SKELETAL SYSTEM

Reporter:
Kaye Emperado
Human skeleton

• Human skeleton, the internal skeleton that serves as a

framework for the body and facilitates movement.
• The skeletal system includes over 206 bones, cartilage, and
ligaments.
• Bone is a rigid body tissue consisting of cells embedded in
an abundant hard intercellular material.
• Ligaments are bands of dense and fibrous connective tissue
that are key to the function of joints.
• Cartilage is more flexible than
bone but stiffer than muscle.
Cartilage helps give structure to
the larynx and nose.
• It is also found between the
vertebrae and at the ends of
bones like the femur.
The Five Types of Bones

1. Flat Bones
2. Long Bones
3. Short Bones
4. Irregular Bones
5. Sesamoid Bones
 Flat Bones
•There are flat bones in
the skull (occipital,
parietal, frontal, nasal,
lacrimal, and vomer), the
thoracic cage (sternum
and ribs), and the pelvis
(ilium, ischium, and
pubis).
 Flat Bones
•The function of flat bones is
to protect internal organs
such as the brain, heart, and
pelvic organs. Flat bones are
somewhat flattened, and can
provide protection, like a
shield; flat bones can also
provide large areas of
attachment for muscles.
 Long Bones
•The long bones, longer
than they are wide,
include the femur (the
longest bone in the body)
as well as relatively small
bones in the fingers. Long
bones function to support
the weight of the body
and facilitate movement.
 Long Bones
•Long bones are mostly
located in the appendicular
skeleton and include bones
in the lower limbs (the tibia,
fibula, femur, metatarsals,
and phalanges) and bones in
the upper limbs (the
humerus, radius, ulna,
metacarpals, and phalanges).
 Short Bones
•Short bones are
about as long as they
are wide. Located in
the wrist and ankle
joints, short bones
provide stability and
some movement.
 Short Bones
•The carpals in the wrist
(scaphoid, lunate, triquetral,
hamate, pisiform, capitate,
trapezoid, and trapezium) and
the tarsals in the ankles
(calcaneus, talus, navicular,
cuboid, lateral cuneiform,
intermediate cuneiform, and
medial cuneiform) are
examples of short bones.
 Irregular Bones
•Irregular bones vary in
shape and structure and
therefore do not fit into
any other category (flat,
short, long, or sesamoid).
They often have a fairly
complex shape, which
helps protect internal
organs.
 Irregular Bones
•For example, the vertebrae,
irregular bones of the
vertebral column, protect the
spinal cord. The irregular
bones are: Vertebrae, sacrum,
coccyx, temporal, sphenoid,
ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla,
mandible, palatine, inferior
nasal concha and hyoid.
 Sesamoid Bones
•Sesamoid bones are bones
embedded in tendons. These
small, round bones are
commonly found in the tendons
of the hands, knees, and feet.
•Sesamoid bones function to
protect tendons from stress and
wear.
•The patella, commonly referred
to as the kneecap, is an example
of a sesamoid bone.
 Two Groups of Bones

•Axial Skeleton
•Appendicular Skeleton
 Two Groups of Bones
•Your axial skeleton is made up of the
bones in your head, neck, back and chest.

• Your appendicular skeleton is made up of

everything else — the bones that attach
(append) to your axial skeleton.

•Your appendicular skeleton includes the

bones in your shoulders, pelvis and limbs,
including your arms, hands, legs and feet.
 Two Groups of Bones

