form a continuous structure. Due to the
presence of vacancies in the Fe2Al5 crystal structure, the Fe2Al5 grains
grow vertically along the Al/steel interface to form coarse columnar
crystals (Fig. 5(c)); (iv) Following the final stage of the welding process,
needle-like Fe4Al13 IMCs appear near the Fe2Al5 layer after solidification
(Fig. 5(d)).
In recent years, the mechanical properties, microstructure evolution,
morphologies and IMC thickness during the welding of Al alloys to steel
were investigated [43]. In terms of IMC hardness, the Fe2Al5 IMC
exhibited higher hardness compared to FeAl3. Moreover, for Fe2Al5, as a
main Fe–Al IMC product, the growth direction of Fe2Al5 IMCs for RSW
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

is [001], perpendicular to the interface [44–46]. The IMC morphologies Table 1

formed at the welding interface can be divided into two types (Fig. 6) Comparison of physical properties between Al and Fe [23].
[44]. The first one IMC is tongue-like IMCs near the steel side, while the Physical properties Al Fe
second is needle-like IMCs near the Al side [44,46–48]. − 1 − 1
Specific heat (J⋅kg ⋅K ) 1080 795
However, excessive IMC layer growth can deteriorate the quality and Melting point (◦ C) 660 1536
properties of the joint [41]. Different types of IMCs vary in hardness and Thermal conductivity (W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1) 237 80
toughness. Typically, in the welding process of Al/steel, various Fe–Al Thermal expansion coefficient (K− 1) 24 × 10− 6
11 × 10− 6

phases are formed, such as Fe3Al, FeAl2, Fe2Al5, FeAl and FeAl3 [42]. Density (kg⋅m− 3) 2385 7015
Elastic modulus (GPa) 70 210
The Al-rich IMCs are the most commonly observed phase, though some Electrical resistivity (μΩ⋅m) 0.2425 1.386
Fe-rich IMCs (FeAl and Fe3Al) deserve strong attention.
The insufficient or excessive formation of IMC could be detrimental
to welded joints. Therefore, when welding dissimilar materials, the Walser-Bené [49,50] and the effective heat of formation (EHF) [51]
thickness of the IMC layer needs to be controlled within an acceptable were utilized. The Walser-Bené model suggests that the initial formation
range. When the predicted thickness exceeds a critical value, various takes place with the Fe4Al13 phase adjacent to low-temperature eutectic.
methods could be performed to achieve thickness control, such as the In addition, the driving force is related with the Gibbs free energy (ΔG)
optimization of process parameters and the addition of an interlayer. [52]:
ΔG = ΔH − (T × ΔS) (4)
3.3. Thermodynamics and kinetics of Fe–Al IMC
where ΔH represents enthalpy change, T represents temperature and ΔS
The IMC formation relies on both thermodynamics and diffusion represents entropy change.
kinetics. To predict the formation of IMC, the thermodynamic model by By calculating the ΔG of the Fe–Al IMCs, the possibility of IMC

Fig. 2. Representative lightweight materials for different components in automobiles.

378
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 5. The mechanism of Fe–Al IMCs formation in different periods [29]: (a)
stage 1, (b) stage 2, (c) stage 3, (d) stage 4.

Fig. 3. The Fe–Al binary phase diagram [25].

Fig. 6. The IMC morphologies formed at the welding interface: (a) back scat­
tered electron (BSE) image and (b) electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)
image [44].

Fig. 4. Overview of FSW, LW, RSW and other welding methods of Al/steel.

Table 2
Lattice structure and melting point of different Fe–Al IMCs [31].
IMC type Crystal structure Melting point (◦ C)
Fig. 7. ΔG of Fe–Al IMCs at different temperature [53].
Fe3Al Cubic 1510
FeAl Cubic 1250
FeAl2 Triclinic 1164
Fe2Al5 Orthorhombic 1171 ΔG0FeAl = − 58950 + 15.799T (6)
FeAl3 Monoclinic 1150
Fe4Al13 Monoclinic 1150 ΔG0FeAl2 = − 102577 + 33.20T (7)

formation at the interface can be estimated. The ΔG of Fe–Al binary ΔG0Fe2 Al5 = − 253971 + 85.91T (8)
compounds can be calculated based on Eq. (4). According to the ther­
modynamic data of Fe–Al compounds, the growth free energy per mole ΔG0FeAl3 = − 142770 + 50.58T (9)
of the compounds can be calculated [53]:
ΔG0Fe4 Al13 = − 659915.8 + 272.32T (10)
ΔG0Fe3 Al = − 67659 + 90.77T (5)

379
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 7 shows that the ΔG of Fe–Al IMCs at different temperatures Table 3

[53]. It can be considered that the η-Fe2Al5 and θ-Fe4Al13 (FeAl3) with Various models obtained by several researchers [31–34].
low ΔG are the main compound layers at 700–1000 ◦ C. Author Model Process
According to previous studies, the heat of formation ΔH (T) of each ( )
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ − Qa
phase of Fe–Al can be represented by a given temperature (T). l(t) = 2kp0 t⋅exp
2RT
where l represents the Fe2Al5 layer thickness, t
ΔH(T) (Fe4 Al13 ) = − 38.733 + 16.05T − 0.94 × 1028 × T − 9
(11) represents the diffusion time for the Fe2Al5
Xu et al. layer; kp0 refers to the pre-exponential factor Variable polarity
ΔH(T) (Fe2 Al5 ) = − 40.141 + 15.04T − 0.88 × 1028 × T − 9
(12) [31] of parabolic growth; R is 8.314 J/(mol/K); Qa cold metal transfer
represents the activation energy of the Fe2Al5
ΔH(T) (FeAl2 ) = − 39.687 + 13.75T − 0.82 × 1028 × T − 9
(13) layer growth; T corresponds to the
thermodynamic temperature of the reaction
The kinetic of interdiffusion processes between steel and aluminium forming Fe2Al5 layer
K1B1 + K1A2
has been described comprehensively. The reactive diffusion is governed x≤
(rg/p)K0B2
by volume diffusion, and the total thickness l of the compound layers Bouayad
Where K1A2 and K1B1 represent rate constant Aluminizing
et al. [32]
shows a parabolic correlation with time t, that is, l2 = Kt. K denotes the of Fe2Al5 layer growth, K0B2 represents
parabolic coefficient. growth rate constant of the FeAl3 layer.
( )
The interdiffusion coefficient Dθ is expressed as [54]: x − Q ( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
2In √̅̅ = + In 2k0
t RT
( ) Yin et al. where k0 represents the pre-exponential
Qθ Aluminizing
Dθ = Dθ0 − (14) [33] factor, Q represents the activation energy, R
RT represents the gas constant and T represents
the thermodynamic temperature
where Dθ0 represents the pre-exponential factor, Qθ represents the acti­ (
30586
)
Al = 2.5 × 10
DFe − 14
exp − cm2 /s
vation enthalpy, and R represents the gas constant. In Eq. (14), θ can be ( ) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
RT
represented by the Fe, Al, Fe2Al5, FeAl3, FeAl2 and FeAl phases, Basak et al. X1 ( Fe ) t1
= DAl MIG brazing
[34] t2
respectively. For the Fe2Al5 layer, it is generally believed that the growth
X2 Al
Where T represents the interface temperature
of the η phase is consistent with the parabolic rate law. The calculation and R represents 8.314 J/(mol/K).
equation for the layer thickness x is expressed as:

x = k' tn (15)

where x represents the thickness of IMC layer, kˋ represents rate con­

stant, and n represents the compound layer growth exponent, which is
expected to be 0.5 for the normal diffusion-controlled growth. Eq. (15)
can be further simplified to the following form:
Inx = Ink′ + nInt (16)
(1) The welding of various thicknesses with different joint
configurations;
(2) Lower heat input compared to fusion welding methods which
produce thinner IMC at the Al/steel interface;
(3) No requiring high pressure or vacuum conditions.

It can from the Eq. (16) known that the x is plotted as a function of t
on a logarithmic scale.
The linear evolution of the thickness of θ-Fe4Al13 phase suggests that
the interfacial kinetics control the growth rate of the θ phase. The
increasing reaction temperature and time promote the dissolution of the
θ phase and further reduce its thickness.
3.4. Prediction of IMC layer thickness
In recent years, a growing level of research attention has been paid to
predicting the IMC layer thickness considering the quality of the Al/steel
joint. Predicting the IMC layer thickness can effectively avoid its
excessive formation. Various prediction models of IMC layer thickness
are shown in Table 3 [31–34]. However, in the majority of these models,
there is a discrepancy between the predicted results and the actual re­
sults, which primarily arises because only the main phase can be pre­
dicted at one time using the Arrhenius equation [32]. Meanwhile, the
FeAl3 layer is rarely mentioned in the literature due to its low thickness.
Disadvantages of the FSW
(1) Requiring a backing support and rigid joint setup;
(2) Limited availability of geometries and low accessibility.
FSW offers significant flexibility in combining materials with
different properties. The dissimilar FSW of different assembly types is
shown in Fig. 8 [70,71]. In general, three types of FSW assembly con­
figurations exist Al and steel, namely, butt joints, lap joints and spot
joints. The most common configuration type of FSW is butt joints (Fig. 8
(a)). When FSW is performed using a butt configuration, the FSW tool
penetrates. However, to prevent the overheating of welded zone, it is
crucial to carefully consider the selection of tool offset parameters. For
example, when assembling two materials of different hardness, this

4. Solid-state welding

4.1. Friction stir welding

4.1.1. Method and mechanism

FSW refers to the solid phase welding process widely used for
welding dissimilar materials, especially Al alloys and steel [55–69]. For
FSW of Al to steel, the benefits and limitations of FSW are summarized as
following:
Benefits from the FSW
Fig. 8. Dissimilar FSW of different assembly types [70,71]: (a) butt welds, (b)
lap welds.

380
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

distance from the hardest material to the center of the tool is typically
smaller than the radius of the pin.
Another configuration is lap welding, which is commonly used for
FSW and friction stir spot welding (FSSW) [72,73], especially for dis­
similar welding (Fig. 8(b)). In the lap configuration for FSW, the Al
material is positioned on top while the steel material is placed at the
bottom. Compared with traditional fusion welding, FSW offers the
advantage of low heat input, which limits the chemical reaction and
element diffusion between dissimilar materials. This unique feature
makes FSW an ideal choice for joining dissimilar materials.
In addition to the assembly configurations of butt and lap joints for
FSW, there are FSSW joints of Al/steel [73]. The FSSW process of Al/
steel can be divided into four stages (Fig. 9). In the first stage, the FSW
tool moves downward and gradually inserts into the Al alloy (Fig. 9(a)).
In the second stage, the anvil contacts the lower plate from the bottom
and supports the axial load generated by the welding tool during the
welding cycle (Fig. 9(b)). In the third stage, the shoulder provides
compressive force to the material. When the stirring tool reaches the
penetration depth, it ceases to move downward and remains in position
for a certain period. This dwell time allows for the plastic flow of the
materials that have been heated and softened (Fig. 9(c)). In the final
stage, the stirring tool is retracted while forming the Al/steel FSSW joint,
as shown in Fig. 9(d).
The rotary friction welding (RFW) process is also a solid-state process
used for joining Al alloy and steel. In this process, one material remains
stationary while the other material is rotated under the application of a
compressive axial force. The rotation and friction generate thermal en­
Fig. 10. Illustration of RFW process for Al to steel with different stages [76]:
ergy and plastic deformation, leading to chemical interdiffusion pri­
(a) initial stage, (b) welding stage and (c) upset stage.
marily, which mainly occurs during the forging phase [74,75]. The basic
principle of RFW process is shown in Fig. 10 [76]. Subramanian and
Paulra [77] joined the 304 L steel and 6063 Al alloy dissimilar materials configuration and a butt configuration is presented in Fig. 11 [78]. The
through RFW process. Additionally, Alves et al. [76] also investigated types of IMCs formed are influenced by the tool offset, resulting in the
the bonding mechanisms of the RFW process between 1050 Al alloy and formation of IMCs that are rich in iron. Dispersed iron particles within
304 stainless steels. the Al matrix are caused by the tool offset, whether it is a lap joint or a
butt joint (Fig. 11). However, for Al/steel butt joints, the IMCs have a
4.1.2. Microstructure and properties great influence on the failure behavior, while the situation is the
Recent studies on lap and butt joints between Al and steel have opposite for butt joint.
shown that the structure is composed of intermetallic layers of varying To date, many studies have reported on the FSW of Al/steel [79–81].
thickness [78–83]. Several attempts have been made to improve joint These studies focused on welding tool design, joint interface reaction
quality and eliminate IMCs in FSW of Al/steel [84–92]. Table 4 presents and formation and microstructure evolution of Fe–Al IMCs. By
a comprehensive review of the important aspects related to dissimilar designing the FSW tool, the effective regulation of the thickness and
FSW of Al/steel, including the welding materials, weld configurations, uniformity of the IMC layer can be achieved. An adjustable tool is widely
IMC types and layer thickness. As listed in Table 4 [45,93–109], various used in the FSW of Al to steel [82]. An Al/steel FSW joint with a uniform
grades of Al alloys (pure Al, 1xxx, 5xxx and 6xxx), are welded with LCS and continuous IMC layer could be obtained owing to the strong mate­
and high-strength steel using FSW. Moreover, the welding assembly rial flow. As a variant of FSW, FSSW has been proposed to realize a spot
pattern in FSW of Al/steel includes lap, butt and spot joints. Fe2Al5, weld.
Fe4Al13, FeAl, Fe3Al and FeAl2 are the main IMCs for Al/steel FSW. A number of papers have addressed the characteristics and evolution
The characteristic IMC distribution at the Al/steel interface in a lap mechanism of IMCs in the dissimilar material FSW [83,110,111]. The
map of element distributions shows that Fe4Al13 compounds exist at the
Al/Fe interface (Fig. 12). In addition, some fragmented Fe particles are
dispersed within the Fe4Al13 compounds.
In order to gain a deeper understanding of IMC characteristics, it is
essential to study microstructure evolution of Fe–Al IMC [102,112].
Typically, the Al/steel FSW joint can be divided into three layers ac­
cording to microstructure: (i) the top layer consisting of an Al matrix
with dispersed steel; (ii) the middle layer exhibiting a mixed layered
structure of Fe–Al solid solution and IMC; and (iii) the bottom layer,
predominantly comprised of steel. The IMCs were observed to be FeAl3,
Fe2Al5, FeAl2 and Al6Mn (Fig. 13). The bonding strength of IMC/Fe and
IMC/Al increases in the following order: Fe/FeAl2, Al/FeAl2, Fe/Fe2Al5,
Al/Fe2Al5, Fe/Al6Mn, Fe/FeAl3, Al/Al6Mn and Al/FeAl3. According to
Lee et al. [113], the reaction layer in steel/Al FSW joints consists of a
mixed layer of elongated grains and ultrafine grains.
Fig. 9. Illustration of FFSW process for Al to steel with different stages [73]: (a)
4.1.3. Tool design
initial stage of FFSW, (b) welding stage of FFSW, (c) holding stage of FFSW and
(d) retraction stage of FFSW.
Joining materials with different thermal conductivities can be a

