GENERAL BIOLOGY

General functions of the cell

● Regulation of internal Environment
● Acquisition and utilization of Energy
● Responsiveness to its Environment
● Protection and Support

Regulation of the Internal Environment

Homeostasis - An organisms to keep a constant internal state is called Homeostasis.

Acquisition and Utilization of Energy

Chemical Energy - It is stored in the bonds presents in food molecules, and it will be
converted by the cells into more usable forms.

Energy is needed by various cells to perform their functions.

● Heart cells to pump blood
● intestinal cells to digest food
● Skeletal cells to initiate motion
● Nerve cells to conduct information

Responsiveness to their Environment

Responsiveness - A cell must first be able to determine the changes that have taken
place before deciding the necessary responses that will untimately result in the
maintenance of normal internal conditions.

Protection and Support

Immune cells - Impart protection against pathogens and other foreign bodies that may
enter the general circulation.

Scientist who contributed to the development of cell theory

● Zacharias Janssen - Invented the first primitive microscope.

● Robert Hooke - Observed cork cells under a microscope.
● Francesco Redi - Disproved the spontaneous generation theory.
● Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Observed microorganisms by using his own practical
microscope.
● Matthias Schleiden - Proposed that all plants are composed of cells.
● Theodor Schwann - Proposed that all animals are composed of cells.
● Rudolf Virchow - Proposed that all cells came from pre-existing cells.
The Three Principles of Cell Theory

● Principle 1: Every living organisms consists of one or more cells.

● Principle 2: The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
● Principle 3: Cells comes from pre-existing cells.

Cells - are generally small in size that they only be view and magnified through the use of a
microscope.

Components of the cell: Major parts of the cell

Our cell also relied on biomolecules that provide and rigidity to them.

Regions of the Cell

● Cell (plasma) Membrane
● Nucleus
● Cytoplasm
● Protoplasm

Three Major Divisions of Cell

● Plasma membrane
● Cytoplasm
● Nucleus

The cell consists of both membrane bound and non-membrane bound organelles.

Plasma Membrane
● Structure
❖ The plasma membrane is the cells primary barrier.
❖ Cell membrane or plasma membrane separates the cytoplasm from external
environment.
➢ Phospholipids
➢ Cholesterol
➢ Membrane protein
➢ Glycolipids
➢ Glycoproteins
❖ Each of the phospholipids consists of the following:
● Head Region
➢ Phosphate Group
➢ Hydrophilic
● Tail Region
➢ Two fatty acid chains
➢ Hydrophobic
Membrane Proteins

➔ Channel Proteins - Passageway of certain molecules.

➔ Carrier Proteins - Change conformation to transport molecules.
➔ Cell recognition proteins - Detect invading pathogens.
➔ Receptor proteins - Binding of molecules to trigger responses.

Cytoskeleton - this consists of a network of protein fibers that gives the cell its structural
framework.

Microtubules - is a helix of a-tubulin and B- tubulin subunits.

➢ Tubulin - consist of helically arranged globular proteins.

Microfilaments - they consist of long fibers of actin protein, making the thinnest cytoskeleton.

Intermediate Filaments
- Helps maintain cell shape.
- anchors the nucleus.

Cytoplasm - this where all different subcellular structures are suspended.

Cell wall - it is a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane.

Components of the Cell II: Subcellular Organelles

The cell can be compared to a factory

building. It creates a barrier that collects all its machinery and employees in their proper places.

The Origin of the Membrane Bounded Organelles

Endosymbiotic Theory

● Double membrane of mitochondria and chloroplasts

● Large eukaryotic cell engulfed prokaryotes
● Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genetic material
● Result of invagination

Summary of Endosymbiotic Theory

● Ancestral Prokaryote
● Infolding of Plasma Membrane
● Endosymbiosis
● Ancestral Eukaryote
Subcellular Organelles

Organelles of the cell are divided into three groups.

● Genetic Control of the cell
● Endomembrane System
● Energy houses

The genetic control of the cell

Nucleus

Structure of the nucleus

● This is a prominent, usually oval structure in a eukaryotic cell.
● It is located in almost the center of the cell.

Part of the Nucleus

● Nucleoplasm - is the semifluid matrix.
● Nuclear envelope - separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
● Nuclear Pores - permit the passage of ribosomal subunits and mRNA out of the nucleus
into the cytoplasm.

Ribosomes

Free and Bound Ribosomes

● Free ribosomes - are found in the cytosol

● Bound ribosomes - are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear
envelope.

The Endomembrane System

Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

● Rough ER - have thousands of ribosomes attached to the outer surface which give this
organelle a "rough" appearance. Their main role is to produce proteins.
● Smooth ER - does not have attached ribosomes. This organelle produces lipids.

Function of the Golgi Bodies

● These serve functions similar to a warehouse and processing center, processing
products of the ER.

