Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

Mechanical improving of granular soils by permeation grouting:

results of laboratory tests.
A. Chieregato, C. G. Onate Salazar, C. Todaro, D. Peila
Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering (DIATI), Politecnico di Torino,
Turin, Italy

ABSTRACT: The injection of natural soil using proper mixes is one of the most effective ground
improvement technique. Consolidation and waterproofing are the two main purposes of these
treatments, both in granular soils and in rock masses. The application field of these materials,
depends on many external parameters, related to the characteristics of the soil, the injection mixes
and injection techniques themselves. For what concerns the laboratory analysis of materials and
procedures for injection, there are no normative references relating to the tests to be carried out and
often various researchers have developed tests based on procedures designed ex novo. In this paper
the most relevant results achieved with a laboratory test campaign is developed using micro-cement
and colloidal nano-silica mixes are presented and discussed.

.
1 WATERPROOFING AND DRAINAGE IN
TUNNELING DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
The interference between underground voids
such as tunnels, mines, caverns and
groundwater is a relevant problem to be solved
at the design stage.
This interference, usually, has a relevant
impact on the environment due to the need of
protecting the water resources, increases the
forces acting on the lining and interferes on
tunnel construction techniques. Finally we
should not forget that ground water can
negatively influence the durability of the tunnel
linings.
In this context, the prediction of water
income inside the tunnel, of the water table
perturbations and the design of the prevention
techniques is one of the major topics to be dealt
by tunnel designer in this contest.
We, also, must not forget that water resource
is becoming more and more an essential
resource for mankind and, therefore, must
always be protected and rationally used.
The most difficult aspect that occur in the
construction of tunnels due to groundwater is
1
the case of deep tunnels in fractured rock
masses such as faults this because due to the
high hydraulic load the control of the water
pressure may become one of the crucial points
of the entire construction process .
In the loose soil at low depth, permeable by
porosity, that are usually interested in the
construction of shallow tunnels in urban areas,
the impact is essentially water drainage and the
consequent settlement due to compaction. This
problem is today often faced with mechanized
shields with counter-pressure applied on the
front and with the use of a waterproof segment
linings.
In conventional tunneling, among the various
alternatives, one of the most used technology
when the problem of water has to be faced and
solved is the systematic use of permeation
grouting around the tunnel to create an
improved and impervious ring.
Despite a large number of application
worldwide the recent important technological
improvement of the injection materials and
mixes, a few specific researches can be found
for the definition of the injectability of different
soils using innovative materials such as micro-
cements and colloidal nano-silica.
 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

