MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

The musculoskeletal system has two components namely; skeletal and muscular systems.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system is a biological system that provides support to humans. There are over 270 bones
in an infant human’s body but some of these bones fuse together as the child grows to adolescence
giving rise to about 206 bones in the adult human body.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classified according to their shape and formation;
1. Long bones: they are tubular in shape. They consist of shaft and two extremities. E.g humerus,
femur, tibia, etc.
2. Short bones: they have no shaft nor extremities. They are cuboidal in shape and are found only
in the ankle and wrist. E.g. carpal and tarsal bones
3. Flat bones: they are flat and usually serve protective function. E.g. bones of the skull,
innominate bone, and scapula
4. Irregular bones: they have diverse shape and size. E.g. bones of face and the vertebrae
5. Sesamoid bone: are found where tendons cross the ends of long bones in the limb. E.g. patella.

FUNCTIONS OF BONES
➢ They provide the framework of the body
➢ They give attachment to muscles
➢ They form boundaries of the cranial and pelvic cavities, thereby protecting the organs they
contain.
➢ The provide a reservoir of minerals, especially calcium and phosphorous.
➢ They contain red bone marrow in which blood cells are formed.

The bones of the skeleton are divided into two groups I.e. the axial and appendicular skeleton.

AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

SKULL
The skull is that part of the skeletal system which rests on the upper end of the vertebral column. The
term skull includes both the cranium and the mandible.
The cranium is formed by a number of flat and irregular bones which provides a bony protection for
the brain. It has a base upon which the brain rests and a vault which surrounds and covers the brain.
Bones forming the skull includes; 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal bones, 2 parietal bones, 2 temporal bones,
1 occipital bone, 1 sphenoid bone, 1 ethmoid bone, 2 zygomatic or cheek bones, 1 maxilla, 2 lacrimal
bones, 1 vomer, 2 palatine bones, 2 inferior conchae and 1 mandible.

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 The human skull

• FRONTAL BONE: this is the bone of the forehead which also forms part of the orbital cavities
and the prominent ridges above the eyes.
• PARIETAL BONE: these bones form the sides and roof of the skull.
• TEMPORAL BONE: The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull. Each
temporal bone consist of 3 parts I.e. the squamous part, mastoid part and petrous part.
The mastoid portion forms posterior part of the bone which continues below to form a conical
projection called the mastoid process. This process provides attachment site of the
sternocleidomastoid muscle.
The squamous portion is the thin fan shaped area that articulates with the parietal bone. The
zygomatic process articulates with the zygomatic bone to form the cheek bone.
The petrous portion forms part of the base of the skull and contains the organs of hearing and
balance.
• MAXILLA: This originates as 2 bones but fusion takes place before birth. The maxilla forms
the upper jaw and carries the upper teeth.
• OCCIPITAL BONE: The bone forms the back of the head and part of the base of the skull.
• ZYGOMATIC BONE: The zygomatic bone(cheek bone) is a paired bone situated in the upper
and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the cheek.
• NASAL BONES: These are two small flat bones that form the greater part of the lateral and
superior surfaces of the bridge of the nose.
• LACRIMAL BONES: These are 2 small bones which form part of the medial walls of the
orbital cavities each is pierced by a foramen for the passage of the nasolacrimal duct that carries
tears from the eye to the nasal cavity.
• VOMER: The vomer is a thin flat bone that extends upward from the middle of the hard plate
to form most of the inferior part of the nasal septum.
• MANDIBLE: The mandible forms the lower jaw which is the only movable bone of the skull.
It originates as two parts that unites at the midline. Each half consist of 2 main parts; a curved
body with the alveolar ridge containing the lower teeth and the ramus which projects upward.At
the upper end, the ramus divides into the condylar process which articulates with the temporal
bone to form the temporomandibular joint and the coronoid process which gives attachment to
muscles and ligaments that close the jaw.
• SPHENOID BONE: The sphenoid bone occupies the middle portion of the base of the skull. It
articulates with the occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal bones.
• ETHMOID BONE: The ethmoid bone occupies the anterior part of the base of the skull and it
helps to form the orbital cavity, the nasal septum and the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

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 SUTURES OF THE CRANIUM
The bones of the skull are united by immovable joints called sutures, with the exception of one of the
bones of the face(the mandible which articulate with the temporal bone at the temporomandibular joint).
The principal sutures are:
1. Frontal suture: unites two pieces of the frontal bone before eight years of life.
2. Coronal suture: unites the frontal bone and the two parietal bones.
3. Sagittal suture: unites the two parietal bones
4. Lambdoidal suture: unites the occipital bones and the two parietal bones.
5. Squamous suture: unite the parietal bone and the temporal bones.

