Bio Notes All

CAIE Biology A-level
Topic 1: Cell Structure

Notes
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All living organisms are made of cells, there are several different types of cells, some of them
sharing some common features. Human are made up of eukaryotic cells. All eukaryotic cells
contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. A more detailed structure of cells called
the ultrastructure can be obtained by using a microscope.
Ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells:
Animals and plant cells both contain:

● Nucleus surrounded by a double membrane called the envelope containing pores
which enable molecules to enter and leave the nucleus, the nucleus also contains
chromatin and a nucleolus which is the site of ribosome production.
● Rough endoplasmic reticulum which is a series of flattened sacs enclosed by a
membrane with ribosomes on the surface. RER folds and processes proteins made
on the ribosomes.
● Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a system of membrane bound sacs. SER produces
and processes lipids.
● Golgi apparatus is a series of fluid filled, flattened & curved sacs with vesicles
surrounding the edges. The Golgi apparatus processes and packages proteins and
lipids. It also produces lysosomes.
● Mitochondria are usually oval shaped, bound by a double membrane called the
envelope. The inner membrane is folded to form projections called cristae with
matrix on the inside containing all the enzymes needed for respiration.
● Centrioles are hollow cylinders containing a ring of microtubules arranged at right
angles to each other. Centrioles are involved in cell division. Please note: Centrioles
only exist in some species of lower plants (e.g. algal cells except red algae, some fern
cells, male gametes of charophytes, bryophytes, ginkgo, cycads, seedless vascular
plants, and moss cells).
● Ribosomes are composed of two subunits and are the site of protein production
● Lysosome is a vesicle containing digestive enzymes bound by a single membrane.
● The cell surface membrane surrounds the cell and controls what enters and exits.
● Some animal cells may contain cilia on their surface membrane. These are small
hair-like structures composed of microtubules in a ‘9+2’ formation. This allows
movement of cilia therefore allowing movement of substances along the surface of
the cell.
● Microvilli are finger-like projections of the cell membrane which increases the cell's
surface area. They line organs like the small intestine to maximise nutrient
absorption.
The following are only in plant cells:

● The vacuole is a fluid-filled sac present in plant cells, surrounded by a membrane
called the tonoplast. It contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, waste substances
and pigments. Its role is to colour the cell to attract pollinating insects, act as a
temporary food store and provide support through turgidity.
● The cell wall (plant cells) is made of cellulose microfibrils. Its role is to strengthen
the cell and prevent bursting due to osmosis.
● The chloroplasts are small flat organelles. They are surrounded by a double
membrane. It also contains thylakoid membranes which are stacked up to form
grana and are linked together by lamellae. Chloroplasts are the site of
photosynthesis.
● Plasmodesmata are small channels that pass through the cell wall of adjoining plant
cells to allow communication between cells.
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria contain:

● Cell wall – Rigid outer covering
made of peptidoglycan
● Capsule – Protective slimy
layer which helps the cell to
retain moisture and adhere to
surfaces
● Plasmid –Circular piece of DNA
● Flagellum- a tail like structure
which rotates to move the cell
● Pili- Hair-like structures which
attach to other bacterial cells
● Ribosomes- Site of protein production
● Mesosomes- Infoldings of the inner membrane which contain enzymes required for
respiration
Prokaryotic cells are unicellular and are typically 1–5μm in diameter, which is much smaller
than eukaryotic cells. They do not contain membrane bound organelles or a nucleus, and
their ribosomes are smaller (70S) than ribosomes in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (80S).
Viruses:
Viruses are non-living structures which consist of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) enclosed
in a protective protein coat called the capsid, sometimes covered with a phospholipid layer
called the envelope.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Circular DNA Linear DNA
No nucleus so DNA is freely floating in the Contains a nucleus so DNA is inside it

cytoplasm
Polysaccharide cell wall No cell wall (animals)

Peptidoglycan cell wall (plants)
Chitin cell wall (fungi)
Doesn’t contain membrane-bound Many membrane-bound organelles

organelles
Smaller ribosomes (70S) Larger ribosomes (80S)
Microscopy
Microscopy is the most important technique used in biology as it enables us to see and
examine organisms and structures which cannot be seen with the naked eye. Magnification
is an indicator of how much bigger the microscope image is than the actual object whereas
resolution is the smallest interval measurable by a microscope. Magnification can be
calculated by dividing the size of the image by the size of the real object.
Sample preparation
Fixation - use chemicals to preserve the live specimen keeping it in its natural state.
Dehydration - use ethanol to remove water from the specimen
Staining - use stains to colour the specimen. different types of tissue will pick up different
stains which helps create a contrast and allows you to differentiate between different
organelles.
Mounting - mount onto a microscope slide making sure there is a coverslip placed on top.
There are two types of microscopes:
● Light microscopes- these are good for observing samples in a lab as they are cheap
and portable. They have a lower magnification and resolution than electron
microscopes, however.
● Electron microscopes- these are good for examining organelles in high detail. They
have a high magnification and resolution, but samples must be placed in a vacuum
and prepared first. This technique can be very expensive.
Rules for scientific drawings

● Ensure you are using a sharp pencil
● Draw continuous lines
● Use plain white paper
● Make sure the drawing takes up as much of the paper as possible
● No shading
● Label lines shouldn’t cross over each other
● Label lines should be straight and drawn with a ruler
● Label lines should not have arrow heads
● Include a title for the drawing
● State the magnification
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide derivative and consists of ribose, adenine and three
phosphate groups. It is synthesised in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of cells.
● Energy is released when ATP is hydrolysed to form ADP and a phosphate molecule.
This process is catalysed by ATP hydrolase.
● The inorganic phosphate can be used to phosphorylate other compounds, as a

result making them more reactive.
● Condensation of ADP and inorganic phosphate catalysed by ATP synthase produces