•Axial Skeleton
 Axial Skeleton
•1. Skull Bones

The skull consists of the cranial

bones and the facial skeleton.
The cranial bones compose the
top and back of the skull and
enclose the brain. The facial
skeleton, as its name suggests,
makes up the face of the skull.
 Axial Skeleton
•1. Skull Bones
Facial Skeleton
The 14 bones of the facial skeleton
form the entrances to the
respiratory and digestive tracts. The
facial skeleton is formed by the
mandible, maxillae (r,l), zygomatics
(r,l), and the bones that give shape
to the nasal cavity: lacrimals (r,l),
nasals (r,l), vomer, palatines (r,l), and
the nasal conchae (r,l).
 Axial Skeleton
1. Skull Bones
Cranial Bones
The eight cranial bones
support and protect the
brain: occipital bone,
parietal bone (r,l),
temporal bone (r,l), frontal
bone, sphenoid, and
ethmoid.
 Axial Skeleton
1. Skull Bones
Skull Sutures
Skull sutures are immobile joints
where cranial bones are
connected with dense fibrous
tissue.
 Axial Skeleton
1. Skull Bones
Skull Sutures
The four major cranial sutures are:
•lambdoid suture (between the occipital and
parietal bones)
•coronal suture (between the frontal and parietal
bones)
•sagittal suture (between the two parietal bones)
•squamous sutures (between the temporal and
parietal bones)
 Axial Skeleton
2. The Hyoid Bone, Laryngeal
Skeleton, and Bones of the
Inner Ear
Bones of the Inner Ear
•Inside the petrous part of the
temporal bone are the three
smallest bones of the body: the
malleus, incus, and stapes.
•These three bones articulate with
each other and transfer vibrations
from the tympanic membrane to
the inner ear.
 Axial Skeleton
2. The Hyoid Bone, Laryngeal
Skeleton, and Bones of the
Inner Ear
Laryngeal Skeleton : Hyoid
Bone
•The laryngeal skeleton, also known
as the larynx or voice box, is
composed of nine cartilages. It is
located between the trachea and the
root of the tongue. The hyoid bone
provides an anchor point.
 Axial Skeleton
2. The Hyoid Bone, Laryngeal
Skeleton, and Bones of the
Inner Ear
Laryngeal Skeleton : Hyoid
Bone
•The movements of the laryngeal
skeleton both open and close the
glottis and regulate the degree of
tension of the vocal folds, which–
when air is forced through them–
produce vocal sounds.
 Axial Skeleton
3. The Bones of the Vertebral
Column: The Vertebrae, Sacrum,
and Coccyx
•The vertebral column is a
flexible column formed by a
series of 24 vertebrae, plus the
sacrum and coccyx.
•Commonly referred to as the
spine, the vertebral column
extends from the base of the
skull to the pelvis.
 Axial Skeleton
3. The Bones of the Vertebral
Column: The Vertebrae, Sacrum,
and Coccyx
•The spinal cord passes from the
foramen magnum of the skull through
the vertebral canal within the vertebral
column. The vertebral column is
grouped into five regions: the cervical
spine (C01-C07), the thoracic spine
(T01- T-12), the lumbar spine (L01-L05),
the sacral spine, and the coccygeal
spine.
 Axial Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Thoracic Cage
Protect Internal Organs
•The thoracic cage, formed by the ribs
and sternum, protects internal organs
and gives attachment to muscles
involved in respiration and upper limb
movement.
•The sternum consists of the
manubrium, body of the sternum, and
xiphoid process.
•Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs because
they articulate directly to the sternum,
and ribs 8-12 are known as false ribs.
 Two Groups of Bones

•Appendicular
Skeleton
 Appendicular Skeleton
1. The Bones of the Shoulder
Girdle
•The pectoral or shoulder girdle
consists of the scapulae and
clavicles.
•The shoulder girdle connects the
bones of the upper limbs to the
axial skeleton.
•These bones also provide
attachment for muscles that move
the shoulders and upper limbs.
 Appendicular Skeleton
2. Bones of the Upper Limbs