FONTANELLES OF THE SKULL

Fontanelles are membranous areas between the bones of the skull prior to the ossification of bones. The
two main fontanelles of the skull are;
1. Anterior fontanelle: it is a diamond shaped area. It is located at the junction of the frontal,
coronal and sagittal sutures. It is the largest fontanelle. Fully ossified at 12 – 18 months.
2. Posterior fontanelles: it is smaller than the anterior fontanelle and is triangular in shape. It is
located in the posterior aspect of the skull at the junction of sagittal and lambdoidal suture. It
ossified around 2 – 3 months after birth.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column otherwise known as the backbone or spine usually consist of 33 vertebrae: 24
presacral vertebrae( 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar) followed by the sacrum( 5 fused sacral
vertebrae) and the coccyx(4 frequently fused coccygeal vertebrae).
The vertebral column is divided into different regions. The first seven vertebrae in the neck forms the
cervical spine, the next twelve vertebrae are the thoracic spine and the next five the lumbar spine. Each
vertebrae is identified by the first letter of its region in the spine followed by indicating its position.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRA

A typical vertebra consists of the body and the vertebral arch. The body of each vertebra is situated
anteriorly, the size varies with the site where it is smallest in the cervical region, and it increases in size
as it descends down to the lumbar region. The vertebral arch consists of an irregular shaped structure
emanating from the posterior surface of the body; it lateral walls is formed by 2 pedicles while the
posterior wall is formed by 2 laminae prominence called transverse process while the 2 laminae meet
at the back to form the spinous process. The boundaries between the body, pedicle and laminae forms
the vertebral foramen; which accommodates the spinal cord.

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FUNCTION OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
➢ Collectively the vertebral foramina protect the spinal cord
➢ It supports the skull which is protected from shock by the presence of the intervertebral disc.
➢ It gives attachment to the ribs, the shoulder girdle and the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and
lower limbs.
➢ The intervertebral foramina on each side of the vertebral column, provide passage for spinal
nerves and blood vessels.
➢ Movement like bending, jumping and running are made possible by the vertebral column.

THORAC CAGE
Bones forming the thoracic cage include; 1 sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and 12 thoracic vertebrae.
Sternum: is a flat bone located just beneath the skin in the middle of the front of the chest. The sternum
is divided into 3 parts consisting of the manubrium, body and xiphoid process.
The manubrium lies at the uppermost part of the sternum with a concavity on its upper margin called
the jugular notch. The body of the sternum is connected to the manubrium through a joint called
manubriosternal joint to form the sternal angle. The xiphoid process is located at the lower end of the
sternal body and it gives attachment to the diaphragm, muscles of the anterior abdominal wall and linea
alba.
Ribs: there are 12 pairs of ribs which form the bony lateral walls of the thoracic cage. They articulate
posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae and anteriorly, the first 10 pairs are attached to the sternum by costal
cartilages. The first seven attaching directly to the sternum are called true ribs and the 8th, 9th, and 10th
attaching indirectly are known as false ribs. The last 2 pairs i.e. the 11th and 12th have no anterior
attachment and are being referred to as floating ribs.

The thoracic cage

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton consists of the shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle and the lower
limbs.
The bones forming the shoulder girdle include; 1 clavicle or collar bone and 1 scapula.

Structure of the Clavicle: this is a long bone that lies horizontally in between the sternum and acromion
process of the scapula to form the sternoclavicular joint and the acromioclavicular joint respectively. It
has a sternal end being referred to as the medial 2/3 portion which is rounded and the acromial end
being referred to as the lateral 1/3 portion which is flattened in shape.

