Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

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Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering

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Advances in biotechnological applications of waste cooking oil

Omojola Awogbemi a, *, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon a, Victor Sunday Aigbodion b, c,
Sandeep Panda d
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
b
African Centre of Excellence, ACESPED University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
c
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
d
Mineral-Metal Recovery and Recycling (MMR&R) Research Group, Department of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Waste cooking oil (WCO) is generated when edible vegetable oil is used for frying food items. Inappropriate
Waste cooking oil disposal of WCO exacerbates environmental pollution, block drains and contaminates terrestrial and aquatic
Biotechnology habitats while its consumption deleteriously impacts human and animal health. In this review, the current efforts
Biodiesel
into the biotechnological conversion and applications of WCO as feedstock for biofuel, bisabolene, biolubricants,
Biolubricants
Transesterification
liquid detergents, dishwashing soap and aromatherapy candle, plasticizer, polyurethane foam, surfactants,
Feedstock asphalt rejuvenator are discussed. Aspects related to the global scenario of WCO generation, their physico-
chemical properties and avenues of their utilization are also presented. These applications ensure appropriate
utilization of WCO as valuable household commodities and industrial products. More investigations are needed
for the deployment of WCO for the production of valuable products and to promote circular economy.

1. Introduction
Rapid population growth, technological advancement, improved
investment promotion, trade and capital liberalization and financial
sector development have elicited sustained industrialization in the last
decade. To meet the demand for material resources and satisfy the
current industrial revolutions, researchers and industrialists are faced
with the challenges of supplying cost-effective and environmental
friendly resources that can meet new production processes. Many sci­
entists have resorted to the many easy and innovative routes of resource
recovery and optimization in converting wastes to valuable raw mate­
rials and value-added products through the process of waste remedia­
tion. In this context, the conversion and transformation of waste cooking
oil (WCO) to a manifold variety of products is one of the low-hanging
fruits.
Generally, WCO is generated when various edible vegetable oils are
employed to fry food items in households, hotels, restaurants and other
catering outlets. Vegetable oils are predominantly triacylglycerols
(88–98%) and an important component of a healthy diet that constitutes
about 15–20% of total calory intake in most industrialized countries [1].
Global vegetable oil consumption increased from 150 million metric
tons (MMT) in 2013/14 to above 200MMT in 2020/21 (Fig. 1). The
global WCO market size that was $5.50 billion in 2019 is estimated to
reach $8.48 billion by 2027 [2].
Unfortunately, the large volume of generated WCOs causes delete­
rious health effects on humans and animals when consumed and harms
the environment when not appropriately disposed of. In many cities,
WCO is disposed into sewers, drains, open spaces, rivers and forests
where they generate offensive odors, block drainages, damage con­
cretes, and contaminate terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Inappropriate
disposal of WCOs can also result in foam formation, increase the organic
load on water sources, hinder wastewater treatment, reduce dissolved
oxygen concentration, and alter ecosystem balance [3]. However, when
catalyzed with some agricultural wastes, WCO can be converted into
biodiesel for various applications [4]. To minimize the harmful impacts
on the ecosystem appropriate strategies for proper management,
disposal, minimization, recycling, conversion, utilization, valorization
and remediation of WCO have been proposed.
In this article, major search engines notably Google Scholar, Web of
Science and Scopus, keywords and phrases such as “application of waste
vegetable oil”, “application of waste cooking oil”, “utilization waste
cooking oil”, “conversion of waste cooking oils”, “waste frying oils”,
“used edible vegetable oils”, “used frying oils”, “biotechnological con­
version of waste cooking oils” were used to determine the number of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jolawogbemi2015@gmail.com (O. Awogbemi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2021.100158
Received 11 August 2021; Received in revised form 21 October 2021; Accepted 31 October 2021
Available online 1 November 2021
2666-0164/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
O. Awogbemi et al.
Fig. 1. Global consumption of vegetable oils from 2013/14–2020/2021 (MMT)
Adapted and redrawn following [3].
published works available since the year 2010. As shown in Fig. 2, there
has been a consistent increase in the number of research works, as re­
ported by various authors. The reduction of output witnessed in 2020
can be attributed to the impact of COVID-19 imposed restrictions that
slowed down research activities globally. Though most of them did not
use biotechnology in the title and body of their article, they reported
various avenues of WCO utilization.
Despite these avalanches of researches, the pertinent question to ask,