ATP during photosynthesis and respiration.
Topic 2: Biological molecules

Notes

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Biochemical tests
● Benedict’s solution can be used to test for the presence of reducing sugars.
Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides and some disaccharides. Therefore it
can be used to test for glucose, fructose and maltose. It does not test for sucrose,
however. The test involves heating the sugar with Benedict’s solution – if the colour
changes from blue to brick red then glucose is present.
o If there is no colour change it could be that there is a non-reducing sugar
present (e.g. sucrose). You can break the glycosidic bonds by acid hydrolysis.
1. Add dilute HCl to the test solution and heat in a water bath
2. Neutralise with sodium hydrogencarbonate
3. Heat with Benedict’s solution
o You can also carry out this experiment semi-quantitatively.
▪ You can do this by measuring the time it takes for the colour change
to happen. The different times can help estimate the concentration.
▪ You could also use the different colour changes and work out the
concentration of glucose using colorimetry.
▪ (Higher glucose concentration means lower absorbance of the
solution)
1. Do Benedict’s test
2. Calibrate colorimeter with plain water and use this as your
control
3. Remove precipitates from each test tube by using a centrifuge
(or let it settle for 24 hours)
4. Measure the absorbance using a colorimeter
5. Create a calibration curve of concentration of glucose vs
absorbance (this can be used to find glucose concentrations of
different unknowns)
● A chemical test for starch is done using iodine/potassium iodide. If the solution
turns blue/black in colour then starch is present.
● A chemical test for lipids is the emulsion test. This is done by adding ethanol to the
test substance and shaking. You then mix that with water. A milky colour will show a
positive result for lipids.
● The biuret test can be done to check for the presence of proteins. You first add a
few drops of sodium hydroxide solution and then some copper (II) sulphate
solution. If the colour changes from blue to purple then proteins are present.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules which consist only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and they
are long chains of sugar units called saccharides. There are three types of saccharides -
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single units
that can join together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides by glycosidic bonds which
are formed in condensation reactions.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are small organic molecules used as building blocks of complex
carbohydrates. Monosaccharides have a varying number of carbon atoms, for instance:
● Glyceraldehyde is a triose used in metabolic reactions

● Ribose is a pentose sugar which is a component of nucleic acid
● Glucose is a monosaccharide
containing six carbon atoms in each
molecule, it is the main substrate for
respiration therefore it is of great
importance. It has two isomers – alpha and
beta glucose.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed in a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.
● Maltose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of two glucose molecules

● Sucrose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose & fructose
● Lactose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose & galactose
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are formed from many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic
bonds and include:
● Glycogen and starch which are both formed by the condensation of alpha glucose
● Cellulose formed by the condensation of beta glucose
Glycogen is the main energy storage molecule in animals and it’s formed from many
molecules of alpha glucose joined together by 1, 4 and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. It has a large
number of side branches meaning that energy can be released quickly. Moreover, it is a
relatively large but compact molecule thus maximising the amount of energy it can store.
Starch stores energy in plants and it is a mixture of two polysaccharides called amylose and
amylopectin:
● Amylose – amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4

glycosidic bonds, as a result of that amylose is coiled and thus it is a very compact
molecule meaning it can store a lot of energy in a small space.
● Amylopectin is branched and is made up of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4 and 1, 6

glycosidic bonds, due to the presence of many side branches it is rapidly digested
by enzymes therefore energy is released quickly.
Cellulose is a component of cell wells in plants and it’s composed of long, unbranched
chains of beta glucose which are joined by glycosidic bonds. Microfibrils are strong threads
which are made of long cellulose chains joined together by hydrogen bonds and they
provide structural support in plant cells.
Lipids
Lipids are biological molecules which are only soluble in organic solvents such as alcohols.
There are two types of lipids:
● Saturated lipids such as those found in animal

fats – saturated lipids don’t contain any
carbon-carbon double bonds. Too much saturated fat
can increase the cholesterol levels in blood thus
increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.
● Unsaturated lipids which can be found in

plants – unsaturated lipids contain carbon-carbon
double bonds and melt at lower temperatures than
saturated fats. Unsaturated fats are healthy as they
provide essential fatty acids.
The greater the number of unsaturated bonds, the weaker the intermolecular bonds
resulting in lower melting point, and as a result of that saturated fats which don’t contain
any double bonds are solid at liquid temperature and unsaturated lipids are liquid at room
temperature.
Triglycerides are non-polar and hydrophobic molecules.
They are lipids composed of one molecule of glycerol and
three fatty acids joined by ester bonds formed in
condensation reactions. There are many different types
of fatty acids, they vary in chain length, presence and
number of double bonds. Also, some triglycerides contain
a mix of different fatty acids.
Triglycerides are used as energy reserves in plant and animal cells.
In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a

phosphate-containing group. Phosphate heads are hydrophilic and the tails are
hydrophobic and as a result phospholipids form micelles when they are in contact with
water as heads are on the outside as they are attracted to water and tails are on the inside
as they move away from water. The hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature of phospholipids is
what makes cell membranes selectively membrane.
Proteins
Amino acids are the monomers from which proteins
are made. Amino acids contain an amino group –
NH2, carboxylic acid group and a variable R group
which is a carbon-containing chain. There are 20
different amino acids with different R groups. Amino
acids are joined by peptide bonds formed in
condensation reactions. A dipeptide contains two
amino acids and polypeptides contain three or more amino acids.
The structure of proteins is determined by the order and number of amino acids, bonding
present and the shape of the protein:
● Primary structure of a protein is the order and number of amino acids in a protein.
● The secondary structure is the shape that the chain of amino acids chains – either
alpha helix or beta pleated sheet. The shape is determined by the type of bonding
present such as:
• Hydrogen bonding - weak bonds between a slightly positively-charged
hydrogen atom and another slightly negatively-charged atom (usually
nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine).
• Ionic bond - attraction between oppositely charged R groups
• Disulphide bridges - when 2 cysteine amino acids come into close contact
and the sulfur in each cysteine forms a bond.
● Tertiary structure of proteins is the 3D shape of the protein, it can be globular or
fibrous.
• Globular proteins such as enzymes are compact. They are also soluble.
• Whereas fibrous proteins such as keratin are long and thus can be used to
form fibres. These are insoluble.
• For instance, collagen is a fibrous protein of great strength due to the
presence of both hydrogen and covalent bonds in the structure. Collagen
molecules wrap around each other and form fibrils which form strong
collagen fibres. Collagen forms the structure of bones, cartilage and
connective tissue and is a main component of tendons which connect
muscles to bones.
• Haemoglobin is a water soluble globular protein.
● Quaternary structure of proteins consists of 2 or more subunits (polypeptide chains)