381
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Table 4
Information regarding FSW of Al to steel.
Material type Configuration Interfacial IMC Layer Mechanical Ref.
temperature thickness properties

Al 5052 (3 mm)/mild steel (3 mm) Butt 366 ◦ C Fe2Al5 2.45 μm 195 MPa [93]
Al 5052 (2 mm)/DP590 steel (1.2 mm) Lap 313–615 ◦ C Fe2Al5, Fe4Al13 <3.5 μm 4.5 kN [94]
FeAl, Fe2Al5, Fe4Al13, Fe3Al, FeAl3Si2,
AA6061 (1 mm)/304 steel (1 mm) Lap – 2.1–4.3 μm – [95]
FeAl2Si
Al 5186 (3 mm)/St52 mild steel (3 mm) Butt 250–500 ◦ C FeAl6, Fe2Al5 0.5–3.9 μm 246 MPa [96]
Al 6061 (1.5 mm)/TRIP780/800 (1.4
Butt 250–500 C ◦
FeAl, FeAl3 0.1–0.67 μm 240 MPa [97]
mm)
Al 6061 (1.5 mm)/TRIP 780 (1.4 mm) Butt – FeAl, Fe3Al <1 μm 240 MPa [98]
8.89–26.03
Al 5052 (3 mm)/LCS (3 mm) Butt – Fe2Al5, FeAl, Fe3Al, FeAl 158 MPa [99]
μm
6061 (2 mm)/IF steel (2 mm) Butt – Fe4Al13 0.2–1.6 μm 170 MPa [100]
AA6181-T4 (1.5 mm)/DP600 (1.5 mm) Butt – Fe2Al5 0.5 μm 211 MPa [101]
5052-H32 (1.2 mm)/DP1200 (1.2 mm) Butt – Fe2Al3, FeAl2, Fe2Al5, FeAl3 4.1–9.4 μm – [102]
Al: 491 ◦ C; Steel:
6061-T6 (6 mm)/1018 mild steel (6 mm) Butt Fe4Al13, Fe2Al5 5 μm – [103]
631 ◦ C
Pure Al (2 mm)/DC01 steel (2 mm) Butt – Fe2Al5 0–23 μm – [104]
Pure Al (3 mm)/IF steel (3 mm) Butt – FeAl3 5 μm 111 MPa [105]
5083-H321 (5 mm)/316 L stainless steel
Butt – FeAl3 <10 μm – [106]
(5 mm)
Al5754 (2.1 mm)/DP600 (3 mm) Lap – Fe4Al13, Fe2Al5 1–2 μm – [45]
Al 1050 (1 mm)/LCS (1 mm) Lap 750 K Fe2Al5, Fe4Al13 1–1.5 μm – [107]
Al 5083 (3 mm)/LCS (1 mm) Lap – FeAl3, Fe2Al5 2–12 μm – [108]
Al 5052 (2 mm)/A516 steel (7 mm) Lap – Fe4Al13, FeAl, Fe2Al5 2–6 μm – [109]

Fig. 11. The IMC distribution at the Al/steel interface in different welding configurations [78]: (a) lap configuration and (b) butt configuration.

Fig. 12. Element distribution maps for Al/steel FSSWed joint [83].
difficult task. A major challenge in FSW is to reduce the formation of
IMCs. To minimize these IMC layers, tool selection often plays a crucial
role in generating heat through friction, which helps in plasticizing the
material and facilitating the intermixing of materials [114]. Designing
the appropriate FSW tool can control the temperature distribution and
improve the joint quality [115].
Heat generated during FSW is influenced by the size of FSW tool,
such as the pin and shoulder. The design of tool geometry is becoming
Fig. 13. A schematic diagram illustrating the microstructure evolution of IMCs
during FSW [112].
more and more critical in the FSW of Al/steel. The development of
frictional heat is significantly influenced by various geometric factors,
such as the diameter of the shoulder and pin, the shape of the shoulder
and pin profile, and the pin length [116]. One of the factors that affects
the heat generation is the shoulder diameter. Choosing the appropriate
tool diameter is essential for achieving a defect-free weld, particularly

382
Y. Yang et al.
when joining incompatible Al/steel alloys. Among them, a larger
shoulder diameter generates more heat, but can also lead to imperfect
welds. Therefore, it is important to select a proper shoulder diameter
carefully. Many researchers have employed shoulder diameters of 13
mm, 18 mm, and 25 mm for Al/steel dissimilar joining.
In the process of FSW, besides the shoulder parameter, the pin profile
is another important factor in determining the microstructure and
quality of joint. According to the published literatures
[72,82,83,97–101,104,107,108,112,117], the ratio of pin length to
workpiece thickness is typically maintained in a range of 30 % to 100 %,
as shown in Fig. 14. It is suggested that a pin length around 90 % of the
workpiece thickness is used for the FSW of Al/steel. Moreover, the pin
diameter employed to join dissimilar Al/steel is typically chosen to be
between 1/3 and 1/4 of the shoulder diameter.
An additional factor that affects heat generation is the pin profile
[118]. The generally used pin profiles are Taper cylindrical (TC) and
straight cylindrical (SC). It was found that the joint quality is influenced
by the pin profiles, and a threaded pin can effectively improve the level
of substance mixing [119]. The FSW tool with a TC pin profile having a
low taper angle can obtain better properties of the joint than with a high
taper angle [98]. Low pin taper angle was reported to beneficial for
reducing stirring at the steel side with better material flow across the
cross-section, making the structure almost uniform throughout the
thickness.
4.1.4. Effect of process parameter
The effects of various FSW parameters including tool rotating speed,
welding speed and tool pin geometry on the formation of IMCs, tunnel
formation and tensile strength of joints are investigated.
As the rotation speed increases, more frictional heat and plastic
deformation heat are generated at the Al/steel interface. This leads to a
rapid rise in temperature at the Al/steel interface, which influence the
composition of the formed IMC layer. The thicknesses of IMCs increase
with the increase in the tool rotating speed due to the higher heat
generated by the high rotating tool shoulder. A thicker IMC layer
thickness will decrease the joint quality. When the rotational speed is
low, FeAl is formed instead of Fe3Al [97].
In addition, temperature distribution and IMC layer composition will
Fig. 14. The ratio of pin length to workpiece thickness obtained from many studies [72,82,83,97–101,104,107,108,112,117].
383
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
also be affected by the welding speed. A higher welding speed can
shorten the duration of high temperature period and consequently
reduce the thickness of IMC layer [97]. When welding Al and steel in a
butt configuration using the FSW process, an increase in the tool welding
speed results in defects such as large steel fragments, which in turn lead
to a lower tensile strength. Furthermore, further increasing the welding
speed can cause the formation of tunnels and void defects, resulting in
the lowest tensile strength [106]. On the other hand, a low rotation
speed causes gaps with micro-voids in the pin-stir-zone of the interface,
which disappears with increasing rotation speed [107].
It is found that the high rotational and high welding speeds can result
in voids on the Al alloy surface, while low rotational and high welding
speeds will cause the weak bonding at the Al/steel interface. It is crucial
to select appropriate process parameters to obtain high-quality joints for
FSW process of Al alloys to steel.
In summary, to ensure desirable quality of Al/steel FSW joint, the
thickness of the Fe–Al IMC layer should be controlled to be below 5 μm.
When performing FSW of Al to steel, the interface temperature needs to
be set between 250 and 500 ◦ C. Optimizing the process parameters and
changing the tool shape can realize the control of interface temperature.
Although FSW is a solid-phase joining process, the formation of IMCs
cannot be completely eliminated. As for friction element welding, there
is yet only limited research work. In the future research, it is important
to focus on enhancing the stability and optimizing the process param­
eters of the friction element welding.
5. Fusion welding
5.1. Laser welding
5.1.1. Method and mechanism
The process of fusion welding known as laser welding (LW) is
depicted in Fig. 15 [120]. It provides the significant advantages with of
high energy density, fast welding speed and low heat input, which fa­
cilitates the joining of dissimilar materials [121,122].
Compared with solid-state welding methods, the LW process of Al to
steel has the advantages of low heat input, low thermal distortion,
thinner IMC layer thickness and excellent joint quality. However,
Y. Yang et al.
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of the LW process [120].
challenges persist due to the presence of welding defects and reflectivity.
During the Al/steel LW process, two different welding modes are
observed: laser deep penetration welding mode and laser beam con­
duction welding mode. When the ratio of width to depth is >1, the
conduction welding mode occurs. On the other hand, keyhole or deep
penetration welding develops when the ratio of width to depth is
significantly lower than unity.
Researchers have performed dedicated research on the joint config­
uration, joining mechanism, joint failure mode, new technology and
IMC regulation of Al/steel dissimilar materials. Laser keyhole welding is
usually performed with a lap joint [123]. In addition, the most common
problems during this welding process are spattering, element loss and
solidification cracking. To solve these problems, the reasonable selec­
tion of filler materials is critical for improving the joint properties
[124,125]. The standard procedure of Al/steel LW is as follows (Fig. 16):
1) In the first stage, the welding wire melts into droplets under the role
of laser irradiation and these droplets are deposited on the steel
surface (Fig. 16(a));
2) In the second stage, the melting process initiates at the edges of the
Al matrix metal, leading to the liquification of Zn–Al alloy, which
subsequently combines with the liquid Al-based metal. As a result, a
weld pool is formed (Fig. 16(b));
3) In the third stage, there is mutual diffusion between Fe and Al
(Fig. 16(c));
4) A supersaturated solid solution is formed in the fourth stage, which is
transferred into the IMC through a diffusion reaction (Fig. 16(d)).
Laser welding-brazing is a more effective welding method compared
with the traditional LW method [126]. This technique allows for precise
control over heat input and effectively inhibits the growth of IMCs
Fig. 16. The schematic diagram of LW process for Al to steel [120]: (a) stage I,
(b) stage II, (c) stage III, (d) stage IV.
384
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[127]. Therefore, based on its welding characteristic, the laser offset is
used to regulate the energy for the Al/steel welding [128]. Fig. 17 shows
the schematic diagram of the Al/steel laser offset welding mechanism.
When the laser beam acts on the steel surface, the steel undergoes
melting from the surface to the interface, giving rise to the formation of
metal vapor and a keyhole (Fig. 17(a)). The keyhole persistently absorbs
the laser energy, causing the temperature to increase and the Al base
metal to melt. The molten pool contains a higher quality of melted steel
compared to Al, leading to the diffusion of Al and Fe elements and
subsequently resulting in the formation of metallurgical bonding. The
diffusion of chemical elements is shown in Fig. 17(b).
5.1.2. Microstructure and properties
The microstructure and properties of Al/steel LWed joints are
significantly affected by the laser power and the welding speed.
Therefore, selecting the reasonable process parameters in LW of Al/steel
is highly critical. It was reported that the laser power can impact
diffusion behavior and interfacial microstructure [125]. When Al and
Al–Si coated steel are laser lap welded at a lower laser power, the
formation of IMC at the Al/steel interface is Fe2Al7Si (Fig. 18(a)). As the
laser power increases, the interface temperature gradually increases.
When the interfacial temperature exceeds the melting point of Fe2Al7Si,
only needle-like FeAl3 IMCs form at the interface (Fig. 18(b)). With the
further diffusion of Fe atom, the Fe2Al5 phase began to form (Fig. 18(c)).
The Fe2Al5 and FexZnx IMCs are formed at the interface when the laser
power is high (Fig. 18(d)).
Studies on the effects of rotating lasers on the microstructure evo­
lution and properties of joints have been carried out [129]. The findings
indicated that the rotating laser welding-brazing of aluminium to steel
can obtain higher joint strength than conventional laser welding-
brazing, which is mainly due to the low energy density of the rotating
laser welded-brazed joint, resulting in a thinner IMC layer thickness and
improved joint quality.
Regarding the heat input factor, Jin et al. [120] investigated that the
types of IMCs remained unchanged under different laser powers, as
shown in Fig. 19. In case of laser power of 1500 W, Fe2Al5-xZnx and
FeZn10 was identified as reaction layer. Research indicates that the key
factors such as laser offset distance, laser power and welding speed can
improve the Al/steel butt joint strength [128]. The results indicate that
the joint strength initially increases and then decreases as the laser
power, welding speed and defocusing distance are altered, as shown in
Fig. 20.
The strength of the LWed joint is related to the interfacial micro­
structure, there is the relationship between microstructure and failure
mode of joints [130,131]. For LW of Al/steel using a dual-beam fiber
laser, when the weld penetration of steel/Al joint is relatively low, IMCs
consisting of Fe4Al13, Fe2Al5 and FeAl2 are observed at the welding
interface. When for LW of Al/steel using the Al–Zn filler, the main
composition of the IMCs was found to be Fe2Al5 [131]. The failure
modes of LW joints between Al and steel can be classified into two types
[132]. The first failure mode is a cleavage brittle fracture which occurs
at the steel/Al interface with relatively low tensile shear force. The
second failure mode is a mixed fracture located in the Al alloy fracture.
The welded joint quality is affected by the joint type and homoge­
neity of the IMC layer [133,134]. For Al/steel T-joint made of LW pro­
cess [135], the joint has a mechanical inter-locking effect (Fig. 21). Chen
et al. [134] reported a novel method of improving the weld shape and
interfacial reaction inhomogeneity of ER5356 welding wire in Al/steel
butt joints. The distribution of IMC layer obtained by this method is
uniformly, which greatly improves the joint strength.
Changing the composition of IMC have become an effective way to
weld dissimilar materials [135,136]. Adding other alloy elements be­
tween the two materials being welded can inhibit the formation of IMCs.
For example, high entropy alloys (HEAs) commonly used as filler ma­
terials were conducted to weld Al and steel [137]. Due to the application
of HEA coating, the fracture modes of LW joints changed from brittle to
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 17. A schematic diagram of the laser offset welding mechanism for Al/steel [128]: (a) laser irradiation and (b) element diffusions.