(which forms the motivation for the current intervention), is what are
the avenues for the biotechnological conversion and utilization of WCO
to increase its contribution to the circular economy concept. Bearing in
mind of the increasing quantity of WCO being generated [3], re­
searchers, industrial players and stakeholders must therefore be kept
abreast of the modern trends in the utilization of WCO. In this regard,
the current review, dwells on the key innovative routes for the conver­
sion of WCO into valuable products for household and industrial ap­
plications. The aim here is to update the existing body of knowledge and
set the agenda for future research in the area.
2. Properties and chemical composition of WCO
During frying, vegetable oils are subjected to repeated high tem­
peratures, usually between 150 ◦ C and 200 ◦ C, moisture infiltration and
contamination which causes physical (color, viscosity, density) and
chemical (acid value, fatty acid composition) modifications as well as
severe thermal degradation (total polar compounds) in their structures
[3]. The thermal degradation physical, chemical and compositional
changes through oxidation, hydrolysis, polymerization, etc. leads to the
Fig. 2. Published papers of application of WCO (2010–2020).
2
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158
change in some of the properties and saturated fatty acid composition.
The density, kinematic viscosity, specific heat, iodine value, peroxide
value, saponification value, moisture content, flash point, number of
single/double bonds and percentage of mono/polyunsaturated compo­
nents are altered by usage. Awogbemi et al. [5] and Pelemo et al. [6]
employed utilized gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS),
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Oil
Chemists’ Society (AOCS) and other standard techniques to determine
the Fatty acid (FA) composition and thermophysical properties of neat
and WCO collected from various sources. They reported that the phys­
icochemical properties and fatty acid composition of WCO are altered by
the degree of usage, frying temperature, the source of the neat oil and
the food the oil was used to fry. Table 1 shows some of the physico­
chemical properties of neat and waste vegetable oil while Table 2 shows
the fatty acid composition for some samples of WCO. The techniques for
the conversion of WCO into usage products are determined and being
governed by the properties and FA composition of WCO.
3. Avenues for utilization of WCO
Over the last five years, there have been novel pathways for the
biotechnological reutilization of WCO using various strategies and
technologies. Some of the technologies include feedstock for the pro­
duction of biofuel, biolubricants and other products as shown in Fig. 3.
To minimize the effect of WCO on the environment, waste minimization
techniques such as waste reduction, waste recycling and waste utiliza­
tion are employed. The various biotechnological avenues for the utili­
zation of WCO leads to waste minimization, reduction in waste disposal
cost and waste utilization for the generation of renewable energy source
[3]. These approaches contribute to the circular economy in cost
reduction, securing domestic energy supply, material utilization and
generation of less CO2. Sustainable conversion of WCO contributes to
the efforts towards achieving the United Nation’s Sustainable Develop­
ment Goals including clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean
energy, prevention of pollution of aquatic and terrestrial habitats,
climate action and sustainable cities and communities.
However, the industrial application of WCO has been hampered by
various factors including collection, recovery, yield, conversion effi­
ciency, inconsistencies in quality and productivity. These challenges
have continued to attract the attention of researchers to expand the
frontiers for the utilization of the resource. Several interventions such as
the establishment of platforms for WCO collection, pretreatment of WCO
and optimization of conversion parameters have been employed with
encouraging outcomes [12,13].
3.1. WCO as biofuel feedstock
To reduce the cost of feedstock which constitutes nearly 70–80% of
the entire production cost of biofuel, WCO has been adopted as one of
the viable options. WCO is readily available, has low-cost, demonstrates
high product yield and is environmentally friendly. Also, various tech­
nologies have been adopted for the chemical and biological conversion
of WCO to biofuels. Though the conversion of WCO to biodiesel is not
new, in recent times, various investigations have been conducted to
improve the techniques and processes (Table 3). For example, Mohamed
et al. [14], Naeem et al. [15], Bargole et al. [16] and Kuniyil et al. [17]
explored various novel catalysts for the transesterification of WCO into
biodiesel and reported that WCO was converted into high-quality bio­
diesel under moderate production conditions. They also demonstrated
the potency of the various catalysts used with high product yield, good
recoverability and reusability. Apart from the transesterification
method, other technologies such as hydro esterification [18], acoustic
and hydrodynamic cavitation [19], ultrasonic cavitation [20],
high-intensity ultrasound [21], ultrasonic irradiation [22,23], electrol­
ysis [24,25], etc. have been employed to generate biodiesel from WCO.
These techniques generated high-quality products that meet
O. Awogbemi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

Table 1
Physicochemical properties of neat and used vegetable oil.
Properties Sunflower oil Palm oil Palm oil Rapeseed oil