closely packed together.
• Haemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood. It has a quaternary structure
consisting of 2 alpha subunits and 2 beta subunits. Each polypeptide chain
contains a prosthetic (non-protein) group - haem (Fe2+).
• The oxygen can bind to the haem group and be released when required.
Peptide bonds can be hydrolysed (broken) with the addition of water in a hydrolysis
reaction.
Water
Water is a very important molecule which is a major component of cells, for instance:
● Water is a polar molecule due to uneven distribution of charge within the molecule
– the hydrogen atoms are more positive than the oxygen atom causing one end of
the molecule to be more positive than the other.
● It is a metabolite in metabolic reactions such as condensation and hydrolysis which

are used in forming and breaking of chemical bonds.
● It is a solvent in which many metabolic reactions occur .
● It has a high specific heat capacity meaning that a lot of energy is required to warm
water up therefore minimising temperature fluctuations in living things therefore it
acts as a buffer.
● It has a relatively large latent heat of vaporisation, meaning evaporation of water
provides a cooling effect with little water loss.
● There is strong cohesion between molecules enabling effective transport of water in

tube-like transport cells as the strong cohesion supports columns of water (capillary
action), as a result of strong cohesion the surface tension at the water-air boundary
is high.
Topic 3: Enzymes
Notes

Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins that increase the rate of reaction by lowering the activation
energy of the reaction they catalyse. The active site is the area of the enzyme where the
reaction with the substrate takes place. Each enzyme has a specific shape that must be
complementary to the substrate, meaning that only one type of substrate fits into the
active site of each enzyme (enzyme specificity). When the enzyme and substrate form a
complex, the structure of the enzyme is altered so that the active site of the enzyme fits
around the substrate. This is called the induced fit model.
Enzymes can be intracellular (function inside cells), for example DNA polymerase. They can
also be extracellular, such as the enzymes used in digestion.
Lock and Key Theory:

Proposed by Fischer in 1894
● Active site and substrate have complementary shapes prior to binding
● The enzyme binds with substrate forming an enzyme-substrate complex
● Products are released from active site and enzyme can be reused
● Only one substrate can fit each active site
Induced Fit Theory:

Proposed by Koshland in 1958
● Enzyme has active site
● Enzyme is moulded around substrate as it enters to become complementary
forming an enzyme-substrate complex
● Bonds form between oppositely charged groups on substrate and R groups to induce
a better fit. This puts a strain on the substrate molecule so reactions occur more
easily.
Factors affecting the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions:

● Enzyme concentration – the rate of reaction increases as enzyme concentration
increases as there are more active sites for substrates to bind to, however increasing
the enzyme concentration beyond a certain point has no effect on the rate of
reaction as there are more active sites than substrates so substrate concentration
becomes the limiting factor.
● Substrate concentration – as concentration of substrate increases, rate of reaction

increases as more enzyme-substrate complexes are formed. However, beyond a
certain point the rate of reaction no longer increases as enzyme concentration
becomes the limiting factor.
● Temperature – rate of reaction increases up to the optimum temperature as kinetic

energy increases. Rate of reaction decreases beyond the optimum temperature. At
very high temperatures, bonds in the enzymes tertiary structure break, changing the
shape of the active site so reactions cannot occur. This is called denaturation.
● pH –As the pH moves away from the enzymes optimum, rate of reaction decreases.
The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions. Each enzyme has an
optimum pH: the wrong pH alters the charges on the amino acids which make up the
active site, breaking the bonds in the enzyme's tertiary structure and leading to
denaturation. Thus, when the enzyme is not in its optimum pH, the substrate can no
longer become attached to the active site and the enzyme-substrate complex cannot
form.
● Concentration of competitive reversible inhibitors – as concentration of

competitive reversible inhibitors increases, rate of reaction decreases as the active
sites are temporarily blocked by inhibitors so substrates cannot bind to them.
● Concentration of non-competitive reversible inhibitors – as concentration on

non-competitive reversible inhibitors increases, rate of reaction decreases as the
shape of the enzyme (not the active site) is altered by the inhibitors.
Investigating enzyme-catalysed reactions:
You can investigate enzyme activity over a period of time using the following methods
Catalase
● Catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
● Products: oxygen and water
● Measure the rate of oxygen produced over a period of time
● You can plot a graph of time vs volume of oxygen produced
Amylase
● Catalyses the breakdown of starch
● Products: maltose
● Amylase is added to the starch samples
● At regular timed intervals take samples
● Use iodine/KI solution to test for the presence of starch (colour change to
orange-brown when starch breakdown is complete)
● Measure the absorbance in a colorimeter (make sure colorimeter is calibrated and
sample has been mixed properly with the iodine)
● The darker the colour the higher the starch concentration hence a higher absorbance
● Plot a graph of time vs absorbance
Inhibitors
Inhibitors are substances which stop the enzyme from binding to its substrate. They can
therefore control the progress of a reaction.
Types of inhibition:
● Competitive inhibition – this is when an inhibitor molecule binds to the active site of
the enzyme and stops the substrate from binding to it; it can be reversed by
increasing the substrate concentration as the inhibitor is diluted.
● Non-competitive inhibition- an inhibitor doesn’t bind to the active site but binds to
a different part of the enzyme which changes the shape of the enzyme; it decreases
the reaction rate as the substrate cannot bind to the enzyme.
● Feedback inhibition – this occurs when the end product binds to the enzyme at the
start of the reaction/pathway and this stops the pathway until the concentration of
the end product decreases.
● Reversible inhibition - they can be competitive or non-competitive. Once they are
removed from the enzyme, inhibition stops and it can work again.
Michaelis-Menten Equation
Michaelis-Menten equation can be used to
calculate the maximum rate of reaction (Vmax) by
relating the velocity of enzyme reactions (V) to
concentration of a substrate [S]. Vmax represents
the maximum rate of reaction achieved by the
system at maximum substrate concentration.
Immobilising enzymes in alginate

