Biblical Theology Bulletin: A Journal of Bible

and Theology
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Secrecy in the Mediterranean World: an Anthropological Perspective

John J. Pilch
Biblical Theology Bulletin: A Journal of Bible and Theology 1994; 24; 151
DOI: 10.1177/014610799402400402

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 SECRECY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD:
AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
John J. Pilch

Abstract

The so-called Messianic secret in the Gospels is much more complex than the classic theory of Wilhelm Wrede allowed. Insights and
models drawn and adapted from Georg Simmel and developed by Tefft et al. demonstrate that secrecy is an integral part of Mediterranean
culture required by the demands of the core cultural values, honor and shame. Ideological interpretations of this motif in the Gospels must be
modified by these insights.

In 1901, Wilhelm Wrede published research and conclu-

sions that dubbed Jesus’ concern for secrecy about his iden-
rapidly when the truth is owed and when it is to be
cealed, and to acquire conscious control over facial expres-
con-

sion is an ability which takes practice from childdhood [xvi] .

tity and mission throughout Mark’s Gospel as the &dquo;Messianic
secret.&dquo; For instance, on the way to the villages of Caesarea
Philippi Jesus asks his disciples about public opinion con-
cerning his identity. They report honorable guesses; Peter
identifies Jesus as the Messiah. Jesus &dquo;sternly ordered them
not to tell anyone about him&dquo; (Mark 8:30) . This and similar
charges by Jesus &dquo;not to tell&dquo; were judged to have a theologi-
cal basis.
This hypothesis dominated biblical scholarship
throughout the twentieth century until recently (Tuckett).
Representative of contemporary scholars, Daniel Har-
rington observed: &dquo;The commands to silence and the devel-
opment of Jesus’ messiahship are more complex than
Wrede’s theory allowed&dquo; (41:4).
One valuable resource for cutting through the complex-
ity of the so-called &dquo;Messianic secret&dquo; is Mediterranean
anthropology and its rich insights into related cultural values
(Eickelman: 191-92; Gilmore: 29-76; Gilsenan; Neyrey;
Peristiany). It should be no surprise that these values are part
of the so-called Messianic secret as well. Historians of Re-
ligion point out: &dquo;Not only is there no religion without
secrecy, but there is no human existence without it&dquo; (Bolle:
1). Jesus (and/or Mark) relied on secrecy as much as every-
one else in that culture as a strategy for preserving a satisfy-
ing and meaningful life (Smith).
Julian Pitt-Rivers’ comments on the Spanish villagers
among whom he conducted anthropological field studies are
relevant:
In short, [my] whole book [People of the Sierra]can be read
as no more than an explication through an ethnographic
example of Simmel’s great essay on secrecy and the lie. I
could not have chosen a better terrain on which to demon-
strate it, for the Andalusians are the most accomplished liars
I have ever encountered. I use the word accomplished liter-
ally, for it requires training and intelligence to distinguish
Pitt-Rivers mentioned the classic study of secrecy by
Georg Simmel (1950; for a recent review see Frisby). Though
it demands close and careful reading, this essay and the
essays in Tefft form the fundamental entry point into any
study of secrecy. This article will demonstrate how insights
in these sources and models developed from them offer a
new, major analytical tool for analyzing secrecy in Mark.
Honor and Shame: Core Mediterranean Values
a public claim to worth and a public acknow-
Honor is
ledgement that worth. Honor is a group-value; an indi-
of
vidual’s honor depends upon the honor of the group.
Genealogies are one strategy for making honor claims.
Instead of using a genealogy (as do Matthew and Luke),
Mark demonstrates Jesus’ honor with a different cultural
strategy.
By his preaching and life-style, John the Baptist wins
the admiration of his listeners. Then he announces the
John J. Pilch, Ph.D. (Marquette University) teaches scripture in
the Department of Theology at Georgetown University, Washing-
ton, DC. This article developed from the research report read at
the 1991 International Conference on the Social Sciences and
Second Testament Interpretation in Medina del Campo, Spain.
Reports at that conference, which appeared in BTB, are reflected
in the section on cultural anrhropology in the 1993 document on
The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, published by the
Pontifical Biblical Commission. Recent publications include Bibli-
cal Social Values and Their Meaning: A Handbook, coedited with
Bruce J. Malina, Introducing the Cultural Context of the Old Testa-
ment, and Introducing the Cultural Text of the New Testament (both
Paulist Press, 1991). He has served as Book Review Editor of BTB
since 1982.