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Structure of the Scapula: is a flat triangular shaped bone lying on the posterior chest wall. At the
lateral border, there is a shallow articular surface called the glenoid cavity which accommodate the head
of the humerus to form the shoulder joint(scapulohumeral joint). On the posterior surface, there is a
spine that projects beyond the lateral angle of the scapula to form the acromion process which articulate
with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint. A projection called the coracoid process from the upper
border of the bone gives attachment to muscle that moves the shoulder joint.

Anterior and posterior view of the scapula

UPPER LIMB
The bones forming the upper limb include; 1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal
bones and 14 phalanges.
Structure of the humerus: this is the bone of the arm or brachium. The head forms about 1/3 of a
sphere and about 4 times the area of the glenoid cavity. The head articulate with the glenoid cavity to
form the shoulder girdle(scapulohumeral joint). Distal to the head, there are two roughened projection
of bone, the greater and lesser tubercles and between them there is a deep groove called the bicipital
groove or intertubercular sulcus. The distal end of the bone presents two surfaces that articulates with
the radius and ulna to form the elbow joint.

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Ulna and Radius: these are the 2 bones of the forearm. The ulna is longer than the radius and it lies
medial and parallel to the radius when the upper limb is in anatomical position. They articulate with the
humerus at the elbow joint, the carpal bone at the wrist joint and with each other at the proximal and
distal radioulnar joint.

Anterior and posterior view of the ulna and radius

THE HAND
Structure of the carpal or wrist bones: the wrist is made up of 8 bones arranged in two rows of four.
It consists of proximal and distal row which lies closer to the radius and ulna and a distal row which
lies closer to the metacarpal bones.
Proximal row arrangement from the lateral part of the wrist to the medial: scaphoid – lunate – triquetral
– pisiform.
Distal row arrangement from the lateral to medial part of the wrist: trapezium – trapezoid – capitate –
hamate.
Structure of metacarpal bones : they are 5 in number and these bones form the palm of the hand.
They are numbered from the thumb side which lies laterally across to the medial side. The proximal
ends articulate with the carpal bones and the distal ends with the phalanges.
Structure of the phalanges or finger bones: 14 bones make up the phalanges of the hand. Two
phalanges forming the thumb and 3 phalanges forming each finger. The phalanges articulate proximally

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with the metacarpal bones to form the metacarpophalangeal joints and distally with each other to form
the interphalangeal joints.

The bones of the human hand

LOWER LIMB
The bones forming the lower limb include; 1 tibia, 1 fibula, 1 patella, 7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals and 14
phalanges.

Structure of the femur: the femur is the strongest and longest bone of the body. The head is almost
spherical and fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. In the center of the head,
there is a small depression for the attachment of the ligament of the head of femur. The neck extends
outwards and slightly downward from the head to the shaft. The posterior surface of the lower third
forms a flat triangular area called the popliteal surface and the distal extremity has 2 articular condyles
with which the tibia and patella form the knee joint.

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Structure of the patella or knee cap: this is a roughly triangular shaped sesamoid bone associated
with the knee joint. its posterior surface articulates with the patella surface of the femur in the knee joint
and it anterior surface is in the patella tendon i.e the tendon of the quadratus femoris muscle.

Structure of the tibia: the tibia is the medial of the two bones of the leg, the proximal extremity is
broad and flat and presents two condyles for articulation with the femur at the knee joint. The distal end
has two facets for articulation with fibula and talus. An inferiorly is the medial malleolus which has a
facet on its lateral surface for articulation with the talus.
Structure of the fibula: the fibula is the long slender lateral bone in the leg. The upper part articulates
with the lateral condyle of the tibia forming the proximal tibiofibular joint and the lower part with the
tibia forming the distal tibiofibular joint then it projects beyond it to form the lateral malleolus.

Anterior and posterior view of the tibia and fibula

BONES OF THE FOOT

The bones of the foot comprise of tarsals, metatarsal and phalanges. There are 7 tarsal bones, 5
metatarsal bones and 14 phalanges in the foot.
The tarsal bones include; 1 talus, 1 calcaneus, 1 navicular, 3 cuneiform (medial, intermediate and lateral
cuneiform) and 1 cuboid.