When enzymes are in solution, they can only be used once as it is very difficult and time
consuming to separate them from the product. Therefore they are immobilised by
attaching them to an insoluble, inert material e.g. calcium alginate which forms a gel
capsule around them thus holding them in place during the reaction. This process enables
enzymes to be reused as they can be easily separated from the products. Immobilised
enzymes are used in industry because it enables the reaction to flow continuously.
Moreover, the use of immobilised enzymes is much cheaper than using enzymes in solution
as they can be reused.
Topic 4: Cell membranes and transport

Notes

All cells and organelles are surrounded by a
partially permeable membrane composed
of a sea of phospholipids with protein
molecules between the phospholipid
molecules. The main function of the
membrane is controlling the movement of
substances in and out of the
cell/organelle. However, it also contains
receptors for other molecules to allow
signalling between cells. The fluidity of the
membrane and the mosaic arrangement of the protein give the structure of the
membrane its name – fluid mosaic model.
Structure and functions of the cell membrane:
● Glycoproteins- recognition sites, act as antigens.

● Phospholipids- form a bilayer, make membrane fluid. They have non-polar tails and
hydrophilic heads, thus forming a barrier to most water soluble substances.
● Cholesterol- waterproof the membrane, control stability of membrane. They also
have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
● Intrinsic proteins - pass through membranes, some form channels or carriers for
water soluble molecules.
○ Channel proteins - a hydrophobic channel where diffusion of polar molecules
and ions happens
○ Carrier proteins - allow active and passive transport. They change shape
when the molecule enters the protein.
● Extrinsic proteins- found on the surface only, some act as enzymes.
● Glycolipids- short carbohydrate chains that help make membranes stable by forming
hydrogen bonds with H2O. Help cells attach to one another.
Cell signalling:
Specific ligands are released from the cell which are transported to the target cell where
they bind to specific receptors on the cell surface membrane. This produces a response
which may cause a cascade of more reactions.
Three factors affect the permeability of a cell membrane:

● Heat
● Ethanol
● pH
Movement across membranes:
The movement of molecules through cell membrane depends on the properties of the
molecule as well as the requirements of the cell. There are several types of movement:
● Diffusion is the passive movement of small, non-polar lipid soluble molecules such as
carbon dioxide and oxygen from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. The molecules move directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
● Facilitated diffusion requires a channel protein in the cell membrane to transport
polar molecules, charged and water soluble molecules across the membrane.
● Osmosis is the net diffusion of water molecules from an area of low solute
concentration to an area to high solute concentration through a partially permeable
membrane.
● Active transport can transport all types of molecules through carrier proteins from
an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. However, this process
requires energy in the form of ATP.
● Cytosis is a form of active transport where parts of the plasma membrane form
infoldings or outfoldings. There are two types of cytosis - exocytosis and endocytosis
which both transport large particles by enclosing them in vesicles made from the cell
surface membrane. The vesicles are transported into the cell in endocytosis. In
exocytosis, vesicles are fused with the cell surface membrane, releasing the contents
outside of the cell.
The rate of gas exchange by diffusion becomes more rapid as:
● Surface area of the surface increases
● Diffusion distance decreases
● Diffusion gradient b ecomes more steep
Water potential is the pressure exerted by water molecules that are free to move in a
system. It is measured in kPa. Pure water has a water potential of 0 pKa, the higher the
water potential the larger the number of water molecules that are free to move. A
solution’s water potential falls as solutes are added as water molecules cluster around the
solute. The contribution of solute to the water potential is called the solute potential.
Topic 5: The mitotic cell cycle

Notes

Mitosis
The role of mitosis and the cell cycle is to produce identical daughter cells for growth and
asexual reproduction of cells. All the cells produced by mitosis are genetically identical
therefore mitosis does not give rise to genetic variation.
Mitosis is important for:

● Growth
● Replacing dead or damaged cells
● Repairing damaged tissue (via cell replacement)
● Asexual reproduction
Telomeres prevent genes from being lost during the process of DNA replication.
During the cell cycle, a cell is formed, it grows and then divides to form daughter cells.
There are three stages of the cell cycle:
● Interphase – to summarise, during this stage the cell grows and then prepares to
divide – chromosomes and some organelles are replicated, chromosomes also begin
to condense. Interphase consists of the G1, G2 and S phases.
o G1 - the cell receives a signal committing the cell to replicate DNA, the cell
grows and prepares to enter the S phase
o S - the genome is completely duplicated
o G2 - G2 - prepares for mitosis
● Mitosis – mitosis is a form of cell division that produces identical cells, there are four
stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
● Cytokinesis – during cytokinesis the parent and replicated organelles move to
opposite sides of the cell and the cytoplasm divides thus producing two daughter
cells.
Stem cells
Cells produced by mitosis are undifferentiated (those are called stem cells) which can be
made into specialised cells via differentiation. Stem cells repeatedly undergo cell division
and are used for cell replacement and tissue repair. Once the cell becomes specialised for a
specific function it stops dividing.
However if cell division is uncontrolled this can lead to the formation of a mass of cells
called a tumour, which can cause cancer.
Topic 6: Nucleic acids and protein synthesis

Notes

DNA and Protein Synthesis
Both DNA and RNA carry

information. DNA holds genetic
information, whereas RNA then
transfers this genetic information
from DNA to ribosomes made of
RNA and proteins. Both
deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic
acid are polymers of nucleotides.
Nucleotides consist of pentose which is a 5 carbon sugar, a nitrogen containing organic
base and a phosphate group:
● The components of a DNA nucleotide are deoxyribose, a phosphate group and one
of the organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or thymine. Adenine and guanine
both have double ring structure and are classified as purine bases.
● The components of an RNA nucleotide are ribose, a phosphate group and one of
the organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or uracil. Thymine, uracil and cytosine
all have single ring structure and are classified as pyrimidines.
● Nucleotides join together by phosphodiester bonds formed in condensation