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151
advent of an even more honorable person, a &dquo;more powerful&dquo;
one. &dquo;I am not worthy to stoop down and untie the thong of
his sandals&dquo; (Mark 1:7) . This public claim to honor on behalf
of Jesus is publicly validated by the voice from heaven at
Jesus’ baptism: &dquo;You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am
well pleased&dquo; (Mark 1:11).
In each of the Synoptic Gospels, the announcement of
Jesus’ honorable status by the voice from heaven is followed
by the temptation (Mark 1:12-13). Claims to honor always
invite trouble. Claims must be tested, disputed, weakened,
perhaps even invalidated if possible. Vanquishing the temp-
tation, Jesus emerges with honor intact. The claim holds.
From a cultural perspective, the temptation must nec-
essarily follow upon the compliments paid to Jesus by the
Baptist and the voice from heaven. Spirits permeate the
atmosphere. Hearing a compliment, the evil spirit is driven
to attempt to ruin the basis of the compliment (Elliott). This
routine activity by normal spirits constrains all Mediterra-
nean natives to engage in secrecy, deception, or lying in
order to deprive spirits of an opportunity to cause mischief
in human life, like the temptation was for Jesus.
Ascribed honor
Ascribed honor derives from birth, appointment,
elevation. Jesus’ ascribed honor derives in the first place
from his family. The details are generally well known by
family and neighbors in the birth-village and beyond. Jesus
enters the Synagogue at Capernaum (Mark 1:22-28), and
an unclean spirit shouts out his identity, his claim to ascribed
honor: &dquo;Jesus of Nazareth!&dquo; (everyone knows this); &dquo;Holy
One of God!&dquo; (only demons know this; human beings do not
know this).
Jesus responds to these attributions of honor with
command: &dquo;Be silent!&dquo; (1:25). Secrecy is a social resource
which mutual opponents can use either defensively or offen-
sively during social conflicts (Tefft 56). The commanded
silence occurs after Jesus’ second conflict with a demon (the
temptation in 1:12-13 was the first one) ain which Jesus
emerged a victor. Jesus strives to protect his identity from
full disclosure to other human beings. This is defensive se-
crecy. But while preserving his honor from one perspective
(keeping his identity secret), Jesus exposes himself to further
attack from another perspective because he puzzles and
confuses his friends and neighbors. _
Jesus’ behavior in the Gospel is at odds with his birth-
status, and this stirs concern among his fellow villagers. As
in all human experience, others know only as much as one
reveals to them. Those in his home village of Nazareth know
all about Jesus’ origins. But they do not know the why and
wherefore of his activities (Mark 6:1-6). Schematically it
’
can be presented thus:
Know:
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the carpenter,
the son of Mary
and brother of James and Joses and Judas and
Simon and his sisters are here with us.
And they took offense (or stumbled) at him.
Don’t know:
Where did this man get all this?
What is this wisdom that has been given to
him?
What deeds of power are being done by him!
What caused them to take offense or to stumble? Jesus
was not behaving in accord with his birth-status, his basic,
acquired honor. Instead of pursuing his father’s occupation
as a dutiful son should, he was wandering, preaching, and
healing. This is shameful behavior. So Jesus’ friends. and
neighbors in his home village attempt to pry deeper into his
background.
Such nosey behavior, so typical in the Mediterranean
world, demands and encourages secrecy. Otherwise daily life
becomes unbearable. Social psychologists note:
There is an ideal sphere which lies around every human
being. Although differing in size in various directions and
or differing according to the person with whom one entertains
relations, this sphere cannot be penetrated, unless the per-
sonality value of the individual is thereby destroyed. A
sphere of this sort is placed around man by his ’honor.’ One
should not trespass the boundary by questions or other
invasions [Simmel 331 ] .
Other attempts to invade Jesus’ sphere of honor are
repeatedly made by his opponents. Jesus routinely responds
with a strategy of secrecy or deception. Consider Mark
a 11:27-33. The chief priests, scribes, elders (Jerusalem Tem-
ple) ask: &dquo;By what authority are you doing these things?
Who gave you this authority to do them?&dquo; Jesus answers
questions with questions and responds to a challenge with a
counter challenge. &dquo;John’s Baptism: was it from heaven? or
human?&dquo; Recognizing the dilemma Jesus’ question poses, his
opponents respond: &dquo;We do not know.&dquo; Jesus concludes with
yet another resort to secrecy: &dquo;Neither will I tell you about
&dquo;
myself.&dquo;
Achieved Honor
Honor is achieved through personal initiative and
benefactions. Jesus achieved honor by winning contests of
challenge and riposte (Malina 1993a and b). These contests
took place particularly with his enemies and competitors,
who were unable to penetrate the secrecy and deception in
which Jesus shrouded his identity and his activities.
For example, in Mark 7 some Pharisees complain about
the manner in which Jesus’ disciples eat (without washing
hands appropriately). Jesus counter-challenges them about
their teaching on the qorban, a strategy that deprived parents
of deserved filial support. His counter-challenge is a strategy
in the service of secrecy. Jesus never answers the Pharisees’
&dquo;why?&dquo; Further, in the house (in secret) Jesus instructs the
disciples about what is polluting. This strategy repeated
throughout Jesus’ career has prompted Draper to propose
seeking to understand the earliest Christian community as
a form of &dquo;secret society.&dquo;
To summarize: honor is a public claim to worth and a
public acknowledgment of that claim. Honor is acquired (by
birth) and achieved (in contests of challenge and riposte).
But in a society where people watch each other carefully,
and in villages where everyone knows everything about
everyone else, what would be the sense of making a foolish
or empty claim to worth, or what would be the sense of
risking defeat by competing with a superior wit? Secrecy is
an important element in gaining and maintaining honor. It
is a skill that is seriously pursued and arduously practiced
until it can be exercised with great success.
Secrecy in Mediterranean Culture
Secrecy is a formal, conscious, deliberate, and calcu-
lated concealment of information, activities, or relationship
which outsiders can gain only by espionage (Tefft 14, 320).
in Tefft). Given that honor and prestige are core values of
Mediterranean culture, it is hardly surprising that secrecy is
such an important cultural strategy.
There is no denying that secrecy works a fascinating
effect. The secret gives one a position of exception. Since
others are excluded from knowing, others assume the secret
must have special value. Actually, the secret &dquo;is basically
independent of the content it guards&dquo; (Simmel 332; emphasis
mine). What matters is that others know nothing or little
about it. More precisely, others are prevented from learning
facticity. Even a cursory reading of the Bible reflects the
Mediterranean cultural fascination with secrecy (Pilch
1991: 78-92; 1992a). Jesus appears to be no exception. In
addition to secrecy, other techniques for restricting the
social distribution of knowledge over time are deception and
lying (Pilch 1992b). Secrecy is thus ultimately woven into
the system of power and control in a society (du Boulay).
Because secrecy, deception, and lying are a normal part
of Mediterranean culture, one must not permit an ethically
negative value of a lie to blind one to the quite positive
significance for the formation of certain concrete relations.
Relative to the restriction of knowledge by one person about
the other, the lie is the positive and as it were aggressive
technique,whose purpose is more often attained by mere