Neat Waste Neat Waste Neat Waste Neat Waste

Acid value ns 2.29 ns 0.66 0.3 4.03 0.06 1.06

Calorific value (J/gm) ns ns ns ns ns 39658
pH 7.38 5.34 6.34 5.73 ns ns
Density (kg/m3) 919.21 920.4 919.48 904.3 898 9013 918 929
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) 28.744 31.381 27.224 44.254 39.994 44.956 63.286 68.568
Dynamic viscosity (MPa.s) ns ns ns ns 35.92 40.52
Peroxide value (meq/kg) ns ns ns ns <10 10 0.2
Moisture content (wt. %) ns ns ns ns 0.101 0.104 0.03
Iodine value (cg/g) ns 111.1 ns 81.7 ns ns 97
Saponification value (mg.KOH/gm) ns 197.6 ns 199 194 177.97
Molecular weight (g/mol) 670.82 51.94 535.08 135.66 ns ns 869.16 871.01
Flash point (oC)) ns ns ns ns 161–164 222–224 270 ns
Reference [5,6] [5,6] [7] [8]

ns = not stated.

synthesized from the low-cost pyrolysis processes meets international

Table 2 specifications and performed well in a diesel engine.
Fatty acid composition of WCO.
Recently, WCO was used to improve the performance of pig slurry
Common name Formula FA composition and sewage sludge for batch anaerobic digestion (AD) for biogas pro­
[9] [10] [8] [11] [11] duction. The addition of WCO to the slurries resulted in low-cost biogas
Oleic acid C18:1 43.67 56.98 21.74 58.57 7.9
production and improved methane yield [34,35]. The conversion of
Palmitic acid C16:0 38.35 7.9 13.14 36.13 54.75 WCO into biojet fuels has also gained traction in recent years. This is to
Linoleic acid C18:2 11.39 31.21 56.98 3.76 37.35 maximize the availability and the low-cost advantages of WCO and
Stearic acid C18:0 4.33 3.15 5.59 1.54 na improve fuel combustion and the emission problems associated with
Mysistic acid C14:0 1.03 na na na na
fossil-based jet fuel. El-Araby et al. [36], Why et al. [37] and Asiedu et al.
Lauric acid C12:0 0.34 na na na na
Linolenic acid C18:2 0.29 0.76 na na na [38] explored hydrocracking, deoxygenation and hydrogenation
Eicosanoate acid C20:1 na na 0.8 na na methods, respectively, to effectively convert WCO into biojet fuel. They
Arachidate acid C20:0 na na 0.79 na na reported that the physicochemical properties of the product complied
Palmitoleate acid C16:1 na na 0.25 na na with the ASTM standards and was comparable to the standard Jet A-1
na = not applicable. fuel. The synthesis of syngas, hydrogen, methane from WCO was effec­
tively demonstrated by Tamošiūnas et al. [39] where the generated
syngas was composed of 70% producer gas, hydrogen, methane, and
other gaseous fuels. In order to enhance the production of biofuel,
various mathematical and statistical techniques have been used to
optimize various production parameters. These methods have been
found to save time, reduce material wastage and ensure maximum yield
at lower energy consumption [40].
Key conclusions;

• WCO was effectively used as an affordable feedstock for biodiesel,

biojet fuel and renewable diesel production.
• WCO was added to different slurries to improve biomethane yield in
an AD process.

3.2. Biolubricants production

Fig. 3. Role of WCO as a waste resource in the circular economy.
international specifications under moderate operating conditions.
In addition, Degfie et al. [26] and Hirner et al. [27] converted WCO
to biodiesel and tested the physicochemical properties and performance
in a Compression Ignition (CI) engine. They reported that biodiesel
synthesized from WCO met American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) standards and exhibited improved performance and lower
emissions when compared with biodiesels from other feedstocks and
conventional diesel fuel. When WCO was used as feedstock for renew­
able diesel, the product demonstrated better engine performance and
reduced emission in CI engines [28,29]. The conversion of WCO into
various grades of biooil has also been successfully demonstrated by
various researchers. In series of recent researches, Anis et al. [30], Wu
et al. [31], Gad et al. [32] and Shitao et al. [33] effectively pyrolyzed
WCO into biooil and other liquid biofuels using various catalysts under
various operating conditions. The authors reported that the biooil
Biolubricants act as anti-friction agents that offer lower volatility,
improved viscosity, better thermal tolerance, sustainability and
ecological amenability when compared with petroleum-based lubri­
cants. Taking advantage of its high lubricity, biodegradability and low
volatility, WCO has been deployed as a low-cost base material for the
production of lubricants. When WCO is chemically modified, the
oxidation stability is improved and biolubricant with excellent lubrica­
tion performance is achieved. Notable chemical modification routes for
the conversion of WCO into biolubricants include hydrolysis, esterifi­
cation, transesterification, hydrogenation and epoxidation. Some of
these processes may be combined and catalyzed to increase the effec­
tiveness of the process [41].
The transesterification process is one of the most effective routes for
the conversion of WCO into biolubricant. It is not surprising that many
researchers have taken advantage of the straightforward process to
synthesize various grades of biolubricants. In separates researches
(Table 4), Hussein et al. [42], Ghafar et al. [43], Putra et al. [44], Sun

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O. Awogbemi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

Table 3
Application of WCO as feedstock for biofuel production.
Technologies Catalyst Biofuel Yield (%) Remark Ref.