On the other hand the knowledge of this data
are of key importance since the correct choice of
the proper mix has a great influence on tunnel
cost and on the construction time; the
knowledge of the injection that can be reached
is essential for a correct design. A systematic
laboratory research focused to compare the
properties that can be achieved with the
injection and the penetrability of some mixes in
different choesionless soils can be useful to
tunnels designers.
2 INJECTION IN GRANULAR SOILS
The injection of cohesionless soils for the
construction of tunnels, have the following main
goals:
- the reduction of permeability to allow
groundwater control;
- the formation of a reinforced zone around
the tunnel and ahead the tunnel face to
improve the tunnel stability and free span
length.
This two aspects depends on the mechanical
properties of the injected soil and already
should be assessed at the design stage with the
choice of the proper mix and injection
procedure.
The mechanical and hydraulic properties of
the soil (mainly strength, deformability and
permeability) may, be improved through the
injection of artificial mixes, injected through
holes of small diameter, equipped with special
valved pipes in such a way to permeate the
intergranular voids in soils or the joints in rock
masses (Cambefort, 1977; Tornaghi, 1989;
Holter et al., 2010).
The use of mixtures based on standard
cements are particularly effective in soils of
high permeability, such as gravels and coarse
sands, while the presence of less permeable
soils, such as silts and fine sands, makes
necessary the use of suspensions of ultrafine
cements and/or chemical solutions.
The choice of the best mix, however, is
linked with:
- the mineralogical and chemical
compatibility between the mix itself and
the soil to be injected
- the hydraulic or mechanical properties
required of the treated soil;
- the injection procedure.
These aspects are mainly influences by the
natural soil permeability and the grain size
2
distribution that are investigated with
laboratory tests. This research is mainly focused
on laboratory test on soil injection performances
of micro-cements and colloidal nano-silica
mixes.
3 CARRIED OUT LABORATORY TESTS
In the following the laboratory test procedure
and the achieved results carried out are
presented and discussed.
Four soils with different grain size curve
were tested. The grain size distribution curves
are shown in the figure 1, while the permeability
test results carried out with the standard ASTM
D2434 is summarized in table1.
Figure 1. Grain size distribution of the tested soils
Table 1. permeability of the four studied soils
Soil A B C D
K (m/s) 1,20 E-04 9,55E-06 5,72E-05 2,16E-05
3.1 Tested injection materials
3.1.1 Colloidal nano-silica
The nano-silica is a colloidal mineral mixture
hydrophilic, with a low viscosity. This mixture
is characterized by a nanometer suspension of
colloidal silica, and has a gelling time that can
be adjusted by the addition of an accelerator,
which is a common solution of sodium chloride
(NaCl) in water, which acts as an activator of
the gelling process.
The colloidal silica particles have a size
ranging from about 4 to 16 nm and a specific
surface ranging from 80 to 900 m2/g.
3.1.2 Micro-cements
The micro-cement have been developed
specifically for the injections of rocks and soils
 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

composed of pure Portland clinker, without the cement) and mixing for one further
other additions pozzolana or slag, finely ground minute (>1500 rpm) with mixer;
filler micronized. The tested microfine cements - filling the test pipe with the mix closed to
have the following main properties: prevent any evaporation during the test
(Figure 2);
micro-cement X, microfine Portland cement - after 2 hours measurement of the
with a Blaine value of > 650 m2/kg and with bleeding, expressed in % of separated
100 % of the grains is < 40 microns; liquid in volume.
micro-cement Y, microfine Portland cement The results of the tests carried out on the
with a Blaine value of > 800 m2/kg and with three micro-cements are summarized in table 3.
100 % of the grains is < 30 microns;
micro-cement Z, microfine Portland cement Table 2. March viscosity results
with a Blaine value of > 900 m2/kg and with Microcement March viscosity [ s ]
100 % of the grains is < 20 microns. fluidizer = 1 % fluidizer = 2 % fluidizer = 3 %
Type X 36 35.5 35
To mitigate the effects of bleeding and, at the Type Y 35 33 32
same time, eliminate the tendency to flocculate, Type Z 34 32.5 31.5
is usually suggested by the producers the use of
these micro-cements together with a fluidizer, Table 3. Bleeding results expressed as % of the free
(dosage suggested by producers ranges from 1 water volume with reference of the original mix volume.
to 3% on weight of cement) able to prevent Microcement Bleeding [ % ]
these phenomena. fluidizer = 1 % fluidizer = 2 % fluidizer = 3 %
The optimal amount of fluidizer is usually Type X 2.77 2.25 1.32
defined according to the needs of the jobsite Type Y 1.12 0.95 0.69
such as the operating temperatures, the type of Type Z 0.58 0.45 0.41
equipment and type of injection to be
performed.
4.3 Setting time tests
The procedure adopted for the setting time
4 TESTS ON MICRO-CEMENTS assessment used the Vicat needle follows the
procedure proposed in the standard UNI EN
The micro-cement mixes used in this research 196-3. The results of the setting time for the
were characterized by the following laboratory various mixes with a fluidizer = 2 % on the
tests: weight of the cement, are resumed in table 4.
- Marsh viscosity test;
- bleeding test; Table 4 – Setting time measured by the Vicat needle, with
- setting time assessment by Vicat needle. a fluidizer = 2 % on the weight of the cement.
Microcement Setting time [ s ]
4.1 March viscosity test Start End
Type X 112 185
The adopted procedure is based on the standard Type Y 88 156
UNI 11152 and the results are summarized in Type Z 72 135
table 2.