It is a form of information control. secrecy and concealment (Simmel 316).

Secrecy is also a selective transmission of information:
what you tell and to whom you tell it are entirely your choice The Process or Pattern of Secrecy
(Brandt 123 in Tefft). From this perspective secrecy is the
inhibition of information flow across the varied web of social Elements
of the Process of Secrecy
boundaries.
Secrecy is so integral a part of Mediterranean culture,
The nature of secrecy is that it rests on a premise of that there is a discernible pattern or process to it. The full
distrust. It judges that others can’t be trusted with certain process seems to have five elements, though secrecy can
information. In the main, this distrust stems from fear of how operate with fewer than these elements (Tefft 37, 322) . One
others might react to this information, or what they might constant characteristic of secrecy is that it separates &dquo;insid-
do with the information. The fear then takes on a variety of ers&dquo; from &dquo;oustiders.&dquo;
forms: fear of public embarrassment, legal action, etc. The Secrecy Process:
(Erickson & Flynn 253 in Tefft). Insiders: the secret gives power and security.
Obviously, secrecy carries significant consequences. Outsiders: use espionage (surveillance, gossip,
Above all, secrecy makes it difficult for outsiders-whether
etc.) to learn the secret.
competitors, rivals, or enemies-to predict the actions of Insiders: devise security methods, including lying
insiders and take counteraction against them (Tefft 321 ) .
or leaking false information, deception, counteres-
The Pharisees and other opponents of Jesus were constantly
caught off guard because of Jesus’ adeptness at keeping his pionage, propaganda (e.g., parables), to protect the
secret.
secrets. His opponents had to bribe an insider, Judas, to
for Jesus’ arrest.
Outsiders: have to evaluate what they have spied
arrange
out, and what has been given to them.
Secondly, secrecy is both a precipitant and a precipitate
of social conflict. Secrecy plays a role in conflict-group Insiders: Post-hoc security, or deception in an at-
formation and in the dynamics of conflict itself-that is, the tempt to soften the effect of unregulated disclo-
sure.
process of interaction between conflict groups. It furthers
social antagonisms and tensions. &dquo;The need to conceal Here is how the full secrecy process is reflected in Mark’s
results from conflict and competition over such valued and reports about Jesus.
scarce resources as wealth, power, and prestige&dquo; (Fidel 201 Mark 8:27-30