Fig. 18. The diffusion behavior and microstructure evolution of steel/Al interface under the different laser powers [125]: (a) 1500 W; (b) 1700 W; (c) 1900 W and
(d) 2100 W.

Fig. 19. Interfacial microstructure of the laser Al/steel joints in the laser power range of 1500–1900 W [120]: (a) 1500 W, (b) 1700 W and (c) 1900 W.

385
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 20. Effects of process parameters on the tensile strength of Al/steel joints [128]: (a) laser power, (b) welding speed and (c) defocusing distance.

Fig. 21. A schematic diagram of the mechanical inter-locking effect [135].

ductile failure, with fracture propagating along the interface. In addi­

tion, interlayers of Cu, V and Ni/Cu are also used for welding aluminium
to steel [138,139]. Among, Cu and V as interlayers for Al/steel LW could
improve the joint toughness.

5.1.3. Other laser related joining technologies

Laser-arc hybrid welding (LAHW) technology exhibits good welding
ability and deep penetration capability, so it has been widely applied in
many welding fields [140,141]. However, similar to single deep pene­
tration LW, the keyholes are in a fluctuating state, and the keyholes
collapse periodically, which results in the formation of bubbles, and
finally produces porosity defects in the welded joint. An external mag­
netic field has also been performed to suppress the porosity in single
laser welding [142,143].
At present, researchers have shown great interest in magnetically
assisted laser beam welding. Fig. 22 is a schematic diagram of Al alloy
laser-MIG hybrid welding under an external magnetic field [144].
The magnetic field brings many benefits for the LW [144–147].
Fig. 22. A schematic diagram of laser-metal inert gas (MIG) hybrid welding
under external magnetic field [144].
(1) In the molten pool, Lorentz force is generated, which acts in the
opposite direction of the melt flow. Thereby, reducing the prob­
ability of keyhole collapse and inhibiting the pore formation.
(2) Fe–Al compounds were diffusely distributed at the interface due
to the magnetic field driven effect on liquid metal.
(3) Regulate the microstructure and composition of the weld zone,
resulting in improved the joint quality.
In summary, the strength of dissimilar Al/steel joints obtained by the
laser-based welding method is listed in Table 5. It is crucial to highlight
that the thickness of the IMCs formed should be controlled below 10.3
μm, otherwise the strength of the joint will be reduced. When Zn–Al
filler wire was used for LW of Al and steel, the interface temperature

386
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Table 5
Recent research of properties of steel/Al laser-based welded joints.
Material type Filler wire Interfacial temperature IMC Layer thickness Mechanical properties Ref.

5052 Al (2 mm)/22MnB5 (1.8 mm) Zn-22Al 703.9–835.7 C ◦

Fe2Al7Si 6.9 μm 59.3 MPa [125]
5052 Al (2 mm)/22MnB5 (1.8 mm) Zn-22Al 901.1–1080.5 ◦ C Fe2Al5-xZnx 8.2 μm 85.0 MPa [125]
5052 Al (2 mm)/22MnB5 (1.8 mm) Zn-22Al 1052.4–1272.0 ◦ C Fe2Al5-xZnx, FeZn10 10.3 μm 135.0 MPa [125]
5052 Al (2 mm)/22MnB5 (1.8 mm) Zn-22Al 1144.2–1424.6 ◦ C Fe2Al5-xZnx, FeZn10 10.6 μm 85.2 MPa [125]
5052 Al (2 mm)/Q235 (2 mm) ER5356 – Fe4Al13, Fe2Al5 3–5 μm 83.4 MPa [125]
5052 Al (2 mm)/Q235 (2 mm)/ Sn-30Zn – Fe2Al5 8.2 μm 78.0 MPa [148]
6061 Al (2 mm)/304 (2 mm) ER4043 – FeAl3, Fe2Al5 3.7 μm 86.0 MPa [149]
6013 Al (2.5 mm)/Q235 (2.5 mm) ER4043 – FeAl3, Fe2Al5 1.8 μm 120.0 MPa [150]
5251 Al (1 mm)/TG-1 (1 mm) AlSi12 – Fe4Al13, FeAl3Si 2.5–5.5 μm 128.3 MPa [151]
6061 Al (2 mm)/DP590 (2 mm) AlSi12 730–1110 ◦ C Fe(Al, Si)3, Fe1.8Al7.2Si 2–10.2 μm 117.9 MPa [152]
6061 Al (2 mm)/DP590 (2 mm) AlSi12 834–1108 ◦ C Fe(Al, Si)3, Fe1.8Al7.2Si 1.2–10.1 μm 129.4 MPa [152]
6061 Al (2 mm)/DP590 (2 mm) AlSi12 860–1032 ◦ C Fe(Al, Si)3, Fe1.8Al7.2Si 1.1–8.6 μm 145.8 MPa [152]

should be controlled at 1052–1270 ◦ C; when Al–Si filler wire was used
for LW of Al and steel, the interface temperature should be controlled at
860–1032 ◦ C. The approach of interface temperature control can be
realized by changing the laser power and joint type.
At present, one key issue encountered during LW of Al to steel is the
lack of specific filler materials suitable for this dissimilar combination.
Therefore, future research should focus on designing the proper filler
material that can effectively weld Al alloys to steel using the LW process.
5.2. Resistance spot welding
5.2.1. Method and mechanism
RSW is an efficient fusion welding process with the advantages of
low-cost, reliability and high automation in the automotive industry
[153–157]. The technology is regularly used to fabricate joints in the
manufacture of automobile body. Fig. 23 is the schematic diagram of the
RSW process [158]. RSW of Al/steel dissimilar materials presents the
following challenges [159–163]:
significantly greater than that of steel due to the lower strength of
Al alloy.
5.2.2. Direct RSW
To improve cost-effectiveness, RSW of Al to steel is gaining
increasing attention. In direct Al/steel RSW, the formation of hard and
brittle IMCs is the key issue. To inhibit the excessive growth of IMC
layers and improve the Al/steel RSWed joints strength, several methods
are used to overcome these issues [164–169]. These methods include
using different electrode combinations, designing electrode
morphology, adding intermediate layers or local bumps and using multi-
ring dome (MRD) electrodes.
Based on the open published literatures [165,166], four electrode
combinations (sphere-planar (S–P), planar-planar (P–P), planar-
sphere (P–S), sphere-sphere (S–P)) in RSW of Al/steel have been
investigated, as shown in Fig. 24. The experimental results indicated
that the RSWed joint obtained by using the S–P electrode combination

(1) The melting points of Al alloy and steel exhibit significant dif­
ferences. In RSW of Al/steel, when the Al alloy melts, the steel
remains in the solid phase;
(2) The Fe–Al IMC is easily formed at the welding interface;
(3) The surface of Al alloys has a dense Al2O3 oxide film, resulting in
high contact resistance at the steel/Al and the Al/electrode in­
terfaces. This can result in the formation of welding defects and
have a detrimental effect on the joint strength;
(4) In Al/steel RSW, high heat input can cause molten Al adhere to
the electrode and form the Al2Cu phase, leading to severe elec­
trode degradation and increasing the production cost;
(5) The Al alloy exhibits a significant degree of thinning. When
subjected to electrode force, the Al alloy deformation is

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the RSW process [158]. Fig. 24. Appearance and mechanical properties of Al/steel RSWed joints [166].

