LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 1 offered some background about cultural diversity and information-seeking

behaviour of culturally diverse students. To investigate how culturally diverse

students, understand information-seeking behaviour and adjust to library services

and practices in the host countries. Chapter 2 provided the context of the study. This

chapter discusses literature review addresses the concept of cultural diversity and

information-seeking behaviour of students within academic libraries. An extensive

search revealed the paucity of library studies about culturally responsiveness

practices provided to diverse students. Hence, not much research is carried out on

information behaviour of culturally diverse students. Subsequently, less literature is

available on this area. The following section of this literature overview is devoted to

the theoretical foundations of the study, and an overview of the most important

research related to study.

In preparation for this study, the researcher searched for diverse types of sources.

The first source to understand the concepts was books written in detailing studies on

cultural diversity and information-seeking behaviour of diverse students. Secondly,

the researcher accessed online databases, and the search was done in Library search

(a federated search), multiple databases such as ProQuest Central, ProQuest Thesis

and dissertation, Trove, Oaister, ERIC, Academic Search Primer, Science Direct,

EBSCO Host, Web of Science, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Sage, Scopus, OVID

databases, INDEX New Zealand, Newztext, APAFT, NZresearch.org to locate

academic journals, peer-reviewed journal articles, thesis and dissertations, textbooks,

manuscripts, dictionaries, academic conference presentations, panels, relevant

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websites and organizations, AUT Tuwhera (Institutional repository) on cultural

diversity and information-seeking behaviour of students within academic libraries.

Primary search terms included diversity, cultural diversity, diverse students, cultures,

academic libraries, tertiary libraries, university libraries, library policies, diversity

policies, cultural dimension, Information-seeking, and information-seeking

behaviour. Additionally, other studies cited in the retrieved material proved to be

very useful to the study.

The research for the above terms accumulated hindered of thousands of hits, from

which the researcher selected those most relevant to the present study and were

previously published. The selected sources had been reviewed in this section under

various headings, sub-headings, precisely arranged in a way that facilitated the

attainment of the study‟s purposes.

Literature review is organized mainly under the following categories:

Tertiary Education
Tertiary Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
Academic Libraries
Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students
Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students on Information
awareness
Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students on roles of the
library staff

There is a need to have a clear understanding of the relationship between

information-seeking behaviour and the ways in which cultural diversity has an

influence on the services, collections, information technology, and spaces in

libraries. To gain a clear understanding of the influence of diverse cultural identity

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may affect the kind of environments need in the library. More research is needed

about the ways in which information-seeking and their behaviour of the diverse

users‟ in library environment contribute to student success and assists to retain them

within the academia to complete their study.

In this chapter, the intention of reviewing the literature is to synthesise what is

already known about information-seeking behaviour, and to generate new key ideas

and theories. These ideas and theories help us to understand information-seeking

behaviour and practices that would enhance the quality of information-seeking of

culturally diverse students in academic libraries. The research aims to assist

librarians in better understanding information-seeking behaviour of culturally

diverse students, thereby helping them to achieve institutional goals, objectives and

priorities while being mindful of cultural diversities of these students.

The following section offers information on Tertiary education in the context of

multiculturalism.

3.1 Tertiary Education

Tertiary education is useful for all students to become better citizens, to get good

jobs, and support their families financially and morally. In turn, this supports the

country economically, socially and politically. Key conditions to support these roles

in tertiary institutions need to adopt culturally responsive pedagogies and improve

academic support.

The digital revolution over the past few decades, has caused disruption in how

tertiary organizations create and deliver education. These organizations have been

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working hard to transform how they help the students learn skills to enhance how

innovative, entrepreneurial and collaborative will the students be in solving real-

world problems. This approach is supported by industry and governments across the

globe that are prioritising education reforms that emphasise more 21st century

practices (Becker et al., 2017, p.12).

In universities learning is increasingly seen as a collaborative process among faculty

and students. In response to these ideas, faculty has turned away from relying on

exams and papers and are assigning more group projects to students. These group

projects allow students to negotiate their ideas collaboratively and reflect on the

process of knowledge creation (Gayton, 2008). The prevailing educational culture

encourages learning through activity, reflection and conversation (Scottish Funding

Council, 2006). These changes in tertiary education have impacted on library

services, such as demand for library buildings, as places where members of the

academic community can access information in a variety of formats and make use of

a range of learning environments (Antell & Engel, 2006). While Black and Roberts

(2006) argue that new technology is energizing libraries.

Libraries need to reorient their planning towards a systematic knowledge of how

students learn, failing to make that shift will result in libraries that may be efficient,

but not effective (Bennett & O‟Connor, 2005). Tertiary education needs to provide

students with the information and training to take up employment in positions where

future learning should derive from on-the-job training and experience. Now-a-days

employers are looking for graduates need to have extensive knowledge of their field

and also know how to apply that knowledge, as individuals and as part of a team,

and how to keep that knowledge up to date (Evensen & Hmelo, 2000).
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3.1.1 Tertiary Education in Aotearoa New Zealand

All tertiary organizations are committed to helping students stay and succeed in

whatever they have chosen to study, and so the organizations make big investments

to help students have a smooth study. Professor Kift has stated. „it is clear that first

year students face unique challenges as they make very individual transitions to

study; particularly academically and socially, but also culturally, administratively

and environmentally‟ Kift, (2015, p.53). In New Zealand, the Tertiary Education

Quality and Standards Agency monitors the standards of these higher-education

organizations to ensure that students receive a quality learning experience (Ministry

of Education, 2013).

The official views of Tertiary education are vitally important because students learn

to think deeply about the subject to learn it. Universities are not simply for teaching;

they are about learning about life. In 20 years‟, time, Auckland is going to be very

different and if we are not educating the groups such as Māori, Pasifika and Asians

now in South Auckland, then that will not help the growth of this country (Maasland,

2013). The current New Zealand Tertiary Education Strategy 2014-2019 states that

the Government expects universities to create and share new knowledge that

contributes to New Zealand‟s economic and social development and environmental

management, as well as build a productive skills base to drive economic growth

(Ministry of Education, 2013).“A combination of a rapidly changing digital world

landscape, 24/7 electronic access to information and a changing workforce are a few

of key factors currently impacting on the tertiary library” (Department of Labour,

2011, p.171).

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The education system in New Zealand does not graduate large numbers of Māori

students and Pasifika students. Studies of Airni, Mc Naughton, Langky and Sauni

(2007) show it is possible to develop responsive tertiary education environments that

impact directly on the success of diverse students. However, they did not mention on

factors contributing to library practices in a university environment. There could be

many factors which impact on the success of these students.

Students may be older that is who has not come straight from school, who has not

done extended writing for 20 years and may feel overwhelmed by the apparent

expectations around digital literacy. Or students might be very confident with some

subjects, but not so sure of oral-presentations skills. Students may even be the first

person in their family to enrol in higher education (Grellier & Goerke, 2018).

The influx has placed additional demands upon the universities to meet the concerns

and needs of these groups. It is important to acknowledge that, the Tertiary

Education Commission (2012) in New Zealand believes the need for educators to

facilitate an education environment that creates a sense of belonging, that is

affirming and open to diverse cultures. The population of New Zealand becomes

more ethnically diverse, particularly with the growth of the Māori, Pasifika and

Asian groups, that there will be a change in the demands of tertiary education as they

strive to meet the needs of these groups which can make a valuable contribution

(Tertiary Education Commission Report, 2010).

Tertiary education is now transformed from elite to mass education as universities

are opening to more and more people, domestic and international, creating an ever-

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greater student diversity on campus, in terms of not only cultures, backgrounds, and

experiences, but also beliefs and expectations (ACRL, 2012; Hughes, 2013).

Twenty first century was also a period in which universities felt a crucial period of

change, with the notion of competition in Global rankings. These rankings began to

affect the way universities thought about themselves and how their role is, perceive

by society and education industry at large. Globalisation and the emergence of

knowledge economy shifts in economic dynamics and demographics, and an

accelerating information technology revolution put powerful pressures on tertiary

education institutions, requiring them to change at an unprecedented pace to be more

competitive and more attractive to the rest of the world. These escalate the demand

for tertiary education, and they diminish government capacity to meet that demand.

Due to political pressures to maintain competitive tax levels to avoid foreign

investor‟s hesitation and domestic firms and jobs reallocation abroad led to hard

decision on how national budget is spent. The National funding for tertiary education

in many countries has been reduced, and universities are required to be more

financially independent (New Zealand Education, 2014). This leads universities to

depend on international student recruitment who are from diverse cultures as an

important source of revenue.

The Tertiary Education Commission (2012) in New Zealand believes a need for

educators to facilitate an education environment that creates a sense of belonging,

affirming and open to diverse cultures. The following section offers information on

academic libraries in the context of multiculturalism.

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3.2 Academic Libraries

In this section, the role of the academic library in an organization, which serves the

educational information-seeking needs of culturally diverse students, is discussed.

The academic library‟s role is to support the information-seeking needs of all

students irrespective of their study levels and it plays an essential role in support of

the teaching and learning process of an academic organization.

In many parts of the world, the central theme of tertiary education institutions is to

develop lifelong learners with the intellectual abilities of reasoning and critical

thinking. Any training in skills provided towards this direction, leads to the use of

the library systems effectively. Information skills and use of library services

effectively become important strategic issues for university libraries. Today, tertiary

education leaders recognise the urgency of developing international strategy for their

organizations but often lack the knowledge and perspective needed to inform worthy

decisions. Organizations must create educational environments where students will

begin to appreciate the complexity of integration but also develop skills to navigate

it successfully. Libraries and librarians are seeking opportunities to connect,

collaborate and communicate with students to offer effective services and practices

to expand their research and library skills.

Academic libraries primary focus is the education of its students, their learning

experience and their success and creating a vibrant academic learning community by

increasing resources, support, facilities, technology and infrastructures for research.

To ensure effective service, appropriate delivery supports the university‟s strategic

direction, so planning for the library and its future requires a new vision. Council of

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New Zealand University Libraries (CONZUL) also has a shared agenda – their

mission is to act collectively to improve access for students and staff of New

Zealand universities to the information resources required to advance teaching,

learning and research (LIANZA, 2014).

Recent studies suggest that many international students have little or no experience

in using an academic library in their home countries (Hughes, 2013; Mu, 2007).

Some international students, although they enter New Zealand physically, may not

automatically enter its cultural field. Several studies reported that international

students often experience varying levels of culture shock and stress as soon as they

arrive in the host country (Burns, 1991; Gomes et al., 2014; Gross & Latham, 2007;

Rodriquez, 2014). Another study, in which librarians surveyed international students

at three universities in California, found that these students regularly use the library

for study spaces, course materials, and computers, but do not usually interact with

the librarians or make use of other library services which are on offer for them to

succeed and progress in their studies (Knight, Hight, & Polfer, 2010).