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153
 Insider: the secret Jesus knows his identity.
=
Outsiders: guess: John Baptist? Elijah? A Prophet?
Insider: Peter says: &dquo;You are the Messiah.&dquo;
Outsiders: still evaluating.
.
Insiders: Jesus says not to &dquo;tell anyone&dquo; about him.
Keep my identity secret; let confusion continue.
Mark 7:1-23
Insiders: the secret disciples have a secret reason
= got it from: other, more powerful competitors? This poses a
why they eat without washing hands (v 2).
Outsiders: challenge Jesus directly to learn the
secret (v 5).
Insiders: Jesus sidesteps the challenge, issues insult
and counter-challenge (qorban) (vv 6-13) .
Outsiders: evaluate the secret reason and Jesus’
counter challenge.
Insiders: In the house, a private teaching; Jesus
uses secrecy to bind the group even closer to him-
.
self (vv 17-23).
Result: opponents still do not know the reason why
the disciples eat with unwashed hands; the Twelve
grow closer to Jesus.
Mark 11:27-33
Insider: the secret
Jesus has a reason for doing
=
what he does ( 11:15-19) .
Outsiders: Chief priests, scribes, elders want to
know the reason (&dquo;What authority?&dquo; v 28).
Insider: a counter-challenge (v 30): what about
John’s baptism?
Outsiders: evaluate: if so ... , if that ... , (vv 31-
32).
Insider: Neither will I tell you (v 35).
Result: Chief priests and their company still do not
know the source of Jesus’ authority.
Mark 15:1-5
Insider: the secret Jesus knows but conceals his
=
identity.
Outsider: Pilate: &dquo;Are you king of the Judeans?&dquo;
2).
Insider: Jesus gives ambiguous answer: that’s what
you say (v 2).
Outsider: Pilate must evaluate this and the nosey
gossip. &dquo;Have you no reply?&dquo; (vv 3-4).
Insider: Jesus made no further reply-Pilate
amazed (v 5).
The serious and steady attempt by outsiders to ferret
out the secrets of insiders lies at the basis of the development
of intelligence services in all cultures (Dvornik).
The Goal of Secrecy: Power and Security
One of the greatest advantages of secrecy is that it
provides power. &dquo;Knowledge control and secrecy are quite
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universally recognized as means by which power is gained
and maintained in society&dquo; (O’Connell 231 in Tefft). This is
one reason why Jesus taught in parables.
&dquo;
Mark 11:27 reflects the &dquo;outsiders’ genuine concern
for determining the ultimate source for this power or author-
ity. Since the inquirers/outsiders themselves are power bro-
kers who did not broker Jesus’ power, they wonder where he
real threat to the power-brokers of the establishment. And
Jesus appears to take great pleasure in playing the secrecy
game.
Social Scientific Probing of Secrecy in Mark
People use secrecy to protect information or to conceal
knowledge of relationships or deeds that &dquo;outsiders&dquo; are
interested in knowing for whatever reasons and that they
are quite capable of acquiring without the consent of the
secret holders by espionage. For a better understanding of
what secrets are concealed, it is important to know who
conceals them and from whom and for what purpose. In Mark,
Jesus clearly conceals information; he sometimes wraps him-
self, his teaching, and his activity in secrecy. Here is a list of
things Jesus conceals (what?). It is well to ask further: from
whom? and for what purpose?
’
Aspects of His identity
Repeatedly in Mark’s Gospel, Jesus (and sometimes
others) forbids spirits and human beings to reveal who he is
(see Mark 1:25; 1:34; 3:11; 9:30; 9:49; also 15:5; 10:48).
From whom is Jesus hiding his identity? &dquo;Others&dquo; than
those who know, that is, people who still don’t know.
For what purpose? to preserve honor, that inviolable
circle around himself; to protect himself against vulnerabil-
enhance his reputation.
ity ; to
Victor (102 in Tefft) observes: &dquo;A personal self-disclo-
sure may result in ridicule, hostility, gossip, envy, and con-
(v formity pressures to change. This is particularly so in a
society where interpersonal relations are characterized by
competition, rivalries, and conflicts of opinion.&dquo; This is a
perfect description of the Mediterranean world in which
Jesus lived.
The secret puts a barrier between people (Simmel 334) .
an adorning possession and places special value on
It is also
a given personality. One appears a particularly noteworthy
person precisely by what one conceals (Simmel 337).
From this perspective, consider the messiah passages in