The bones of the foot

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METATARSUS
The metatarsus consists of five metatarsal bones that are numbered from medial side of the foot. The
1st metatarsal is short and shorter than the others. The 2nd metatarsal is the longest. Each metatarsal has
a base. Proximally a body and head distally. The base of the metatarsals articulates with the cuneiform
and cuboid bones and the head articulate with the proximal phalanges. The base of the 5th metatarsal
has a large tuberosity that projects over the lateral margin of the cuboid. The enlarge distal head of the
1st metatarsal bone forms the ball of the foot.
PHALANGES
The phalanges of the foot are made up of 14 bones. The first digit(great toe) has two phalanges(proximal
& distal) the other four digits have three phalanges each( proximal, middle and distal). Each phalanx
consists of a base( proximally a body and head distally). The phalanges of the first digit are short broad
and strong. The middle and distal phalanges of the 5th digits are often fused in elderly people.

PELVIC GIRDLE
The bones forming the pelvic girdle include; 2 innominate bones,1 sacrum and 1 coccyx.
Structure of the innominate or hip bones: each hip bone consists of 3 fused bones which includes the
ilium, ischium and pubis which are fused together in a Y shaped epiphysis to form a deep depression
called the acetabulum that forms the hip joint with the almost spherical head of the femur. The ilium is
the upper flattened part of the bone and it presents the iliac crest, posterior superior iliac spine, posterior
inferior iliac spine, anterior superior iliac spine and the anterior inferior iliac spine.
The pubis is the anterior part of the bone and it articulates with the pubis of the other hip bone to form
the symphysis pubis. The ischium is the inferior and posterior part of the bone. The union of these 3
parts consisting of the ilium, ischium and pubis takes place in the acetabulum.
Structure of the sacrum: five progressive smaller vertebrae fuses together to make this bone which is
triangular in shape. The anterior surface is concave and smooth, while the posterior surface is convex
and rough.
The coccyx: is a vestigial tail. It consists of four fused vertebrae forming a small triangular bone.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS

Male pelvis Female pelvis
1 Oval obturator foramen Triangular obturator foramen
2 Inverted ischial spine Everted ischial spine
3 Heart shaped pelvic inlet Circular or round pelvic inlet
4 The ischial spines are close to each other The ischial spines are further apart
5 The subpubic angle is about 60 – 90˚ The subpubic angle is about 90 -120˚
6 It has heavier bones It has lighter bones

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 JOINT
Joint is point or region where two or more bones articulate or meet. Ligament connects bone to bone,
while tendon connect muscles to bones. Joints are basically classified into three(3);
• Fibrous or fixed joints
• Cartilaginous or slightly movable joints
• Synovial or freely movable joints.

Fibrous Joint: these are joints that are immovable or fixed and have fibrous tissues between the bones.
Example of fibrous joints include joints between the bones of the skull(sutures) and those between the
teeth and the maxilla and mandible.
Cartilaginous joints: these are joints which allows very slight movement. Consisting of a
fibrocartilage between the ends of the bones that form the joint. example of cartilaginous joints includes;
symphysis pubis, and the joint between the vertebral bodies.
Synovial joints: these are joints which allows wide range of movements. They are classified according
to the range of movement possible in the joint or the shape of the articulating parts of the bones involved.
These include;
• Ball and socket joints
• Hinge joints
• Gliding joints
• Pivot joints
• Condyloid and saddle joints
Ball and socket joint: is a type of joint in which the ball shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into
the cup like depression of another bone. It enables the bone to move in many places(wide range of
movement). Movement possible in the ball and socket joint include; flexion, extension, adduction,
abduction, rotation and circumduction. E.g scapulohumeral joint( shoulder joint), iliofemoral joint( hip
joint)
Hinge joint: this is a type of synovial joint that allows flexion and extension only. They are monoaxial
joint. They consist of a convex cylinder in one bone applied to a corresponding concavity in the other
bone. E.g. elbow joint, knee joint, ankle joint, and interphalangeal joints.
Gliding joints: in this type of synovial joint, the articular surfaces glide over each other. Examples
include the sternoclavicular joints, acromioclavicular joints and joints between the carpal and tarsal
bones.
Pivot joints: movement in this joint is rotational. A pivot joint consists of a relatively cylindrical bony
process that rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partly ligament. They are monoaxial
joint. Examples include proximal and distal radioulnar joints, and the joint between the atlas and
odontoid process of the axis.
Saddle joints: in this joint: the articulating bones fit together like a man sitting on a saddle. The most
important saddle joint is at the base of the thumb, between the trapezium of the wrist and the first
metacarpal bone(carpometacarpal joint).
Condyloid joints: A condyle is a smooth, rounded projection on a bone and in a condyloid joint it sits
within a cup-shaped depression on the other bone. Examples include temporomandibular joints,
metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints.