387
Y. Yang et al.
Fig. 25. Macro-morphology of interlocking electrodes [167].
had the best properties.
An interlocking electrode is often used for RSW of Al/steel to sup­
press the formation and growth of Fe–Al IMCs [167]. The electrode
consists of a punch and a die copper. The macroscopic topography of the
interlocking electrodes is shown in Fig. 25. The RSW process used
interlocking electrode combines the advantages of RSW and riveting to
form a fusion joint and mechanical interlocking joining.
Using an interlayer or a local bump in the dissimilar RSW can avoid
the excessive formation of IMC [164,168]. Adding third-party materials
to the welding interface can be roughly divided into two categories: (1)
the interlayer as third-party material is added between Al and steel
(Fig. 26(a)); (2) a local bump printed as a third-party material at the Al/
steel interface (Fig. 26(b)). These two categories will be discussed
separately in the following sections.
Compared with the traditional Al/steel RSW method, RSW with a
local bump can obtain a larger nugget diameter, a thinner IMC layer
thickness and reduce base metal thinning. Moreover, using a local bump
in RSW of Al/steel could significantly reduce defects.
The multi-ring dome (MRD) electrode demonstrates some novel
advantages in RSW of Al/steel [169]: (a) the ability to penetrate the
surface oxide layers at the electrode/workpiece interface, (b) robustness
with localizing weld defects as it is coupled with multiple solidification
weld schedule and (c) simplified production processes with re-dressing
of the welding face quickly during welding operations.
Oxide film usually leads to unstable properties during the RSW
process. Thus, serious electrode wear is another important problem for
Al/steel dissimilar joints. Hu et al. [161] observed the crack propagation
in Al/steel RSWed joints due to the presence of an oxide film especially
between oxidized 5754 Al alloy and low alloy steel. Joint bearing ca­
pacity is reduced when an oxide film is present, as shown in Fig. 27.
Since oxide film is present in Al alloys, it is easy to cause rapid
electrode tip wear during the RSW process. Many studies have shown
that the process strip can improve the quality of spot welding, save
energy and improve electrode life. Che et al. [170] carried out this
material combination by adding process taps. They indicated that the
addition of process taps was found to avoid problems such as electrode
adhesion, severe expulsion and deep indentation.
The RSW process of Al/steel with the different process taps is pre­
sented in Fig. 28. Compared with the traditional RSW without process
tape, more resistance heat at the contact interface will be generated
using the process tape (Fig. 28(a)–(c)). This is because the increased heat
generation is attributed to the addition of body resistance and contact
Fig. 26. Configuration of Al/steel with different third-party materials [168]:
(a) interlayer and (b) bump.
388
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
resistance. In addition, when Al alloy and steel are subjected to RSW, in
order to improve welding quality, save energy, and improve efficiency,
austenitic stainless steel process strips should be placed on the Al side,
and carbon steel process taps should be placed on the steel side (Fig. 28
(d)).
One of the effective methods limiting the dense oxide film formed on
the Al alloy surface is to change the electrode shape. Hu et al. [171]
developed a pre-cleaning and welding process and designed unique
electrodes with various surface shapes. The result indicated that the
newly designed multi-step electrode could inhibit the formation of oxide
film, which results in an increase in energy absorption of joints.
Furthermore, in addition to oxide film defects, non-process factors such
as gaps, angles and current changes can also affect the microstructure
and strength of the Al/steel RSWed joint. Fig. 29 shows the influence of
different gaps and electrode angles on the size of the nugget. The pres­
ence of a gap in the workpiece leads to an increase in the contact area
between the electrode and workpiece (Fig. 29(a)), while simultaneously
decreasing the contact area between workpieces. When there is a certain
angle between the plate and the electrode, the deformation degree of the
plate on both sides of the Al nugget is different. The left side of the
nugget has a greater degree of warpage compared with the right side, as
shown in Fig. 29(b). This is mainly due to the angle difference between
the plate and the electrode, which leads to the asymmetric distribution
of the current.
Transverse tensile test is widely used to determine the properties and
failure mode of Al/steel joint [172]. Three types of fracture failure
modes commonly occur during the transverse tensile test of Al/steel
RSWed joints, i.e., interface fracture, fracture along the thickness di­
rection of the Al nugget and partial pulling fracture [173]. Fig. 30 shows
the fracture behavior of the Al/steel joint in the transverse tensile test.
Three stages can be distinguished in the propagation cracks. In the initial
stage, the crack propagates to the Al nugget region contained the defects
(Fig. 30(a)). After surpassing this region with defects, the crack sepa­
rates in two directions. Due to the weak tensile bearing capacity of
columnar grains, the main cracks propagate rapidly along the columnar
grain boundaries. However, smaller cracks extend horizontally to the
columnar grains. These cracks are hindered from further lateral growth
due to the effect of lateral resistance. When the main crack propagates to
the partially fused zone, which consists of equiaxed grains, it eventually
reaches the surface of the Al sheet, resulting in the cracking of the
button. During the tearing stage, the crack propagates in the circum­
ferential direction on both sides of the nugget (Fig. 30(b)). The crack
expands and the bearing area decreases, resulting in an increased tensile
stress on the joining interface. In the breaking stage, the high tensile
stress causes the destruction of IMC layer, resulting in the breakage of a
part of the Al/steel interface (Fig. 30(c)). The breakage rapidly expands
until the entire weld fractures.
Besides the microstructure characteristic of Fe–Al IMCs, more and
more studies have been studying the IMC layers on the microscale [174].
The fracture behavior of the Fe2Al5 layer based on finite element
simulation method and combined with the actual thickness of the Fe2Al5
layer was studied. It can clearly observe the crack propagation behavior
of IMCs when are subjected to tensile shear load.
As mentioned above, the direct welding of steel to Al tends to result
in the formation of IMCs, which can negatively impact the joint strength.
To enhance the Al/steel dissimilar joints strength, it is crucial to control
the interfacial temperature and thickness of the IMC layer [175]. To
control the interface temperature in RSW, it is important to understand
the temperature distribution characteristic at the welding interface. A
thermal-electrical-structure Al/steel RSW model was established and the
temperature field was simulated [176]. The thickness distribution of the
IMC layer at the Al/steel interface was investigated under various
welding currents [176,177]. The study revealed that the reaction layer
was thicker at the center of the interface and gradually decreased in
thickness as the distance from the center increased. Furthermore, the
reactive layer thickness and the width of the discontinuous reactive
Y. Yang et al.
Fig. 27. The fracture mechanism of the oxide film on the Al/steel RSWed joint [161]: (a) RSWed joint for oxidized Al alloy and steel and (b) RSWed joint for
unoxidized Al alloy and steel.
Fig. 28. The Al/steel RSW process with different process tapes [170]: (a)
without process tape, (b) stainless steel process tape, (c) carbon steel process
tape and (d) stainless steel process tape on Al side and carbon steel process tape
on steel side.
layer were observed to vary with the welding current.
For dissimilar RSW of Al/steel, the interfacial temperature of Al/steel
RSW joints ranges from room temperature to over 1000 ◦ C, the tem­
perature history is different at each interface location, leads to the dif­
ference in IMC thickness, morphology, and even composition. Chen et al.
[171] conducted a dissimilar RSW simulation to obtain the temperature
distribution at the Al/steel interface. The simulation results from tem­
perature history curve indicate that the temperature at the center of the
interface is as high as 950 ◦ C. The growth of Fe2Al5 IMC exhibited a
higher rate in the initial stage (650–900 ◦ C), followed by a slight ac­
celeration in the middle stage (900–965 ◦ C), and a sharp deceleration
from 900 ◦ C to 650 ◦ C in the final stage. By distinguishing these three
stages, it can be observed that the temperature in the middle stage,
characterized by a rapid growth rate, reaches approximately 900 ◦ C,
which holds great significance in controlling the growth of IMCs.
Similarly, Zhou et al. [166] discovered a similar relationship between
389
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
Fig. 29. Effect of different gaps and angles on the nugget size of Al/steel
RSWed joints [171]: (a) different gap and (b) different angle.
interfacial temperature and growth of IMCs. It is found that the thickness
of the Fe2Al5 layer can be effectively controlled using a planar electrode
as the bottom electrode in contact with the galvanized steel. Tempera­
ture variation of the interfaces center and growth processes of Fe2Al5
layer thickness under different electrode combinations is shown in
Fig. 31. It can be found that the four electrode combinations corre­
sponding to the thickness of the Fe2Al5 layer are arranged in the
following order from low to high: planar/planar type, sphere/planar
type, planar/sphere type and sphere/sphere type.
Future control of IMC growth in RSW of Al/steel should be achieved
through process parameters and electrode type optimization in the
second stage of the RSW process.
Table 6 lists some results of studies on the thickness of IMC layer and
properties of Al/steel RSWed joints. As listed in Table 6, direct RSW of Al
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 30. Coach peel crack propagation path and specific stages of fracture during transverse tensile testing [173]: (a) initial stage, (b) tearing stage and (c)
breaking stage.

Fig. 31. Temperature variation of the interfaces center and growth processes of Fe2Al5 layer thickness under different electrode combinations [166].

Table 6
The thickness of IMC layer and properties of steel/Al RSWed joints
[161,165–167,177].
Material type IMC Layer Mechanical Ref.
thickness properties

Al 5754 (1 mm) and LCS Fe4Al13,

1–7 μm 325 N [161]
(2 mm) Fe2Al5
Al 6061 (2 mm) and FeAl3,
0.3–1.8 μm 5860 N [165]
Q235 steel (1 mm) Fe2Al5
Al 6008 (1.5 mm) and
Fe4Al13,
galvanized steel (1 4 μm 5400 N [166]
Fe2Al5
mm)
Al 5083 (1 mm) and FeAl3,
0.8–4.4 μm 4579 N [167]
mild steel (1 mm) Fe2Al5
Al 5052 (1.0 mm) and FeAl3,
1.2–6.8 μm – [177]
mild steel (1.0 mm) Fe2Al5
Fig. 32. The RSW process of Al/steel with cover plate [160].

390
Y. Yang et al.
and steel can easily form brittle Fe4Al13 and Fe2Al5 IMCs, resulting in the
poor quality of joints.
5.2.3. RSW with cover plate
In RSW, heat is generated from the joule's effect of the resistance and
electrical current flowing through the sheets held together by the elec­
trode force. Hence, high welding current is required for the RSW of Al/
steel. Using high welding current could cause the reduction of electrode
life and require a larger capacity RSW machine. To control the heat
generation and heat dissipation, the RSW process with cover plate was
performed. The materials of cover plate used to weld Al/steel can be
divided into three types based on the material characteristics [162,178]:
(1) steels with high resistance, such as SPCC, 304;
(2) graphite material.
To ensure heat is conducted from the cover plate to the Al alloy sheet,
the cover plate which located on the Al alloy sheet has to have a rela­
tively lower electrical conductivity than the Al alloy sheet, as shown in
Fig. 32. Graphite with high-resistivity may can be inserted as the
auxiliary electrode. Temperature change during the welding process is
related to joule heat generated by graphite, Al alloy and steel with
different electrical resistivities. Among them, a large part of heat was
generated by graphite.
In summary, RSW with the use of the cover plate makes it possible to
conduct the Al/steel dissimilar welding with the welding current as low
as that for the RSW of steel.
5.2.4. RSW with added interlayer or coating
To suppress the formation of IMCs, two different approaches can be
employed [179]: reducing heat input or changing the chemical
composition. The chemical composition at the interface can be changed
using an interlayer or changing the composition of the coating.
Adding an interlayer helps in inhibiting the formation and growth of
brittle Fe–Al IMCs [180]. Several interlayer materials including Si,
graphene, HEAs, and Zn etc. have been used during RSW to inhibit the
IMCs. For instance, the addition of Si can reduce the brittleness of the
joint due to the formation of the Fe-Al-Si phase [181]. Das et al. [182]
attested to the addition of graphene nanosheets between 1008 steel and
1100 Al alloy resulting in enhanced strength of the joint. They observed
grain refinement in the nugget area and found a mechanical self-locking
effect and dislocation accumulation, as shown in Fig. 33.
A number of other approaches are proposed by the researchers as a
means of reducing the formation of IMCs [183]. The ultrasonic resis­
tance spot welding (URW) process is developed for reducing the
Fig. 33. Strengthening mechanisms of graphene nanoplatelets on Al/steel spot
welded joints [182]: (a) dislocation pill-up and (b) graphene nanoplatelets/Al
alloy interface.
391
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
formation of IMCs [184]. The Al layer was first welded to the steel plate
using ultrasonic welding. Subsequently, the RSW method was employed
to weld the same Al/Al metal. A schematic diagram of the URW process
is presented in Fig. 34. The thickness of the IMC layer of Al/steel joint
obtained by the ultrasonic process is smaller than that obtained by the
traditional RSW process. Winnickl et al. [179] used cold spraying
technology to apply interlayers of Al, nickel and nickel-Al layers with
varying thicknesses on the surface of steel to realize the transition from
joining dissimilar materials to joining the same materials. Using various
interlayer materials, it was found that the joint obtained with the Ni +
Al2O3 interlayer exhibited the highest joint strength compared with
those joints obtained with the Al + Al2O3 interlayer and the Al + Ni +
Al2O3 interlayer. Table 7 summaries the mechanical properties of Al/
steel RSWed joints with different interlayers. In order to minimize IMC
layers, Zn is usually used as the interlayer. In addition, two or other
metals can be used together as the interlayer. The composition and
thickness of interlayer has significant effect on the properties of joints, as
listed in Table 7.
Adding the interlayer is beneficial to improving the Al/steel RSWed
joints quality. Compared with the zinc-free interlayer, the addition of Zn
layer to the Al/steel RSW joint results in a maximum tensile shear load
[55]. In addition to some third-party materials, some materials with
similar compositions to Al alloys are also often used as IMC layers, such
as AlSi12 [186], Al–Mg alloy [189].
The bimetallic transition material is mainly used for joining
aluminium to steel, and therefore, some coating steel sheet is the most
widely used bimetal transition material in RSW. It is reported that Zn
coating, Zn–Ni, Zn-Ni-Cr and so on can be used as the interlayers in
dissimilar metals welding [188,193].
5.2.5. RSW with external energy field
External energy fields including electromagnetic fields, lasers, and
ultrasonic waves have a significant effect on RSW process [194–196].
Magnetic field assisted-RSW (MA-RSW) has been used to join steel and
Al. However, there are few studies on MaRSW of Al/steel dissimilar
materials. Hu et al. [197] introduced electromagnetic force into Al/steel
RSW, resulting in the elimination of holes and oxide film defects and
reduction in the thickness of the IMC layer. Moreover, the Fe2Al5 layer
thickness was decreased by applying a magnetic field. The phase dis­
tribution diagram of the IMC is presented in Fig. 35.
Compared with conventional riveting, although the usage of a spe­
cial energy field increases the cost, but superior joint strength can be
obtained [198]. Ultrasonic vibration has the potential to significantly
reduce the forming force of materials and enhance fluidity. Additionally,
it can reduce the friction between the workpiece and the mold, result in
improving the joint quality. Furthermore, the RSW with an ultrasonic
field has already been applied for the welding of Al alloy and steel
[199,200]. Compared with traditional RSW, the URW joints exhibited a
thinner Fe–Al IMC layer and a higher joint strength. Fig. 36 is a sche­
matic diagram of the URW. Compared with conventional RSW joints, the
strength of URW joints is increased by 300 % and the elongation rate is
increased by 150 % when subjected to ultrasonic vibration. The
microstructure shows that ultrasonic waves can promote the bonding of
the Al/Fe interface, leading to an increased bonding area and preventing
cracks that are commonly observed in traditional RSW. Furthermore, the
ultrasonic waves promote the decomposition of surface oxides and
pollutants, resulting in alterations in interface contact resistance and
heat generation. Furthermore, ultrasonic vibration can also improve the
wetting ability of molten Al on the steel interface and change the flow
characteristics within the molten pool.
With the development of hybrid technology, resistance element
welding and resistance rivet welding can be used for welding Al alloys
Y. Yang et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397

Fig. 34. Schematic diagram of the URW process [184].