reactions.
DNA structure
● A double helix composed of two polynucleotides joined together by hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases.
● In DNA the 2 strands lie antiparallel and complementary base pairing takes place
between the 5’ to 3’ strand and the 3’ to 5’ strand
● A purine always joins to a pyrimidine base
● Depending on the bases a different number of hydrogen bonds are formed.
○ Adenine and Thymine join together by 2 hydrogen bonds
○ Cytosine and guanine join together by 3 hydrogen bonds.
● Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester bonds.
RNA structure
● RNA is a relatively short polynucleotide chain.
● An RNA nucleotide consists of ribose instead of deoxyribose, a phosphate group and
one of the organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil (instead of thymine).
DNA replication
The semi-conservative replication of DNA ensures genetic continuity between generations
of cells meaning that genetic information is passed on from one generation from the next.
DNA replication occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.
The steps of semi-conservative replication of DNA are as following:
● The double helix unwinds and the hydrogen bonds between the complementary
bases break using DNA helicase thus separating the two strands of DNA
● One of the strands is used as the template and complementary base pairing occurs
between the template strand and free nucleotides
● Adjacent nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester bonds formed in condensation

reactions using DNA polymerase
DNA polymerase only works in the 5’ to 3’ direction. This means that DNA polymerase is
only able to add nucleotides starting from the 3’ end of the new strand.
● The leading strand is replicated continuously in the 3’ to 5’ direction.

● The second strand which is called the lagging strand is replicated discontinuously in
the 5’ to 3’ direction. This means it is replicated in short sections forming Okazaki
fragments.
● The Okazaki fragments are joined together with DNA ligase.
Protein synthesis
Proteins are polypeptide chains, coded for by a gene.

● The genetic code is universal and the sequence of bases determines which protein
the gene is coding for.
● The triplet code is the sequence of 3 nucleotides which code for either an amino
acid, start codon or stop codon.
There are two stages of protein synthesis: transcription and translation. Transcription
which occurs in the nucleus and involves DNA and mRNA and translation which involves
mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes. During transcription, DNA strand is transcribed into mRNA and
translation is the process during which the amino acids are assembled together to form a
polypeptide chain/protein.
Transcription:
During transcription, a molecule of mRNA is made in the nucleus:
● The hydrogen bonds between the complementary
bases break and the DNA uncoils, separating the two strands
- this is done by DNA helicase
● One of the DNA strands is used as a template to
make the mRNA molecule, this is called the template or
transcribed strand
● Free nucleotides bind to the exposed bases via
complementary base pairing until a stop codon is reached.
● Adjacent nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester
bonds, forming a molecule of mRNA - this is done by RNA
polymerase
● mRNA detaches from DNA then moves out of the
nucleus through a pore and attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm which is the site
of next stage of protein synthesis called translation
In eukaryotic cells, the RNA molecule formed from transcription is called the primary
transcript. This is then modified by;
● Removal of non-coding sequences called introns
● Joining together coding sequences called exons
● This forms mRNA
Translation:
During translation amino acids join together to form a polypeptide chain:
● mRNA attaches to a subunit of a ribosome at the start codon. Transfer RNA is a type
of RNA. It has an anticodon on one end and an amino acid bonded to the other,
which it carries to the ribosome.
● The anticodon of the tRNA binds itself to the first codon on the mRNA by
complementary base pairing
● Another tRNA molecule binds to the second codon of the mRNA. The amino acids
attached to the tRNA molecules join by a peptide bond and then tRNA molecules
detach themselves from the amino acids, leaving them behind
● This process is repeated thus leading to the formation of a polypeptide chain until a
stop codon is reached on mRNA and ends the process of protein synthesis
Gene mutations
A gene mutation occurs when the base sequence of DNA is altered. If the DNA sequence is
altered, this change is replicated in the mRNA chain and thus can result in an altered
polypeptide chain. Gene mutations are caused by mutagenic agents such as chemicals and
ionising radiation.
Mutations are a result of:

● Substitution - when 1 or more nucleotides are substituted by another in the DNA
strand
● Insertion - when 1 or more nucleotides are inserted into the DNA strand
● Deletion - when 1 or more nucleotides are deleted in the DNA strand
Effects of mutations:
● Nonsense - a mutation resulting in a stop codon hence no polypeptide chain will be
formed
● Missense - a mutation resulting in a different amino acid being coded for hence
changing the polypeptide chain
● Silent - a mutation resulting in a different codon however it still codes for the same
amino acid meaning the polypeptide chain produced is the same
Topic 9: Gas exchange and smoking

Notes

The need for specialised exchange surfaces arises as the size of the organism, and its surface
area to volume ratio, increases. In the case of single celled organisms, the substances can
easily enter the cell as the distance that needs to be crossed over is short. However, in
multicellular organisms that distance is much larger due to a higher surface area to volume
ratio. As a result of this, multicellular organisms require specialised exchange surfaces for
efficient gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Features of an efficient exchange surface include large surface area, for instance the root
hair cells or folded membranes, such as those of the mitochondria. An efficient exchange
surface should also be thin to ensure that the distance that needs to be crossed by the
substance is short. The exchange surface also requires a good blood supply/ventilation to
maintain a steep gradient, for example that of the alveoli.
Mammalian gaseous exchange system
The lungs are a pair of structures

with a large surface area located in
the chest cavity with the ability to
inflate. The lungs are surrounded by
the rib cage which serves to protect
them. A lubricating substance is
secreted to prevent the friction
between rib cage and lungs during
inflation and deflation. External and
internal intercostal muscles between
the ribs work antagonistically to raise
and lower the ribcage. A structure
called the diaphragm separates the
lungs from abdomen area.
The air enters through the nose and passes along the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles,
which are structures well adapted to their role in enabling passage of air into the lungs. The
airways are held open with the help of rings of cartilage, incomplete in the trachea to allow
passage of food down the oesophagus behind the trachea.
The gaseous exchange takes place in the walls of alveoli, which are tiny sacs filled with air
and surrounded by capillaries. Capillaries have a constant flow of blood which moves
oxygenated blood away from the area of diffusion to maintain the concentration gradient.
The oxygen that is inhaled moves from the alveoli into the blood. At the same time carbon
dioxide is also removed from the capillaries to the alveoli which again maintains a steep
concentration gradient. The alveoli also have a thin layer of surfactant which keeps them
from collapsing - keeping them inflated.
Trachea and bronchi are similar in structure, with the exception of size (bronchi are
narrower). They are composed of several layers which together make up a thick wall. The
wall is mostly composed of cartilage, in the form of incomplete C rings. Inside the surface of
the cartilage is a layer of glandular and connective tissue, elastic fibres, smooth muscle and
blood vessels. This is referred to as the ‘loose tissue’. The inner lining is an epithelial layer
composed of ciliated epithelium and goblet cells.
The bronchioles are narrower than the bronchi. Only the larger bronchioles contain
cartilage. Their wall is made out of smooth muscle and elastic fibres. The smallest of
bronchioles have alveoli clusters at the ends.
Structures and functions of mammalian gaseous exchange system include:
● Cartilage – involved in supporting the trachea and bronchi, plays an important role in
preventing the lungs from collapsing in the event of pressure drop during exhalation
● Ciliated epithelium – present in bronchi, bronchioles and trachea, involved in