•The upper limbs include the

bones of the arm (humerus),
forearm (radius and ulna), wrist,
and hand.
•The only bone of the arm is the
humerus, which articulates with
the forearm bones–the radius
and ulna–at the elbow joint.
•The ulna is the larger of the two
forearm bones.
 Appendicular Skeleton
2. Bones of the Upper Limbs
Wrist Bones
•The wrist, or carpus, consists of eight
carpal bones. One mnemomic to
remember the carpal bones is the
sentence: Some Lovers Try Positions That
They Can’t Handle. The eight carpal
bones of the wrist are the Scaphoid,
Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform, Trapezoid,
Trapezium, Capitate, Hamate.
 Appendicular Skeleton
2. Bones of the Upper Limbs
Wrist Bones
•The wrist, or carpus, consists of eight
carpal bones. One mnemomic to
remember the carpal bones is the
sentence: Some Lovers Try Positions That
They Can’t Handle. The eight carpal
bones of the wrist are the Scaphoid,
Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform, Trapezoid,
Trapezium, Capitate, Hamate.
 Appendicular Skeleton
2. Bones of the Upper
Limbs
Hand Bones
•The hand includes 8
bones in the wrist, 5 bones
that form the palm, and 14
bones that form the
fingers and thumb.
 Appendicular Skeleton
2. Bones of the Upper
Limbs
Hand Bones
•The wrist bones are called
carpals. The bones that
form the palm of the hand
are called metacarpals.
•The phalanges are the
bones of the fingers.
 Appendicular Skeleton
3. The Bones of the Pelvis
•The pelvic girdle is a ring of bones
attached to the vertebral column
that connects the bones of the
lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
•The pelvic girdle consists of the
right and left hip bones.
• Each hip bone is a large,
flattened, and irregularly shaped
fusion of three bones: the ilium,
ischium, and pubis.
 Appendicular Skeleton
3. The Bones of the Pelvis
Female and Male Pelvis
The female and male
pelvises differ in several
ways due to childbearing
adaptations in the female.
 Appendicular Skeleton
3. The Bones of the Pelvis
Female and Male Pelvis
•The female pelvic brim is larger and
wider than the male’s.
•The angle of the pubic arch is greater
in the female pelvis (over 90 degrees)
than in the male pelvis (less than 90
degrees).
•The male pelvis is deeper and has a
narrower pelvic outlet than the
female’s.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower Limbs
•The lower limbs include the bones of
the thigh, leg, and foot.
•The femur is the only bone of the
thigh. It articulates with the two bones
of the leg–the larger tibia (commonly
known as the shin) and smaller fibula.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower Limbs

•The thigh and leg bones articulate at

the knee joint that is protected and
enhanced by the patella bone that
supports the quadriceps tendon. The
bones of the foot include the tarsus,
metatarsus, and phalanges.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Foot Bones
•The bones of the foot consist of the tarsal
bones of the ankle, the phalanges that
form the toes, and the metatarsals that
give the foot its arch.
•As in the hand, the foot has five
metatarsals, five proximal phalanges, five
distal phalanges, but only four middle
phalanges (as the foot’s “big toe” has only
two phalanges).
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Foot Bones
•The bones of the foot consist of the tarsal
bones of the ankle, the phalanges that
form the toes, and the metatarsals that
give the foot its arch.
•As in the hand, the foot has five
metatarsals, five proximal phalanges, five
distal phalanges, but only four middle
phalanges (as the foot’s “big toe” has only
two phalanges).
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Ankle Bones
The ankle, or tarsus, consists of
seven tarsal bones: the calcaneus,
talus, cuboid, navicular, and three
cuneiforms.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Foot Arches
The arches of the foot are formed
by the interlocking bones and
ligaments of the foot. They serve
as shock-absorbing structures
that support body weight and
distribute stress evenly during
walking.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Foot Arches
The longitudinal arch of the foot
runs from the calcaneus to the
heads of the metatarsals, and has
medial and lateral parts.
The transverse arch of the foot
runs across the cuneiforms and
the base of the metatarsal bones.
 Appendicular Skeleton
4. The Bones of the Lower
Limbs
Foot Arches
The longitudinal arch of the foot
runs from the calcaneus to the
heads of the metatarsals, and has
medial and lateral parts.
The transverse arch of the foot
runs across the cuneiforms and
the base of the metatarsal bones.
Types of Joints in the Human
Body
Joints hold the skeleton together and
support movement. There are two ways
to categorize joints. The first is by joint
function, also referred to as range of
motion. The second way to categorize
joints is by the material that holds the
bones of the joints together; that is an
organization of joints by structure.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