Transesterification Polycyclic aromatic Biodiesel 90.37 Product meets ASTM D6571 specifications. [14]
sulphonates Catalysts demonstrated high activity and reusability
Transesterification Na–SiO2@TiO2 Biodiesel 98 ↑Good quality and high product yield. [15]
High catalytic potency up to 5th run
Transesterification Marble waste powder Biodiesel 95.45 ↑High quality product generated. [16]
Good catalytic activity
Transesterification ZnCuO/N-doped Biodiesel 97.1 Product meets ASTM D6571 standards. [17]
graphene ↑High potency, reusability and recoverability of the catalyst
Hydroesterification Pseudomonas fluorescens Biodiesel 94.1 ↑Good quality and high product yield. [18]
lipase Product meets ASTM D6571 specifications.
Acoustic and Heterogeneous Biodiesel ns High quality product [19]
hydrodynamic Homogeneous
cavitation
Ultrasonic cavitation KOH Biodiesel 98.32 High quality product [20]
↓Reduced reaction time
High-intensity ultrasound K3PO4 Biodiesel 91.5 Activation energy of 35.9 kJ/mol [21]
Product meets ASTM D6571 standards.
Ultrasonic irradiation CaO Biodiesel ns Fast and efficient method of production [22]
High quality product generated
Ultrasonic irradiation CaO Biodiesel 85.7 High quality product [23]
Moderate production conditions
Product meets ASTM D6571 standards.
Electrolysis Phosphomolybdic acid/ Biodiesel 90.39 Physicochemical properties of the product complied with the ASTM standard [24]
graphene oxide
Electrolysis zeolite–chitosan Biodiesel 96.5 High quality product [25]
composite Product meets ASTM D6571 standards.
Transesterification KOH Biodiesel 94 Product meets ASTM D6571fuel standards. [26]
Transesterification ns Biodiesel 96 ↓NOx, smoke, HC, and CO emissions. [27]
↑ Cetane number, density, viscosity and flash point
Hydroprocessing NaOH Renewable ns ↑BTE and cetane index [28]
diesel ↓BSFC, CO, UHC, smoke and ignition delay.
Hydrogenation Ni–Mo/Al2O3 Renewable ns ↓CO, HC, CO2, NOx, Smoke and BSFC. [29]
diesel ↑ BTE
Microwave-assisted ns Green diesel ns ↑Quality liquid fuels [30]
pyrolysis and biooil
Microwave-assisted Metal oxides and HZSM-5 Biooil ns Low cost and environmentally friendly proves [31]
pyrolysis ↑Biooil production
Pyrolysis NaOH Biooil 70 Product meet international specifications [32]
↑Engine performance
↑Fuel combustion
↑Emission
Pyrolysis SBA-15@MgO@Zn Biooil 71.5 ↑High quality fuel produced [33]
AD Pig slurry Biogas 811 mL ↑ Methane production [34]
g− 1 VS
AD Sewage sludge, glycerol Biogas 666 mL ↑ Biomethane production [35]
g− 1 VS
Hydrocracking ZnAl2O4 Biojet fuel 96 Low-cost production of biojet fuel [36]
Product meets international standards
Deoxygenation CaO, Zeolite, V2O5, Pd/C, Biojet fuel ns Product meets ASTM standards [37]
TiO2
Hydrogenation 2-propanol Biojet fuel 72 Product contains 32% alkanes, 16% aromatics and 37% alkenes. [38]
Gasification ns Syngas 85.42 Composition of the syngas: producer gas 70% (H2—47.9% and CO—22.42%), [39]
carbon dioxide (7.74%), methane (7.83%), acetylene (2.27%), ethane (0.42%),
and propane (0.37%).

↑ = increased; ↓ = reduced; ns = not stated, BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption; BTE=Brake thermal efficiency; EGT = exhaust gas temperature; VS = volatile
solids; AD = anaerobic digestion.