Table 7
Mechanical properties of Al/steel RSWed joints with different interlayers
[55,183,185–192].
Material type Interlayer or Interlayer or Shear Ref.
coating coating thickness/ force/N
μm
Al 6061 (3 mm)/St- HEA 400, 500, 700 5200 [183]
12 steel (1 mm)
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Al + Al2O3 250 1080 [185]
DC01 steel (1 Fig. 35. Phase distribution of IMCs in Al/steel spot welded joints under
mm) different processes [197]: (a) RSW and (b) MA-RSW.
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Al + Al2O3 500 625 [185]
DC01 steel (1
mm)
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Al + Ni + 250 2400 [185]
DC01 steel (1 Al2O3
mm)
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Al + Ni + 500 2500 [185]
DC01 steel (1 Al2O3
mm)
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Ni + Al2O3 250 3060 [185]
DC01 steel (1
mm)
Al 5754 (1 mm)/ Ni + Al2O3 500 2850 [185]
DC01 steel (1
mm)
Al 5052 (1.5 mm)/ Zn 50 7060 [55]
DP600 steel (1.2
mm)
Al 6022 (2 mm)/ 304/430 250 7000 [186]
boron steel (1.6 stainless steel
mm)
Al 6008 (1.5 mm)/ 4047 AlSi12 300 6200 [187]
H220YD steel (1
mm)
Al X626 (0.8 mm)/ Zn 8 2800 [188]
LCS (0.9 mm)
Al X626 (0.8 mm)/ Zn-Ni 12 2400 [188]
LCS (0.9 mm)
Al X626 (0.8 mm)/ Zn-Ni-Cr 10 1800 [189]
LCS (0.9 mm)
Al 6061 (2 mm)/ Al-Mg 80 8400 [189]
304 steel (2 mm)
Al 5052 (2 mm)/St- Zn 10 6500 [190]
12 steel (1 mm)
Al 6061 (1 mm)/ AlCu28 30 2900 [191]
Q235 steel (1
mm)
Al 6xxx (1 mm)/ Al-Zn coating 25 900 [192]
steel (1 mm)

and steel. Further research should focus on optimizing process param­

eters, designing rivet geometry and conducting FEM for a comprehen­ Fig. 36. Schematic diagram of the URW process [200].
sive understanding.