Function of the Peroxisomes

 ● These contain enzymes and serve metabolic assistance to organelles and specialize in
synthesizing and breaking down lipids.

Function of the Vacuoles

● These serve as a storage of water, organic nutrients, variety of salts, sugar and some
weak acids.

The Energy Houses of the Cell

Mitochondria - this is knows as the "powerhouse of the cell".

Chloroplast
- This is unique to plant and algae cells
- This organelle perform photosynthesis.

Cross - Section of a mitochondria

● Granules
● Ribosomes
● Cristae
● Intermediate Space
● Matrix
● ATP synthase particles
● Inner membrane
● Outer membrane
● DNA

Cross - Section of a Chloroplast

● Outer membrane
● Intermediate Space
● Inner membrane
● Stroma
● Granum
● Thylakoids
● Lamella
● Lumen

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cells
● Prokaryotic organisms are metabolically diverse because they can utilize different
nutrients and energy sources and they can inhabit all types of environment on earth.
● All bacteria that include the organisms of domains Archaea and Bacteria are
considered as prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic cells
● Domain eukarya, which includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals is eukaryotic.

Distinguishing Features of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Distinguishing Features (cellular parts)

● Presence of Nucleus
● Cell wall and cell membrane
● Endomembrane and other organelles
● Ribosomes

Presence of Nucleus
● The genetic material is enclosed in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the nucleoid region
of prokaryotes.
Eukaryote:
● Nucleus
● Nucleolus
● Chromatin
Prokaryote:
● Nucleoid

Cell wall and cell membrane

Cell wall of Eukaryotes

● present in most eukaryotic cells.
● cell wall is either made up of cellulose as in plants and chitin in fungi.
Cell wall of Prokaryotes
● present in almost all prokaryotic cells.
● cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.

Cell membrane of Eukaryotes

● the sterols that are present in the cell membrane are;
➢ cholesterol (animal)
➢ phytosterol (plants)
➢ ergosterol (fungi)
Cell membrane of Prokaryotes
● they do not have sterols in the cell membrane but have a sterol-like lipid component
called hapanoid.

Endomembrane and other organelles

Endomembrane System
● It includes the rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, and
vacuole.
 ● It is present in eukaryotic cells, but not in prokaryotic cells.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes of eukaryotes
● Ribosomes can be found in the cytoplasm, outer nuclear membrane, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, and chloroplast.
Ribosomes of prokaryotes
● All ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm.

Other Distinguishing Features

● Shape of DNA
● Number of Chromosomes
● Cell size
● Mode of reproduction
● DNA replication
● Transcription and Translation

Number of Chromosomes

Chromosome number in eukaryotes

● Eukaryotes have more than one chromosome so histones are essential in packaging
DNA into nucleosomes and helping it to condense into chromatin.
Chromosome number in prokaryotes
● Most prokaryotes have only one chromosome and an extrachromosomal DNA called
plasmid.

Mode of reproduction

Mode of reproduction in eukaryotes

● In eukaryotic cells, individual cells reproduce through mitosis and meiosis.
Mode of reproduction in prokaryotes
● Most prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary fission and some reproduce through
spores.

DNA replication

DNA replication in eukaryotes

● Eukaryotic cells have multiple points of origin and use unidirectional replication within the
nucleus.
● Telomerase is involved in the replication of telomeres of the eukaryotic chromosomes.
● Eukaryotic only replicate their DNA during the S-phase of interphase in cell division.
DNA replication in prokaryotes
● DNA replication occurs in two opposing directions at the same time in the cytoplasm.
 ● Prokaryotic cells do not have telomeres so telomerase is not present and involved in
their DNA replication.
● Prokaryotes continuously replicate their short DNA.

Transcription and Translation

Transcription and translation in eukaryotes

● The transcription occurs in the nucleus and the translation occurs in the Cytoplasm.
● Post-transcriptional processing is done in eukaryotes to remove introns and come up
with the final RNA.
Transcription and translation in prokaryotes
● Transcription and translation can be done at the same time in the cytoplasm.
● No post-transcriptional processing because the DNA of prokaryotes does not have a
non-coding part called introns.

Structures and Functions of Animal Cells

Hierarchy of Biological Organization

● In complex multicellular organisms like animals, cells come in different structures and
functions— they differ in terms of shape and sizes, and they also have specialized
functions.

The assemblage of life from the smallest biomolecules to the interacting ecosystems of
the biosphere

● Atoms
● Molecules
● Organelles
● Cells
● Tissues
● Organs
● Organ system
● Organisms
● Population
● Community
● Ecosystem
● Biome
● Biosphere

Level of Biological Organization

Chemical - atoms and molecules that make up the basic unit of life.
Four types of biomolecules or molecules associated with life:
● carbohydrates
 ● proteins
● lipids or fats
● nucleic acids

Organelle - distinct and specialized subcellular structures that contribute to the cell's
maintenance and reproduction; membrane-bound structures in eukaryotic cells.
Examples:
● mitochondria
● nucleus
● golgi apparatus
● endoplasmic reticulum

Cell - the smallest, basic, functional unit of life formed when different atoms and molecules
combine and function together.
Examples:
● skin cells
● blood cells
● muscle cells or fibers
● neurons

Tissue - groups of cells that work together to perform a specialized function.