Technology advancements help connect students faster and easier, widen access to

available information and facilitate new forms of learning such as collaborative

learning and distance learning. The impact of library environment becomes more

prominent as pedagogical practices in tertiary education start to move away from the

traditional teacher-centred approach to a more flexible user-centred approach

(Bennett, 2006, 2007, 2011; Turner, Welch, & Reynolds, 2013).

In New Zealand, expenditure on academic library services by the six largest New

Zealand universities has fallen 23% from $117 million at its peak in 2009, to $90

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million in 2013 (LIANZA, 2014). LIANZA statistics show a static level of local

government spending on public libraries since 2010, despite huge increases in access

to services such as free internet and e-lending (LIANZA, 2014).

In tertiary education, libraries and librarians work with everyone regardless of

discipline, location, or status of the students and staff. The key role of today‟s

library is to provide information to everybody without any discrimination by age,

gender, race, colour, and so on (McCook, 2011). In addressing cultural and linguistic

diversity, libraries should serve all members of the community without

discrimination based on cultural and linguistic heritage, provide information in

appropriate languages and scripts, give access to a broad range of materials and

services reflecting all communities and needs, and employ staff to reflect the

diversity of the community, who are trained to work with and serve diverse

communities (International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions,

2014).

Offering traditional library services to students from a different culture often means

putting up something that is not particularly attractive or even relevant to them. The

library exposes challenges to students, scholars and librarians, and the institution

faces parallel challenge as in its efforts to adjust to shift. The ramifications of that

change are that focus more indicators on how the atmosphere plays in reinforcing

and reshaping the cultural beliefs and values. The libraries of the future should not

remain static but be continually monitoring the surroundings in which they work to

insure they are rethinking and restructuring to enable the supply of services that

enhance the research, educational activity and learning objectives of the institution

they serve (Keiser, 2010; McKnight, 2010).

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3.3 Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students

This section discusses features of information-seeking behaviour of diverse students‟

in the library learning environments and the underlying influences from which these

features emerge. In the new millennium user‟s information-seeking is domination by

use of the internet, social media and consulting with cultural peers both inside and

outside the organization mainly for information on unfamiliar areas and to keep up

to date of interest. More than ever before, tertiary education libraries are the places

to go to and need to learn all about succeeding in tertiary environments. As tertiary

students, they will need to use more general websites for their research; lecturers will

generally expect students to use a range of sources, including discipline-specific e-

journals, which can often only be accessed via the library (Grellier & Goerke, 2018).

Majid and Tan (2002) on user study investigated needs and information-seeking

behaviour of computer engineering students of Nayang Technological University,

Singapore. Their study revealed that the types of information sources used by the

students are more in electronic format. Safahieh (2006) study to investigate the

information needs and information-seeking behaviour of 204 randomly selected

international students from three major public universities in Malaysia, namely

University of Malaya, University of Putra Malaysia and National University of

Malaysia who came from 32 different countries. She used questionnaire-based

survey method to find out that internet and library were the main channels for

obtaining the information; however, the usage of library was infrequent. Among

various information sources available to students, they relied heavily on internet

resources and books, but the usage of electronic resources such as e-journals and

databases was very low. Many students faced barriers when attempting to meet their
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information needs. The main barriers were English and Malay language related. The

students were reluctant to approach reference desks and professional librarians, and

unfamiliarity with the organization and mission of academic library.

Song and Lee (2012) has investigated a study on mobile device ownership among

international business students from University of Illinois and gathered 101 valid

responses through survey. They found out that a high percentage of international

students owned smartphones, tablets and PCs. The international students did not

seem too interested in e-readers. While communication was their favourite activity

using mobile devices, and frequently used mobile devices to access social

networking sites and search for information. International students are actually being

more prepared than, domestic students in terms of mobile device ownership. It is

important for libraries to acknowledge this high ownership of mobile devices among

international students and evaluate their mobile strategies accordingly. This

population often exhibited different information-seeking behaviour from that of

domestic students.

Mehra and Bilal (2007) pilot study on international student information needs and

use of technology provide that international students face various barriers in using

the technologies such as web search engines and the internet, library resource

technologies and online databases for their academic work. They suggest that

understanding of the critical clues associate with international students „information-

seeking and information needs is crucial. However, Bruce and Hughes (2010);

Hughes (2010, 2013) findings show, despite having sophisticated digital skills when

using internet applications, the international students effective use of online library

resources was limited by a lack of familiarity with journal databases and other
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resources. DiMartino and Zoe (2000); Fatima and Ahmad (2008); Hawthrone

(2014); Hughes (2013); Jackson and Sullivan (2011) describe international students

have difficulties with unfamiliar information sources and practices along with

academic language.

A major international review of academic library impact research conducted by

(ACRL, 2013) provides the best overview of the impact of academic libraries. This

review identified a range of outcomes for university students, faculty and the

academic institution to which the library belongs. The ACRL classified these

outcomes into the framework included range from impacts on student enrolment, and

retention through to student learning, achievement and employment success. The

review also identifies academic library impact on diverse dimensions such as faculty

grants, faculty research productivity and institutional reputation and prestige.

Whereas, Totten (2000) opined that diversity leads to more productivity in

librarianship translates into work that allows the full range of voices to be heard in

every aspect of library practice.

Mallinckrodt and Sedlacek (1987) argued that academic success and retention of all

students was positively related to use of campus facilities, but that the strongest

relationship was between African American student retention and use of the library.

Library is one of the most significant predictors of whether an African American

student will stay in college. They conclude that it is vital, in terms of student

retention, for African American students to use academic facilities such as the

library and to engage in non-academic campus activities.

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Jones-Quartey‟s study (1993) mentioned that the success and retention of

multicultural students depends on the academic library use. It is vital for institutions

of higher learning to expand their efforts to make the academic library a more

welcoming place and to commit to empowering minority students academically

through bibliographic instruction and library use.

Whitmire (2003) analyses library use among multiple racial groups and explores

whether there are differences in their library use patterns. Her findings indicate that

students of colour are using academic libraries more often than Caucasian students,

although they have a lower retention rate. Childs, Matthews, and Walton (2013)

pointed out that student users are becoming more demanding of libraries generally,

including space, because of increased university fees. The possibility of more adult

learners uses the physical collections and space more due to technological ineptitude.

Mathews (2012, p.11) states that embracing a start-up mentality frees the profession

to think beyond the existing service model for libraries, without the restraints of

tradition, in order to “build something that doesn‟t exist and to create something that

wasn‟t there before that is now absolutely essential”. Library and information

professionals have in the past been guilty of designing library services based on what

they think students need, rather than on what students actually say what they want

(Esson, Stevenson, Gildea & Roberts, 2012).

DiMartino and Zoe (2000) note problems with the library classification system,

underdeveloped critical thinking skills, variations in educational backgrounds, and

technological difficulties are common barriers for international students and native-

born students. These problems can be augmented by the fact that certain cultures do

not have libraries, or, if they do, they do not have open stacks. They also point to
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cultural differences in learning styles and they urge library staff to become proficient

at cultural appraisal and more sensitive to cultural differences. They even suggest

library staff to participate in training sessions to increase their sensitivity to the

cultural barriers that exist for international students and scholars.

Developing a multicultural library demands attention to ethnic minorities, but also to

gaps that exist culturally between generations, social classes, and educational levels.

Audunson (2005) had emphasized that programming and events that promote

harmony in these areas can allow libraries to be a meeting place with an integrating

potential in a period of profound cultural, demographic, and social changes.

Academic libraries primary focus is the education of its students, their learning

experience and their success and creating a vibrant academic learning environment

by increasing resources, support, facilities, technology and infrastructures for

research. Librarians need to pay more attention to student learning activities that

have positively changed students‟ awareness of their personal development, to give a

feeling of empowerment and the sense of independence (Vezzosl, 2007).

As the changing happens libraries must cope to meet the needs of new students from

different backgrounds (Martin, 1994). The changing nature of the student

population also has a possible impact, as distance learning, online classes and part-

time studying become more common (Staley & Malenfant, 2010). This potentially

has implications for the physical library environment as students from these

backgrounds, it is assumed, will access the library remotely rather than physically.

However, it has been noted that some of these students may struggle with electronic

library resources, as they may not have used them due to age and socioeconomic

status (Munde & Marks, 2009). Therefore, some of these students may use the
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physical library environment more regularly than a young undergraduate would.

Furthermore, overall it is envisaged that the different student population at

universities with factors such as the age of students, or socio-economic status could

potentially create much greater differences in terms of the use of space in academic

libraries. The university library can also serve as a place where such individuals can

share and celebrate their identity, with other students. However, some universities

like University of Strathclyde, Scotland has decided to reduce the physical space that

the library occupies (Law, 2009). The staff at this university felt the future students

of the library would be digital natives who would prefer to access their information

virtually.

The grandness of the role that libraries play by adding value to learning and teaching

within their creations has always been recognized and this has become even more

important with the heavy emphasis in New Zealand and other regions of the world

on funding models based on student completion rates (Ministry of Education, 2013).

About 25% of New Zealand students (Scott, 2009) drop their tertiary education in

the middle without completing their qualifications.

In the past the libraries were built close to the resources they housed, that is, books

and journals. Tomorrow‟s libraries will be constructed close to the demands of the

students, and the success of libraries will be appraised as to how flexible they can be

as those needs evolve. Libraries recognise that working nearer to their students

increases efficiency. Rao and Babu (2001) suggested the interconnection of the

universe through the utilisation of the internet and Web has changed the fundamental

roles, paradigms and culture of libraries and librarians once and for all.

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Universities should be comprehensively restructured to meet societal and private

demands (Bundy, 2004). The twenty first century libraries should function as a

place of more importance than ever before for peer collaboration, open sharing social

learning and inspire learning from other students that are different to themselves.

These environments in the libraries should shed light on students‟ attitudes,

motivations and challenges on how smart space technology innovations can address

the social class of students by providing the latest gadgets in the social and cultural

environments of the library. Due to these challenges, progressive universities are

changing their curricular, pedagogical and assessment approaches to span across the

societal and individual needs of the students. For this to happen, the designs of the

library should accommodate the new generation of students, and as well as mature

students. New academic library buildings are frequently described as bustling

centres of campus life. The academic libraries need to create library environments in

which students exercise greater control over their own learning environment

(Bennett, 2003), and younger students are the ones whom libraries are attempting to

attract and accommodate by introducing more social and cultural environments.

3.4 Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students on

Information awareness on technology

Depending on the country of origin, culturally diverse students face an array of

difficulties when using academic libraries. Emerging technologies, along with

evidence of changing social media, information-seeking and learning habits of

students influence library environment. Libraries are aware of the increasing mobile

technology ubiquity amongst current and future students of library (Bennett, 2011;

Booth et al., 2012). The further development of computer technology in the 1970‟s
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influenced almost all aspects of the library profession (Secker, 2004; McDonald,

2010). The way librarians acquire, organise and manage library resources is now

overwhelmingly dependent on digital technology. Students‟ need in relation to

library environment has changed due to the adoption of active learning practices and

the pervasiveness of information technology (Bennett, 2003). Therefore, information

technology has become the prime feature of the 21st century learning environments

and reflects the increased use of personal devices on the library campus.