4.2 Bleeding test 5 TESTS ON COLLOIDAL NANO-SILICA

The procedure adopted for the evaluation of the The colloidal nano-silica mixes are
separation between the solid and liquid phases characterized by the following laboratory tests:
in time (bleeding) was as follows: - gelling time assessment using accelerators
- preparation of the suspension of micro- with two different concentrations of
cement and water (ratio w/c = 1) by sodium chloride (at 10 and 25% NaCl in
mixing it with a high speed mixer (>1500 volume of the solution based on water);
rpm) for 2 minutes; - dynamic viscosity assessment by
- addition of the fluidizer amount (in the rotational viscometer (the measurement
carried out test 1, 2, 3% on the weight of
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 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

time is a function of the gelling time), Table 6. Nano-silica gelling time in function of the
using accelerators with two different accelerator dosage percentage. The accelerator has a
concentrations of sodium chloride (at 10% percentage of NaCl equal to 10% in volume.
and 25% NaCl in volume of the solution
based on water). Test Acc. (%) Tgel (min)
1 20 61
5.1 Gelling time assessment 2 21 53
The method used to measure the gelling time of 3 22 33
the colloidal nano-silica is the following: 4 23 26
- mixing 0.2 l of nano-silica with the
5 24 21
accelerator (in different percentages)
using high speed mixer (>1500 rpm) for 6 25 18
10 seconds; 7 26 14
- the gelling time counting starts
immediately after the mixing, and stops
when the mixture is no longer able to flow
(gelled and no more liquid).
Results of the gelling time, depending on the
dosage percentage of accelerator (at different
content of NaCl) used, is summarized in the
tables 5 and 6.

5.2 Dynamic viscosity assessment

Using a rotational viscometer (equipped with a Figure 2. Photograph of the rotational viscosimeter and
special rotor suit for very low viscosity (Figure detail of the used low viscosity rotor.
2) the values of viscosity of the mix (nano-silica
+ accelerant in different percentages) have been
studied and the results are reported in the graphs
of figure 3 and 4 for a mix design typically used
in real cases (i.e. compatible with the most
common injection systems) with two different
accelerant.
The graphs shows the typical behavior of an
evolutive mix, but it is possible to observe the
influence on gelling time of the two
accelerators: the accelerator with 10% of NaCl
Figure 3. Dynamic viscosity in function of time . The
even if with a large dosage 25% allows the mix
accelerator (10% NaCl in volume on the aqueous
to remain with a low viscosity for a longer time
solution) dosage is 25% in volume of the mix .
(useful for the injection procedure) than the
accelerator with 25% of NaCl even if with a
lower dosage (9%).

Table 5. Nano-silica gelling time in function of the

accelerator percentage. The accelerator has a percentage
of NaCl equal to 25% in volume.

Test Acc. (%) Tgel (min)

1 7 58
2 8 29
Figure 4. Dynamic viscosity in function of time . The
3 9 16 accelerator (25% NaCl in volume on the aqueous
4 10 12 solution) dosage is 9% in volume of the mix .
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 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

6 INJECTION TESTS Table 8. Soil injectability Nc index based on Mitchell

(1981).
As already focused, for a correct permeation
Microc. X Microc. Y Microc. Z
grouting design, it is important to know the Soil
Nc Inject. Nc Inject. Nc Inject.
ability of the mix to penetrate inside a soil
A 8.7 PT 10.0 PT 13.0 Yes
starting from an injection point.
B 8.0 PT 9.2 PT 12.0 Yes
To study this property a special laboratory
C 6.3 PT 7.3 PT 9.5 PT
procedure has been designed and developed
D 12.7 Yes 14.6 Yes 19.0 Yes
with the injection by a pumping system of a
* PT = Preliminary Test
PVC pipe filled with the test soil.