moving mucus along to prevent lung infection by moving it towards the throat
● Squamous epithelium – Line the alveoli and allow gas exchange to take place
between the capillaries and the air in the lungs. They are thin with a large surface
area for quick diffusion.
● Goblet cells – cells present in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles involved in
mucus secretion to trap bacteria and dust to reduce the risk of infection with the
help of lysozyme which digests bacteria
● Smooth muscle – their ability to contract enables them to play a role in constricting
the airway, thus controlling its diameter as a result and thus controlling the flow of
air to and from alveoli
● Elastic fibres – stretch when we exhale and recoil when we inhale thus controlling
the flow of air
Topic 11: Immunity

Notes

Immune response
Physical barriers to infection include:
● Skin is a tough physical barrier consisting of keratin
● Stomach Acid (hydrochloric acid) which kills bacteria
● Gut and skin flora – natural bacterial flora competes with pathogens for food and
space
Non-specific responses of the body to infection include:
● Inflammation – histamines released by damaged white vessels cause vasodilation
which increases the flow of blood to the infected area and increases permeability of
blood vessels. As a result of that antibodies, white blood cells and plasma leak out
into the infected tissue and destroy the pathogen
● Lysozyme action – lysozyme is an enzyme found in secretions such as tears and
mucus which kills bacterial cells by damaging their cell wall
● Interferon – interferons prevent viruses spreading to uninfected cells by stopping
protein synthesis in viruses
● Phagocytosis is a process in which specialised white blood cells engulf pathogens
thus destroying them by fusing a pathogen such as bacteria enclosed in a phagocytic
vacuole with a lysosome. The phagosome and lysosome combine and the enzymes
from the lysosomes destroy the pathogen. The main phagocytes are macrophages
and neutrophils.
After the pathogen is engulfed and destroyed, its chemical markers called antigens are then
presented on the surface of the phagocyte. The phagocyte then becomes an antigen
presenting cell which activates other types of immune system, immune response will be
stimulated if the antigen is recognised as foreign. Antigens can be self or non-self. Self
antigens are antigens that are already a part of the body's immune system. Non-self
antigens are foreign antigens (not the body’s own) which can initiate an immune response.
The specific immune response is antigen specific and produces responses specific to one
type of pathogen only. This type of immune response relies on lymphocytes produced in
the bone marrow:
● B cells mature in the bone marrow and are involved in the humoral response
● T cells move from the bone marrow to the thymus gland where they mature, they
are involved in cell mediated response
Primary immune response

When the body encounters a pathogen for the first time, the immune system initiates
antibody production which then destroys the pathogen.
T and B memory cell production is also initiated so that if the body were to encounter the
same antigen again it would immediately destroy it. (secondary immune response.)
Specific immune response glossary
T lymphocytes
● T helper cells stimulate B cells and T killer cells to divide

● T killer cells destroy pathogen infected cells
B lymphocytes
● B effector cells - form clones of plasma cells
● Plasma cells - produce a large amount antibodies specific to an foreign antigen
Memory cells are cells which replicate themselves when exposed to an invading pathogen
and remain in the lymph nodes searching for the same antigen thus resulting in a much
faster immune response. This allows long term immunity.
Humoral response
Cell-mediated response
Antibodies
Structure
● Y-shaped glycoproteins
● Bind to specific antigens to trigger an immune response
● 2 long identical polypeptide chains and 2 shorter identical chains
● The chains are held in place by disulfide bridges which also helps them maintain
their shape
● Antibodies bind to the antigen via a ‘lock and key’ mechanism similar to enzymes
● 2 antigen binding sites allowing antibody to bind to 2 antigens
Monoclonal antibody production via the hybridoma method
● Inject mouse with antigen. This initiates the immune response and the mouse
produces antibodies specific to the antigen
● The spleen cells which produce lymphocytes which produce antibodies are removed
● Spleen cells bind with myeloma cells to produce hybridoma cells
● The hybridoma cells can divide continuously to produce many antibodies. These are
all specific to the original antigen.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used in the treatment of diseases such as cancer. Cancer
cells have markers present on their surface which can be clumped together into a mass with
monoclonal antibodies. This allows cancerous cells to be easily identified and treated.
Monoclonal antibodies can carry the drug to cancerous tumours or they can trigger immune
responses to destroy the tumour.
Immunity
Immunity can either be active or passive; active immunity results from the production of
antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen whereas
passive immunity results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or
animal. There are also two subtypes of immunity; natural or artificial:
● Natural active immunity arises from being exposed to an antigen/getting the
disease whereas natural passive immunity is the result of crossing of mother’s
antibodies through the placenta and their presence in breast milk.
● Active artificial immunity is acquired through vaccinations which stimulate the
immune system and lead to production of antibodies whereas passive artificial
immunity is where antibodies are injected into the body.
Vaccinations help provide long-term immunity and also helps prevent epidemics by
preventing the spread of the disease to the greater population. When a significant amount
of the population is vaccinated, it also provides immunity to the population who hasn’t been
vaccinated (herd immunity).
Topic 8: Transport in mammals