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 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle cells are specialised contractile cells, also called fibres. The three types of muscle tissue,
smooth, cardiac and skeletal, each differ in structure, location and physiological function. Smooth
muscle and cardiac muscle are not under voluntary control. Skeletal muscles, which are under voluntary
control, are attached to bones via their tendons and move the skeleton. The origin of a muscle is
(usually) its proximal attachment; this is generally the bone that remains still when the muscle contracts,
while the insertion is (usually) the distal attachment site, generally on the bone that is moved when the
muscle contracts.
Some of the skeletal muscles in the human body include;
1. Muscles of the face and neck
2. Muscles of the back
3. Muscles of the abdominal wall
4. Muscles of the upper and lower limbs
5. Muscles of the gluteal region
6. Muscles of the pelvic floor

MUSCLES OF THE FACE

There are many muscles involve in changing facial expression and with movement of the lower jaw
during chewing and speaking. Some of which include; occipitofrontalis, levator palpebrae superioris,
orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid.
• Occipitofrontalis(unpaired): It consists of a posterior muscular part over the occipital
bone(occipitalis) and anterior part over the frontal bone( frontalis)
Function: it raises the eyebrows.
• Levator palpebrae superioris: it extends from the posterior part of the orbital cavity to the
eyelid.
Function: it raises the eyelid.
• Orbicularis oculi: it surrounds the eye, eyelid, and orbital cavity.
Function: it closes the eye and when strongly contract screws up the eyes.
• Orbicularis oris( unpaired): it surrounds the mouth and blends with the muscles of the cheeks.
Function: it closes the lips and when strongly contracted, shapes the mouth for whistling.
• Temporalis: it covers the squamous part of the temporal bone and insert on the coronoid
process of the mandible.
Function: it closes the mouth and assist in chewing.
• Pterygoid: it extends from the sphenoid bone to the mandible.
Function: it closes the mouth and pulls the lower jaw forward.

MUSCLES OF THE NECK

• Sternocleidomastoid: it arises from the manubrium of the sternum and clavicle and insert on
the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Function: it assists in moving the head from side to side.
• Trapezius: it covers the shoulder and back of the neck.
Functions: it pulls the head backwards and controls the movements of the scapula when the
shoulder joint is in use.