There is a need to develop technologies and strategies for the long-term preservation

of digital information, plus a need to develop the support for carrying this activity as

it provides value to the researchers and bring prestige to the libraries and also to

University. Technology is framed in terms of how it enables customisation,

convenience, interaction, collaboration, experiencing, connectedness, and learning

(Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). As libraries adapt and evolve to meet changing

student expectations and technological capabilities that demand social learning and

promote collaborative learning (Sinclair, 2007). The interactive technologies will be

available in many of its library environments and may be temporarily used to change

the perception of students or participants in relation to library environments. Such

initiatives, which interpret the students‟ behaviour, provide a better awareness of the

students and their place in the group and library environment. For this reason, the

students can improve the communication and interaction among the other students of

those environments.

Sutherland (2003) suggests that because of the swift changes in technology,

increased student expectations, service, competition, changing organizational values,

interdisciplinary studies, e-learning and demand for digital resources, it is critical

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that libraries become learning organizations. E-learning is another opportunity for

libraries in teaching the use of a variety of information and communication

technologies to facilitate student-oriented, active, open and lifelong learning skills

(University of Botswana, 2001).

As a result of technological, social and other factors affecting the information

provision and use, library practices have changed significantly (Simmons & Corral

2011). Librarians today need a diverse set of skills, knowledge and competencies.

Library managers are valuing general and personal skills over traditional

librarianship skills (Simmons & Corrall 2011). In today‟s environment, students

expect to get help with information, technology and other queries from any service

point and at any time of the day.

Libraries have evolved to serve the needs of students and institutions and will

continue to change as the needs, wants, opinions, and technical abilities of students

shift along with advances in technology. The proper implementation of ICT could

help to solve several problems relevant to education. Gokhale and Chandra (2009)

stated that a combination of virtual classrooms, online tutorials and digital libraries

and the virtual reference tools in local language could help the rural Indian youth to

compete with the outside world and move towards information literacy path

irrespective of their socio-economic status. The aim is to create comfortable, lively

and active environments where culturally diverse students can interact with each

other and with technology, and where support for the use of library resources and

technology can be found.

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Evidence of these technological and organizational changes has led some researchers

to argue that libraries are changing faster than the universities in which they exist

(Williams, Nyce, & Golden, 2009). In the recent year‟s information technology, has

grown more sophisticated, and librarians and students have grown more demanding

insisting that technology solutions have the flexibility to meet their libraries unique

needs. According to Balas (2002) planning a successful project involves looking

ahead to possible new uses of information technology in the library. Particularly

librarians who are looking ahead could be aware of current research in information

technology and its application for libraries. Modern technologies in library

environments need to enrich, improve, and even revolutionise the way they help the

culturally diverse students to learn.

3.4.1 Information behaviour of culturally diverse students on role of

information technology awareness in libraries

Libraries need to shed light on student attitudes, motivations and challenges on how

smart technology innovations can address the social class of student by providing the

latest gadgets in the library environments. Developing these technologies which will

enable innovative, student-centred digital and physical services in library

environments (Booth et al., 2012) is gaining importance in the 21st century future

oriented education.

Recognizing the importance of computer literacy to indigenous education, Dyson

(2002) argues that despite improvements in indigenous tertiary education, the failure

rate remains unacceptable high, and advise that if a computer literacy course is to be

successful, it must be culturally acceptable and appropriate to indigenous students;

interest, values, learning styles, and identity.

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Students who come from poorer families tend to have less access to educational

resources and to internet access at their homes. Librarians are expected to deal with

the needs of the digital divide, the information poor and the illiterate, between the

rich and the poor, the haves and have-nots, demanding business-related needs and

survival needs, wireless access and internet connections and a lack of basic

electricity supplies. Librarians must secure their future role and position (Ina, 2004)

particularly for young and mature students at South campus, Auckland for those who

could not afford their own personal computers or laptops or internet access at home.

3.4.2 Change in information awareness

Library practices have changed significantly because of technological, social and

other factors affecting the information provision and use. Dresley and LaCombe

(1998) states that for most libraries, the staff will require technology skills. It is best

to train the existing staff or hire librarians who have the required skills.

Technology continues to develop at an exponential rate. Advances in technology,

include lower barriers to participation, have greatly increased the amount of

information available on the open web. However, some Māori, Pasifika and refugee

students do not have the luxury of computer technology to do their assignments and

research work (Amituana‟i-Toloa, 2013; Bishop et al., 2009). They also struggle to

keep up with the changes of technology. However, in future, these technologies will

become much more integrated, as there is a demand for distance learning and

blended learning courses and innovative teaching in library environments.

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3.4.3 Limitations of information awareness

Responding to researchers, libraries are cooperating to provide research support

twenty-four hours and seven days of the week. To offer this extended support,

libraries use technology that supports texting (email, text, SMS, Twitter, CHAT),

“follow me” telephones (voice, transcript, and translation), and remote access

control of user computer screens. This serves organizations who operate in multiple

locations. As the students become more information literate, librarians reassess

where their services would prove most helpful and spend more time on those aspects

that will have the greatest impact on the organization in achieving its goals.

In the recent years‟ information technology, has become more sophisticated, where

librarians and students have grown more demanding, insisting that technology

solutions have the flexibility to meet their unique needs. The next-generation library

will marshal greater resources for improving the culturally diverse student

experience through technology adaptations and organizational structure, with all

staff eyes on future students, uses, and technologies not just what is possible today.

As South Auckland population has the highest growth rate and largest number of

Māori, Pasifika and Asians, and the prediction of young people will be about 15-39

years old by 2031 (Dresley & LaCombe, 1998; Ministry of Education, 2013), the

information technology in the library environment need to accommodate these

culturally diverse students‟ needs.

Demas (2005) emphasizes during the early days of the IT revolution than many

believe that digital information available on the internet would gradually replace

book, leading to deserted libraries. Simmons and Corrall (2011) believes that new

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skills like Information Communication Technology (ICT) knowledge and teaching

skills are required for the librarians as well as the ability to learn quickly and adapt

to changes in the library profession. Personal skills are becoming more important

and the diversification and modernisation of librarianship have led to some claiming

that a new type of librarian is needed, a “hybrid” or “blended” librarian. Libraries

must adapt themselves to the demands of latest information and computing

technologies as technology has dramatically changed the nature of the librarian‟s

work, making us far more dependent on hardware and software, on campus network

choices, and on the technical staff expertise, as well as on aggregated collections that

are remotely accessed. The provision of the latest technology that is interactive,

efficient and within easy reach of support services to access the library facilities and

services will further enhance the student learning experience of Māori, Pasifika,

Asians and much more (Bennett, 2011; McDonald, 2010).

Evidence of these technological and organizational changes has led some researchers

to argue that libraries are changing faster than their universities (Williams et al.,

2009). Technology is framed in terms of what it enables customisation,

convenience, interaction, collaboration, experiencing, connectedness, and learning

(Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005; Oblinger, 2006), as libraries adapt and evolve to meet

changing student expectations and technological capabilities that demand social

learning and promote collaborative learning (Sinclair, 2007). Because of

technological, social and other factors affecting the information provision and use,

library practices need to change significantly (Simmons & Corrall, 2011). However,

for mature students of culturally diverse students are probably many other causes of

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non-use of Information and Communication Technology, and they can be

intimidated by technologies they do not understand (Selwyn, 2006).

3.5 Information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students on

roles of the library staff

For culturally diverse students to understand and acquire information-seeking in the

host country learning environments they must know about roles of the staff who are

working in the library. This section focuses on these issues.

American Library Association in 1997 first gave importance to develop a national

pool of diverse librarians (ALA, 2007b). They offered scholarship programs to

individuals who want to become librarians from diverse ethnic backgrounds.

Librarians recognise that diversity as an operating principal, and because of ever

increasing culturally diverse students, there is a critical need for a librarian work

force that is diverse. Librarianship aims to be student-centered according to Adkins

and Espinal (2004) and is driven by multitude of languages and cultures that makes

up the profession. Whitmire (2003) noted that there is a critical shortage of diversity

in librarianship. Whitmire study also have shown that minority students use the

library more than their White counterparts. Diversity can increase organizational

effectiveness. To succeed in the roles, librarians should prepare to visualise the new

roles ahead of new developments. To achieve this, librarians should engage with

academics, IT specialists and online learning specialists to assure that they are

equipped to provide relevant and innovative methods at the point of need (Harle,

2009; Keiser, 2010; Vandenabeele, 2008).

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Librarians need to develop a vision for the future of libraries, to embrace the

opportunities and battle the threats, to work towards the common good of all

students. “Our jobs are shifting from doing what we‟ve always done very well, to

always being on the outlook for new opportunities to serve an unmet need which will

advance teaching, learning, service and research,” argues Mathews (2012, p.2). To

be prepared for the future and be ready for new opportunities, many librarians and

information professionals will re-envision their roles and define new opportunities.

Therefore, librarians are not only affiliated with the above roles but also persons that

make a difference in the students‟ perspectives, ideas and knowledge.

Switzer, (2008) contends that there should be a good reason for academic librarians

to identify and consider the unique needs of students to ensure that academic

libraries are welcoming place for all students. Designing diversity initiatives with

multicultural and non-traditional students in mind is key to bridging the various

academic and research needs of today‟s students. Therefore, hiring more minority

librarians, staff and student workers to foster a workforce that is representative of

diversifying university community. Consequently, through such initiative‟s

organizations, along with libraries can hope to improve the educational outcome for

students by presenting the library as a vital part of their outstanding student

experiences.

A diverse cultural community must be reflected in library staff from diverse cultures

to embody the attitudes and beliefs of the community and by their presence improve

recognition of other cultures, and expand the library organizations (Carroll, 1990;

International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, 2014). Librarians

from diverse cultures need to understand the cultural values of students and at times
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the cultural background is equally, if not more, important than their other

educational qualifications. By developing cultural awareness, libraries and librarians

will maintain and enhance cultural values in almost every aspect of library service,

such as accessing, collection development, information literacy and marketing their

services, as these are inclusive of the needs of all student communities.

Jaguszewski and Williams (2013) suggested that there are two important points to

consider for the transformation of liaison roles in research libraries: One is the need

for staff to develop and employ leadership skills refers not only to positional

leadership but to the ability to lead from whatever position an individual hold.

Second one is radical collaboration needs to occur within libraries, with staff

working across traditional silos such as department and divisional boundaries, across

campus where librarians need to partner with faculty and other professionals, and

across institutional boundaries, meeting a dramatic need for libraries to work

together.

Purcell (2012) in her presentation to the State University of New York Librarians

Association Annual Conference talked about the future roles of librarians in this new

technological environment in locating the highest quality information as sentries,

evaluators, filters, and certifiers, and in helping students put the information they

find into action by performing duties as aggregator or synthesizer, organizer,

network node, and facilitator.