Mark (1:1; 8:29; 12:35; 13:21-22; 14;61; but see Matt 26:64
and Luke 22:67; 15:32). Mark and the other Gospels con-
sistently show Jesus’ reluctance to accept the designation
&dquo;messiah&dquo; without qualification.
 Why? Is he distressed by the inaccuracy of this title? Is
he being culturally humble in the hope that people will
continue to attribute it to him? Why does he not settle the
matter once for all with a clear statement?
One culturally plausible answer is that Jesus uses this
confusion and his secrecy on the matter to enhance his
reputation in the eyes of others. This is very honorable. Jesus
does not arrogate titles to himself. He allows secrecy to work
its effect upon those who are in the best position to grant
him honor. Modern scholars acknowledge that there was no
single, distinctive, universally accepted idea of messiah in
first-century Palestine. There was rather a complexity of
confusing and contradictory beliefs. The cultural value of
secrecy helps us understand why Jesus made no effort to
clarify the matter.
His mighty deeds
Another aspect of himself that Jesus attempts to shroud
in secrecy is his behavior, and specifically, his healing activity.
In Mark 1:43, Jesus tells the cleansed leper to show himelf
to the priests but not to tell others. Some say this advice
encourages the man to seek the priests without delay, but
more likely if the man broadcasts his good fortune too widely,
Jesus’ free movement will be restricted. Secrecy is an ally in
Jesus’ministry.
But how can one keep secret the raising of a person from
the dead as Jesus advises (Mark 5:43, Jairus’ daughter)?
From whom are these activities to be kept secret? The
wider public. For what purpose? To assure free movement
for Jesus; to enhance his reputation; and possibly to give
evidence of requisite cultural humility. Notice that in many
instances, people disobey Jesus’ wishes anyway (see Mark
7:36), and his honorable reputation spreads.
Jesus commands the disciples to be silent.
In Mark 8:30 and 9:9 Jesus imposes silence on his
disciples and intimate friends who have struck on his hon-
orable identity. He wants the confusion to continue.
From whom should this secret be kept? From &dquo;others&dquo;
who would like to know but are not in the know. For what
purpose? Surely to protect himself against nosey prying, and
very likely to allow the process of secrecy to enhance his
reputation.
His whereabouts
In a humorous report, Mark indicates that Jesus entered
a house in the region of Tyre and did not want anyone to
know he was there (Mark 7:24). Anyone at all familiar with
Mediterranean culture knows how impossible this is. People
spy on others all the time. It’s the major occupation of
children, the news-mongers of all villages. Mark wryly notes:
&dquo;Yet he could not escape notice.&dquo;
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From whom is Jesus trying to hide? Anyone and every-
one ! For what purpose? To gain respite from the eternal
prying of others into one’s business. An existence that allows
little or no privacy is very exhausting.
In another passage (9:30-31), Mark indicates that they
passed through Galilee, but Jesus did not want anyone to
know, for he was teaching his disciples. The subject of
discussion here is Jesus’ second prediction of his passion, a
very humiliating and shameful event.
From whom would Jesus want to keep this information
secret? From all other than the twelve! For what purpose?
To continue to conceal his identity and to preserve the
honorable reputation that has grown up around him. More-
over, he definitely wanted to conceal his imminent shameful
fate from others. People join factions to succeed and not to
reap shameful failure. Though his trusted disciples were
baffled, they stayed with him in accord with Mediterranean
&dquo;
loyalty, often translated as &dquo;faith.&dquo;
Jesus’ private instruction (7:17; 10:10)
Jesus claims that secrecy is his motivation for
even
teaching (4:11). From whom is he keeping secret his teach-
ing ? Busybodies; his competitors and enemies, especially the
scribes (Mark 7) and Pharisees (Mark 10). For what pur-
pose ? Secrecy here serves to bind these disciples closer to the
group. Moreover, a secret is more likely to be betrayed if
entrusted to a larger group than to a smaller group. A certain
camaraderie and looking after (or spying on) one another
exists in a small group.
The meaning of his teaching
&dquo;To you has been given the secret of the kingdom of
