CELLS, CHEMICALS & PROCESSES OF LIFE

All living things are made up of cells. Some large organisms are made up of millions of cells, like us, and yet some are
only 1 cell big, unicellular, these are organisms like bacteria, protozoa and some algae.

But what is a cell?

A cell is the smallest unit of life, it is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known organisms. They’ve
come to be known as the “building blocks of life”. The study of cells is called cellular biology or cell biology or cytology.

Types of cells

There are 2 basic types of cells, animal and plant cells.

They share a few characteristics, but are very different in many ways, yet perform the same functions to help their
respective organisms survive. This is because plants and animals both belong to the domain Eukaryota — organisms
with cells that are basically sealed baggies full of fluid suspending little factories called organelles, which have different
jobs in the cell, depending on the needs of the organism. Plants, animals, fungi and protists are all eukaryotes; these
organisms are made up of one or more cells with a variety of membrane-bound organelles, including the nucleus — the
big boss organelle that contains all the DNA and all the instructions for making that particular bear or ringworm or ficus
tree or fruit fly.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

 CELLS, CHEMICALS & PROCESSES OF LIFE
Table of comparison of structures between animal and plant cells

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES
Cell surface membranes surrounding cells Animal Plant
Cytoplasm No cell wall Cellulose cell wall
Nucleus No chloroplast Chloroplasts with chlorophyll
Mitochondrion Small vacuoles Large vacuoles with cell sap
Endoplasmic reticulum Never has starch granules, may have Only has starch granules
glycogen granules

Ribosomes Irregular shape Regular shape

CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTION

Cell membranes
No matter where they come from, animal or plant, all cells have a cell surface membrane around the outside. The cell
membrane is like a bag that keeps all the structures within in the cell, known as organelles, inside the cell. The cell
membrane can also be fully permeable or partially permeable. The entire contents of the cell are called the
protoplasm.

Plant cells have a cell wall

Made of cellulose, all plant cells have a cell wall. The cellulose, a type of polysaccharide, forms fibres that criss-cross to
form a strong covering around the cell. It helps to protect and support the cell, giving the cell its rigid structure. The cell
wall is fully permeable, because of the spaces between the fibres. Fully permeable means that even very large
molecules can pass through the cell wall.

Animal cells have plasma membrane

While all cells have a membrane surrounding them, in animal cells it is called the plasma membrane. Plant cells have
them too, called cell membranes, attached to the inside of the cell wall and very difficult to see. The cell membrane is a
very thin layer of protein and fat. This controls what can enter or leave the cell. It is partially permeable, because only
certain substances or molecules can pass through.

Cytoplasm
This is a complex solution inside the cell in which all the other organelles are suspended. It’s a clear jelly-like substance
that is about 70% water, with the rest being dissolved substances especially proteins.

Vacuoles
Most cells have vacuoles. They are spaces in the cell that contain a solution, surrounded by a membrane. In animal cells
they are very small and may have food or water. In plant cells they are large and usually contain a solution or sugars and
other substances, called cell sap.

Endoplasmic reticulum
This maze-like structure of membranes, found in all cells, runs all through the cytoplasm. They function as assembly
lines for making fats and proteins from smaller molecules in the cell.

Chloroplasts
They function to trap sunlight energy. Never found in animal cells but are abundant in green plant cells. They contain
the green pigment chlorophyll, which gives plants their green colour. The chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and uses the
energy to make food through a process known as photosynthesis. They often also contain starch grains; animal cells
never contain starch grains, they have glycogen.

Ribosomes
Often attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, these tiny round objects are the sites of protein production. They string
amino acids together in the right order to make proteins. They get their instructions from the nucleus.
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Mitochondria
Commonly called the “powerhouse” of the cell, these structures function as the site of energy release. Every cell has
them. Through a process called respiration, energy is released by combining the food source with oxygen. This energy is
then used to power all the functions of the cell like movement and growth. The more active a cell, the more
mitochondria it contains.

Nucleus
This stores the inherited genetic information. It gives instructions to the cell organelles to function their various roles,
like the ribosomes’ protein making process. The information is kept on the chromosomes, inherited from the organism’s
parents’ DNA. Chromosomes are very long but so thin that they cannot be clearly seen, even with an electron
microscope, except when the cell is about the divide and they thicken and shorten.