3.5.1 Librarians' role as collection developers

Improve equity of access through agreed minimum service standards and greater

collaboration in collection management to reach potentially isolated people

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(LIANZA, 2014). In America, the minorities are fast becoming the majorities and

English is a second language for them. They are demanding resources in their

mother tongue, so librarians should be concerned about the languages that are

representing the collection and consider how large these collections should grow

(Josey, 2002). As the students become more diverse, it is increasingly important to

reallocate funds in order to fund resources to support them (Martin, 1994). Most

academic libraries quickly recognise the need for developing collections that support

culturally diverse students. As organizations continue to support diversity, though, it

will become even more important to reach out to a wider group of culturally diverse

student community and beyond collections and increase diversity in terms of staffing

and programming in order for such culturally diverse students to truly feel they are a

part of the community (Martin, 1994). It is a challenge for librarians to achieve the

goal of having a library with a diverse collection by not offending and acceptable to

other groups of library students. It is also possible that some librarians try to

maintain the collection by degree of intuition and knowledge and even by

recommended readings provided to them by academic staff.

The unpredictability of budgeting for libraries is a final variable to collection

development librarians. The library budget in academic libraries keeps changing

depending upon the Equivalent full-time students. In the South Auckland region,

many students are from low socioeconomic status when compared to Aucklanders

(Rashbrooke, 2013). So, it is the job of the liaison librarians to balance the collection

to provide with multiple points of view.

Quite often the Māori and Pasifika students are labelled as they do not know how to

use the collection, they do not know how to behave in the library environments.
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They are labelled as negative users of the library. Liaison librarians in their role as

information providers, constantly battle with such attitudes and mindsets and

struggle to provide information from all possible points of view (Ferguson, Gorinski,

Samu, & Mara, 2008; Fletcher, 2009; Siope, 2011). Effective collection

development within an academic library can be viewed as a combination of courses

that are being offered at the university. This reflects on academic library related to

that organization. A balanced collection depends upon the subject liaison librarians

and it is considered as a major challenge to both academic and public libraries. The

goal for subject liaison librarians is to develop and equilibrium of diverse

perspectives and ideologies. This supports the concepts of intellectual freedom and

freedom to read.

Building a diverse and multicultural collection is an increasing priority for all types

of libraries, but academic libraries have been active in this area. Increasing focus on

multiculturalism in education, it is important that librarians focus on developing

collections of New Zealand award winners along with other award-winning

collections from across the world. In doing so the liaison librarians should have

appreciation for other diverse cultures and the students have an opportunity to

recommend the collections to the library for purchase.

A diverse or multicultural collection depends on the individual subject liaison

librarian charged with developing the collection. By examining the cultural

backgrounds of ethnic students, liaison librarians are more able to investigate how to

meet student needs. Academic librarians must move beyond fostering diversity in

their ranks, while also maintaining a collection representative of the changing

diversity of the nation and the multitude of cultures worldwide. Therefore, new
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strategies must be implemented to assess the collection and purchase diversity

related materials (Ciszek, & Young, 2010).

Māori, Pasifika and Asian cultures have a tradition of transmitting information from

one person to another person orally, but not in printed form. Development of

appropriate collections that recognise and support cultures at academic libraries of

non-book collection, particularly suited to the needs of Māori, Pasifika and Asian

students in various languages for traditional songs, and stories of their cultures

encourages them to stay longer hours in the library environments and engage with

library resources.

Empirical evidence argues that representation of people of colour in textbooks had

increased during the preceding ten years, but many textbooks were still

homogeneously white and most textbooks with depictions of people of colour still

promoted white characters as the primary protagonists. Resources and cultural

practices will through a colour-blind approach where cultural knowledge, language

and practices are limited, and everything is perverse from a white colour base

(Milne, 2009). While some libraries and librarians advocate for multicultural

education struggle for positive and accurate representations of women and people of

colour, other groups fought to be made more visible in the curriculum (Chapman &

Grant, 2010).

Some academic libraries are relying on approval plans and demand-driven

acquisition (DDA) of electronic books to automate collection development and more

closely align purchases with expressed user needs and requests. The collection

development activities, related to diversity and to well establish ethnic studies

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programs, are also prominent. Attention to diverse perspectives in the acquisition of

materials for the collections became a focus area for subject librarians (Aryal, 2011;

Ina, 2004). It is possible, indeed necessary; to challenge the status quo and bring

about humanising institutional, social, political and educational, change (Freire,

1972, 2000).

3.5.2 Librarians role as information literacy educators

Information literacy is a vital skill central for effective functioning in the twenty first

century. ACRL (2000) Information Literacy Standards for Higher Education, which

define information literacy as the ability to identity an information need, and to

locate, evaluate and use information, were developed in order to structure learner

engagement in complex information landscapes. In the case of information literacy

standards, educators ensure, the way that the standards reduce information-seeking

and interaction to linear and simplistic steps without acknowledging the learner‟s

active role in diverse contexts within the knowledge economy (Elmborg, 2006;

Kapitzke, 2003; Swanson, 2004).

The values of information literacy emphasize that meaningful knowledge

construction occurs when a student is encouraged to draw from prior information

experiences and to reform them considering new and emerging contexts. Within

latest information landscapes, students are continually challenged to manage their

own learning. The speed of change, as well as the growth of contextual information

needs, means that students are required to regulate the direction and scope of their

learning throughout their lives (Buchem, Attwell, & Torres, 2011). Students are

encouraged to take the time to explore and adjust information strategies and

practices as they learn more about their world. This means that students develop the
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capacity to identify the questions that are meaningful to them as well as being able to

understand the orientation and trajectory within information landscapes (Elmborg,

2006).

Information literacy instructors and librarians should be familiar with the individual

differences of the students, as well as with their age. These two factors may help

instructors or librarians to choose the most appropriate way when instructing

information literacy skills to students (Aharony & Gazit, 2019).

Since 2001 in New Zealand, the political mantra in education has been „lifelong

learning‟. By providing information literacy to our students to support young people

to become confident, creative, connected, and actively involved, lifelong learners,

which are the aims of education (Ministry of Education, 2007). The purpose of

academic librarians has changed significantly with increased teaching roles in

teaching information literacy to students at all tiers, and with more liaison roles with

the academic staff. The key role of subject librarians in academic libraries has an

influence on both technological and pedagogical developments that have

transformed the information arena (Aryal, 2011; Ina, 2004; Simmons & Corrall,

2011). As for research librarians, it is the duty to assist local community in terms of

research support in this digital age. Therefore, librarians as information literacy

educators, constantly battle and struggle to provide information from all possible

channels of view to culturally diverse students.

Librarians are not constrained by being assigned to any classrooms; they have the

potential to be learning leaders with the ability to make connections with every

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student in the university environment irrespective of the students‟ culture, languages

(Loertsher, 2006) and their demographic conditions.

3.5.3 Learning in meeting/discussion spaces

Perhaps what may be needed is a variety of spaces and work environments that can

accommodate different users and possess different ambiances where students can

meet, read, discuss and explore ideas (Hunley & Schaller, 2006; Shill & Tonner,

2004; Mandel, 2013). By creating these spaces in the library, it may provide

freedom of thought, as well as urban vitality, more coordinated cultural groups and

lead students to newer and richer cultural experiences as a meeting place. However,

environmental factors such as noise, ventilation and physical facilities, the

availability of resources all influence the use of libraries by students and staff.

Recent cultural, technological, economic, and structural changes in libraries need to

prompt dramatic changes and consequently challenge established notions of what

practices, spaces, and sounds are legitimate in libraries (Milewicz, 2009).

Keiser (2010) states plug the library into the heart of the “business” to deliver timely

and authoritative content and services to the point of need. Organization and

administration must underpin all change. Without adequate support from senior

management, operations of the size, scope, and influence that a library fields cannot

succeed. Nothing can help this transition from traditional to modern information

centre more than a forward-thinking administration and competent leadership team.

However, Harrington, (2001) had claimed that high status meeting places encourage

students to spend more time in the library environments instead of staying in their

bedrooms to study and attend lectures only. In favour of this idea Oyedum and
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Nwalo (2011) state that the availability of adequate library resources and favourable

environmental conditions in the libraries are critical factors to promote the effective

use of resources in the libraries.

Students from diverse cultural backgrounds need to understand the value of the

library as a community connecting social space, and an essential part of the campus

experience, or as a spacious, quiet place for reading and study. Ideally, these spaces

can become centres of value to the whole family and become the repository of social

values (Worpole, 2013). These spaces may be valuable for families who live in

financial poverty and who often suffer the double disadvantage of being poor, and

especially sole parent families where the one parent, usually a female student needs

to do the caring work of two (Devine, 2014; St. John, 2006). It has been observed

families differ by income, social class, ethnicity and religion, neighbourhood and

region, number of members in the family, relationships, patterns of authority and

affection, and their lifestyle (Devine, 2014; Pryor, 2009).

The average cost of space in tertiary education includes capital depreciation,

maintenance and operating costs. Usually the spaces in the library are created

according to the equivalent full-time students of that organization. We need a more

complex way of allocating space than the simple equation for equivalent full-time

students. However, the idea we need to market library space as a product to attract

library users seems a new concept (Elmborg, 2011).

In this regard, the library continues to function successfully as a third place – a vital

place distinct from the home and the place of work (Oldenburg, Bruggen, Gianelli,

Beccaria, & Gastello di, 2006). Bennett (2009) also suggests the development of a

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library space involves fundamental changes to the way that librarians and IT staff

collaborate and that the partnerships offer new and different instructional

opportunities or “teaching moments” for library staff. The Task Group explored the

idea of the library‟s role in supporting a learning environment based on Cal Poly‟s

“learn by doing” philosophy. Faculty were clear that a modern library needed to be

an active place that would support student discovery by adding spaces that could

engage students outside of the classroom in meaningful ways.

“We construct spaces rather than sense them.” (Ellard, 2009, p. 123). The library as

a place is co-constituted by the individual and the space around them (Kracker &

Pollio, 2003). Library spaces are more important for women, since there are so few

places, other than home or university, that are safe or freely available to them.

Having social and cultural spaces in the library is very important for all students, as

it does provide an undisturbed space away from their families, particularly for

women who have families with little children, for families with extended families

residing in the same house, and particularly for Māori, Pasifika and Asians (Devine,

2014). The careful leveraging of the library as safe (intellectual) space provides

opportunities for student learning regarding diversity and inclusion, and a platform

to build collaborative campus relationships and elevate library visibility.

3.6 Limitations of study

The researcher should limit the study due to time and budget constraints. This was a

focused case study with a limited number of participants from an Auckland

academic institution which has multi-campuses. The researcher has limited the study

by reducing the number of students who are studying at tertiary organization. It may

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be possible that the library may not be representative of their groups throughout the

Auckland region.