Notes

Circulatory systems can either be open, for instance in insects, or closed, like in fish and
mammals where the blood is confined to blood vessels only. Closed circulatory systems
come in two forms, either a single form which consists of a heart with two chambers
meaning the blood passes through the heart once for every circuit of the body, or double,
where the heart has four chambers and blood passes through the heart twice for every
circuit of the body. Mammals have a closed double circulatory system which consists of the
heart, blood vessels and blood.
Important structures and their functions
● Arteries – adapted to carrying blood away from the heart to the rest of the body,
thick walled to withstand high blood pressure, contain elastic tissue which allows
them to stretch and recoil thus smoothing blood flow, contain smooth muscle which
enables them to vary blood flow, lined with smooth endothelium to reduce friction
and ease flow of blood
● Arterioles – branch off arteries, have thinner and less muscular walls, their role is to
feed blood into capillaries
● Capillaries – smallest blood vessels, site of metabolic exchange, only one cell thick
for fast exchange of substances. They are adapted for efficient diffusion by having a
narrow lumen, a large surface area, and a slow blood flow to allow more time for
exchange.
● Venules – larger than capillaries but smaller than veins
● Veins – carry blood from the body to the heart, contain a wide lumen to maximum
volume of blood carried to the heart, thin walled as blood is under low pressure,
contain valves to prevent backflow of blood, no pulse of blood meaning there’s little
elastic tissue or smooth muscle as there is no need for stretching and recoiling.
Tissue Fluid
Tissue fluid is a liquid containing dissolved oxygen and nutrients which serves as a means of
supplying the tissues with the essential solutes in exchange for waste products such as
carbon dioxide. Therefore, it enables exchange of substances between blood and cells.
Hydrostatic pressure is created when blood is pumped along the arteries, into arterioles
and then capillaries. This pressure forces blood fluid out of the capillaries to form tissue
fluid. Only substances which are small enough to escape through the gap in capillary are
components of the tissue fluid – this includes dissolved nutrients and oxygen.
The fluid is also acted on by hydrostatic pressure which pushes some of the fluid back into
the capillaries. As both the tissue fluid and blood contain solutes, they have a negative
water potential. However, the potential of tissue fluid is less negative therefore meaning
that water moves down the water potential gradient from the tissue fluid to the blood by
osmosis.
The remaining tissue fluid which is not pushed back into the capillaries is carried back via
the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system contains lymph fluid, similar in content to
tissue fluid. However, lymph fluid contains less oxygen and nutrients compared to tissue
fluid, as its main purpose is to carry waste products. The lymph system also contains lymph
nodes which filter out bacteria and foreign material from the fluid with the help of
lymphocytes which destroy the invaders as part of the immune system defences.
Water is the main component of tissue fluid (and blood). The properties of water allow it to
be a good transport medium in mammals.
● It can act as a solvent (so it can carry solutes) and has a high specific heat capacity
making it an efficient transport medium.
Mammalian heart and cardiac cycle

The hearts main blood vessels:
Aorta - connects to the left ventricle and carries oxygenated blood all around the body
except the lungs
Pulmonary artery - connects to the right ventricle and carries deoxygenated blood to the
lungs where it is oxygenated.
Pulmonary vein - connects to the left atrium and takes oxygenated blood back to the lungs
Vena cava - connects to the right atrium and brings deoxygenated blood back from the
tissues except the lungs
The ventricle pumps blood at high

pressure. The ventricle wall is a lot thicker
than the atria so that it can withstand the
high pressure. The left ventricle wall is
thicker than the right ventricle wall
because it pumps blood from the lungs to
the rest of the body - to ensure it reaches
all the body the blood is pumped at a high
pressure.
Due to the heart’s ability to initiate its own

contraction, it is referred to as myogenic.
In the wall of the right atrium there is a
region of specialised fibres called the
sinoatrial node which is the pacemaker of
the heart, as it initiates a wave of electrical
stimulation which causes the atria to
contract at roughly the same time. The
ventricles do not start contracting until the atria have finished due to the presence of tissue
at the base of the atria which is unable to conduct the wave of excitation. The electrical
wave eventually reaches the atrioventricular node located between the two atria which
passes on the excitation to ventricles, down the bundle of His to the apex of the heart. The
bundle of His branches into the Purkyne fibres which carry the wave upwards. This causes
the ventricles to contract, thus emptying them.
There are 3 stages of the cardiac cycle:
1) Atrial systole – during atrial systole the atria contract and this forces the
atrio-ventricular valves open and blood flows into the ventricles.
2) Ventricular systole – contraction of the ventricles causes the atrio-ventricular

valves to close and semi-lunar valves to open thus allowing blood to leave the left
ventricle through the aorta and right ventricle through the pulmonary artery.
3) Cardiac diastole – atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil of the heart lowers the
pressure inside the heart chambers and blood is drawn from the arteries and veins
thus causing semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries to close,
preventing backflow of blood.
Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is a water soluble globular protein which consists of two beta polypeptide
chains and a haem group. It carries oxygen in the blood as oxygen can bind to the haem
(Fe2+) group and oxygen is then released when required. Each molecule can carry four
oxygen molecules.
The affinity of oxygen for haemoglobin varies depending on the partial pressure of oxygen
which is a measure of oxygen concentration. The greater the concentration of dissolved
oxygen in cells the greater the partial pressure. Therefore, as partial pressure increases, the
affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases, that is oxygen binds to haemoglobin tightly.
This occurs in the lungs in the process known as loading. During respiration, oxygen is used
up therefore the partial pressure decreases, decreasing the affinity of oxygen for
haemoglobin. As a result, oxygen is released in respiring tissues where it is needed. After the
unloading process, the haemoglobin returns to the lungs where it binds to oxygen again.
Dissociation curves illustrate the change in haemoglobin saturation as partial pressure