6.1 Injection by microcements 6.1.2 Adopted test procedure

The method adopted for the laboratory injection
6.1.1 Preliminary analysis of injectability of test using a microcement mix with a w/c ratio
the studied soils equal to 1 (in volume) and 2% of fluidizer (in
Before performing the laboratory injection tests weight of the cement) was the following:
a preliminary analysis of injectability based on
the two criteria proposed by Mitchell (1981) 1. preparation of the PVC pipe (insertion and
was carried out. sealing fittings, etc.):
The penetrability or groutability number can 2. filling the last part of the pipe with 10 cm
be assessed using the following relation based of gravel (3 mm) to prevent occlusion of the
on the granulometric curve of the soil and of the outlet connector and with the function of filter;
cement grain: 3. introduction of soil in successive layers of
20 cm compacted by dropping in the pipe a steel
N = D15/D85 of the cement (1) cylindrical mass (4 kg), from a constant height
of 50 cm for 15 times;
Nc= D10/D95 of the cement (2) 4. pipe closure and its connection through
spherical valve to the delivery pipe of the pump.
where N and Nc are the groutability indexes and The pump used is a one-component high-
Dx represents the size of grain refered to X, Y pressure hydraulic system (220 ÷ 270 bar) with
and Z volume in the cumulative granulometric a flow capacity of up to 6.5 l/min;
curves. 5. depending on the type of test (soil
Using the N index proposed by Mitchell saturated or unsaturated), the soil sample in the
(1981) with N > 24, the grouting is possible, pipe will be saturated or less of water using the
while for N < 11 is not possible when N ranges injection pump;
between 11 and 24 the grouting possibility 6. mixing 2 kg of micro-cement (type X,Y or
should be assessed using preliminary site tests. Z) with water (w/c = 1 in volume) by a high
Using the Nc index proposed by Mitchell speed mixer (>1500 rpm) for 2 minutes;
(1981) with Nc > 11, the grouting is possible, 7. addition of the fluidizer (2% on micro-
while for Nc < 6 is not and when Nc ranges cements weight) and mixing for one more
from 6 to 11 the grouting possibility should be minute;
assessed using preliminary site tests. 8. injection of the mixture into the horizontal
Based on these data the studied soils give the pipe, by a pressure Pi that could vary from 2 to
results summarized in tables 7 and 8: 20 bar (depending of the type of test) up to
complete saturation of the specimen (that is
Table 7. Soil injectability N index based on Mitchell chosen as the time when leakage of the mix
(1981). from the fitting final output is observed);
Microc. X Microc. Y Microc. Z 9. the pipe is disconnected from the injection
Soil system and kept for the micro-cement setting
N Inject. N Inject. N Inject.
A 58,3 Yes 77,8 Yes 100,0 Yes time of 24h, at a temperature of 20° C ± 2°C;
B 12,5 PT 16,7 PT 21,4 PT 10. pipe connection to an air compressor (15
C 10,0 NO 13,3 PT 17,1 PT ÷ 20 bar) and expulsion, in a special core barrel,
D 17,5 PT 23,3 PT 30,0 Yes the injected soil sample;
* PT = Preliminary test requested
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 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

11. the samples are left to cure in water at a
temperature of 20 ± 2 ° C and then their uniaxial
compressive strength (2, 7 and 14 days) is tested
samples. It was decided to carry out the
compression tests on cylindrical samples with
h/d ratio equal to 1 (as suggested by the
standard EN 12504-1)
The values of compressive strength at
different curing time for the micro-cements for
the four different soils, are summarized in
figures 7, 8 and 9 while the results of the
samples of soils injects with nano-silica mixes
are presented in figures 10 and 11.

Figure 5. Injection test equipment

The injection tests on the four soils have

showed excellent penetration behavior since it
was possible to inject at least 60% of the pipe
length, with injection pressures from 2 to 20
bar. It can be observed that increasing the fine
fraction i.e. the percentage of silt it was
necessary to achieve higher injection pressures,
as expected.
The carried out laboratory tests have shown
that with reference to the penetrability indexes
(N or Nc), that give for some of the used soils Figure 6. Uniaxial Compressive Strength results for
borderline values, the used micro-cement mixes samples injected by micro-cement X
show a good injectability.