One context may not apply to another context of this study. As the researcher is a

library staff member and the practitioner researcher, a bias may be present through

preconceptions of researcher.

The study deals with culturally diverse students understanding of information-

seeking behavior in the library environment. In this study, the differences among

nationality, programs, specific discipline are not examined in detail. This aspect is

left for further studies. This study is also limited in terms of gender balances as well,

as most students in the study are female.

The study was limited to three campus libraries of an academic organization in

Auckland, New Zealand. While this organization library does not represent all the

education institutions in New Zealand, they nevertheless have many culturally

diverse students.

3.7 Assumptions

It is assumed that academic libraries have increased levels of diversity particularly in

terms of collections, information literacy classes, and library spaces. It is further

assumed that academic library setting, and the higher level of education attained by

the culturally diverse students within universities, that there would be a greater

openness to the concept of diversity at academic libraries.

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3.8 Summary of the Chapter

Cultural diversity might see unimportant and trivial; it is something that can make an

enormous difference between academic success and retaining of the students in the

academia. Cultural diversity could be a key factor to consider between the academic

success and retaining of the students in the academia. Library managers,

administrators, librarians, academics who fail to understand this and consider the

cultural diversity values, and information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse

students will not only find their changes being rejected, but their leadership as well.

It has also been further discovered that diverse students need not necessarily have

one culture but have different subcultures and have different communication styles.

To motivate library managers and administrators to consider in providing

collections, information literacy for culturally diverse students, information

technology for diverse students, spaces within the libraries. An assessment of

information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students can help library

managers, librarians to articulate clearly their mission and values to bring about

changes in the collection development, information literacy workshops, library

spaces and balancing individuals and taking consideration and bringing forward the

organizational interests and transformation.

In summary, the literature reviews reveal that cultural diversity in academic libraries

is an important aspect of information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse

students. The review also indicates that finding the cultural diversity that relates to

information-seeking behaviour is an important and current topic in the academia.

Many researchers that were listed in this review have established a clear and definite

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relationship between cultural diversity and information-seeking behaviour of diverse

students in various library organizations. Nevertheless, it is evident that more

researches are needed to help practitioners and academics to understand the

correlations among the relationship between cultural diversity and information-

seeking behaviour in tertiary education sector and in particularly tertiary educational

libraries.

In summary, the above literature clearly shows that there is a gap in the literature for

evidence relating to any research that has been conducted in the library sector that

explored the relationship between cultural diversity and information-seeking

behaviour of culturally diverse students. This is an important gap in the evidence

base and hindsight, this research is the first attempt in studying the relationship in

library sector in the world in general and New Zealand. This research fills this gap

by presenting the results of the study conducted by 772 culturally diverse students

within an academic organization which has multi-campuses in Auckland, New

Zealand.

This Chapter has outlined the key aspects of the literature relating to information-

seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students, which include academic libraries,

information-seeking awareness, roles of the library staff, and changing library and

associated spaces within the context of academic libraries. The overview of many

ways in which culturally diverse students perceive understanding is also discussed

which provides potential categories that may be recognised within this study. In the

next chapter, the research design used for this study is outlined.

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 RESEARCH DESIGN

This chapter of the study provides the research methodology for understanding

culturally diverse students’ information-seeking behaviour in library environments.

Introduction

The previous chapters and sections have presented the aims, the context and the

theoretical framework of this research. This section seeks to explain and justify the

methodological considerations which shaped this study on how to examine and

improve information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students in library

environments. The other sections will discuss the criteria adopted for the selection of

research sites and participants, the methods of data collection and methodological

issues and trustworthiness.

The main research question is:

To explore the information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students

within academic libraries.

This can be sub-divided into the following sub-questions.

Sub-Research Question 1: How the cultural diversity and information-seeking

behaviour of diverse students influence the collections within academic libraries?

Sub-Research Question 2: How the relationship between cultural diversity and

information-seeking behaviour of diverse students influence the information literacy
workshops at academic libraries?

Sub-Research Question 3: How might information awareness play in supporting

information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students within academic
libraries?

Sub-Research Question 4: What are the implications of information-seeking

behaviour of culturally diverse students within academic libraries?

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4.1 The framework for this study

Building on existing model of information-seeking and communication by Robson

and Robinson (2013, 2015), encompasses both information-seeking and

communication of students, Bourdieu’s cultural norms and habitus to explore the

information-seeking behaviour and the library practices provide to culturally diverse

students in New Zealand context. By identifying key factors affecting the successful

communication and use of information, it is hoped that the model will be of practical

value both to information providers and to culturally diverse students in academic

libraries.

Many of the theoretical frameworks developed by library and information science

scholars focus on information-seeking activities, but information behaviour in its

widest sense also includes communication and provision of information to diverse

students. Thus, Ingwersen and Jarvelin (2005), p. 259) define information behaviour

as “generation, acquisition, management, use and communication of information,

and information seeking”. Theory and models developed in communication studies

(Windahl et al., 2009) can add further insights to those from library and information

science in our understanding of information behaviour.

The aims of this study will be achieved through quantitative data gathered through

content analysis, and survey questionnaire with culturally diverse students at an

academic library which has multi-campuses in Auckland. To gain a clear

understanding, the influence of information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse

students based on cultural values, library reference services, and discusses how

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culturally specific behaviour can cause affect or misunderstandings in information-

seeking and delivery processes in library environments.

4.1.1 Cultural diversity in academic libraries

Culture is the values, beliefs, thinking patterns and behaviour that are learned and

shared and that is characteristic of a group of people. Culture serves to give an

identity to a group, ensures survival and enhances the feeling of belonging.

According to Bourdieu the term habitus is Library as place for many culturally

diverse students. Library as habitat is also a shelter for many of them. As it provides

a place for new culturally diverse students as a hub to meet their own culturally

group of students. This theory has inspired several cross-cultural studies of values, as

well as research on their aspects of culture, such as social beliefs and values.

According to Bourdieu, perspective considers both the internal and the external

aspects of habitus, including economic and cultural capital, education, class, and

personal, as well as social, historical trajectories. Thus, libraries represent, to some

extent, the intersection between economic and social class, between cultures and

subcultures, and between the technologies of control and the possibilities for

emancipation. Reading the categories through the lens of habitus and social control

helps to illuminate those aspects of libraries that remain untapped, uncaptured by

student survey questionnaires, by service quality assessments, or other important, but

incomplete, means of discovering how well libraries do what they are supposed to

do.

Further to this a theoretical approach to diversity in libraries positivism depends on

quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses. It has been noted that as a
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philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that knowledge

stems from human experience. It has atomistic, ontological view of the world as

comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable,

determined and regular manner (Creswell, 2018) the way knowledge arises forms an

positivism framework of beliefs and this strategy guides and supports methodology

of this project. Moreover, positivism relates to the viewpoint that researcher needs to

concentrate on facts. Survey questionnaire with culturally diverse students at

academic libraries allow to investigate the meanings and context behind the actions

of students for an insightful appreciation.

A framework allows to see how information services is part of a large environment

that has many social dimensions in play, such as ideologies, hegemony (dominance

by one social group over others), socioeconomic forces, spatial practices, and so

forth. Similarly, Bourdieu’s theoretical perspectives helps the researcher to

understand, and how large-scale changes in society, such as globalisation and the

permutations of capital production, affect what might seem to be routine and local

practices, such as library collections development, how the theory impacts on

librarians who are working with culturally diverse students at academic libraries.

The key concepts in information-seeking behaviour that guide this study are detailed

by using some definitions of the concepts by many researchers over the time. The

key variables used in this study are:

4.1.2 Information behaviour

Information behaviour is the totality of human behaviour regarding information,

including “unintentional or passive behaviours (such as glimpsing or encountering

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information), as well as purposive behaviours that do not involve seeking, such as

actively avoiding information” (Case, 2007 p.5). It refers to the actions or reactions

of a human in relation to their information environment, including the environment

within their own mind. Information behaviour can be conscious or subconscious,

overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Information behaviour is a ubiquitous

that is interleaved and interwoven with our other everyday activities, and hence, this

study considers it within a context to get an insight how it reacts with and informs

every aspect of student lives.

4.1.3 Information-searching behaviour

Information searching behaviours are the behaviours exhibited during the process of

searching and locating the information. It includes observable actions on formal

information retrieval systems and informal information sources and includes the

non-observable internal cognitive shifts within a person’s mind. Information

searching theories describe the interactive elements between a user and an

information system and are often conceived of as a process. The current study treats

the information searching process as part of the broader information behaviour of the

culturally diverse students in their everyday lives and does not attempt to study it

separately.

4.1.4 Information-Seeking Behaviour

Information-seeking behaviour is generally conceived as an active or conscious

information behaviour that is prompted by a gap or uncertainty or need in one’s

knowledge or understanding. Information-seeking connotes the process of acquiring

knowledge; it is a problem-oriented approach and the solution may or may not be

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found. But not all seeking behaviours, can include information retrieval. This

research aims to gain insights from existing models of information behaviour,

building on them to develop a new model which, unlike most others, encompasses

both information-seeking and communication. By identifying key factors affecting

the successful communication and use of information, it is hoped that the model will

be of practical value both to information providers and to students.

Design methodology approach - The research is based on a literature search and

analysis of well-established models of information-seeking and of communication,

along with Bourdieu cultural norms and habitus cultural theory.

Existing models have elements in common, though most models in library and

information science focus on information-seeking and the information user, while

those from the field of communications focus on the communicator and the

communication process.

Pure quantitative strategy, with quantitative mixes of the data type, analysis to look

at the findings and compare them, and in this study content analysis, and survey

questionnaires with culturally diverse students lead this study (Cavaye, 1996;

Creswell, 2018; Beck & Manuel, 2008; Bryant et al., 2009; Merriam, 2009;

Connaway & Powell, 2010; Yin, 2014).

Data analysis will follow the deductive approach, deductive analysis to look at the

findings and compare them and whereas inductive approach, analysis for looking

themes.

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Quality criteria depends on how worthwhile the data collected and the, validity and

quality of the study. The validity and reliability depend on the methodological skill,

sensitivity, and training of evaluators.

4.2 Hypothesis/Assumptions

The research hypotheses were framed to find answers to the research questions in the

chapter 1 of this thesis. Subsequently, the following null hypotheses were tested:

There is no significant association between the ethnicity of the respondents

with regard to their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the age of the respondents with

regard to their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the educational qualifications of

the respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the studying departments of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the languages of the respondents

with regard to their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the English proficiency of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the campuses studying of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

162
behaviour. There is no significant variance among the ethnicity of the

respondents and their overall level of perception towards information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant variance among the age of the respondents and their

overall level of perception towards information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the respondents’ overall level of

information-seeking behaviour and their level of using of library resources,

applying search strategies, evaluating information, information and

regulation activities, information literacy, library awareness, cultural

diversity and spaces.