CELLS AND ORGANISMS

Large organisms such as you and I, contain millions of cells, but not all cells are the same. They all perform functions that
classify them as living things, but many are specialized to perform specific functions better than others. Our muscle cells
for example are specialized for movement, while in the leaves of plants, those cells are specialized for making food
through photosynthesis. This is known as a division of labour between cells.

Similar cells are grouped together to from tissues. Most times, cells that perform the same specialized role are
grouped together, this is called a tissue. For example, the lining of your stomach is made up of a group of cells that are
specialized in making enzymes that digest food or other tissues like muscle that can move to help churn and mix the
food with the enzymes.

Tissues working together form an organ. All the tissues that form the stomach work together, although they have their
own specific jobs. This level of organization forms an organ. Examples of organs are the heart, lungs, kidneys, liver etc.

Organs working together form a system. The stomach is only 1 organ in the digestive system, it must work together
with the mouth and intestines to complete this system. The heart, arteries, veins and blood make up the circulatory
system.
This can be all summarized as the BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION.

cells
tissues
organs
systems

organisms

Click the link to see some of the systems of the human body in 3D!

https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps

Chemicals & processes of life

There are many chemicals that are necessary for life to happen, we refer to them as biomolecules. Let’s take a better
look at them.
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Water
Water dissolves substances in cells. Inside every living organism chemical reactions are taking places constantly, this is
called the metabolism. These reactions can only happen if the chemicals that are reacting are dissolved in water. This is
one of the main reasons why water is so important to living organisms. If cells dry out, the reactions will stop, and the
organisms will die. Water is also necessary because plasma must contain a lot of water, so substances like glucose can
dissolve in it. Dissolved substances are transported around the body.

Carbohydrates
Starch and sugars are carbohydrates.

Carbohydrate molecules contain 3 types of atoms: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). A carbohydrate, molecule
has about twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon or oxygen atoms.

Glucose is a simple sugar.

The simplest kinds of carbohydrates are the simple sugars or monosaccharides. Glucose is a simple sugar.

A glucose molecule is made of 6 C atoms joined in a ring, with the H and O atoms pointing
out from and into the ring. It’s molecular formula can be written as C₆H₁₂O₆. This
means that there are 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen and 6 oxygen molecules. Although
comprised of many atoms, simple sugars are very small, sweet to the taste and soluble in
water. Simple sugars can be linked together to form more complex sugars.

Disaccharides: example- sucrose and maltose, a complex sugar is made of 2 simple sugars
joined together. Just like simple sugars, they are soluble and taste sweet.

Polysaccharides: example- starch and cellulose, an even more complex sugar made of 3
or more simple sugars, some polysaccharides may have thousands of sugar molecules.
Unlike simple sugars, these are not soluble and do not taste sweet.

Living organisms get their energy from carbohydrates.

1 gram of carbs, when metabolized, releases 17kJ (kilojoules) of energy. However carbs aren’t the only biomolecule.

Lipids
These are fats and oils which are insoluble in water. Like carbs, they contain only 3 types of atoms, C,H and O. There is
one other molecule that combines with C,H, and O to form a lipid, this is glycerol. Attached to the glycerol are 3 long
chained fatty acids.

Lipid molecule structure

Glycerol
Fatty acid

Lipids are good storage products. Just like carbs, lipids can be metabolized to release energy. A gram of fat yields 39 kJ
of energy. This is more than twice the amount released from a gram of carbs. However, the process to release this
energy is long and complicated, so the body uses carbs as a first resort when energy is needed. Only when carbs aren’t
available, will the body use fats. The extra energy that fats contain makes them excellent for storing energy. In
mammals some cells beneath the skin can become filled with droplets of fats or oils. Known as adipose tissue, this layer
is a useful store of energy when needed. It also serves to trap heat inside the body- an effective insulator. Many animals
and plants store oils and fats, such as seals and whales or plants in their seeds, like castor oil, coconut and peanuts. In
the case of plants, these oils provide a source of energy for germination.
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Proteins

These are made of long chains of amino acids. They contain the same C,H & O atoms as carbs and lipids but they have
additional atoms of Nitrogen (N) and small amounts of Sulphur (S).