et al. [45], Guimarães et al. [46] and Kamarudin et al. [47] explored
transesterification process to convert WCO into dioleoyl ethylene glycol
ester, trimethylolpropane triester, fatty acid octyl esters, isoamyl fatty
acid esters and other grades of biolubricants. The authors recorded high
conversion efficiency and the products comply with ISO VG68 proper­
ties. However, biolubricants produced through transesterification pro­
cess were found to possess low viscosity index and perform
unsatisfactorily at low temperatures. This has resulted in the modifica­
tion of the transesterification method of biolubricants production.
Consequently, Zhang et al. [41], and Srano et al. [48] adopted modified
transesterification process to convert WCO into biolubricants using
lipase and ionic liquids and modified magnetite (Fe3O4-CA) as catalysts
respectively for the synthesis of biolubricants. Some researchers also
explored the improved thermophysical and rheological properties of
epoxidized WCO in the conversion process. The Biolubricants generated
by epoxidation were of better rheological standards and meet ISO VG68
standards for lubricants [49–51]. In their own investigation, Jahromi
et al. [52] applied hydrolysis, dehydration, Friedel–Crafts alkylation,
and hydrotreatment to combat the poor additive solubility, low oxida­
tion stability and low viscosity index demonstrated by biolubricants
produced by transesterification process. The investigation yielded
product with improve pour point, kinematic viscosity and viscosity
index in conformity with ISO VG68 specifications.
Desirous of improving the conversion efficiency, yield and properties
under low energy consumption, less reaction time and other production
parameters, various tools and strategies have been explored by various
researchers. Artificial neural networks (ANN), response surface meth­
odology (RSM), central composite design, genetic algorithm (GA), and

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O. Awogbemi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

Table 4
Application of WCO as biolubricants production.
Production processes Catalyst Product Conversion efficiency/yield Ref.
(%)

Transesterification CaO Dioleoyl ethylene glycol ester 94 [42]

biolubricant
Transesterification CaO Trimethylolpropane triester 97 [43]
Transesterification KOH Fatty acid octyl esters 94.42 [44]
Transesterification HT/K2CO3 Trimethylolpropane fatty acid triester 93.9 [45]
Transesterification Butyl butyrate Isoamyl fatty acid esters biolubricant 90 [46]
Transesterification Para-Toluenesulfonic acid Trimethylolpropane ester 71 [47]
Hydrolysis Lipase and ionic liquid Octylated branched biolubricant 81.22 [41]
Esterification
Epoxidation
Hydrolysis Fe3O4-CA Biolubricant 94 [48]
Esterification
Epoxidation Acetic acid Biolubricant 82.9 [49]
Epoxidation H2SO4 Biolubricant ns [50]
Epoxidation Acetic acid Biolubricant ns [51]
Hydrolysis, dehydration, Friedel–Crafts alkylation, and Cyclic oxygenated Biolubricant ns [52]
hydrotreatment hydrocarbons

other mathematical and statistical tools have been utilized to optimize
and understand the relationships between the process variables and
response. Paul et al. [50] used ANN, RSM and GA to optimize the gen­
eration of biolubricant from WCO by epoxidation while Hussein et al.
[42] simulated the process with Aspen HYSYS V9. These tools and
techniques have helped in minimizing material wastage and cost mini­
mization in biolubricant production.
Key conclusions;
• WCO offers cost-effective, readily available, sustainable and envi­
ronmentally friendly feedstock for biolubricant production.
• WCO can be catalyzed, chemically modified and converted to
biolubricants.
3.3. Other biotechnological applications of WCO
In addition to the aforementioned biotechnological applications of
WCO, several researchers have demonstrated other avenues for the
application of WCO. It is worth mentioning that more investigations are
still ongoing in these areas to ensure that maximum benefits are derived
from this useful waste. Some of these avenues are discussed below and
highlighted in Table 5.
3.3.1. Bisabolene
WCO has found applications as raw materials for other household
and industrial products. The deployment of WCO for the biotechnolog­