God, but for those outside, everything comes in parables, in
order that they may indeed look, but not perceive, and may
indeed listen, but not understand; so that they may not turn
again and be forgiven&dquo; (Mark 4:11).
The cultural tendency toward secrecy, deception, and
sharing of incomplete information sometimes leaves even
the disciples in the embarrassing position of failing to under-
stand Jesus (see Mark 6:52; 8:17-21) . From whom is Jesus
hiding his teaching? For what purpose? How would you
answer these questions?
His fate
With the passion predictions (Mark 8:31-33; 9:30-32;
10:33-34), Jesus lets his followers in on his fate. Here is
information kept secret from the general public but revealed
to insiders who still do not understand and fear to ask for
further explanation. In turn, Jesus makes no effort to clarify.
What is concealed? His fate. From whom? The general
public; but even his informed disciples fail to understand.
For what purpose? The ultimately honorable outcome
of Jesus’ shameful fate would escape the notice of listeners
155
in an honor and shame culture who could not see beyond
the shameful fate itself. Thus Jesus tells only his intimates
and thereby safeguards the circle of &dquo;honor&dquo; around his
person.
To summarize: these brief reflections highlight not only
Jesus’ concern for secrecy, but also another aspect of secrecy.
The fact is that in every culture everybody knows somewhat
more about the other than the other voluntarily reveals.
And the facts which are known are frequently matters whose
knowledge that other person (if aware of it) would find
undesirable (Simmel 323-24). In the case of Jesus, clearly
others know more about him than he has chosen to reveal.
His constant recourse seems to be to secrecy. This is an
attempt to block others from knowing still more than he
cares to share.
’
Internal Secrecy
Internal secrecy describes the situation in which infor-
mation or access to knowledge communicated only in oral
form establishes status hierarchies. Select members of a
group that is already privy to secrets (e.g., parable explana-
tion and private teaching) are given additional secrets. The
special position of Peter, James, John (and once, Andrew)
within the Twelve is an illustration of internal secrecy.
What secrets do they know? A very exceptional activity
(raising from the dead, Mark 5:37); another aspect of Jesus’
identity (Transfiguration 9:2); special knowledge about the
destruction of Jerusalem (Mark 13); and how Jesus behaves
in a (Mark 14:33).
crisis-situation
secret kept? Other members of the
From whom is the
Twelve; the general public. For what purpose? &dquo;Others&dquo; are
kept in the dark about potentially unsettling information;
the reputation of the &dquo;select few&dquo; to whom these secrets are
revealed is definitely enhanced. They know more than the
others, who cannot but conclude that Jesus values them
more highly.
Making the Secret Known
&dquo;Leaking&dquo; the Secret
People are not exclusively &dquo;secret keepers&dquo; or &dquo;secret
leakers.&dquo; They are both as needed (Tefft 74). As a member
of the Twelve, Judas was privy to Jesus’ private explanations
and other secrets shared with the group. Yet he also &dquo;leaked&dquo;
the secret of where Jesus would be after the supper, and
which of the characters present in the dark garden was
actually Jesus.
In this betrayal, Judas offers additional insight into
secrecy and the Twelve. &dquo;Members of kin or friendship
groups are less likely to divulge secrets to outsiders for
economic or political motives. But secret associations must
156
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deal with the ever-present danger of member disloyalty for
these reasons&dquo; (Tefft 328).
Passages like Mark 3:31-35 are often cited as an indi-
cation that Jesus intended to form fictive kin groups. But
Judas’ betrayal of Jesus for money does not fit the fictive-kin
setting. Indeed, precisely to head off the temptation and
therefore the possibility of having secrets betrayed, members
of secret associations are required to disavow kinship loyal-
ties so that they may give undivided loyalty to the society
itself. Jesus seems to treat his followers in this way. He invites
disciples to leave kin and follow him. Peter reminds Jesus of
this and asks about his reward (Mark 10:28-31).
The discussion of whether Jesus formed a fictive kinship
group or a secret society is beyond the immediate concern
of this reflection (for additional insight, see Draper). The