Four types of animal tissue:
● epithelial tissue
● connective tissue
● muscle tissue
● nervous tissue

Organ - groups of tissues that work together to perform a specialized function.

Examples:
● skin
● lungs
● heart muscle
● brain

Organ system - groups of organs that work together to perform a certain process in the body.
Examples:
● integumentary system
● respiratory system
● circulatory system

Organisms - formed by different organ systems that create complex interactions with one
another to maintain balance or homeostasis, and sustain life.
Examples:
● humans
 ● grasses
● dogs
● cats
● mushroom

Population - organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same area.
Examples:
● humans living in the same house, koalas living in an area of the forest.

Community - different populations living in the same area

Examples:
● humans, cats, and dogs living in the same house; koalas, kangaroos, and
various tree species in an area of the forest.

Ecosystem - includes all the communities interacting with one another and with their
environment.
Examples:
● humans, cats, dogs, and grasses getting resources from nonliving things like
soil, water, and sunlight.

Biosphere - includes all the different kinds of ecosystem.

Examples:
● the entire surface of earth where life thrives.

Types of Animal Tissues

Tissues
● These refer to groups of cells that are similar in structure and function.

The four types of tissues in animals

● Connective tissue
● Epithelial tissue
● Muscle tissue
● Nervous tissue

Structure of Epithelial tissue

● Epithelial tissue or epithelium is a type of animal tissue that forms the inner and outer
lining of organs.

Epithelial Tissue

Simple squamous
● No. of layers and shape of cells
➢ one layer
 ➢ flat, scale-like
● Examples:
➢ Air sacs or alveoli
➢ capillary walls
● Functions
➢ site of diffusion or exchange of substances; secretion

Simple cuboidal
● No. of layers and shape of cells
➢ one layer
➢ cube-shaped
● Examples:
➢ glands and their ducts, overies and lining of kidney tubules
● Functions
➢ Absorption
➢ Secretion

Simple columnar
● No. of layers and shape of cells
➢ one layer
➢ elongated or column-shaped
● Examples:
➢ walls of the gastrointestinal tract and body cavities
● Functions
➢ absorption and secretion; contains goblet cells that secrete mucus

Connective Tissue

Bone or osseous tissue

● layers of a very hard matrix with calcium salts and collagen fibers
● consists of bone cells called lacunae
Examples:
● skull and ribs

Cartilage
● more flexible matrix than bone
● cartilage cells called chondrocytes
Examples:
● hyaline cartilage
● fibro cartilage
● elastic cartilage

Dense connective or dense fibrous tissue

● this is a fibroblast or a fiber-forming cell.
 Examples:
● Tendon
● ligaments

Loose connective tissue

● Matrix contains more cells and lesser fibers than dense connective tissue so it is softer.
Examples:
● areoler tissue
● adipose tissue or fat tissue
● reticular connective tissue

Blood
● plasma
● cellular components consist of blood cells.
● with fibers that are only visible during clotting because they are made up of soluble
proteins
Examples:
● blood
● blood cells

Mascular Tissue

Types of muscle tissues

● skeletal muscle
● smooth muscle
● cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscle
● long cylindrical straited (with visible stripes), and multinucleated (with more than one
nucleus)
Location:
● attached to the skeleton or bones
Smooth muscle
● made up of nonstriated, uninucleated, and spindle-shaped (have pointed ends) cells.
Location:
● found in the walls of hollow organs such as intestines, stomach, bladder, blood
vessels, and uterus.
Cardiac muscle
● uninucleated (one nucleus) and has striations
● has intercalated disks
Location:
● found in the heart

Nervous Tissue
 ● Neuron, the basic unit of the nervous system, consists of structures that can conduct
electrochemical signals as a form of information.

Astrocytes
● Function:
➢ these are star-shaped cells that support and control the chemical environment
around the neurons
➢ these are the most abundant gial cells in the CNS

Microglial cells
● Function:
➢ these are avoid cells in the CNS that can transform into a phagocytic
macrophage to clean neuronal debris and wastes.

Ependymal cells
● Function:
➢ these are ciliated cells that line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal
cord and form a fairly permeable membrane between the cavities with
cerebrospinal fluid and the tissues of CNS.

Oligodendrocytes
● Function:
➢ these are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath.

Satellite cells
● Function:
➢ they surround the cell body of neuron.

Schwann cells
● Function:
➢ they surround all the nerve fibers and produce myelin sheath similar to the
oligodendrocytes.