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MUSCLES OF THE BACK
• Latissimus dorsi: arises from the posterior part of the iliac crest and the spinous processes of
the lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae. It is inserted into the bicipital groove of the humerus.
It adducts, medially rotates and extends the arm.
• Teres major: This originates from the inferior angle of the scapula and is inserted into the
humerus. It extends, adducts and medially rotates.
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL
Five pairs of muscle form the anterior abdominal wall. This includes; rectus abdominis, external
oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis and quadratus lumborum. The main function of these
paired muscles is to form the strong muscular anterior wall of the abdominal cavity. When the muscles
contract together, they: compress the abdominal organs and flex the vertebral column in the lumbar
region.
The anterior abdominal wall is divided longitudinally by a very strong midline tendinous cord called
the linea alba, which extends from the xiphoid process of the sternum to the symphysis pubis. The
structure of the abdominal wall on each side of the linea alba is identical.
• Rectus abdominis: it is the most superficial muscle of the abdominal wall, it originates from
the 2 heads, medially in front of the pubic symphysis and laterally from the upper border of the
pubic crest and are separated from each other by the linea alba. They are inserted on 7th, 6th &
5th costal cartilages and the xiphoid process of the sternum.
• External oblique: it extends from the lower ribs. They insert on the iliac crest and by
aponeurosis to the linea alba.
• Internal oblique: it lies deep to the external oblique and has 2 origin & insertions. It fibres
arise from the iliac crest & spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae. They are inserted on the
lower ribs and by aponeurosis into the linea alba.
• Transversus abdominis: is the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall. It fibres arise from the
iliac crest and the lumbar vertebrae. They are inserted on the linea alba by an aponeurosis.
• Quadratus lumborum: arises from the iliac crest and insert on the 12th rib.
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND UPPER LIMB
• Deltoid: it originates from the clavicle, acromion process and spine of the scapula. It is inserted
on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus. The main function is movement(flexion, abduction
and lateral rotation of the shoulder joint) of the upper limb.
• Pectoralis major. This lies on the anterior thoracic wall. The fibres originate from the clavicle
and sternum and are inserted into the lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus. It draws
the arm forward and towards the body, i.e. flexes and adducts.
• Biceps: it lies in the anterior aspect of the arm. It helps to stabilise and flex the shoulder joint
and at the elbow joint it assists with flexion and supination.
• Tricep: it lies in the posterior aspect of the arm. It arises from three heads, one from the scapula
and two from the posterior surface of the humerus. The insertion is on the olecranon process of
the ulna. It helps to stabilise the shoulder joint, assists in adduction of the arm and extends the
elbow joint.
• Flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis: lies in the anterior aspect of the forearm. They
allow for flexion of the forearm.
• Extensor carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi radialis: lie in the posterior aspect of the forearm.
They allow for the extension of the forearm.
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMB
• Quadriceps femoris: This is a group of four muscles lying on the front and sides of the thigh.
They are the rectus femoris and three vasti: lateralis, medialis and intermedius. The rectus

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 femoris originates from the ilium and the three vasti from the upper end of the femur. They are
inserted into the tibia by the patellar tendon. Only the rectus femoris flexes the hip joint.
Together, the group acts as a very strong extensor of the knee joint.
• Sartorius: This is the longest muscle in the body and crosses both the hip and knee joints. It
originates from the anterior superior iliac spine and inserted into the tibia. It is associated with
flexion and abduction at the hip joint and flexion at the knee.
• Hamstrings: These lie on the posterior aspect of the thigh. They originate from the ischium
and are inserted into the upper end of the tibia. They are the biceps femoris, semimembranosus
and semitendinosus muscles. They flex the knee joint.
• Adductor group: This lies on the medial aspect of the thigh. They originate from the pubic
bone and are inserted into the linea aspera of the femur. They adduct and medially rotate the
thigh.
• Gastrocnemius: This forms the bulk of the calf of the leg. It arises by two heads, one from
each condyle of the femur, and to be inserted into the calcaneus by the calcanean tendon
(Achilles tendon). Flexion at the knee joint and plantarflexion at the ankle joint.
• Anterior tibialis: This originates from the upper end of the tibia, lies on the anterior surface of
the leg and is inserted into the middle cuneiform bone by a long tendon. It is associated with
dorsiflexion of the foot.

GLUTEAL MUSCLES
The gluteal muscles are the 3 muscles making up the buttocks. They include the gluteus maximus,
gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscle. The gluteus maximus is the largest of the gluteal muscles
and one of the strongest muscles in the human body.

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR

• Levator ani: This is a pair of broad flat muscles, forming the anterior part of the pelvic floor.
They originate from the inner surface of the true pelvis and unite in the midline. Together they
form a sling that supports the pelvic organs.
• Coccygeus: This is a paired triangular sheet of muscle and tendinous fibres situated behind the
levator ani. They originate from the medial surface of the ischium and are inserted into the
sacrum and coccyx. They complete the formation of the pelvic floor, which is perforated in the
male by the urethra and anus, and in the female by the urethra, vagina and anus.

BY: SIMON O

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