simple fact is, secrets are betrayed, and among the Twelve,
Judas alone is reported to have done that.
Revealing the Secret
Because secrecy is an element of interpersonal relation-
ships, it cannot be absolute lest the relationship break down.
Every human relation is characterized, among other things,
by the amount of secrecy that is in and around it. In this
respect, therefore, the further development of every relation
is determined by the ratio of persevering and yielding ener-
gies which are contained in the relation [Simmel 334] .
In other words, the secret is a form which constantly receives
and releases contents. What was originally manifest be-
comes secret, and what was once hidden later sheds its
concealment.
Mark’s Jesus notes: &dquo;Is a lamp brought in to be put under
a bush, or under a bed, and not on a stand? For there is
nothing hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything
secret, except to come to light&dquo; (Mark 4:21-23). This, of
course, is in the context of Jesus’ teaching in parables, a
strategy of secrecy in his teaching ministry.
The passive here, as in Luke 12:3 (Nothing is covered
up that will not be revealed or hidden that will not be
known) is probably theological. In the long run, God will
uncover all secrets, and everyone will know everything. In
contrast, Matthew’s Jesus charges the apostles: &dquo;What I tell
you in the dark, utter in the light; and what you hear
whispered, proclaim upon the housetops&dquo; (10:27).
From a Mediterranean cultural perspective, wherein
natives find the distinction between reality and appearance
to be blurred and difficult to identify, and where one never
knows if one truly possesses truth or deception, the sure
promise of an ultimate, definitive revelation makes life tol-
erable. The bottom line, then, in the life of Jesus is that
indeed at some time, the right time, everything hidden will
be made known, every secret will be revealed. But for now,
in this present moment, secrecy is necessary in order that life Eickelman, Dale F.
1989 The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach. Rev.
may go on.
ed.; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Elliott, John H.
Conclusions 1988 "Fear of the Leer: The Evil Eye from the Bible to Li’l
Abner." Forum 4/4: 42-71.
What fresh light has cultural anthropology shed on Frisby, David (editor)
1994 Georg Simmel: Critical Assessments. Three volumes.
secrecy in Mark’s Gospel? Combining Simmel and Teftt’s London, UK: Routledge.
research on secrecy with insights from Mediterranean an- Gilmore, David D.
thropologists such as Pitt-Rivers, we can draw the following 1982 The People of the Plain: Class and Community in Lower
conclusions. Andalusia. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
1. Mark’s Jesus clearly used secrecy in accord with Gilsenan, Michael
1982 "Sheiks and the Inner Secrets." Pp. 116-41in Recog-
Mediterranean cultural expectations. He concealed full
nizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab
knowledge of his identity because he wanted to maintain World. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
and safeguard his ascribed honor. Harrington, Daniel J.
1990 "The Gospel according to Mark." NJBC 41: 1-109.
2. Relative to activities which contributed to achieved
honor (e.g., challenge and riposte encounters), Jesus regu- Malina, Bruce J.
1993a The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural An-
larly resorted to side-stepping the question or challenge and thropology. Rev. ed.; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John
giving interpretation to his disciples privately. Knox Press.
3. Among the plausible results that Mark’s Jesus may 1993b Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient
well have intended in using secrecy are these: Judea. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press.
Neyrey, Jerome H.
~ to enhance his honorable reputation while safe- 1993 "Deception." Pp. 38-42 in John J. Pilch & Bruce J.
guarding it against challenges. Malina (eds.), Biblical Social Values and Their Meaning:
A Handbook. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers.
~ to frustrate the eternal Mediterranean inquisitive-
ness of others about his life and activities. Peristiany, Jean G. (editor)
1966 Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society.
&dquo;’ 0 to conceal shameful and potentially damaging infor- Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
.