There is no significant association between the respondents’ overall level of

information-seeking behaviour due to variation in gender, age, educational

qualification, ethnicity, faculty, language, English proficiency and campus

studying.

There is no significant difference between the gender of the respondents and

their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the ethnicity of the respondents

with regard to their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the age of the respondents with

regard to their overall level of information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the educational qualifications of

the respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the studying departments of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

163
behaviour. There is no significant association between the languages of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the English proficiency of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant association between the campuses studying of the

respondents with regard to their overall level of information-seeking

behaviour.

There is no significant variance among the ethnicity of the respondents and

their overall level of perception towards information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant variance among the age of the respondents and their

overall level of perception towards information-seeking behaviour.

There is no significant association between the respondents’ overall level of

information-seeking behaviour and their level of using of library resources,

applying search strategies, evaluating information, information and

regulation activities, information literacy, library awareness, cultural

diversity and spaces.

There is no significant association between the respondents’ overall level of

information-seeking behaviour due to variation in gender, age, educational

qualification, ethnicity, faculty, language, English proficiency and campus

studying.

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4.2.1 Ontology

The overall aim of this research approach is to mark libraries relevant means

understanding culturally diverse students and their needs, developing more

supportive and engaging learning scenarios, and creating more inclusive learning

environments in the library. This approach is in line with Bourdieu’s (1997) cultural

theory, Robson and Robinson information-seeking and communication model (2013,

2015), placing the importance of participation and social belonging within specific

contexts, pointing particularly to the relationship between cultural diversity and

information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students.

4.2.2 Epistemology

An understanding of how ideas emerge, how they are adopted and how they evolve,

requires an approach that acknowledges the situation and conditions in which they

are constructed. As a student and a researcher, the discussions with supervisors and

colleagues, the texts and articles the researcher have read, heard at conferences,

observing the culturally diverse student use of the library environments all expose to

a multitude of ideas that shape researchers own intellectual journey. Such journeys

can be traced across thinking to reveal the genealogy of ideas. Of course, many

thinkers have influenced the researcher and thoughts have transformed over time as

they themselves encounter the thoughts of others and developed new lines of

argument.

The new teaching and learning pedagogies in tertiary education are influenced by

Bourdieu’s cultural norm and habitus dimension, Robson and Robinson, (2013,

2015) information-seeking behaviour and communication model. Culturally diverse

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student experience is about seeing the world from another students’ perspective and

considering how to support their needs. It is also about how the services and tools

library provide and how through understanding our culturally diverse students need,

libraries can make them more relevant and engaging. A student-centred focus makes

it possible to create welcoming, supportive, positive and efficient experiences that

hide the seams of technologies, teams, and environments.

As a migrant to this country, like Pasifika and Asian people, the researcher

empathises with students who use academic libraries, as the students are culturally

ethnic, value oriented, and give importance to family and extended family. For some

students, English is not their first language, although English and other languages,

oral communication has been used an interpretive and a social resource by a cultural

group of students, which enables them to build dialogue and description in libraries

and, at times, during library information literacy workshops. Hence language and

communication can unite and create consciousness among the students in library

environments.

After assembling the data from the content analysis, survey questionnaires, with

culturally diverse students’ deductive, and logical thinking will be utilised.

In Māori, and Pasifika cultures, the constructions and reconstructions of knowledge

are usually conveyed orally or vocally. This is implanted in their culture, upbringing

and race (Amituana’i-Toloa, 2013; Spoonley, Pearson & Macpherson, 1991).

Whereas in Western or European, constructions and reconstructions of knowledge

are usually individual and independent (Amituana’i-Toloa, 2013; Spoonley et al.,

1991).

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Bourdieu’s theory places people of colour at the bottom of the social order, whereby

their contributions, epistemologies, heuristics and perspectives are not acknowledged

or accepted as valid, or at least not on par with the dominant paradigm. In academic

libraries, Bourdieu theory can be used to interpret why collections and services often

lack and breadth in areas related to diversity, why collections are classified and

organised in schemas such as the Library of Congress Classification Schedules. The

library, and librarians facilitate in the production of knowledge rather than

transmission of knowledge. This model challenges the Bourdieu’s notion to

recognise the importance of students’ different backgrounds, the distinctive ways in

which they process information, and the fact that students can learn more efficiently

from participatory and dialogic methods of learning. Understanding these minority

experiences within them, become crucial to gain a greater sense of the ways in which

young students become active citizens who create and sustain a democracy (Riedler

& Eryaman, 2010).

The idea of cultural and social environments has been explored through viewing

through the multiple lenses of Bourdieu cultural dimensions’ theory, and Robson and

Robinson model how library environments are constructed and experienced, how

they are represented and how they are used as representations in themselves, relating

to changing multicultural identities.

The model also changes how students envision learning by encouraging students to

see learning as a socially responsible and ethical course of action, what Robson and

Robinson (2013, 2015) terms information-seeking and communication. This

provocation to thought, thinking differently about the social world will lead to

change in the way society is lived. However, if facilities and policies are to be
167
developed that make the library a welcoming, comfortable library environment that

supports collaborative research activities and enables individual to work together

effectively. To turn traditional libraries into social and transformative library

environments for the development of student community member consciousness,

must also consider what prevents such development, particularly the barriers that

exist for underrepresented groups, including the digital divide, social and political

exclusions from democratic participations, and individual, institutional, and

structural inequalities of allocation and distribution of collection resources.

ISCM pays attention to and builds on the knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes

that culturally diverse students bring with them. It is therefore culturally responsive,

appropriate, and relevant in its attempts to help students make connections between

previous knowledge and current knowledge. Bourdieu’s approaches to library

pedagogy promise fresh perspectives on the issues of participation in the cultural

environments and representation. Thus, cultural norms and habitus suggests a series

of moves to refuse, to resist, to reject, to disagree, to criticise, to imagine and to

think otherwise by which the critique of multicultural may bring about change in

library learning environments (Dant, 2003).

The skills, background knowledge and resources available to culturally diverse

students make sense of how they are identified and belonging to in educational

settings. These educational settings create environments and provide support for

students to engage and persist. This sense of belonging and participation of an

educational library environment shapes students’ engagement with, and willingness

to, persist in an educational setting such as library environments. The researcher

argues that the adoption of cultural dimension framework based on Robson and
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Robinson model identifies the characteristics of a library; contribute towards the

development of library environments and practices towards the culturally diverse

students at academic libraries.

This methodology accelerates discovering possibilities, addressing needs, and

proposing solutions, whether launching innovative ideas or initiatives or addressing

existing ones. This framework helps to unlearn their stereotypical knowledge of

culturally diverse students, while analysing, problem solving and theorising.

Embedded in this framework is a pedagogical approach that uses Bourdieu cultural

norms and habitus, information-seeking and communication model of diverse

cultures for helping libraries, librarians to identify, analyse the causes of the

situations or problem and to find solutions to the problem. To raise the

consciousness of librarians and the oppressed members of society about the

conditions of exploitations and how they can liberate and empower themselves to

take control of their own lives and shape their own future. The librarians either

supports the minorities or oppressors who have appropriate material conditions of

life-wealth, land, property and have constructed a social, cultural, and political

system that justifies their exploitation of subordinated groups, or the librarians acts

to advance the liberation of the dispossessed.

The goal of library pedagogy is the creation of a new social order. Creating a new

world will come from opening the self and society to new possibilities for leading a

richer and fuller life. The new world is not a perfect vision, but the result of

transformation of the social situation into one of more open, enriched possibilities.

The paradigm also replaces the traditional relationship by which culturally diverse

students are dependent on, and obedient to, the structures of institutions and
169
professions with postmodern transformative libraries working through conversation

rather than instructions: co-creation between culturally diverse students and

librarians, rather than delivery; mutual support and critical engagement among

culturally diverse students and library professionals. The information

professionalism is not only about delivering a service; it is also about encouraging

culturally diverse students to acquire the critical literacy skills to understand their

lives more effectively. The ability to work in a multidisciplinary environment, a

willingness to take personal responsibility for conversation, and an enabling and

collaborative approach to work with culturally diverse students must be a

prerequisite to librarians.

Culture itself is also a powerful transmitter of constructions, and some of the

constructions we carry around with us are inherited from our culture, our social

standing, or our “stand points,” that is, our race, class, gender, religious upbringing

socioeconomic status, political preferences, the geographic region in which we grew

up nationally, sexual orientation, and a virtually endless array of social cultural,

educational, and military experiences (Amituana’i-Toloa, 2013; Bourdieu, 1997;

McLennan et al., 2010; Mu, 2007; Ng Shiu, 2011).

Researchers argues that understanding cultural norms and habitus is important in

libraries that affects the information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse students

within academic libraries. Cultural norms and habitus believe to larger social,

political, and economic goals of establishing greater equality and equity for students

in academic libraries. Raise the consciousness of those who have been consigned to

lesser, marginal and subordinate positions in society due to their membership in a

racial, ethnic, language, class, or gender group. Such consciousness rising is

170
necessary as a first step to empowerment. The incorporation of cultural norms and

habitus and ISCM into Library and Information Science (LIS) research is beneficial

in that it forces to be more in tune with the current understandings and scholarly

trends. As library and information science is a practice-oriented field sophisticated

use of theory makes scholarship and practice more relevant to a larger organization.

4.3 Methodology

Methodologies express being (ontology) and (knowing) epistemology in terms of

styles of inquiry: how we know the world view or gain knowledge of it (Creswell,

2018). It directs how the researcher composes the research questions and resolves

the process and methods to practice. Decisions about design, measurement, analysis,

and reporting all flow from purpose”. According to Yin (2014) the research design is

the action plan that enables the researcher to move from research questions to valid

conclusions through the collection and analysis of data. In this study, descriptive

data that was used for instrument development.

4.3.1 Quantitative approach

Using the quantitative approach, the researcher will try to discover the answers to

research queries, from the culturally diverse students at academic libraries.

Quantitative analysis is guided by hypotheses. The researcher has framed questions

related to the research topic, issues, and a search for variables/patterns. Quantitative

research involves a sense-making approach to translating data and variables. In the

last few years, many scholars in tertiary education have increasingly emphasized that

quantitative studies are needed to enhance the understanding of important issues in

universities. In academic organizations, increased attention is given to the use of

171
research that probe deeply the institutional life and seek a greater understanding of

an institutional and cultural environment now known to be much complex that first

imagined.

The researcher intends to do a quantitative description and analysis of multiple

instance (Cavaye, 1996; Beck & Manuel, 2008; Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2014). The

descriptive and postivism study is best suited to research topic and question, where

this is a descriptive study and to make unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a

common language about the topic in question.

After careful thought about the site selection by considering the nature of the topic.