Like polysaccharides, proteins are made of long chains of amino acids joined end
to end. There are about 20 different kinds of amino acids. Any of these 20 can
be joined together in any order to make a protein molecule, however each
protein molecule has a specific order, so even minute changes to this order
forms a different protein molecule. Some proteins are soluble such as
haemoglobin (which gives blood its red colour) and some are insoluble like
keratin, which make hair and nails.

Proteins are used for repair of tissues and growth.

Unlike carbs and lipids, the body rarely uses proteins for energy, rather they are used to repair damaged cells and
tissues like cell membranes and cytoplasm and for making new cells that allow the organism to grow. We get proteins
from the food we consume. They’re also necessary for producing antibodies which fight bacteria and viruses inside the
body. There are also specialized proteins called enzymes.

Table comparing carbs, proteins and lipids.

Feature Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids

Elements which they contain C, H, O C, H, O,N, S C, H, O

Smaller molecules that make them Sugars (monosaccharides) Amino acids Fatty acids and glycerol

Solubility in water Mono and disaccharides are soluble, Some soluble, some not Insoluble
polysaccharides are not

Why organisms need them
Foods that contain them
Easy source of energy: 17 kJ
Bread, cakes, rice, potatoes, yams
Making cells, repair and growth asEnergy
well storage: 39kJ and
as last source of energy : 17kJ insulation
Meat, fish, eggs, milk, peas and Butter, lard, margarine, oil,
beans fatty meat and peanuts

Enzymes

These are a type of biological molecule, usually specific proteins, except for ribosomes. They function as catalysts, which
speed up reactions in the body without being changed by the reactions themselves. Enzymes are specific to each type of
molecule that they help breakdown and so are given special names; carbohydrates are broken down by
carbohydrases, proteins by proteases and lipids by lipases. Enzymes are specific: they have a specific shape,
therefore only a certain substrate will fit its active site. There are two theories of enzyme action: Lock & Key and
Induced Fit. The lock & key theory states that only a certain substrate will fit a certain active site, just like a key fits a
lock. Induced Fit, likewise, states that enzymes wrap around substrates, attracted to each other by opposite charges,
forming an enzyme substrate complex.

LOCK & KEY MODEL

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In the alimentary canal digestive enzymes are secreted to help breakdown food substrates into smaller pieces, this
breakdown is a type of hydrolysis reaction, because it involves water. (hydro = water, lysis= split)

Enzymes have specific properties

1) All enzymes are proteins.
2) They are made inactive by high temperatures. The high temp. destroys the protein molecules.
3) They work best at an optimum temperature of 37⁰ C
4) They function best at an optimum pH level, usually at a neutral pH between 7-8. Acidic or alkaline pH conditions
denature the enzyme.
5) They are catalysts. They speed up reactions over and over without being changed by the reaction.
6) They are specific; meaning that one type of enzyme will only catalyse one type of reaction.

Vitamins and minerals

These are other types of biological molecules that the body needs in small amounts.

Vitamins
These are organic substances that the body requires for various reasons to function properly. Animals get them from
their food. The absence or limited supply of vitamins results in conditions known as deficiency diseases.
example: not enough vitamin C, which is needed for keeping tissues in good health, leads to a condition called scurvy.
This results in muscle and joint pain and bleeding in the gums. It was common in people that lived on ships because they
did not have access to fresh fruits and vegetables.

Minerals

These are inorganic substances. Plants get them from the soil and animals get them from the food they eat. They aren’t
taken in as elements though, rather they are derived from compounds in the food or soil. So plants get nitrogen from
nitrate ions and animals get nitrogen from proteins. Just as with vitamins, not having enough minerals can lead to
specific diseases.
example: if you don’t get enough nitrogen, which is needed for protoplasm, individuals (plants or animals) have stunted
growth.

Calcium for strong bones, teeth and firm cell walls in plants.
Iron is needed for making haemoglobin and chlorophyll.

Diffusion and Osmosis

 CELLS, CHEMICALS & PROCESSES OF LIFE
Now that we know about the molecules that the body requires, we have to learn how they move around the body.

Atoms, molecules and ions are in constant movement especially with higher temperatures. In a solid substance, they
cannot move very far because they are held together by the forces between them. In a liquid they have more freedom,
and in a gas they are even more free. Molecules and ions also have the ability to move when in solution. When they
have this ability to move, they tend to spread out evenly in the space that they have.