changes. The saturation of haemoglobin is affected by its affinity for oxygen, therefore in
the case where partial pressure is high, haemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen and is
therefore highly saturated, and vice versa.
Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme found in the blood. Its job is to help haemoglobin
dissociate from oxygen and bind to carbon dioxide to form carbaminohaemoglobin instead.
Carbonic anhydrase catalyses a reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid, when in a solution, releases hydrogen ions. When these
hydrogen ions combine with haemoglobin, haemoglobinic acid forms. This encourages
dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin.
Saturation can also have an effect on affinity, as after binding to the first oxygen molecule,
the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases due to a change in shape, thus making it
easier for the other oxygen molecules to bind.
Fetal haemoglobin has a different affinity for oxygen compared to adult haemoglobin, as it
needs to be better at absorbing oxygen because by the time oxygen reaches the placenta,
the oxygen saturation of the blood has decreased. Therefore, fetal haemoglobin must have
a higher affinity for oxygen in order for the foetus to survive at low partial pressure.
The affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is also affected by the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released by respiring cells which require oxygen for the process
to occur. Therefore, in the presence of carbon dioxide, the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen decreases, thus causing it to be released. This is known as the Bohr effect.
When at a high altitude, red blood cell count increases. This is because there are fewer
oxygen molecules, thus the partial pressure of oxygen decreases. Consequently, more red
blood cells are made so that there is more haemoglobin for the oxygen to bind to.
Another process that takes place in the red blood cells is the chloride shift. This helps
maintain the cell’s electrical balance.
● When blood reaches the lung tissue it has a relatively low carbon dioxide
concentration
● Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction breaking down carbonic acid into water
and carbon dioxide
● Bicarbonate diffuses into the red blood cells and reacts with the hydrogen ions. This
forms carbonic acid.
● When carbonic acid is broken down by carbonic anhydrase free carbon dioxide is
released. This diffuses from the blood into the lungs.
● Chloride ions then move from the red blood cells into the plasma - down an
electrochemical gradient

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CAIE Biology A-level

Topic 1: Cell Structure

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Animals and plant cells both contain:

The following are only in plant cells:

Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria contain:

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Circular DNA Linear DNA

No nucleus so DNA is freely floating in the Contains a nucleus so DNA is inside it

Polysaccharide cell wall No cell wall (animals)

Doesn’t contain membrane-bound Many membrane-bound organelles

Smaller ribosomes (70S) Larger ribosomes (80S)

Rules for scientific drawings

● The inorganic phosphate can be used to phosphorylate other compounds, as a

● Condensation of ADP and inorganic phosphate catalysed by ATP synthase produces

Topic 2: Biological molecules

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● Glyceraldehyde​ is a triose used in metabolic reactions

● Maltose​ is a disaccharide formed by condensation of ​two glucose molecules

● Amylose​ – amylose is an ​unbranched chain​ ​of glucose molecules joined ​by 1, 4

● Amylopectin​ is ​branched​ and is made up of glucose molecules joined by ​1, 4 and 1, 6

● Saturated lipids ​such as those found in ​animal

● Unsaturated lipids​ ​which can be found in

Triglycerides are used as ​energy reserves​ in plant and animal cells.

In ​phospholipids​, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a

● Quaternary structure​ ​of proteins consists of 2 or more subunits (polypeptide chains)

● It is a ​metabolite​ ​in metabolic reactions such as ​condensation and hydrolysis​ ​which

● It is a ​solvent ​in which many metabolic reactions occur .

● There is ​strong cohesion​ ​between molecules enabling effective transport of water in

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Lock and Key Theory:

Induced Fit Theory:

Factors affecting the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions:

● Substrate concentration​ ​– as concentration of substrate increases, rate of reaction

● Temperature​ – rate of reaction increases up to the optimum temperature as kinetic

● Concentration of competitive reversible inhibitors ​– as concentration of

● Concentration of non-competitive reversible inhibitors​ ​– as concentration on

Investigating enzyme-catalysed reactions:

Immobilising enzymes in alginate

Topic 4: Cell membranes and transport

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● Glycoproteins​- recognition sites, act as antigens.

Three factors affect the permeability of a cell membrane:

Topic 5: The mitotic cell cycle

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Mitosis is important for:

o S ​- the genome is completely duplicated

o G2​ - G2 - prepares for mitosis

Topic 6: Nucleic acids and protein synthesis

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Both​ ​DNA​ ​and ​RNA​ ​carry

● Nucleotides join together by ​phosphodiester bonds​ ​formed in ​condensation

The steps of semi-conservative replication of DNA are as following:

● Adjacent nucleotides are joined by ​phosphodiester bonds​ ​formed in condensation

● The leading strand ​is replicated​ continuously ​in the​ 3’ to 5’ direction.

Proteins are ​polypeptide chains​, coded for by a gene.

Mutations are a result of:

Topic 9: Gas exchange and smoking

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Mammalian gaseous exchange system

The ​lungs​ are a pair of structures

Structures and functions of mammalian gaseous exchange system include:

● Glyceraldehyde is a triose used in metabolic reactions

● Maltose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of two glucose molecules

● Amylose – amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4

● Amylopectin is branched and is made up of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4 and 1, 6

● Saturated lipids such as those found in animal

● Unsaturated lipids which can be found in

Triglycerides are used as energy reserves in plant and animal cells.

In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a

● Quaternary structure of proteins consists of 2 or more subunits (polypeptide chains)

● It is a metabolite in metabolic reactions such as condensation and hydrolysis which

● It is a solvent in which many metabolic reactions occur .

● There is strong cohesion between molecules enabling effective transport of water in

● Substrate concentration – as concentration of substrate increases, rate of reaction

● Temperature – rate of reaction increases up to the optimum temperature as kinetic

● Concentration of competitive reversible inhibitors – as concentration of

● Concentration of non-competitive reversible inhibitors – as concentration on

● Glycoproteins- recognition sites, act as antigens.

o S - the genome is completely duplicated

o G2 - G2 - prepares for mitosis

Both DNA and RNA carry

● Nucleotides join together by phosphodiester bonds formed in condensation

● Adjacent nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester bonds formed in condensation

● The leading strand is replicated continuously in the 3’ to 5’ direction.

Proteins are polypeptide chains, coded for by a gene.

The lungs are a pair of structures

● Ciliated epithelium – present in bronchi, bronchioles and trachea, involved in

● T helper cells stimulate B cells and T killer cells to divide

● Venules – larger than capillaries but smaller than veins

2) Ventricular systole – contraction of the ventricles causes the atrio-ventricular

Dissociation curves illustrate the change in haemoglobin saturation as partial pressure