mation from those whose admiration for him would Pilch, John J.
be shaken, e.g., his shameful fate. 1991 Introducing the Cultural Context of the New Terstament.
New York, NY/Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
4. Confident that he would be vindicated by his Father, 1992a "Secrecy in the Gospel of Mark," PACE (Professional
Jesus drew on a Mediterranean cultural truism to console his Approaches for Christian Educators) 21: 150-53.
admirers and warn his opponents: God himself will reveal 1992b "Lying and Deceit in the Letters to the Seven
Churches: Perspectives from Cultural Anthropology,"
secrets (Luke 12:2-3). In another version, Jesus charges his
Biblical Theology Bulletin 22: 126-35.
disciples to do this relative to his own teaching as well (Matt Pitt-Rivers, Julian
10:27). - . - .

1971 People of the Sierra. 2nd ed.; Chicago, IL & London,

UK: University of Chicago Press.
Works Cited
’

,
....
Simmel, Georg
1950 "The Secret and the Secret Society." Pp. 305-76 in
Kurt H. Wolff (tr. & ed.), The Sociology of Georg
Bolle, Kees W. (editor) Simmel. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
1987 Secrecy in Religions. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill. Smith, Jonathan Z.
Draper, Jonathan A. 1987 "No News Is Good News: Secrecy in Late Antiquity."
1989 "The Evolution and Social Structure of the Commu- Pp. 66-80 in K. W. Bolle (ed.), Secrecy in Religions.
nity of the Didache: A Reply to G. Theissen." P. 106 Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill.
in David J. Lull (ed.), Abstracts. AAR/SBL Annual Tefft, Stanton K. (editor)
Meeting, 1989. Atlanta: Scholars Press. 1980 Secrecy: A Cross Cultural Perspective. New York, NY &
du Boulay, Juliet London, UK: Human Sciences Press.
1976 "Lies, Mockery, and Family Integrity." Pp. 389-406 in Tuckett, Christopher M.
J. G. Peristiany (ed.), Mediterranean Family Structures. 1990 "Messianic Secret." Pp. 445-46 in R. J. Coggins & J. L.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Houlden (eds.), A Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation.
Dvomik, Francis London, UK & Philadelphia, PA: SCM Press and
1974 Origins of Intelligence Services; The Ancient Near East, Trinity Press International.
Persia, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, the Arab Muslim Em- Wrede, Wilhelm
pires, the Mongol Empire, China, Muscovy. New Bruns- 1971 The Messianic Secret, English translation of 1901 origi-
wick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. nal. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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