392
Y. Yang et al.
6. Conclusion and outlook
Dissimilar welding of Al alloys to steel is a crucial issue due to the
increasing demand for light weight vehicles. Dissimilar welding of Al/
steel poses a significant challenge because of the existence of IMCs at the
interface. Based on the summary and review of the dissimilar welding of
Al alloys and steel, the following conclusions and future trends are
summarized as follows:
(1) IMCs formed at the Al/steel welded interface is unavoidable.
Optimization process parameters, the use of optimized FSW tool,
selection of filler material and joint type, addition the interlayers,
the RSW with cover plate and application of external energy
fields can effectively control the thickness of IMC layer and
improve the mechanical properties of Al/steel welded joints.
(2) Controlling the temperature of Al/steel interface is an innovative
to inhibit the overgrowth of IMC layer. For FSW of Al to steel, the
interface temperature should be controlled at 250–500 ◦ C. For
LW of Al and steel, when using Zn–Al filler, the interface tem­
perature should be controlled at 1052–1270 ◦ C; when using
Al–Si filler wire, the interface temperature should be controlled
at 860–1032 ◦ C. For RSW of Al and steel, the middle stage of the
RSW process should be controlled, which is the fastest growth
stage of Fe2Al5 IMC.
(3) The use of interlayers such as HEAs, Cu, V and Ni/Cu interlayers
are found to suppress the formation of the Fe–Al IMCs and
improve the quality of LWed joint. The employment of Zn, HEA,
AlSi12, Al–Mg, AlCu28, Al and Al2O3, Ni + Al2O3 are also found
to restrict the formation of Fe–Al IMCs during the RSW of dis­
similar materials.
(4) The development of hybrid welding methods involves combining
multiple joining techniques to reduce the weaknesses of indi­
vidual techniques and enhance the performance of hybrid joints.
New hybrid welding technologies such as resistance element
welding, resistance riveting welding, friction stir riveting and
laser riveting need to be further investigated the process char­
acteristics. The design of rivets, electrode selection, process pa­
rameters and temperature distribution are worth being explored
by experimental tests and FEM.
(5) The growth of the IMC layer of Al/steel joints is related to the
interface temperature. Reducing the thickness of the IMC layer is
beneficial to improving the mechanical properties of the joint.
However, there has been a lack of systematic investigation into
the precise temperature control at the Al/steel interface. A FEM
will be developed for predicting the temperature distribution,
which will be valuable for optimizing of the process parameters.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 52075378).
References
[1] Taub A, Moor ED, Luo A, Matlock DK, Speer JG, Vaidya U. Materials for
automotive lightweighting. Annu Rev Mater Res 2019;49:327–59. https://doi.
org/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070218-010134.
[2] Han S, Guang X, Li Z, Li Y. Joining processes of CFRP-Al sheets in automobile
lightweighting technologies: a review. Polym Compos 2022;43:8622–33. https://
doi.org/10.1002/pc.27088.
393
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[3] Akhshik M, Panthapulakkal S, Tjong J, Sain M. The effect of lightweighting on
greenhouse gas emissions and life cycle energy for automotive composite parts.
Clean Techn Environ Policy 2019;21:625–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-
018-01662-0.
[4] Zhang W, Xu J. Advanced lightweight materials for automobiles: a review. Mater
Des 2022;221:110994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110994.
[5] Zang M, Hu Y, Zhang J, Ye W, Zhao M. Crashworthiness of CFRP/aluminum alloy
hybrid tubes under quasi-static axial crushing. J Mater Res Technol 2020;9:
7740–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.05.046.
[6] Zhang Z, Cui Y, Chen Q. Damage and failure characterization of 7075 aluminum
alloy hot stamping. J Mech Sci Technol 2022;36:351–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12206-021-1234-4.
[7] Liu Y, Yu D, Zhang Y, Zhou J, Sun D, Li H. Research advances on weldability of
Mg alloy and other metals worldwide in recent 20 years. J Mater Res Technol
2023;25:3458–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.184.
[8] Ma M, Li K, Si Y, Cao P, Lu H, Guo A, et al. Hydrogen embrittlement of advanced
high-strength steel for automobile application: A review. Acta Metall Sin 2023;
36:1144–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40195-022-01517-0.
[9] Zhao Y, Zhang Y, Hu W. Effect of welding speed on microstructure, hardness and
tensile properties in laser welding of advanced high strength steel. Sci Technol
Weld Join 2013;18:581–90. https://doi.org/10.1179/
1362171813y.0000000140.
[10] Liu Z, Li Y, Liu Z, Yang Y, Li Y, Luo Z. Ultrasonic welding of metal to fiber-
reinforced thermoplastic composites: a review. J Manuf Process 2023;85:702–12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.12.001.
[11] Li Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Yang Y, Ao S, Luo Z. Investigation of ultrasonic welding of CF/
PA66 using stainless steel mesh energy directors. Thin-Walled Struct 2023;188:
110795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.110795.
[12] Yang Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Li Y, Ao S, Luo Z. Ultrasonic welding of short carbon fiber
reinforced PEEK with spherical surface anvils. Compos Part B 2022;231:109599.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109599.
[13] Wang X, Sun W, Chen J, Wang F, Li L, Cui J. Microstructures and properties of
6016 aluminum alloy with gradient composition. Rare Metals 2021;40:2154–9.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-020-01515-0.
[14] Dong W, Pan H, Sun Y, Zhou J, Lei M, Ding K, et al. The sandwich-structured
advanced high strength steel to resist the liquid metal embrittlement. J Mater Res
Technol 2023;25:3167–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.161.
[15] Dong W, Pan H, Lei M, Wang S, Ding K, Gao Y. Three-dimension characterization
of the liquid metal embrittlement crack in the resistance spot welded joint of the
advanced high strength steel. Mater Today Commun 2023;34:105322. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.105322.
[16] Aydin H, Essadiqi E, Jung IH, Yue S. Development of 3rd generation AHSS with
medium Mn content alloying compositions. Mater Sci Eng A 2013;564:501–8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.11.113.
[17] Zhan H, Zeng G, Wang Q, Wang C, Wang P, Wang Z, et al. Unified casting
(UniCast) aluminum alloy—a sustainable and low-carbon materials solution for
vehicle lightweighting. J Mater Sci Technol 2023;154:251–68. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmst.2023.02.003.
[18] Shan H, Ma Y, Yang B, Feng Q, Li Y, Lin Z. Elucidation of interface joining
mechanism of aluminum alloy/dual-phase steel friction stir riveting (FSR) joint.
J Mater Res Technol 2023;25:6792–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmrt.2023.07.146.
[19] Wang T, Sidhar H, Mishra RS, Hovanski Y, Upadhyay P, Carlson B. Evaluation of
intermetallic compound layer at aluminum/steel interface joined by friction stir
scribe technology. Mater Des 2019;174:107795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2019.107795.
[20] Reza-E-Rabby M, Ross K, Overman NR, Olszta MJ, McDonnell M, Whalen SA.
Joining thick section aluminum to steel with suppressed FeAl intermetallic
formation via friction stir dovetailing. Scr Mater 2018;148:63–7. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scriptamat.2018.01.026.
[21] Matusuda T, Hayashi K, Iwamoto C, Nozawa T, Ohata M, Hirose A. Crack
initiation and propagation behavior of dissimilar interface with intermetallic
compound layer in Al/steel joint using coupled multiscale mechanical testing.
Mater Des 2023;235:112420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112420.
[22] Liu D, Li B, Ao W, Ni C, Wang X. Evaluation of dissimilar metal joining of Al/steel
by in-situ formation of a copper barrier interlayer. Mater Lett 2024;355:135466.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2023.135466.
[23] Yang J, Oliveira JP, Li Y, Tan C, Gao C, Zhao Y, et al. Laser techniques for
dissimilar joining of aluminum alloys to steels: A critical review. J Mater Process
Technol 2022;301:117443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117443.
[24] Wang P, Chen X, Pan Q, Madigan B, Long J. Laser welding dissimilar materials of
aluminum to steel: an overview. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2016;87:3081–90.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-8725-y.
[25] Singh J, Arora KS, Shukla DK. Dissimilar MIG-CMT weld-brazing of aluminium to
steel: a review. J Alloys Compd 2019;783:753–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2018.12.336.
[26] Agudo L, Eyidi D, Schmaranzer CH, Arenholz E, Jank N, Bruckner J, et al.
Intermetallic FexAly-phases in a steel/Al-alloy fusion weld. J Mater Sci 2007;42:
4205–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0644-0.
[27] Liu T, Gao S, Ye W, Shi L, Kumar S, et al. Achievement of high-quality joints and
regulation of intermetallic compounds in ultrasonic vibration enhanced friction
stir lap welding of aluminum/steel. J Mater Res Technol 2023;25:5096–109.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.251.
[28] Zhang D, Wen K, Song H, Zhang G, Xu H, Xia J, et al. Effect of high entropy alloy
as the interlayer on the interfacial microstructure and mechanical property of Al/
Y. Yang et al.
steel bimetal by compound casting. J Mater Res Technol 2023;25:1709–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.046.
[29] Pan B, Sun H, Shang S, Banu M, Wang P, Carlson BE, et al. Understanding
formation mechanisms of intermetallic compounds in dissimilar Al/steel joint
processed by resistance spot welding. J Manuf Process 2022;83:212–22. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.08.062.
[30] Yan F, Fang X, Chen L, Wang C, Zhao J, Chai F, et al. Microstructure evolution
and phase transition at the interface of steel/Al dissimilar alloys during Nd: YAG
laser welding. Opt Laser Technol 2018;108:193–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
optlastec.2018.06.039.
[31] Xu P, Hua X, Shen C, Huang Y, Li F, Zhang Y. Dynamic growth model of Fe2Al5
during dissimilar joining of Al to steel using the variable polarity cold metal
transfer (VP-CMT). J Mater Process Technol 2022;302:117477. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117477.
[32] Bouayad A, Gerometta C, Belkebir A, Ambari A. Kinetic interactions between
solid iron and molten aluminium. Mater Sci Eng A 2003;363:53–61. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00469-6.
[33] Yin F, Zhao M, Liu Y, Han W, Li Z. Kinetic interactions between solid iron and
molten aluminium. Trans Nonferrous Metals Soc China 2013;23:556–61. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(13)62499-1.
[34] Sen M, Puri AB. Formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) in FSW of
aluminum and magnesium alloys (Al/Mg alloys)–a review. Mater Today Commun
2022;33:105017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.105017.
[35] Zhang D, Zhang G, Yu H, Lv W, Wen K, Xu H. Controlling interfacial composition
and improvement in bonding strength of compound casted Al/steel bimetal via Cr
interlayer. J Mater Res Technol 2023;23:4385–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmrt.2023.02.053.
[36] Dang Z, Qin G, Wang J. Bonding mechanism and fracture behavior of inertia
friction welded joint of 2219 aluminum alloy to 304 stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng
A 2023;866:144641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.144641.
[37] Jain A, Sonia P, Kumari S, Pushp P. Study of intermetallic compound (IMC)
formed in welding of steel with magnesium: a review. Mater Today: Proc 2020;
26:1159–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.232.
[38] Shi L, Kang J, Gesing M, Chen X, Haselhuhn AS, Carlson BE. Effect of notch root
angle on fatigue behavior of aluminum to steel resistance spot welds. Int J Fatigue
2020;141:105866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2020.105866.
[39] Shi L, Kang J, Amirkhiz BS, Sigler DR, Haselhuhn AS, Carlson BE. Influence of
sheet thickness ratio on fracture mechanisms of Al-steel resistance spot welds
produced using multi-ring domed electrode. Sci Technol Weld Join 2020;25:
164–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2019.1661115.
[40] Kang J, Shi L, Shalchi-Amirkhiz B, Sigler DR, Haselhuhn AS, Carlson BE.
Microstructure and shear strength of novel aluminum to steel resistance spot
welds. Weld J 2020;99:67–74. https://doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.007.
[41] Zhang X, Gao K, Wang Z, Hu X, Liu H, Nie Z. Effect of intermetallic compounds on
interfacial bonding of Al/Fe composites. Mater Lett 2023;333:133597. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2022.133597.
[42] Sahu M, Paul A, Ganguly S. Formation of mechanical property gradient along the
sheet thickness due to the patterned Fe/Al IMC layers in the interface in dissimilar
FSW of HSLA steel to AA 5083. Mater Charact 2023;203:113146. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matchar.2023.113146.
[43] Shi L, Kang J, Qian C, Liang J, Shalchi-Amirkhiz B, Haselhuhn AS, et al. Role of
Fe2Al5 in fracture of novel dissimilar aluminum-steel resistance spot welds using
multi-ring domed electrodes. Mater Sci Eng A 2022;831:142233. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2021.142233.
[44] Chen N, Wang M, Wang H, Wan Z, Carlson B. Microstructural and mechanical
evolution of Al/steel interface with Fe2Al5 growth in resistance spot welding of
aluminum to steel. J Manuf Process 2018;34:424–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2018.06.024.
[45] Haghshenas M, Abdel-Gwad A, Omran AM, Gökçe B, Sahraeinejad S, Gerlich AP.
Friction stir weld assisted diffusion bonding of 5754 aluminum alloy to coated
high strength steels. Mater Des 2014;55:442–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2013.10.013.
[46] Wan Z, Wang H, Chen N, Wang M, Carlson BE. Characterization of intermetallic
compound at the interfaces of Al-steel resistance spot welds. J Mater Process
Technol 2017;242:12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.11.017.
[47] Sun DQ, Zhang YY, Liu YJ, Gu XY, Li HM. Microstructures and mechanical
properties of resistance spot welded joints of 16Mn steel and 6063-T6 aluminum
alloy with different electrodes. Mater Des 2016;109:596–608. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.076.
[48] Chen J, Yuan X, Hu Z, Sun C, Zhang Y, Zhang Y. Microstructure and mechanical
properties of resistance-spot-welded joints for A5052 aluminum alloy and DP 600
steel. Mater Charact 2016;120:45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matchar.2016.08.015 104.
[49] Walser RM, Bené RW. First phase nucleation in silicon-transition-metal planar
interfaces. Appl Phys Lett 1976;28:624–5. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.88590.
[50] Bené RW. First nucleation rule for solid-state nucleation in metal-metal thin-film
systems. Appl Phys Lett 1982;41:529–31. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.93578.
[51] Pretorius R, Vredenberg AM, Saris FW, Reus RD. Prediction of phase formation
sequence and phase stability in binary metal-aluminum thin-film systems using
the effective heat of formation rule. J Appl Phys 1991;70:3636–46. https://doi.
org/10.1063/1.349211.
[52] Fan L, Shen C, Hu K, Liu H, Zhang H. DFT calculations and thermodynamic re-
assessment of the Fe-Y binary system. J Phase Equilib Diffus 2021;42:348–62.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11669-021-00887-9.
394
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[53] He H, Gou W, Wang S, Hou Y, Ma C, Patricio FM. Kinetics of intermetallic
compound layers during initial period of reaction between mild steel and Al. Int J
Mater Res 2019;110:194–201. https://doi.org/10.3139/146.111735.
[54] Kajihara M. Relationship between temperature dependence of interdiffusion and
kinetics of reactive diffusion in a hypothetical binary system. Mater Sci Eng A
2005;403:234–40.
[55] Chen J, Yuan X, Hu Z, Li T, Wu Li C. Improvement of resistance-spot-welded
joints for DP600 steel and A5052 aluminum alloy with Zn slice interlayer.
J Manuf Process 2017;30:396–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2017.10.009.
[56] Liu X, Ye T, Li Y, Pei X, Sun Z. Quasi-in-situ characterization of microstructure
evolution in friction stir welding of aluminum alloy. J Mater Res Technol 2023;
25:6380–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.07.101.
[57] Yang Y, Bi J, Liu H, Li Y, Li M, Ao S, et al. Research progress on the microstructure
and mechanical properties of friction stir welded Al Li alloy joints. J Manuf
Process 2022;82:230–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.07.067.
[58] Liu Y, Pang Q, Zhang Z, Hu L. Formation and evolution mechanism of
intermetallic compounds of friction stir lap welded steel/aluminum joints.
Materials 2023;16:6118. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216958.
[59] Talebizadehsardari P, Musharavati F, Khan A. Underwater friction stir welding of
Al-Mg alloy: thermo-mechanical modeling and validation. Mater Today Commun
2021;26:101965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101965.
[60] Singh K, Singh G, Singh H. Investigation on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of a dissimilar friction stir welded joint of magnesium alloys. J Mate
Des Applic 2019;233(12):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464420719865292.
[61] Sajed M, Derazkola HA. A literature survey on electrical-current-assisted friction
stir welding. Appl Sci 2023;13:1563. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031563.
[62] Lee WG, Kim JS, Sun SJ, Lim JY. The next generation material for lightweight
railway car body structures: magnesium alloys. J Rail Rapid Transit 2016;232:
1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409716646140.
[63] Lambiase F, Derazkola HA, Simchi A. Friction stir welding and friction spot stir
welding processes of polymers—state of the art. Materials 2020;13:2291. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma13102291.
[64] Memon S, Fydrych D, Fernandez AC, Derazkola HA, Derazkola HA. Effects of FSW
tool plunge depth on properties of an Al-Mg-Si alloy T-joint: thermomechanical
modeling and experimental evaluation. Materials 2021;14:4754. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma14164754.
[65] Khalaf HI, Abdullah ME, Kubit A. Effects of underwater friction stir welding heat
generation on residual stress of AA6068-T6 aluminum alloy. Materials 2022;15:
2223. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062223.
[66] Abdullah ME, Derazkola HA. Effects of partial-contact tool tilt angle on friction
stir welded AA1050 aluminum joint properties. Materials 2023;16:4091. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma16114091.
[67] Khodabakhshi F, Derazkola HA, Gerlich AP. Monte Carlo simulation of grain
refinement during friction stir processing. J Mater Sci 2020;55:13438–56.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-04963-2.
[68] Derazkola HA, Kordani N. Effects of friction stir welding tool tilt angle on
properties of Al-Mg-Si alloy T-joint. CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol 2021;33:264–76.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.03.015.
[69] Saleh M, Morisada Y, Ushioda K, Fujii H. Improvement of weldability and fracture
behavior of mild steel and A7075 aluminum alloy dissimilar friction stir welded
joints by increasing welding speed. Mater Today Commun 2023;37:107372.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.107372.
[70] Simar A, Avettand-Fènoël MN. State of the art about dissimilar metal friction stir
welding. Sci Technol Weld Join 2016;22:389–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/
13621718.2016.1251712.
[71] Shen Z, Ding Y, Gerlich AP. Advances in friction stir spot welding. Crit Rev Solid
State Mater Sci 2019;45:457–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408436.2019.1671799.
[72] Bagheri B, Abbasi M, Abdollahzadeh A, Omidvar H. Advanced approach to
modify friction stir spot welding process. Met Mater Int 2019;26:1562–73.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-019-00416-x.
[73] Piccini JM, Svoboda HG. Tool geometry optimization in friction stir spot welding
of Al-steel joints. J Manuf Process 2017;26:142–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2017.02.004.
[74] Li W, Vairis A, Preuss M, Ma T. Linear and rotary friction welding review. Int
Mater Rev 2016;61:71–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2015.1109214.
[75] Gotawala N, Shrivastava A. Investigation of interface microstructure and
mechanical properties of rotatory friction welded dissimilar aluminum-steel
joints. Mater Sci Eng A 2021;825:141900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2021.141900.
[76] Alves EP, Neto FP, An CY. Welding of AA1050 aluminum with AISI 304 stainless
steel by rotary friction welding process. J AerospTechnol Manag 2010;2:301–6.
https://doi.org/10.5028/jatm.2010.02037110.
[77] Subramanian SM, Paulra S. Effect of faying surfaces and characterization of
aluminium AA6063–steel AISI304L dissimilar joints fabricated by friction
welding with hemispherical bowl and threaded faying surfaces. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 2021;825:141900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141900.
[78] Beygi R, Galvão I, Akhavan-Safar A, Pouraliakbar H, Fallah V. Effect of alloying
elements on intermetallic formation during friction stir welding of dissimilar
metals: a critical review on aluminum/steel. Metals 2023;13:1–25. https://doi.
org/10.3390/met13040768.
[79] Manoochehri S, Khorrami MS. Friction stir welding of AA5010 aluminum alloy to
St-12 carbon steel using CoCrCuFeNi high entropy alloy interlayer. J Manuf
Process 2023;99:298–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.05.054.
Y. Yang et al.
[80] Celis MM, Harcuba P, Veselý J, Moisy F, Picot F, Retoux R, et al. Identification of
a pseudo-ternary intermetallic compound in the stirred zone of friction-stir-
welded 5083 aluminum alloy with 316L steel. J Mater Sci 2023;58:5516–29.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-023-08312-x.
[81] Zhang M, Wang YD, Xue P, Zhang H, Ni DR, Wang KS, et al. High-quality
dissimilar friction stir welding of Al to steel with no contacting between tool and
steel plate. Mater Charact 2022;191:112128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matchar.2022.112128.
[82] Wang X, Morisada Y, Matsushita M, Igi S, Inamoto S, Kunisu M, et al. Interface
structure and mechanical properties of Fe/Al dissimilar lap joints formed by
friction stir welding using an adjustable tool. Sci Technol Weld Join 2023;11:1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2210980.
[83] Shen Z, Chen Y, Haghshenas M, Gerlich AP. Role of welding parameters on
interfacial bonding in dissimilar steel/aluminum friction stir welds. Eng Sci
Technol 2015;18:270–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2014.12.008.
[84] Xu X, Zhang C, Derazkola HA, Demiral M, Zain AM, Khan A. UFSW tool pin
profile effects on properties of aluminium-steel joint. Vaccum 2021;192:110460.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2021.110460.
[85] Eyvazian A, Hamouda A, Tarlochan F, Derazkola HA, Khodabakhshi F. Simulation
and experimental study of underwater dissimilar friction-stir welding between
aluminium and steel. J Mater Res Technol 2020;9:3767–81. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.02.003.
[86] Eyvazian A, Hamouda A, Tarlochan F, Derazkola HA, Khodabakhshi F.
Submerged friction stir welding of dissimilar joints between an Al-Mg alloy T and
low carbon steel: thermo-mechanical modeling, microstructural features, and
mechanical properties. J Mater Res Technol 2020;50:68–79. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.12.035.
[87] Derazkola HA, Aval HJ, Elyasi M. Analysis of process parameters effects on
dissimilar friction stir welding of AA1100 and A441 AISI steel. Sci Technol Weld
Join 2015;20:553–62. https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171815Y.0000000038.
[88] Derazkola HA, Aval HJ, Elyasi M. Investigations of tool tilt angle on properties
friction stir welding of A441 AISI to AA1100 aluminium. J Eng Manuf 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0954405416645986.
[89] Derazkola HA, García E, Eyvazian A, Aberoumand M. Analysis of process
parameters effects on dissimilar friction stir welding of AA1100 and A441 AISI
steel. Materials 2021;14:908. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040908.
[90] Bokov DO, Jawad MA, Suksatan W, Abdulah ME, Swierczynska A, Fydrych D,
et al. Effect of pin shape on thermal history of aluminum-steel friction stir welded
joint: computational fluid dynamic modeling and validation. Materials 2021;14:
7883. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247883.
[91] Derazkola HA, Khodabakhsh F. Intermetallic compounds (IMCs) formation during
dissimilar friction-stir welding of AA5005 aluminum alloy to St-52 steel:
numerical modeling and experimental study. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2019;100:
2401–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-2879-8.
[92] Derazkola HA, Khodabakhsh F. Underwater submerged dissimilar friction-stir
welding of AA5083 aluminum alloy and A441 AISI steel. Int J Adv Manuf Technol
2019;102:4384–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-03544-1.
[93] Kaushik P, Dwivedi DK. Effect of tool geometry in dissimilar Al-steel friction stir
welding. J Manuf Process 2021;68:198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2020.08.007.
[94] Geng P, Morimura M, Ma H, Ma Y, Ma N, Liu H, et al. Elucidation of intermetallic
compounds and mechanical properties of dissimilar friction stir lap welded 5052
Al alloy and DP590 steel. J Alloys Compd 2022;906:167381. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.164381.
[95] Mahto RP, Pal SK. Friction stir welding of dissimilar materials: an investigation of
microstructure and nano-indentation study. J Manuf Process 2020;55:103–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.03.050.
[96] Dehghani M, Amadeh A, Akbari Mousavi SAA. Investigations on the effects of
friction stir welding parameters on intermetallic and defect formation in joining
aluminum alloy to mild steel. Mater Des 2013;49:433–41. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2013.01.013.
[97] Liu X, Lan S, Ni J. Analysis of process parameters effects on friction stir welding of
dissimilar aluminum alloy to advanced high strength steel. Mater Des 2014;59:
50–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.02.003.
[98] Lan S, Liu X, Ni J. Microstructural evolution during friction stir welding of
dissimilar aluminum alloy to advanced high-strength steel. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 2015;82:2183–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7531-2.
[99] Ramachandran KK, Murugan N, Kumar SS. Effect of tool axis offset and geometry
of tool pin profile on the characteristics of friction stir welded dissimilar joints of
aluminum alloy AA5052 and HSLA steel. Mater Sci Eng A 2015;639:219–33.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.04.089.
[100] Aktarer SM, Sekban DM, Kucukomeroglu T, Purcek G. Microstructure, mechanical
properties and formability of friction stir welded dissimilar materials of IF-steel
and 6061 Al alloy. Int J Miner Metall Mater 2019;26:722–31. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s12613-019-1783-z.
[101] Coelho RS, Kostka A, dos Santos JF, Kaysser-Pyzalla A. Friction-stir dissimilar
welding of aluminium alloy to high strength steels: mechanical properties and
their relation to microstructure. Mater Sci Eng A 2012;556:175–83. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.06.076.
[102] Anaman SY, Cho HH, Das H, Lee JS, Hong ST. Microstructure and mechanical/
electrochemical properties of friction stir butt welded joint of dissimilar
aluminum and steel alloys. Mater Charact 2019;154:67–79. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matchar.2019.05.041.
[103] Chen C, Kovacevic R. Joining of Al 6061 alloy to AISI 1018 steel by combined
effects of fusion and solid state welding. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 2004;44:
1205–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.03.011.
395
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[104] Springer H, Kostka A, Raabe D. Influence of intermetallic phases and Kirkendall-
porosity on the mechanical properties of joints between steel and aluminium
alloys. Mater Sci Eng A 2011;528:4630–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2011.02.057.
[105] Kundu S, Roy D, Bhola R, Bhattacharjee D, Mishra B, Chatterjee S. Microstructure
and tensile strength of friction stir welded joints between interstitial free steel and
commercially pure aluminium. Mater Des 2013;50:370–5. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2013.02.017.
[106] Yazdipour A, Heidarzadeh A. Effect of friction stir welding on microstructure and
mechanical properties of dissimilar Al 5083-H321 and 316L stainless steel alloy
joints. J Alloys Compd 2016;680:595–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2016.03.307.
[107] Watanabe M, Feng K, Nakamura Y, Kumai S. Growth manner of intermetallic
compound layer produced at welding interface of friction stir spot welded
aluminum/steel lap joint. Mater Trans 2011;52:953–9. https://doi.org/10.2320/
matertrans.L-MZ201120.
[108] Movahedi M, Kokabi AH, Seyed Reihani SM, Najafi H, Farzadfar SA, Cheng WJ,
et al. Growth kinetics of Al–Fe intermetallic compounds during annealing
treatment of friction stir lap welds. Mater Charact 2014;90:121–6. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.matchar.2014.01.023.
[109] Ibrahim AB, Al-Badour FA, Adesina AY, Merah N. Effect of process parameters on
microstructural and mechanical properties of friction stir diffusion cladded ASTM
A516-70 steel using 5052 Al alloy. J Manuf Process 2018;34:451–62. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.06.020.
[110] Coelho RS, Kostka A, Sheikhi S, Pyzalla AR. Microstructure and mechanical
properties of an AA6181-T4 aluminium alloy to HC340LA high strength steel
friction stir overlap weld. Adv Eng Mater 2008;10:961–72. https://doi.org/
10.1002/adem.200800028.
[111] Beygi R, Carbas R, Queiros A, Marques EAS, Shi R. Comparative study between
stainless steel and carbon steel during dissimilar friction stir welding with
aluminum: kinetics of Al–Fe intermetallic growth. Met Mater Int 2021;28:
1948–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-021-01070-y.
[112] Zhang T, Wang K, Qiao K, Wu B, Liu Q, Han P, et al. Evolution mechanism of
intermetallic compounds and the mechanical properties of dissimilar friction stir
welded QP980 steel and 6061 aluminum alloy. Mater Charact 2023;202:113033.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2023.113033.
[113] Lee WB, Schmuecker M, Mercardo UA, Biallas G, Jung SB. Interfacial reaction in
steel–aluminum joints made by friction stir welding. Scr Mater 2006;55:355–8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2006.04.028.
[114] Kumar S, Soni A, Katiyar JK, Kumar S, Roy BS. Influence of tool pin profiles on
waviness and natural frequency during friction stir welding of Al-Li alloys plates.
Surf Topogr Metrol Prop 2023;11:025015. https://doi.org/10.1088/2051-672X/
acd5ea.
[115] Sundaram NS, Murugan N. Tensile behavior of dissimilar friction stir welded
joints of aluminium alloys. Mater Des 2010;31:4184–93. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2010.04.035.
[116] Hassanifard S, Ghiasvand A, Hashemi SM, Varvani-Farahani A. The effect of the
friction stir welding tool shape on tensile properties of welded Al 6061-T6 joints.
Mater Today Commun 2022;31:103457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
mtcomm.2022.103457.
[117] Zhu S, Li L, Rong Z, Zhu S, Sun Y, Guan S. Effect of welding position and direction
on the interfacial microstructure and mechanical properties of double-pass
friction stir lap welded A6061/Q235 joints. Mater Today Commun 2023;34:
105102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.105102.
[118] Pranesh B, Tamilselvam P, Suresh KS, Prabhu TR. Influence of pin profile on
mechanical, microstructure and texture characteristics of friction stir welded
elektron 21 alloy. J Mater Eng Perform 2022;31:8967–80. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11665-022-06908-z.
[119] Meng Y, Ma Y, Chen S, Han Y, Chen S, Huang J, et al. Friction stir butt welding of
magnesium alloy to steel by truncated cone-shaped stirring pin with threads.
J Mater Process Technol 2021;291:117038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2020.117038.
[120] Yang J, Su J, Gao C, Zhao Y, Liu H, Oliveira JP, et al. Effect of heat input on
interfacial microstructure, tensile and bending properties of dissimilar Al/steel
lap joints by laser welding-brazing. Opt Laser Technol 2021;142:107218. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107218.
[121] Wu M, Luo Z, Ao S. A novel welding method for extra-thick high-strength steel:
double-sided narrow gap oscillating laser and oscillating laser-TIG hybrid
welding. Opt Laser Technol 2023;164:109432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
optlastec.2023.109432.
[122] Kang L, Li X, Chen J, Zhang Y, Wang T. Microstructure and mechanical properties
of stainless steel/6082 aluminum alloy heterogeneous laser welded joint.
Materials 2023;16:6958. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186118.
[123] Xu T, Shi Y, Cui Y, Liang Z. Effects of magnetic fields in arc welding, laser
welding, and resistance spot welding: a review. Adv Eng Mater 2023;25:
1438–656. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202370021.
[124] Zhao Y, Long Y, Li Z. Research progress of transition layer and filler wire for laser
welding of steel and aluminum dissimilar metals. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2022;
119:4149–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-08442-z.
[125] Yang J, Xiao M, Wu L, Li Z, Liu H, Zhao Y, et al. The influence of laser power on
microstructure and properties of laser welding-brazing of Al alloys to Al-Si coated
22MnB5 steel. Opt Laser Technol 2023;162:109318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
optlastec.2023.109318.
[126] Zhang Y, Guo G, Li F, Wang G, Wei H. The interface control of butt joints in laser
braze welding of aluminium-steel with coaxial powder feeding. J Mater Process
Technol 2017;246:313–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.03.020.
Y. Yang et al.
[127] Xia H, Li L, Ma N, Tan C, Gong J. Influence of energy ratio on dual–spot laser
welded–brazed Al/steel butt joint. J Mater Process Technol 2020;281:116624.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116624.
[128] Du M, Wang W, Zhang X, Niu J. Effect of process parameters on performances of
TWIP steel/Al alloy dissimilar metals butt joints by laser offset welding. Mater Sci
Eng A 2022;853:143746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.143746.
[129] Xie J, Cai C, Zhang B, Yu J, Liu Y, Chen H. Microstructure evolution and fracture
behavior of rotating laser welded-brazed 6061 aluminum alloys/304 SS dissimilar
joint. Mater Charact 2023;195:112543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matchar.2022.112543.
[130] Cui L, Chen B, Chen L, He D. Dual beam laser keyhole welding of steel/aluminum
lapped joints. J Mater Process Technol 2018;256:87–97. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.02.016.
[131] Javadinejad HR, Lee M, Shim CH, Chang HJ, Kim JH. Interfacial reaction
mechanism during laser brazing of Zn–Mg–Al-coated steel to AA 6061 aluminum
alloy. J Manuf Process 2022;83:471–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2022.09.013.
[132] Liu Y, Liu R, Zhu Z, Li Y, Chen H. Fracture mechanism of aluminum/steel laser-arc