Joints in the human skeleton can be grouped by function (range of motion) and by
structure (material). Here are some joints and their categorizations.
Types of Joints in the Human
Body
1. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their
Function into Three Ranges of
Motion
 Synarthrosis ( range of joint
motion: no movement)
 Amphiathrosis ( range of joint
motion: little movement)
 Diarthrosis ( range of joint
Types of Joints in the Human Body

 Synarthrosis ( range of joint motion: no movement)

• Immovable joints (called synarthroses) include skull
sutures, the articulations between the teeth and the
mandible, and the joint found between the first pair of
ribs and the sternum
• This type of joint provides for a strong connection
between the adjacent bones, which serves to protect
internal structures such as the brain or heart.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

 Synarthrosis ( range of joint motion: no movement)

• Examples of synarthrosis include skull sutures and the
articulations between the teeth and the mandible.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

 Amphiathrosis ( range of joint motion: little movement)

• An amphiarthrosis is a joint that has limited mobility.

• Examples of joints allowing slight movement (called

amphiarthroses) include the distal joint between the
tibia and the fibula and the pubic symphisis of the pelvic
girdle
Types of Joints in the Human Body

 Amphiathrosis ( range of joint motion: little movement)

• pubic symphisis of the pelvic girdle

Types of Joints in the Human Body

 Diarthrosis ( range of joint motion: full movement)

• Joints allowing full movement (called diarthroses)
include many bone articulations in the upper and lower
limbs.
• Examples of these include the elbow, shoulder, and
ankle.
Types of Joints in the Human Body
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous, Cartilaginous,

and Synovial Joints

Fibrous Joints
•Between the articulations of fibrous joints is thick connective tissue,
which is why most (but not all) fibrous joints are immovable
(synarthroses).
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous, Cartilaginous,

and Synovial Joints
Fibrous Joints
1. Sutures - are
nonmoving joints that
connect bones of the
skull. These joints have
serrated edges that lock
together with fibers of
connective tissue.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous, Cartilaginous,

and Synovial Joints
Fibrous Joints
2. A syndesmosis is a joint in
which a ligament connects
two bones, allowing for a
little movement
(amphiarthroses). The
distal joint between the
tibia and fibula is an
example of a syndesmosis.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous, Cartilaginous,

and Synovial Joints
Fibrous Joints
3. The fibrous articulations
between the teeth and
the mandible or maxilla
are called gomphoses
and are also immovable.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
•Joints that unite bones with cartilage are called cartilaginous
joints.
•There are two types of cartilaginous joints:
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
1. A synchrondosis is an
immovable cartilaginous joint.
One example is the joint between
the first pair of ribs and the
sternum.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
2. A symphysis consists of a
compressable fibrocartilaginous pad that
connects two bones. This type of joint
allows for some movement. The hip
bones, connected by the pubic
symphysis, and the vertebrae, connected
by intervertebral discs, are two examples
of symphyses.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
•Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of an articular capsule
between the two joined bones.
•Bone surfaces at synovial joints are protected by a coating of articular
cartilage.
•Synovial joints are often supported and reinforced by surrounding
ligaments, which limit movement to prevent injury.
•There are six types of synovial joints:
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
1. Gliding joints- move against
each other on a single plane.
Major gliding joints include the
inter vertebral joints and the
bones of the wrists and ankles.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
2. Hinge joints- move on
just one axis. These joints
allow for flexion and
extension. Major hinge
joints include the elbow
and finger joints.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
3. A pivot joint provides
rotation. At the top of the
spine, the atlas and axis
form a pivot joint that
allows for rotation of the
head.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
4. A condyloid joint allows for
circular motion, flexion, and
extension. The wrist joint
between the radius and the
carpal bones is an example of a
condyloid joint.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
5. A saddle joint allows for flexion,
extension, and other movements,
but no rotation. In the hand, the
thumb’s saddle joint (between the
first metacarpal and the trapezium)
lets the thumb cross over the palm,
making it opposable.
Types of Joints in the Human Body