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration as they try to
even out.
It is an important process in all living organisms as many of the biomolecules are obtained or waste products expelled
through diffusion.
For example: plants need CO2 for photosynthesis. To get the CO2 gas, it must diffuse through the stomata of the leaves.
There is usually a lower concentration of CO2 inside the leaf than outside, so the CO2 moves into the cell. Similarly,
when O2 is made, it diffuses out of the cell and then out of the plant through the stomata. We call this difference in
concentration a concentration gradient.
Diffusion is also important for gaseous exchange in animals for respiration and some of the products of digestion are
absorbed through diffusion.

Osmosis
This is similar to diffusion, except with osmosis, we are dealing with water molecules only and they have to pass
through a membrane that only allows the smallest molecules to enter or exit, a partially permeable membrane. The
water molecules will still seek to even out the concentration gradient, meaning they will want to go from a region where
there is a lot of water molecules to one where there are less water molecules.

Dilute
Conc. sugar solution
sugar solution (Low (High water

water content) content)

Sugar molecules

Partially permeable
membrane Movement of
water

Cell membranes are partially permeable membranes.

They act just like a sieve that allows some molecules to pass through and some to not. Cytoplasm is always present on
the inside of cells, this contains a solution of proteins and other substances in water. The cells are usually surrounded by
some other solution, in animals it’s the tissue fluid and in plants & unicellular organisms like amoeba, it’s a film of water.
 CELLS, CHEMICALS & PROCESSES OF LIFE
So the cell membrane separates the two solution, if the concentration of water is different in both solutions osmosis will
occur.

Osmosis in animal cells

Animal cells can rupture or burst in pure water. They behave differently to plant cells. Water molecules can pass freely
through the animal cell membrane, however the proteins and other dissolves substances cannot.
If the animal cell is placed in pure water, too much water from outside the cell will enter the cells, as its concentration of
water inside the cell will be low. The cell membrane wont be able to contain the volume and it bursts.

When placed in a concentrated solution the animal cell will shrink and shrivel up as water will diffuse out of the cell.

Osmosis in plant cells

Plant cells behave differently to animal cells, they do not burst in pure water. Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall.
This fully permeable membrane allows any substances to pass through it; osmosis won’t happen here.
The plant cells however have a cell surface membrane, its harder to see, but it functions just like the cell surface
membrane in animal cells. In pure water, the plant cell membrane will take in water by osmosis and the cytoplasm and
vacuole will as well. However, it doesn’t burst as the strong cell wall keeps the cell membrane from doing this. The plant
cell swells and becomes firm, a term known as turgid.

In concentrated solutions plant cells become plasmolysed. Here a lot of water if diffuse out of the cell, through the cell
surface membrane and across the cell wall. The cytoplasm and vacuole shrink so much that they pull away from the cell
wall, leaving the stronger cell wall where it stands. In this state the cell is termed flaccid, if too many plant cells become
flaccid, the plant loses its ability to stay firm and wilts. This however is not a usual occurrence, as plant cells are very
rarely surrounded by such concentrated solutions. Plasmolysis usually kills the plant cell due to the damage it causes as
the cell membrane rips away from the cell wall.
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Active transport

In this process, particles are moved into a cell against a concentration gradient.
What do I mean?
Diffusion and osmosis have molecules moving on their own, it’s a passive process of movement down a concentration
gradient. In some situations, for substances to enter the cell, molecules and ions (electrically charged particles) need to
move against a concentration gradient, i.e they move from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration. This type of movement requires the use of energy and its usually only in 1 direction, like a pump!

In plants this type of movement happens when mineral ions move from the soil solution into a plant root. Sometimes it
also happens when sugars are pushed into the phloem vessel to be transported around the plant.

In animal cells, active transport is responsible for maintaining the sodium and potassium levels in balance. Fluid outside
the cell has a lower concentration of potassium (K⁺) ions and high sodium (Na⁺) ions. However, inside the cells the K⁺
must be kept high and the Na⁺ low. So potassium is actively pushed into the cell and sodium is actively pushed out of
the cell. We know this as the sodium potassium pump.