The researcher has chosen an academic organization in Auckland which has multi-

campuses as it has indigenous student population (Māori) along with Pasifika and

other immigrant students such as diverse students, geographical dispersion, and the

size of the libraries. The researcher intends to study information-seeking behaviour

of culturally diverse students in academic libraries to find out the strengths of the

libraries, its weakness and things librarians could do to improve the libraries to

facilitate multicultural students’ engagement with learning through better use of

library resources and practices. This methodology is culturally appropriate to state

different ethnicities views to put forward using survey questionnaires with the

respondents.

In conducting this research, it was planned to be done following an established

protocol, which covers field procedures, data to be collected, data collection

methods, and so on. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of

demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms, community values,

172
ingrained attitudes, and motives. The researcher aware of the most serious

disadvantage of the study as a methodology was the questions of representativeness.

There was no way of knowing whether the study represents a population. And for all

intents and purposes, replication was somewhat impossible or may be possible.

4.3.2 Case study design

Case study design is a well-established approach. This case study is an inquiry that

investigates the contemporary phenomenon of information-seeking behaviour within

a real-life context, especially when the boundaries between variables and context are

not evident (Yin, 2014). A case study approach does not represent as a method but

rather is “concerned with the case or what is to be studied” (Stake, 2000, p. 236).

Case study as a methodology enables the researcher to learn about culturally diverse

students’ perspectives through questionnaire in a social context (Beck & Manuel,

2008; Cavaye, 1996; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011; Creswell, 2018; Powell &

Connaway, 2004).

Single cases are a common design for doing case studies and become particularly

useful where one needs to understand some problem or situation in great depth. This

approach can identify cases rich in information, rich in the sense that a great deal can

be learned from a few examples of the variables in question and can provide good

answers to the “how” and “why” questions, which require exploration and

explanation (Yin, 2009). Thus, this study was a quantitative, description and analysis

of a variable – information-seeking behaviour – and a social unit – a New Zealand

academic library (Beck & Manuel, 2008; Cavaye, 1996; Cohen et al., 2011;

Merriam, 2009).

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According to Merriam (1998), there are three main types of case studies, namely

descriptive, interpretative and evaluative. This study is a descriptive case study and

the data was collected with the intention of analysing, interpreting and

conceptualising information-seeking behaviour in library environments, rather than

judging the variables under study (evaluative) (Stake, 1995).

4.4 Methods

Methods are defined as “techniques employed to collect, and study information

related to some research question” (Crotty, 1998, p. 3). Due to the nature of

questions, the researcher will use appropriate quantitative methods, to access the

information like survey questionnaire with culturally diverse students to pick up

multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 2009, 2014) which contribute to the findings of

the research an important aspect of the reliability and validity of the findings. With

culturally diverse students about their experiences regarding the relationship

between information-seeking behaviour and their diverse needs at academic

libraries, will form the structure of the data collection methods. The case study

allows a flexible approach to data collection methods, providing a basis for data

interpretation.

However, positivist research is not without criticism. It could be regarded as being

very narrow and unable to demonstrate the holistic nature of culturally diverse

students. The findings from positivist studies are often superficial and fail to

contribute to a deep understanding of an issue. Finally, by applying research

principles about the natural world to the social world of human beings, positivist

research seems to ignore the complexity of human life and the difficulty of the

174
researcher remaining objective and detached from the respondents with whom s/he is

carrying out research.

4.4.1 Information

Information is conceived of as and perceived difference that makes difference within

a conscious human mind. According to Edwards (2016), only the material

component of an item for information can be communicated (words, a book, images,

documents, sounds, people or any other medium or transmission), and not the

meaning of information. Hence, “information is a human construction, and therefore,

what we are attempting to do when we search for information is to make sense of

what we have found. That is students we construct our own reality from what we

find” (Edwards, 2006 p.5) and what we find transforms information itself

information only in our minds. The current study has an insight into it through the

participant’s experiences and giving a voice to their feelings and thoughts.

4.4.2 Questionnaire-based Survey

Questionnaire-based surveys were distributed to culturally diverse students who are

studying at an Auckland tertiary organization and who are using the library facilities.

This method allows for the overall attitude towards cultural diversity to be assessed

at the library studied, however it is possible that there could be a difference in

responses among students. The survey had a total of 75 questions. Respondents

answered using four-point Likert scale.

Finally, all data will be collated from the survey questionnaire.

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4.5 Selection of Participants

For this research study, random sampling was used to get the data through the

methods for the research purpose. The sample will be a random sample of culturally

diverse students from tertiary academic organization.

The researcher working as a librarian, and aware of library environment and

familiarity with academic libraries, and specifically selected the sampling method,

because of feasibility, flexibility and location of the tertiary organization. The most

appropriate sampling method for this type of research study was random sampling.

In this research work, random sampling was appropriate for a study where there is

no intention to generalise results, but rather a collection of descriptive data from

different ethnic groups of students are efficient. A random sampling was the

principal strategy in an inquiry, where there are no strict criteria for sample size

(Creswell 2018).

4.5.1 Source of data and Unit of analysis

Source of data normally refers to the primary source form where information is

obtained for the study. The data for this study were collected from primary sources

and additionally, secondary sources of data were collected from books, journals and

scholarly websites. Unit of Analysis refers to social and cultural entities whose

social and cultural characteristics are the focus of the study (Creswell, 2018). The

unit of analysis may be individuals, groups, programs, organizations, or institutions

depending on the research questions developed for the study. In this research study,

the respondents were culturally diverse students from an Auckland tertiary

organization constituted the unit of analysis.

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4.5.2 Field of Study

This study was conducted among a tertiary educational organization in Auckland,

New Zealand which has multi-campuses. New Zealand being a small country with a

population of four million with multinational and multi-ethnic. New Zealand is

divided into North Island and South Island having eight universities across North

and South Islands and many polytechnic organizations. Most of the universities are

top class Western universities having their branch campuses in New Zealand and in

overseas. All the universities and institutions are accredited by their respective

agencies and by the Ministry of Education in New Zealand. Most of the universities

and polytechnic offer certificate, diploma. undergraduate, graduate, masters, doctoral

and research programs in various disciplines.

4.5.3 Selection of Organization

The study aimed to explore the information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse

students in an academic organization in Auckland, New Zealand. It was important

for the chosen organization to be accessible for the researcher. The accessibility was

determined based on the strength of the researcher’s network and have worked for

the past 18 years at an academic institution’s library. University library is not only

home to the researcher, but also support the largest number of culturally diverse

students.

After careful thought about the site selection by considering the nature of the topic,

the researcher chose a university library with has multi-campuses in Auckland. The

chosen academic organization has three campuses such as City Campus, North

Campus and South Campus located in different regions of Auckland city and has the

177
second largest number and highest proportion of culturally diverse students of New

Zealand universities. In 2018, AUT academic organization had nearly 29,250

students including 5,600 international students from 137 countries (Auckland

University of Technology, 2018).

4.5.4 Universe

Universe refers to the totality of units from which the sample is drawn. In this

research study the universe consisted of students from an Auckland tertiary

organization which has multi-campuses.

4.6 Determination of Sample Size

The ever-increasing need for a representative statistical sample in empirical research

has created the demand for an effective method of determining sample size. To

address the existing gap, Krejcie & Morgan (1970) came up with a table for

determining sample size for a given population for easy reference.

The sample size for the present study was determined based on the Sampling

techniques by Krejcie & Morgan (1970) Table for sample size. The sample size for

the present study is 772 students out of 29,250 students. They were selected at 95%

confidence level confident and margin of error at 3.5%. The sample size has been

also constructed with Raosoft sample size calculator.

178
This study includes the indigenous students (Māori) along with other culturally

diverse students who are studying at Auckland tertiary organization. Students from

each faculty, from Art & Design; Education; Business; Health; Sports,

Communication studies, Engineering, Computer studies with different nationalities

such as Pasifika/Māori/Asians/Indians/Pakehas and so on as their background. Both

genders are represented, and many ages of 18-60 of culturally diverse student

questionnaire-based surveys and no age limit.

4.7 Data collection procedures and instrument

Data collection through questionnaire-based surveys, mostly will take place in at

academic libraries. The data collection was not limited to a level of study studies, but

at every level. The researcher plan to gather information with the respondents during

the semester. A research questionnaire-based survey consisting of the instruments of

179
cultural dimensions and Information-seeking and communication model was

designed. The cultural dimensions were to describe culture and cultural strengths

(Bourdieu, 1997). The instrument was common to the information-seeking

behaviour of culturally diverse students (Robson & Robinson, 2013, 2015; Wilson,

1981, 1997, 1999). The researcher intends to gather the data collection during 2018

semester. Many researchers have also used Robson and Robinson model to ascertain

the relationship or diagnose information-seeking behaviour (Savolainen, 2017, 2019;

Griesbaum, et al., 2015; Zhitomirsky-Geffet & Balu, 2017; Rather & Ganaie, 2017).

4.7.1 Data collection timeframe

Researcher gathered information with the respondents during Semesters 1 and 2,

2018 at university multi-campus libraries.

4.7.2 The Research Instrument

Bourdieu cultural norms and habitus framework was used to determine culture types

and how they could be related to information-seeking behaviour of culturally diverse

students. The first phase of the two-part sequential descriptive/explanatory strategy

would include quantitative data that will be collected and analysed from a

questionnaire-based survey utilizing three components: a demographic respondent

profile, a cultural dimension by Bourdieu (1997), and an information-seeking and

communication model developed by Robson and Robinson (2013, 2015).

The research instrument (Appendix I) that was used contains four components:

A. Participants profile - Demography

The first component of the questionnaire-based survey was concerned with the

profile and personal demographic details of the participants. This instrument was
180
necessary for making statistical comparison regarding personal characteristics likes

gender, age, education, ethnicity, nationality, and so on. To maintain anonymity

among the participant whilst extracting, sensitive information, the name of the

participants was not asked at all in the questionnaire-based survey and all the

responses were kept in strict confidence. The identity of all the participants in this

research were also kept in anonymity because this research is all about determining

the relationship between cultural diversity and information-seeking behaviour and

not evaluation of individual or individual organization or libraries.

B. Cultural diversity norms and habitus by Bourdieu (1997)

Drawing from the ideas of Bourdieu (1997) uses a five-point-point Liker scale and

there are six items that address various dimensions of cultural diversity. Each item

presents four alternative statements that represent each of the five quadrants of the

framework.

C. Information-Seeking and Communication Model (2013, 2015)

The information-seeking and communication model was developed by Robson and

Robinson (2013, 2015). This was developed by combing and refining a process of

information-seeking and communication.

Any organization that is looking for implementing a successful information-seeking

and communication model for culturally diverse students within academic libraries

must be using the process and depending on the nature of their library environment.

The process is an integral component of the dependent variable that is used to

measure the information-seeking behaviour and communication activity in an

organization. The ISCM consists of items, each representing a process. Each has five

181
descriptive statements to assess the level of activity within the information-seeking

and communication model (Robson and Robinson, 2013, 2015). Each statement uses

a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (always, often, sometimes, never) to 5 (not

applicable).