ical production of certain valuable products has attracted the attention
of researchers in recent years. One such product is bisabolene (C15H24).
Naturally, bisabolene is found in plants and is used in beauty care,
chemical, pharmaceutical, medical, food, flavor and fragrance in­
dustries. The choice to biosynthesis bisabolene from WCO offers many
advantages including high yield, low cost and environmentally friendly
process [53]. The application of WCO as a feedstock for the synthesis of
bisabolene is still relatively new and reported cases are very limited in
the literature, there is need for more investigations to explore this
important research gap.
3.3.2. Household products
WCO has been used for the production of detergents, dishwashing
soaps and aromatherapy candles. In a reported experiment, KOH was
thoroughly mixed with WCO, as a low-cost base material, to produce
dishwashing liquid soap for household use [54]. Desirous of converting
WCO into a more useful and better quality household commodity,
Yuarini et al. [55] and Astuti et al. [56] in separate researches, mixed
WCO with activated charcoal to produce aromatherapy candles. In all
these cases, WCO was used for beneficial purposes rather than allowing
it to be disposed of inappropriately thereby generating unpleasant odors
and polluting the environment. More innovative pathways for the con­
version of WCO into useable household products are still needed.
3.3.3. Plasticizers
WCO has also been effectively used for the production of plasticizers
and used as additives in the plastic industries, food packaging and toys
manufacturing. Increased demand for plasticizers in the last decade and
the negative effects of petroleum-based plasticizers has made the search
for a viable replacement inevitable. The use of dioctyl phthalate plas­
ticizers poses considerable toxicity risk to children and pregnant women
when consumed. This has necessitated some countries to ban their use in
food packaging and production of toys and consequently shifted atten­
tion to non-toxic and environmentally benign bio-based plasticizers
[57]. The use of neat palm oil as feedstock for bio-based plasticizers will
lead to a sharp increase in food prices and create competition with the
food chain this has shifted attention towards cheap, renewable and
waste biomass for the production of affordable and environmentally
friendly plasticizers. Zheng et al. [58], Cai et al. [59], Suzuki et al. [60]
and Tan et al. [61] epoxidize bio-based plasticizers from WCO. They
reported that the bio-based plasticizers recorded improved mechanical
properties, thermal stability, flexibility, higher oxidation stability,
enhanced low temperature performance when compared with conven­
tional plasticizers. Further, Huzaizi et al. [62], Feng et al. [63] and Liu
et al. [64] have produced plasticizers from WCO and reported that the
plasticizers produced from WCO are safer, non-toxic and exhibit better
overall mechanical and thermal properties than petroleum-based plas­
ticizers. There is a consensus of opinions that the WCO-based plasticizers
pathway is considered as a cleaner, safer, and cost effective route for the
plastic industries. More researches are still needed to devise more novel
and greener ways for the conversion of WCO into bio-based plasticizers.
3.3.4. Polyurethane
Production of polyurethane (PU) foam from edible vegetable oils and
petroleum-based polyester polyols and polyisocyanates have continued
to be a serious concern to researchers due to the high cost of the feed­
stock, reliance on the food product, and the attendant environmental
degradation arising from the exploration of fossil fuels. The use of WCO
as an alternative feedstock for the production of polyurethane foam is
seen as a way of solving the growing concerns. Enderus and Tahir [65]
employed a transesterification method to synthesize polyol WCO, a
bio-based feedstock. Before using the WCO, it was adsorbed by coconut
husk-activated carbon adsorbent. The polyol derived from WCO was
used to prepare rigid PU. The WCO-derived PU is seen as a sustainable
replacement for the petroleum-based PU and viable material for thermal
insulation panels and house construction materials. When Mohd Tahir