2. Joints Can Be Grouped By Their Structure into Fibrous,

Cartilaginous, and Synovial Joints
Synovial Joints.
6. The ball-and-socket joint is a
freely moving joint that can
rotate on any axis. The hip and
shoulder joints are examples of
ball and socket joints.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
1. Sciatica Can Result from Disc Herniation
•The lumbar spine bears the weight and
stress of the body.
•As a result, disc herniation can occur, which
affects spinal nerves.
•The sciatic nerve, which starts at the lower
back and travels down the back of the leg, is
often affected.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
1. Sciatica Can Result from Disc Herniation
•When a disc herniates, it can pinch the
nerve. This is a common cause of sciatica.
• Sciatica typically affects one side of the
body, with mild to severe pain, muscle
weakness, or numbness felt anywhere along
the nerve pathway.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
2. Cartilage Degenerating Over Time May Lead to Cervical Spondylosis
•As people age, bones and cartilage that
make up the back and neck region submit
to wear and tear.
•Cervical spondylosis is a type of
osteoarthritis that affects the
intervertebral joints of the neck region.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
2. Cartilage Degenerating Over Time May Lead to Cervical Spondylosis
•The cartilage of inter vertebral discs and the
cartilage that lines the joint-facing bodies of
vertebrae can degenerate over time.
•This pressure causes compression, leading
to bulging discs.
•To stabilize the spine, bone spurs called
osteophytes often grow from the vertebrae.
These changes cause pain and stiffness.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
3. Plantar Fasciitis Can Result from Repeated Foot Strain
•The plantar fascia is a thick band of
connective tissue that runs along the bottom
of the foot, connecting the heel bone to the
toes.
•Activities such as running or dancing can
repeatedly pound the feet on hard surfaces or
put too much tension on the plantar fascia.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
3. Plantar Fasciitis Can Result from Repeated Foot Strain
•This repeated strain can result in
microtears of the ligament, which lead
to irritation, inflammation, and pain
called plantar fasciitis.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
4. Wear and Aging Can Cause Osteoarthritis of the Hip
•With age and use, the articular cartilage in
the hip joint can degenerate.
•The tissue becomes frayed and rough,
exposing the bone surfaces beneath, making
movement painful.
•This condition is diagnosed as osteoarthritis,
also known as degenerative arthritis or
degenerative joint disease.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
4. Wear and Aging Can Cause Osteoarthritis of the Hip
•Degeneration of the articular cartilage and
osteoarthritis are caused most often by wear
and aging.
•A previous injury to the hip joint, bone
deformities, or stress from repetitive physical
activities may also cause or increase the
likelihood of this condition.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
4. Wear and Aging Can Cause Osteoarthritis of the Hip
•Other associated risk factors include
obesity and a family history of
osteoarthritis.
•Symptoms include stiffness, pain, and
tenderness.
•Bone spurs may also form around the
joint, causing further pain.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
4. Wear and Aging Can Cause Osteoarthritis of the Hip
Osteoarthritis
•Osteoarthritis occurs when the
cartilage in a joint wears away over
time, becoming frayed and rough and
exposing bone surfaces.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
5. A Sharp Knee Movement Can Lead to an ACL Tear
•The knee joint contains bones,
muscles, and ligaments that flex,
rotate, and pivot during normal range
of motion.
• A knee sprain can occur when a jump
or sharp pivot twists or hyperextends
the joint.
Skeletal System Pathologies: Common Disorders
and Conditions
The skeletal system, which includes bones, ligaments, and cartilage, gives structure
to the body. The pathologies described below can occur when stress and aging
affect the skeletal system.
5. A Sharp Knee Movement Can Lead to an ACL Tear
•The force can damage or tear one or
more knee ligaments, such as the
anterior cruciate ligament, which
connects the end of the femur (thigh
bone) to the top of the tibia (shin bone).
• ACL injuries commonly occur during
sports activities.
Structure of Bones
Tendons