D. Cultural diversity profile of an institution to measure the information-

seeking and communication model

The purpose of cultural diversity is to assess key dimensions of information-seeking

of cultural students that were explained in Chapter 1. By completing this culturally

diverse students will be providing a picture of fundamental assumptions on which

libraries operate and the values that characterize it.

Dependable variables: Overall level of information-seeking behaviour

Independent Variables: Gender, Age, Educational Qualification, Ethnicity,

Faculty, Language, English Proficiency and Campus Studying

4.8 Validity of the methodology (Quality criteria)

According to (Creswell, 2018) Quality criteria depends upon the trustworthiness,

credibility, transferability, authenticity, validity, reliability, confirmability and

conformability depend on the methodological skill, sensitivity, and training of

researcher. Reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the actual measuring what

the researchers set out to measure and how truthful and quality the research results

are (Creswell, 2018; Yin, 2014).

4.8.1Trustworthiness: Keeping the above quality criteria in mind, in this empirical

research approach the researcher wants to suggest the reliability and validity of the

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results or findings are contingent upon the way data are collected, analysed,

interpreted, and presented with trustworthy evidence. The meaning of the language

must be preserved, but since it must be understood within it in a new language

world, it must establish its validity within it in a new way. Language is the universal

medium in which understanding occurs. Understanding occurs in the way

interpreting takes place.

4.8.2 Reliability: The operation of this study such as the data collection procedures

can be repeated, with the same results.

4.8.3 Credibility: Along with framing the research questions, a style of writing that

draws the readers so closely into the subject, use of sound research method like

questionnaire-survey with culturally diverse students enhance the quality criteria of

research study. As far as the methodology of study was concerned, most of these

criteria have been carefully considered when designing the study. An additional step

needs to develop a familiarity with the multicultural of the participants.

4.8.4 Validity: Validation is the gathering of evidence supporting inferences to be

made based on the scores obtained from the operations of measurement. There are

four major types of research validity in quantitative research. They are: a) statistical

conclusion validity degree to which a claim about the existence and strength of a

reported relationship is correct b) construct validity degree to which a construct is

adequately represented by the operations used in the study and c) internal validity

the correctness of a claim about cause and effect and d) external validity degree to

which the results can be generalised to and across other people, settings, treatments,

outcomes and times.

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To analyse construct validity of the survey instrument, a factor analysis was

performed. SPSS 16.0 was used to conduct the quantitative portion of this analysis.

Factor analysis was used to detect which survey questions should be grouped

together in the applying search strategies, evaluating information, information and

regulation activities, information literacy and library awareness. Internal validity

relates to causality and it was argued that Palaiologou, Needham and Male (2016) in

order to exist, there has to be a cause-and-effect relationship demonstrated by (a)

covariation between the variables being analysed; (b) the methods applied in the data

collection demonstrate that the cause preceded the effect; and (c) potential

alternatives have been eliminated.

To test the internal reliability of the survey, instrument a Cronbach’s Coefficient

alpha test was used. This test is appropriate for estimating internal reliability and

indicates the degree to which the instrument items are homogeneous and reflect the

same underlying construct Palaiologou et al., (2016). Additionally, Cronbach’s

Coefficient Alpha test has the most utility for multi-item scales at the interval level

of measurement Palaiologou et al., (2016). SPSS 16.0 was used to perform this

analysis.

Construct validity indicates the reasonableness of the methodology used in the

analysis (Creswell, 2018). The measures and their use must be representations of

valid constructs in order for valid inferences to be projected. Finally, statistically

conclusion validity is defined as the ability to infer and make conclusions based on

the statistical evidence provided in the study (Creswell, 2018). The lack of statistical

conclusion validity causes significant concern, as the inappropriate use of a

measurement tool will negatively influence both internal and external validity of the
184
research. There are several types of statistical methods are available for this type of

analysis. According to Palaiologou et al., (2016) arithmetic means and standard

deviations are appropriate measures of central tendencies. Since the Likert scale

survey items are coded at the interval level of measurement, the appropriate bivariate

and multivariate statistical tests were applied. Tests included Correspondence

analysis using the Pearson product moment coefficient and were concluded to be

acceptable tests for these types of data. When comparing several groups to each

other, several tests could be used to analyse their relationships. Since parametric

methods have been determined to be appropriate, ANOVA tests were used to

compare the age and dimensions related to information-seeking behaviour of

culturally diverse students. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is a comprehensive

statistical approach for testing hypothesis about relations between observed and

latent variables. It combines features of factor analysis and multiple regressions for

studying both the measurement and the structural properties of theoretical models.

SEM is formally defined by two sets of linear equations called the inner model and

the outer model. The inner model specifies the relationships between unobserved or

latent variables, and the outer model specifies the relationships between latent

variables, and their associated observed or manifest variables.

First, the bivariate correlations between the dimensions within each construct were

checked. All dimensions were within the acceptable range for factor analysis. It is

necessary to establish convergent and discriminant validity, as well as reliability.

To attain reliability and convergent validity the study should attain CR > 0=7

(reliability), CR > (AVE) and AVE > 0.5 (Convergent Validity). The Composite

reliability in the study is above 7, and all the Composite reliability values were
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higher than the average variance explained, the average variance explained, were

higher than 0.5. The analysis indicated that all dimensions were valid and reliable

measures for their respective constructs. The convergent validity is achieved.

Bourdieu (1997) have cited several studies where tens of thousands of people from

hundreds of organizations were surveyed and their responses analysed, and the data

have been successfully validated. These studies provide enough evidence that the

data collected using the Bourdieu cultural norms and habitus is valid and reliable.

Robson and Robinson (2013, 2015) model has been cited by many researchers in

library field. The responses were analysed, and the data have been successfully

validated. These studies provide enough evidence that the data collected using the

Robson and Robinson (2013, 2015) model is validated and reliable.

4.8.5 Transferability: This refers to the extent to which findings of a study can be

applied to other contexts (Creswell, 2018; Yin, 2009, 2014). In this study the

findings relate to a specific context of academic libraries in Aotearoa New Zealand.

4.9 Data Analysis Techniques

SPSS social statistical software package 16.0 was used to analyse the data using

inferential statistical methods. Descriptive analysis was used to provide a

demographic profile of the culturally diverse student participants. This data provided

information regarding the participants age, gender, education, nationality, ethnicity,

faculty, and so on. Inferential analysis was used to reject or accept the null

hypotheses. The research questions studying the relationship between cultural

diversity and information-seeking behaviour characteristics were established using

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standard statistical measure. The criterion for the rejection of the null hypothesis was

a determination of statistical significance of probability.

The independent and dependent variables used in the study were measured using a 5-

point Likert scale, which social scientists agree that they can be safely used in

statistical analysis as continuous variables (Christensen et al., 2014). Pearson

Correlation & stepwise multiple regression analysis, one-way ANOVA and the t-

tests were used to validate if a relationship existed between cultural diversity and

information-seeking behaviour. The significance of the independent variables on the

dependent variables was tested using correlation analysis and in addition to it

regression analysis was also used. F-test and one-way ANOVA tests were used to

determine a significant difference existed between dominant and balanced cultural

diversity types in relation to information-seeking behaviour.

Pilot study

The researcher conducted a pilot study among 20 culturally diverse students in

Auckland, New Zealand with the intent of getting feedback from the participants about

the appropriateness, comprehensiveness and ease-of-use of survey questionnaire. The

final version of the survey questionnaire is given in the Appendix I.

4.10 Positioning as a researcher

In this research the questions arise of who is doing the research, who are the

participants, who is selecting them, facilitating, and orchestrating the process. As

Creswell (2018) comments, the researcher filters the data through a personal lens

that is situated in a specific socio-political and historical moment. As Denzin and

Lincoln (1994) comment, the researcher is not an empty vessel, but comes with a set

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of ideas, framework (theory, ontology) that specifies a set of questions

(epistemology) that are examined (methodology, analysis) in a specific way. Behind

these ontologies, epistemology and methodology, there stands the personal

biography of researchers who express themselves from a gender, class, race, culture,

and ethnic background.

The researcher has postgraduate qualifications in Master of Education (Research)

Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia; Science (MSc), Education (MEd), and

Library and Information Science Education (MLISc) in South India, along with a

Master of Philosophy (MPhil) degree. Furthermore, the researcher has a Certificate

in Tertiary Teaching from New Zealand University. Before the researcher

immigrated to Aotearoa New Zealand, the researcher worked for 10 years as a head

librarian at Saint Alphonsa’s College of Education, Hyderabad, India. For the past

18 years, the researcher has worked at academic organization libraries in different

roles. The researcher’s education and work experiences as an international staff

member in the library with multicultural users positions the researcher at an

advantage as a researcher (both insider and outsider) to understand the needs of a

diverse cohort such as migrant culturally diverse students.

The researcher experiences as an international staff member provided with some

insights into the research topic and helped to construct identity in this library field.

This study allowed the researcher to adopt principles of academic style writing in

academic organizations and to take into consideration the complexities of culturally

diverse students’ information-seeking behaviour. This has offered the researcher new

ways of considering perspectives and experiences of culturally diverse students in

Western academic organizations. As Creswell (2018) notes, biases, values and

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interests of the researcher must be explicitly stated in the research and such openness

is considered useful and positive to the research study.

4.11 Ethics approval

Ethics consideration was needed as surveys with culturally diverse students of an

academic library, which has multi-campuses, in the library environment, Statistical

data/content analysis will form the structure of data collection. Prior to the data

collection, the researcher will inform the respondents about the nature of research

study. The participation was by voluntary consent, and if they want to withdraw

from the study at any point, they are most welcome to do so. The researcher will also

inform the respondents, that their information was safe and secure with respect for

their privacy and confidentiality. This research study involves many cultural groups

of students of an organization.

4.12 Summary
“Research in support of detecting learning needs of international
students’ needs to be developed” (Hughes, 2010, p. 78).

This applies to culturally diverse students, as these students come from different

countries along with domestic students such as Māori. In summary, this chapter

outlines the research methodology and methods for this study. A discussion on the

framework for this study was included. The process of quantitative analysis of case

study as a methodology, survey questionnaires with culturally diverse students will

form the structure of the data collection. Ethics consideration was needed as survey

questionnaire with culturally diverse students of academic organization is taking

place. The limitations of the study are recognised and described.

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4.13 Conclusion

The chapter has described in detail the major considerations in the selection of

research site and respondents, along with the design and process of data collection.

Issues of the role of the researcher and trustworthiness of the research have also been

addressed.

This section has presented the research methodology that has shaped the

investigation reported in this thesis. It has provided the rationale for choosing a case

study approach to construct data of culturally diverse students who scaffold their

information-seeking behaviour understanding and adjusting to library and literacy

practices. The following chapter presents the findings and discussions of the

research.

It can therefore be seen that there is a lack of research in the published literature

related to culturally diverse students’ information-seeking behaviour in the context

of recent and continuing changes in electronic information resources, and as these

are related to developing countries in particular.

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