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O. Awogbemi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

Table 5 Table 5 (continued )

Other biotechnological applications of WCO. Production process Product Justification/Remark Ref.
Production process Product Justification/Remark Ref.
Transesterification and Methyl ester • ↑ Stain removal and
Biotechnological Bisabolene • Cost-effective, [53] sulfonation surfactant and stain degradation
synthesis of bisabolene sustainable and bio-detergent • ↑ MES surfactant
from WCO using environmentally quality
appropriate enzymes friendly feedstock MES from WCO was Liquid detergent • Cheap, sustainable and [74]
• Multiple applications of added to ZnO ecologically friendly
bisabolene feedstock.
MES from WCO was Liquid detergent • Cheap, sustainable and [74] • 82.36% stain
added to ZnO ecologically friendly degradation efficiency
feedstock. Transesterification Asphalt binder • ↑Stability, modulus [9]
• 82.36% stain stiffness, tensile
degradation efficiency strength,
WCO mixed with KOH Dishwashing • Low-cost soap [54] intermolecular
using a hand blender liquid soap production adhesion
• Product meet standard • ↓Rutting deformation.
Bleaching, heating Aromatherapy • Low-cost quality [55] Mixing of WCO with Asphalt • ↑Ductility and [80]
(750 ◦ C), cooling, candle product asphalt rejuvenator mechanical strength
addition of candlewick • ↓Rutting resistance
and filtering. • ↑ Flash and fire points
Bleaching, heating, Aromatherapy • Economic and [56] of RAP
cooling and filtering candle environmental Mixing of WCO with Asphalt • RAP satisfy rutting [81]
advantages asphalt rejuvenator parameter and fatigue
Transesterification and Plasticizer • Low-cost, [58] resistance standards
epoxidation environmentally • ↑Rheological and
benign and non-toxic mechanical properties
product • ↑Resistance to
Epoxidation Plasticizer • Improved thermal [59] permanent
stability, flexibility and deformation
safety Mixing of WCO with Asphalt • ↓Cost and energy [82]
• Environmentally asphalt rejuvenator consumption
friendly product • ↑Storage stability,
Epoxidation Plasticizer • Improved mechanical [60] temperature
and thermal properties susceptibility and aging
Epoxidation Plasticizer • Better plasticization, [61] resistance.
thermal stability, and • ↑Asphalt resistance to
transparency low-temperature
Epoxidation and Plasticizer • ↑Higher ionic [62] cracking
hydroxylation conductivity product
↑ = improved/increased/enhanced/better//higher, ↓ = reduced.
Epoxidation Plasticizer • Improved compatibility [63]
and stability of product
Epoxidation Plasticizer • Environmentally [64] et al. [66] used activated sugarcane bagasse as adsorbent and WCO as
friendly process. feedstock for the transesterification of WCO, the resulting product was
• Safe, low-cost and non-
toxic product.
found to be cheaper and more attractive with superior physical prop­
• Better mechanical, erties than the commercially available PU. In similar research, kuranska
thermal, and overall et al. [67] synthesized polyol from and used the bio-polyol for the
solvent resistance production of open-cell rigid polyurethane foam. The valorization of
product
WCO into PU was achieved by epoxidation, production of polyol and
Adsorption and Polyurethane • Environmentally [65]
transesterification foam friendly and low-cost forming of polyol to get biofoams. Similarly, when Dang et al. [68],
production of Lubis et al. [69] and Azahari et al. [70] converted WCO into polyol and
polyurethane then to PU, they reported that the bio-PU has better impact strength,
Adsorption and Polyurethane • ↑ Physical properties [66] tensile strength, elongation at break, water absorption, sound absorp­
transesterification foam • Cheaper and more
attractive product
tion properties and performed better than the petroleum-based PU.
Epoxidation Polyurethane • Cheaper and [67] More investigations are required to devise more innovative and
foam environmentally cost-effective routes to synthesis PU from WCO.
benign product
• Easier production
3.3.5. Surfactants
process
Epoxidation Polyurethane • ↓cost [68] Surfactants are petroleum-based products that have sulphonate
foam • ↑ performance of groups for the reduction of the surface tension between liquid/liquid,
product liquid/gas, or liquid/solid phases. To reduce the dependency on petro­
Epoxidation Polyurethane • ↑ tensile strength, [69] leum products, the environmental impact of the feedstock and the pro­
foam impact strength,
elongation at break,
duction process, the use of renewable surfactants has been suggested.
water absorption The most prominent of the renewable surfactants is the methyl ester
properties sulfonate (MES) [57]. The conversion of WCO into MES involved the
Epoxidation Polyurethane • ↑ Sound absorption [70] pre-treatment of WCO, transesterification of treated WCO into methyl
foam properties
esters and conversion of the methyl ester into MES using sodium bisul­
Transesterification and Surfactant • Product yield of 77.2% [71]
sulfonation • ↑ Surface activity. phite (NaHSO3) as sulfonating agent. When Permadani and Ibadurroh­
Transesterification and Surfactant • Corrosion inhibition [72] man [71] followed this process, they recorded a production yield of
sulfonation efficiency of 97.86%. 77.2% and the product exhibited tremendous surface activity. Khalaf
• 99% detergent stability [73] et al. [72] synthesized cationic Gemini-surfactants using WCO as feed­
stock to be used as a novel corrosion inhibitor of N80-steel. The