welded-brazed joints during quasi-static tensile and dynamic fatigue tests. Eng
Fail Anal 2023;152:107461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2023.107461.
[133] Meco S, Ganguly S, Williams S, McPherson N. Design of laser welding applied to T
joints between steel and aluminium. J Mater Process Technol 2019;268:132–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.01.003.
[134] Chen S, Li S, Li Y, Huang J, Chen S, Yang J. Butt welding-brazing of steel to
aluminum by hybrid laser-CMT. J Mater Process Technol 2019;272:163–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.05.018.
[135] Peyre P, Sierra G, Deschaux-Beaume F, Stuart D, Fras G. Generation of
aluminium–steel joints with laser-induced reactive wetting. Mater Sci Eng A
2007;444:327–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.09.111.
[136] Fang Y, Jiang X, Mo D, Zhu D, Luo Z. A review on dissimilar metals’ welding
methods and mechanisms with interlayer. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2019;102:
2845–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-03353-6.
[137] Zheng M, Yang J, Xu J, Jiang J, Zhang H, Oliveira JP, et al. Interfacial
microstructure and strengthening mechanism of dissimilar laser al/steel joint via
a porous high entropy alloy coating. J Mater Res Technol 2023;23:3997–4011.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.02.040.
[138] Zhang Y, Wang W, Li Z, Huang G, Zhang H, Liu F. Study of the brittleness
mechanism of aluminum/steel laser welded joints with copper and vanadium
interlayers. Opt Laser Technol 2023;163:109319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
optlastec.2023.109319.
[139] Cao X, Wang G, Xing C, Tan C, Jiang J. Effect of process parameters on
microstructure and properties of laser welded joints of aluminum/steel with Ni/
Cu interlayer. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc Chin 2021;31:2277–86. https://doi.org/
10.1016/s1003-6326(21)65654-6.
[140] Zhang C, Gao M, Wang D, Yin J, Zeng X. Relationship between pool characteristic
and weld porosity in laser arc hybrid welding of AA6082 aluminum alloy. J Mater
Process Technol 2017;240:217–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2016.10.001.
[141] Faraji AH, Moradi M, Goodarzi M, Colucci P, Maletta C. An investigation on
capability of hybrid Nd:YAG laser-TIG welding technology for AA2198 Al-Li
alloy. Opt Lasers Eng 2017;96:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
optlaseng.2017.04.004.
[142] Zhan X, Liu X, Li Y, Zhao Y, Wang J. Molten pool behavior and solidification
characterization in steady magnetic field assisted laser-MIG hybrid welding of
aluminum alloy. J Manuf Process 2022;84:622–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2022.10.041.
[143] Huang L, Liu P, Zhu S, Hua X, Dong S. Experimental research on formation
mechanism of porosity in magnetic field assisted laser welding of steel. J Manuf
Process 2020;50:596–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.007.
[144] Liu F, Dong Y, Tan Z, Wang H, Tan C, Chen B, et al. Mechanism analysis on
suppressing porosity in laser-MIG hybrid welding of aluminum alloy via external
magnetic field. J Manuf Process 2023;101:1124–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2023.06.057.
[145] Li F, Ding J, Yan F, Yue S, Wang H, Gao Z. Investigation of laser beam welding on
lap joints of Al/steel dissimilar materials subjected to alternating magnetic field.
Optik 2023;272:170372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2022.170372.
[146] Wang L, Ma Y, Xu J. Numerical simulation of arc-droplet-weld pool behaviors
during the external magnetic field-assisted MIG welding-brazing of aluminum to
steel. Int J Therm Sci 2023;194:108530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijthermalsci.2023.108530.
[147] Hu C, Yan F, Xu Y, Zhu Z, Chai F, Tao J, et al. Effect of alternating magnetic field
on microstructure and performance for dissimilar welding-brazing of galvanized
steel to 6061 aluminum alloy in an overlapping configuration. Opt Laser Technol
2022;155:108423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.108423.
[148] Yu G, Chen S, Li S, Huang J, Yang J, Zhao Z, et al. Microstructures and mechanical
property of 5052 aluminum alloy/Q235 steel butt joint achieved by laser beam
joining with Sn-Zn filler wire. Opt Laser Technol 2021;139:106996. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106996.
[149] Zhu Z, Wan Z, Li Y, Xue J, Hui C. Intermediate layer, microstructure and
mechanical properties of aluminum alloy/stainless steel butt joint using
laser–MIG hybrid welding–brazing method. Int J Mod Phys B 2017;31:1744305.
https://doi.org/10.1142/s0217979217440350.
[150] Sun J, Yan Q, Gao W, Huang J. Investigation of laser welding on butt joints of Al/
steel dissimilar materials. Mater Des 2015;83:120–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2015.05.069.
396
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[151] Zhang Y, Li F, Guo G, Wang G, Wei H. Effects of different powders on the micro-
gap laser welding-brazing of an aluminium-steel butt joint using a coaxial feeding
method. Mater Des 2016;109:10–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2016.07.011.
[152] Li L, Xia H, Tan C, Ma N. Effect of groove shape on laser welding-brazing Al to
steel. J Mater Process Technol 2018;252:573–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2017.10.025.
[153] Bao Y, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Xu Y, Liu H. Microstructural and mechanical
characteristics of direct laser welding 7075 super hard aluminum alloy/D6AC
ultra-high strength alloy structural steel. Mater Lett 2021;287:129312. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2021.129312.
[154] Ding K, Hu T, Wu T, Dong W, Zhu P, Wang S, et al. Role of the position of the laser
spot in the failure transition during the tensile test for the laser welding-brazing of
galvanized CRRA1000 steel to 5754 aluminum alloy in an overlapped joint. Mater
Sci Eng A 2023;880:145314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.145314.
[155] Bharaj AS, Kewati A, Shukla S, Gedam S, Kukde R, Verulkar S. Study of resistant
spot welding and its effect on the metallurgical and mechanical properties - a
review. Mater Today: Proc 2023;650:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2023.04.650.
[156] Han F, Han H, Zhang Y, Yuan T, Wang C. Formation mechanism of the
quasicrystal in Al-Cu-Mg-Zn aluminum alloy resistance spot weld. Mater Lett
2023;350:134949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2023.134949.
[157] Zhang K, Shamsolhodaei A, Ghatei-Kalashami A, Oliveira JP, Zang C, Schell N,
et al. Revealing microstructural evolutions and mechanical properties of
resistance spot welded NiTi-stainless steel with Ni or Nb interlayer. J Mater Sci
Technol 2023;57:4923–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.05.057.
[158] Rajak B, Kishore K, Mishra V. Investigation of a novel TIG-spot welding vis-à-vis
resistance spot welding of dual-phase 590 (DP590) steel: processing-
microstructure-mechanical properties correlation. Mater Chem Phys 2023;296:
127254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2022.127254.
[159] Iyota M, Matsuda T, Sano T, Shigeta M, Shobu T, Yumoto H, et al. Interfacial
microstructure and strength of steel/aluminum alloy joints welded by resistanc
spot welding with cover plate. J Mater Process Technol 2009;209:4186–93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.20 08.11.0 03.
[160] Chen N, Wang H, Wang M, Carlson BE, Sigler DR. Schedule and electrode design
for resistance spot weld bonding Al to steels. J Mater Process Technol 2019;265:
158–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.10.011.
[161] Hu SQ, Ma YW, Li YB, Lin ZQ, Haselhuhn AS, CarlSon BE. Comparison of the
resistance spot weldability of AA5754 and AA6022 aluminum to steels. Weld J
2020;99:224–38. https://doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.021.
[162] Yu J, Ge F, Yu G, Zhang H, Fan Y, Su Z, et al. Feasibility study of thermo-
compensated resistance brazing welding of 6061 aluminum alloy to 304 stainless
steel. J Mater Res Technol 2023;23:6200–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmrt.2023.02.059.
[163] Morphology and performance of resistance spot welding joint between DC06
galvanized steel and 6016-T4 aluminum alloy under asymmetric heat input.
J Mater Eng Perform 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08929-8.
[164] Cao X, Li Z, Zhou X, Luo Z, Duan JA. Modeling and optimization of resistance spot
welded aluminum to Al-Si coated boron steel using response surface methodology
and genetic algorithm. Measurement 2021;171:108766. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108766.
[165] Qiu R, Li J, Shi H, Yu H. Characterization of resistance spot welded joints between
aluminum alloy and mild steel with composite electrodes. J Mater Res Technol
2023;24:1190–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.069.
[166] Zhou K, Ren B, Yu W. Optimized designing of generalized electrodes for
aluminum/steel resistance spot welding process based on numerical calculation.
J Manuf Process 2023;99:563–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2023.05.079.
[167] Zhao D, Ren D, Song G, Zhao K, Zhang Z. Nugget formation analysis of Al/steel
clinch-resistance hybrid spot welding. Sci Technol Weld Join 2021;26:439–47.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2021.1935150.
[168] Zhang G, Li Y, Lin Z. Failure mechanism of Al-steel resistance spot welding (RSW)
welds and a metallic bump printed on Al sheet-assisted RSW (MBaRSW/Al) welds
during lap-shear tests. Metall Mater Trans A 2021;52:4922–33. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11661-021-06434-y.
[169] Hu S, Haselhuhn A, Ma Y, Li Y, Carlson BE, Lin Z. Sensitivity of dissimilar
aluminum to steel resistance spot welds to weld gun deflection. J Manuf Process
2021;68:534–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.05.059.
[170] Che Y, Wang L, Sun D, Li H, Geng W. Microstructures and mechanical properties
of resistance spot-welded steel/aluminum alloy joints with process tapes. J Mater
Eng Perform 2018;27:5532–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-018-3595-0.
[171] Chen C, Kong L, Wang M, Haselhuhn AS, Sigler DR, Wang HP, et al. The
robustness of Al-steel resistance spot welding process. J Manuf Process 2019;43:
300–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.02.030.
[172] Rao H, Kang J, Shi L, Sigler DR, Carlson BE. Effect of specimen configuration on
fatigue properties of dissimilar aluminum to steel resistance spot welds. Int J
Fatigue 2018;116:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2018.06.009.
[173] Chen N, Wang H, Carlson BE, Sigler D, Wang M. Fracture mechanisms of Al/steel
resistance spot welds in coach peel and cross tension testing. J Mater Process
Technol 2018;252:348–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.09.035.
[174] Chen J, Feng Z, Wang H, Carlson BE, Brown T, Sigler D. Multi-scale mechanical
modeling of Al-steel resistance spot welds. Mater Sci Eng A 2018;735:145–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.08.039.
[175] Zhang W, Sun D, Han L, Li Y. Optimised design of electrode morphology for novel
dissimilar resistance spot welding of aluminium alloy and galvanised high
Y. Yang et al.
strength steel. Mater Des 2015;85:461–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2015.07.025.
[176] Wang J, Wang H, Lu F, Carlson BE, Sigler DR. Analysis of Al-steel resistance spot
welding process by developing a fully coupled multi-physics simulation model.
Int J Heat Mass Transf 2015;89:1061–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijheatmasstransfer.2015.05.086.
[177] Qiu R, Shi H, Zhang K, Tu Y, Iwamoto C, Satonaka S. Interfacial characterization
of joint between mild steel and aluminum alloy welded by resistance spot
welding. Mater Charact 2010;61:684–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matchar.2010.03.015.
[178] Qiu R, Satonaka S, Iwamoto C. Effect of interfacial reaction layer continuity on
the tensile strength of resistance spot welded joints between aluminum alloy and
steels. Mater Des 2009;30:3686–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2009.02.012.
[179] Bobzin K, Öte M, Wiesner S, Gerdt L, Bührig-Polaczek A, Brachmann J. Effect of
alloying elements on growth behavior of intermetallic compounds at the cold-
sprayed coating/steel interface during immersion in aluminum melt. Int J Met
2018;12:712–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-017-0205-0.
[180] Bick T, Heuler V, Treutler K, Wesling V. Characterization of influences of steel-
aluminum dissimilar joints with intermediate zinc layer. Metals 2020;10:1–14.
https://doi.org/10.3390/met10040442.
[181] Khalid MZ, Friis J, Ninive PH, Marthinsen K, Strandlie A. First-principles study of
tensile and shear strength of Fe-Al and α-AlFeSi intermetallic compound
interfaces. Comput Mater Sci 2021;187:110058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
commatsci.2020.110058.
[182] Das T, Das R, Paul J. Resistance spot welding of dissimilar AISI-1008 steel/Al-
1100 alloy lap joints with a graphene interlayer. J Manuf Process 2020;53:
260–74.
[183] Azhari-Saray H, Sarkari-Khorrami M, Nademi-Babahadi A, Kashani-Bozorg SF.
Dissimilar resistance spot welding of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy/St-12 carbon steel
using a high entropy alloy interlayer. Intermetallics 2020;124:106876. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2020.106876.
[184] Lu Y, Mayton E, Song H, Kimchi M, Zhang W. Dissimilar metal joining of
aluminum to steel by ultrasonic plus resistance spot welding-microstructure and
mechanical properties. Mater Des 2019;165:107585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matdes.2019.107585.
[185] Winnicki M, Malachowska A, Korzeniowski M, Jasiorski M, Baszczuk A.
Aluminium to steel resistance spot welding with cold sprayed interlayer. Surf Eng
2018;34:235–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/02670844.2016.1271579.
[186] Lara B, Giorjao R, Armaki HG, Ramirez A. Fe–Al intermetallic suppression of
dissimilar RSW joints using stainless-steelinterlayers. Sci Technol Weld Join 2023;
28:461–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2023.2176046.
[187] Zhang W, Sun D, Han L, Liu D. Interfacial microstructure and mechanical
property of resistance spot welded joint of high strength steel and aluminium
alloy with 4047 AlSi12 interlayer. Mater Des 2014;57:186–94. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2013.12.045.
397
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 110 (2024) 376–397
[188] Shi L, Kang JD, Shalchi-Amirkhiz B, Sigler DR, Haselhuhn AS, Carlson BE. Effect
of coating type on microstructure and mechanical behavior of resistance spot
welds of thin X626 aluminum sheet to low carbon steel. J Mater Process Technol
2019;264:438–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.09.025.
[189] Ibrahim I, Ito R, Kakiuchi T, Uematsu Y, Yun K, Matsud C. Fatigue behaviour of
Al/steel dissimilar resistance spot welds fabricated using Al–Mg interlayer. Sci
Technol Weld Join 2016;21:223–33. https://doi.org/10.1179/
1362171815Y.000000008.
[190] Arghavani MR, Movahedi M, Kokabi AH. Role of zinc layer in resistance spot
welding of aluminum to steel. Mater Des 2016;102:106–14. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2016.04.033.
[191] Hou L, Qiu R, Shi H, Guo J. Properties of resistance spot welded joint between
mild steel and aluminum alloy with an interlayer of AlCu28. Appl Mech Mater
2014;675:15–8. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.675-677.15.
[192] Ueda K, Ogura T, Nishiuchi S, Miyamoto K, Nanbu T, Hirose A. Effects of Zn-based
alloys coating on mechanical properties and interfacial microstructures of steel/
aluminum alloy dissimilar metals joints using resistance spot welding. Mater
Trans 2011;5:967–73. https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.L-MZ201108.
[193] Yu J, Fan, Du R, Zhang H, He P, Su Z, et al. Interfacial microstructure and
mechanical properties of Al/steel joints fabricated via thermo-compensated
resistance brazing welding with cold spray Zn interlayer. J Mater Res Technol
2023;24:5094–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.081.
[194] Li Y, Shen Q, Lin Z, Hu S. Quality improvement in resistance spot weld of
advanced high strength steel using external magnetic field. Sci Technol Weld Join
2013;16:465–9. https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171811y.0000000002.
[195] Cheng X, Yang K, Wang J, Xiao W, Huang S. Ultrasonic system and ultrasonic
metal welding performance: a status review. J Manuf Process 2022;84:1196–216.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.10.067.
[196] Liu T, Gao S, Shen X, Sun Z, Shi L, Kumar S, et al. Acoustic effect on the joint
quality and process of friction stir lap welding of aluminum to steel. Mater Today
Commun 2023;35:106184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.106184.
[197] Hu S, Haselhuhn AS, Ma Y, Li Z, Qi L, Li Y, et al. Effect of external magnetic field
on resistance spot welding of aluminium to steel. Sci Technol Weld Join 2022;27:
84–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2021.2013707.
[198] Li H, Zhang C, Deng Y, Zhou K, Ni Z, Yan F, et al. Interfacial reactions and joint
performances of high-power ultrasonic welding of aluminum to steel. J Mater Res
Technol 2023;26:328–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.07.188.
[199] Lu Y, Walker L, Kimchi M, Zhang W. Microstructure and strength of ultrasonic
plus resistance spot welded aluminum alloy to coated press hardened boron steel.
Metall Mater Trans A 2020;51:93–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-019-
05524-2.
[200] Shah U, Liu X. Effects of ultrasonic vibration on resistance spot welding of
transformation induced plasticity steel 780 to aluminum alloy AA6061. Mater Des
2019;182:108053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108053.