ENERGY FLOW

All green plants, and some bacteria, are photoautotrophic – they use sunlight as a source of energy

 This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities
 In a few ecosystems the producers are chemoautotrophic bacteria, which use energy derived
from chemical processes

Light energy is absorbed by photoautotrophs and is converted into chemical energy via photosynthesis
 This light energy is used to make organic compounds (e.g. sugars) from inorganic sources (e.g.
CO2)
 Heterotrophs ingest these organic compounds in order to derive their chemical energy (ATP)
 When organic compounds are broken down via cell respiration, ATP is produced to fuel
metabolic processes

Overview of Photosynthesis

Energy enters most ecosystems as sunlight, where it is converted into chemical energy by producers (via
photosynthesis)
 This chemical energy is stored in carbon compounds (organic molecules) and is transferred to
heterotrophs via feeding

TROPHIC LEVELS

The position an organism occupies within a feeding sequence is known as a trophic level

 Producers always occupy the first trophic level in a feeding sequence

 Primary consumers feed on producers and hence occupy the second trophic level
 Further consumers (e.g. secondary, tertiary, etc.) may occupy subsequent trophic levels
The trophic levels in a community are:

Food Chains
A food chain shows the linear feeding relationships between species in a community

 Arrows represent the transfer of energy and matter as one organism is eaten by another (arrows
point in direction of energy flow)
 The first organism in a food chain is always a producer, followed by consumers (primary,
secondary, tertiary, etc.)

Examples of Food Chains in Different Habitats

Grassland Habitat
Marine Habitat

Fresh water pond Habitat

ENERGY LOSS

Energy stored in organic molecules (e.g. sugars and lipids) can be released by cell respiration to produce ATP
 This ATP is then used to fuel metabolic reactions required for growth and homeostasis
 A by-product of these chemical reactions is heat (thermal energy), which is released from the
organism

Not all energy stored in organic molecules is transferred via heterotrophic feeding – some of the chemical
energy is lost by:
 Being excreted as part of the organism’s faeces
 Remaining unconsumed as the uneaten portions of the food

Energy Transformations in Living Organisms

The chemical energy produced by an organism can be converted into a number of forms, including:

 Kinetic energy (e.g. during muscular contractions)

 Electrical energy (e.g. during the transmission of nerve impulses)
 Light energy (e.g. producing bioluminescence)

All of these reactions are exothermic and release thermal energy (heat) as a by-product
 Living organisms cannot turn this heat into other forms of usable energy
 This heat energy is released from the organism and is lost from the ecosystem (unlike nutrients,
which are recycled)
 Hence ecosystems require a continuous influx of energy from an external source (such as the
sun)
Energy Transformations in Ecosystems
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

These show the relative amounts of a specific component at the different trophic levels of an ecosystem

 The three main types of ecological pyramids measure species numbers, biomass and energy

Pyramid of Numbers

A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of organisms at each stage of a food chain

 These are usually shaped like pyramids, as higher trophic levels cannot be sustained if there are
more predators than prey
 However, the shape may be distorted if a food source is disproportionately large in size /
biomass compared to the feeder
 For example, a large number of caterpillars may feed on a single oak tree and many
fleas may feed off a single dog host

Pyramid of Biomass

A pyramid of biomass shows the total mass of organisms at each stage of a food chain

 These pyramids are almost always upright in shape, as biomass diminishes along food chains
as CO2 and waste is released
 An exception to this rule is found in marine ecosystems, where zooplankton have a large total
biomass than phytoplankton
 This is because phytoplankton replace their biomass at such a rapid rate and so can
support a larger biomass of zooplankton
Pyramid of Energy

A pyramid of energy shows the amount of energy trapped per area in a given time period at each stage of a
food chain
 These pyramids are always upright in shape, as energy is lost along food chains (either used in
respiration or lost as heat)
 Each level in the pyramid will be roughly one tenth the size of the preceding level as energy
transformations are ~10% efficient

Examples of Ecological Pyramids for a Specific Food Chain