6
O. Awogbemi et al.
produced surfactants demonstrated an optimal inhibition efficiency of
97.86% at a lower cost. Furthermore, Permadani [73] developed a
bio-detergent from methyl ester sulfonates surfactant using WCO as
feedstock and titanium dioxide nanoparticles as catalyst. Both the MES
and the bio-detergent were found to be better and performed more than
those synthesized from the petroleum-based feedstock. In a similar
experiment, MES was extracted from WCO and added to ZnO powder for
the production of liquid bio-detergent. The liquid detergent exhibited
88.22% stability and 82.36% stain degradation [74]. The valorization of
WCO into bio-surfactants is still a developing research area; more tar­
geted researches are needed to develop improved and innovative path­
ways for the process. In this way, greener techniques for the conversion
of WCO into bio-based surfactants are needed to explore its wider scope
for industrial applications.
3.3.6. Asphalt rejuvenator
Globally, over 120 million tons of asphalt pavements are crushed for
various construction, reconstruction, resurfacing and rehabilitation of
roads, annually. Recycling asphalt pavements is beneficial to the con­
struction industry from the energy-saving, economic, resource alloca­
tion and environmental points of view. Asphalt pavements become aged
when they are exposed to weather and subjected to persistent traffic
loads. In this situation, the binder loses its viscoelastic properties and
makes the asphalt pavement susceptible to cracking and breakages and
needs to be rejuvenated [75,76]. Rejuvenation of asphalt is the process
of reviving aged asphalt by restoring the ratio of asphaltenes and mal­
tenes. This can be achieved by the addition of a rejuvenator or binder.
Recently, WCO has been applied as a sustainable alternative to
ameliorate the high cost and the environmental impacts of the utiliza­
tion of petroleum-based rejuvenators or binders [76–79]. Azahar et al.
[9] tested the performance of treated WCO as an asphalt binder and
reported that the addition of treated WCO to asphalt increases its sta­
bility, modulus stiffness, tensile strength, intermolecular adhesion and
low rutting deformation when compared with petroleum-based binders.
Similar works by Al-Omari et al. [80], Dugan et al. [81], and Yan et al.
[82] confirmed the applicability of WCO as an eco-friendly and
cost-effective rejuvenator for reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP).
Asphalt rejuvenated with WCO showed improved mechanical and
rheological properties, better stability at low temperature, enhanced
storage stability and aging resistance when compared with
petroleum-based asphalt rejuvenators. Though the effectiveness of WCO
as an asphalt rejuvenator is not in doubt, more expanding researches are
required to convince construction workers and practitioners on the
performance, economic and environmental advantages of WCO binders
in pavements. While the efficiency of enhancement of asphalt rejuve­
nator or binder using WCO has been established, more investigations are
needed to determine the optimal dosage of WCO to be used to ensure
full-scale and long term applicability.
Key conclusions;
• WCO is a low-cost and environmentally friendly base material for the
production of aromatherapy candles, liquid detergent and dish­
washing soap.
• Bisabolene, valuable raw material for industrial application, can be
synthesized from WCO.
• WCO can be used as a cheap and eco-friendly feedstock for plasti­
cizers, polyurethane foam, surfactants and asphalt rejuvenators.
• More researches are needed to devise more innovative technologies
for the conversion of WCO into more useful products.
4. Implications
The huge volume of WCO generated globally cannot be overlooked
and ignored going by the enormous investigations that have been car­
ried out on its possible applications. From the quality and quantity of the
revelations on the potential utilization avenues for WCO, the global
7
Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158
community can no longer be nonchalant about the lifecycle of this
resource. When the world is looking for materials to meet up with the
growing demand for goods and services required for the actualization of
the fourth industrial revolution, WCO can be one of the cost-effective
and readily available materials to fill the gap. The high cost of bio­
fuels has been one of the factors limiting the full democratization of
usage, using WCO as feedstock will substantially make biofuels more
affordable, particularly for rural dwellers and local farm owners. The
inappropriate disposal of WCO has greatly affected aquatic habitats by
polluting and distorting the aquatic ecosystem, with some of the sea
animals going into extinction. The utilization of incentivizing WCO
collection will reduce the amount of WCO disposed to harm the
environment.
One of the practical implications of this intervention is that more
avenues for the utilization of WCO are uncovered, thereby stimulating
further investigations for other areas of application. The practicability
and sustainability of concepts of Waste to Wealth (W2W) and Waste to
Energy (W2E) can be achieved and escalated if more attention is focused
on WCO, as a resource. While there are other avenues for converting
WCO into useful products, the biotechnological channel is more feasible
and environmentally friendly. The conversion of WCO into energy and
its contribution to achieving a cleaner environment will assist in meeting
some of the SDGs. With more attention paid to the generation, collection
conversion and utilization of WCO, the journey towards a circular
economy will be faster and more realizable. Waste management, waste
disposal, waste minimization, waste reduction and zero waste will
contribute to a cleaner, safer and sustainable environment, and ulti­
mately healthier people.
5. Conclusion and future perspectives
The large volume of WCO is generated in many nations across the
world but is unfortunately inappropriately disposed of. Illegal disposal
of WCO constitutes an environmental nuisance, emits offensive odors,
pollutes terrestrial habitats and poisons aquatic animals. In the current
effort, three viable avenues for the biotechnological utilization of WCO
have been highlighted with examples of successful production instances.
WCO is a viable, sustainable and cost-effective feedstock for biofuel,
biolubricants, bisabolene, liquid detergent, dishwashing soap and
aromatherapy candles production. The advances in the utilization of
WCO as feedstock for the synthesis of plasticizer, polyurethane foam,
surfactant and asphalt rejuvenator are also highlighted.
However, concerted efforts and policies are needed to provide sub­
sidies for the collection of WCO, innovative pre-treatment and conver­
sion technologies. More targeted and vital research on the collection,
transportation, purification and utilization of WCO is needed. The
introduction and enforcement of subsidy policies, life cycle assessment
studies and monitoring of dangerous emissions during biofuel produc­
tion and other WCO conversion processes will further improve the uti­
lization potentials of WCO. Governmental agencies, private sector
operators and other relevant stakeholders should be mobilized to join in
the awareness campaign and sensitization for the conversion of WCO
into the household and industrial products. Modern and innovative
pathways for the biotechnological conversion and utilization of WCO
should be exploited to reduce the impact of inappropriate disposal of
ever-increasing WCO generation and make more materials available to
support the growing industrial sector. No doubt, WCO will contribute in
no small measure to the realization of the circular economy.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
O. Awogbemi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 4 (2021) 100158

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