6.2 Injection tests by colloidal nano-silica

The method adopted for the laboratory injection
tests by colloidal nano-silica is the same to the
test performed by micro-cements with the only
difference that the samples are not cured in
water but in air, at a constant temperature of
20°± 2 °C.
The used mixes were the two types
previously studied (whose gelling time are
reported in figures 3 and 4). The injection was
set up to allow to work in the sub-horizontal Figure 7. Uniaxial Compressive Strength results for
branch of the viscosity curve. samples injected by micro-cement Y
During the tests all soil samples were
completely permeated with pumping pressures
between 2 and 5 bars.

7 UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT

TESTS

The tests were carried out following the

standard EN 12504-1 by an electro-hydraulic
press with a maximum applicable load equal to
50 MPa. To easily compare the values of
uniaxial compressive strength measured on
cores (cylindrical geometry), extracted from the Figure 8. Uniaxial Compressive Strength results for
pipe test, with those determined on cubic samples injected by micro-cement Z.
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 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.
Figure 9. Uniaxial Compressive Strength results for
samples injected by colloidal nano-silica mixed with 10%
NaCl accelerator.
Figure 10. Uniaxial Compressive Strength results for
samples injected by colloidal nano-silica mixed with 25%
NaCl accelerator.
8 CONCLUSIONS
In the following the most important results
achieved with the laboratory research are
presented and discussed.
The rheological tests on micro-cements
showed a high stability of the mixes (bleeding ≤
1%), low viscosity ( 31.5 ÷ 36 s , the cone
Marsh) and low setting time (from 72 to 112
minutes ) thus proving a mix with a good
injectability and easy to be managed in the job
site. The laboratory evidences showed excellent
penetration in gravel, sand and fine sand with
pressures from 2 to 20 bar. Increasing the fine
fraction or silt percentage, it was observed that
it was necessary to increase the pressure up to
30 bars. The uniaxial compression strength
tests performed on the soil samples injected
with micro-cements show, for all the natural soil
7
tested, values ranging between 5 MPa (at 2
days) and 17 MPa (at 14 days), with a regular
increase in time.
The tests on the nano-silica mixes performed
using an accelerant with 10% of sodium
chloride show that it is necessary to use a
percentage of accelerant ranging between 20%
to 26% to have a gelling time ranging between
61 min and 14 min that can be considered as a
limit value to perform the injection with no
problem to the injection line. Gelling time less
than 20 minutes could lead to blockages of
injection lines due to hardening of the mixture
and, consequently, failed to injection of the
treatment and damage of the injection devices.
Using an accelerant with a content of 25% of
NaCl the range of gelling time is from 58 min
to 12 min with a percentage of accelerant
ranging from 7% to 10% on the volume of the
nano-silica mix.
Soils used for testing injection by colloidal
nano-silica, concerned essentially the medium
and fine sands , because the void ratio of the
gravel does not allow an adequate degree of
cohesion and bonding between the silica
particles and the granular medium. Increasing
the fine particle size fraction , decreases the soil
penetrability and increases the pumping
pressure value.
In the research with the nano-silica all the
samples were completely permeated at pressures
between 2 and 5 bar.
The uniaxial compression strength tests
performed on the soil samples injected with
nano-silica show, for all the natural soil tested,
values ranging between 0,3 MPa and 1,3 MPa
varying taking into account the accelerant
dosage and type and the curing time.
In conclusion the tests performed in this
study shows the capacity of the mixes made by
innovative materials such as micro-cements and
colloidal nano-silica to achieve: excellent
penetration values, an excellent consolidation of
granular soils also with significant content of
fine elements.
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cementitious grout, silica sol: a laboratory study of the
 Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress 2014 – Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

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