ENGLISH PAPERS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY

SUPERVISOR

MELADINA, M.PD

GROUP 1 :

SARRAH SALSABILA (1814201004)

CHELSYE MARVIYOUNA D (1814201018)

JUNITA AFDILAH (1814201042)

NURSING AND EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

HEALTH FACULTY

FORT DE KOCK BUKITTINGGI UNIVERSITY

TA 2021/2022
 FOREWORD

Praise and gratitude for the presence of Allah SWT. Due to the abundance
of His grace and guidance, we were finally able to complete our English course
assignment entitled " Anatomy And Physiology Of The Human Body". This
assignment is made in order to fulfill the assignment which is one of the standards
or assessment criteria of the English course given in groups. We would like to
thank Ms. Meladina, M.Pd, as a lecturer in English at Fort De Kock University,
Bukittinggi.

We are aware of our shortcomings as ordinary people and by the

limitations of the reference sources that we have, so that in this paper there are
still many mistakes and errors both in compiling and in its content. Therefore, we
really look forward to your suggestions and criticisms.
Finally, we thank you very much and hopefully this problem can be useful
and useful for all of us as material knowledge to further broaden our horizons.

Bukittinggi, March 28, 2021

Author
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD................................................................................................................. i
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................. ii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................................. 1
A. Background............................................................................................................ 1
B. Formulation of the problem................................................................................... 1
C. Purpose.................................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION....................................................................................... 2
A. Nervous system..................................................................................................... 2
B. The respiratory system.......................................................................................... 6
C. Cardivascular System and Blood........................................................................... 8
D. Musculoskeletal System........................................................................................ 10
E. Urinary System...................................................................................................... 14
F. Sensory System..................................................................................................... 17
G. Endocrine System..................................................................................................20
H. Reproduction system............................................................................................22
I. Digestive system....................................................................................................24

Chapter III closing........................................................................................................ 29

A. Conclusion............................................................................................................. 29
B. Suggestion............................................................................................................. 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 30
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND
Anatomy comes from the Greek language which consists of ana which means to
separate or unravel. And tomos which means chopping up, so anatomy means
unraveling and cutting. The science of body shape and structure is obtained by
breaking down the body through pieces of parts of the body and the connection of
organs to one another, whereas physiology is the study of the physiology of the
function or work of each body tissue or part of the body and to know changes
what happens to the body of the sick, we must first know the structure and
function of each of the organs of the healthy human body in everyday life.
Humans actually move automatically because we have feelings, thoughts, and
knowledge which are a series of life that automatically allows us to live in various
situations. Each system plays a role in the functioning of the body as a whole, so
physiology is a science that functions to explain the physical and chemical factors
that are responsible for the origin of the development and progress of life from the
simplest viruses or bacteria to the most complex humans. .

B. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

What is Anatomy and Physiology in Humans?

C. Purpose
To find out the anatomy and physiology of the human body
 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is the body's center of control,

regulation and communication network. It directs the
functioning of the organs and systems of the body. The
center of all mental activity, including thinking, learning,
and memory.

The general functions of the nervous system can be

summarized as:
1. Detect internal and external changes
2. Analysis of changes detected
3. Information organization for immediate use
4. Mediate appropriate actions in response to change

Source
https://hellosehat.com/sehat/inf
ormasi-keseh/anatomi-tubuh-
manusia/
The neural network consists of:

1. Neurons (send information in the form of signals to the brain)

A neuron consists of a cell body, which contains a nucleus, one or more
dendrites which conduct it to the cell body or axon; and one axon which
conducts nerve impulses from the cell body or dendrites.

2. Neuroglia (provide nutrition and support and protect neurons so they can
work optimally)

The nervous system is composed of the smallest components, namely nerve cells
or neurons. These neurons play a role in delivering impulses (stimulation). A
nerve cell consists of three main parts, namely the cell body, dendrites, and
neurites (axons).(Sitorus, 2014)

Source Youtube channel Brainy Panda

1. Cell body
Cell body nervecontains the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. In the
cytoplasm there are mitochondria which function as energy providers to
carry stimuli.
 2. Dendrites
Dendrites are fibers that are protrusions of the cytoplasm. In
general, a neuron has many dendrites and a short dendrite in size.
Dendrites function to carry stimulation to the cell body.
3. Neurites (axons)
Neurites or axons are fibers that are long cytoplasmic protrusions.
A neuron has one axon. Neurites function to carry stimulation from the
cell body to other nerve cells. Neurites are covered by a fatty sheath called
myelin which consists of an expansion of the Schwann cell membrane.
This sheath serves as an insulator and feeder sel nerves. AntOne neuron
with one neuron with the next neuron is not directly connected but forms a
very narrow gap. The gap between the neurite end of a neuron and the
dendrite of another neuron is called a synapses. It is at this synapse that a
chemical called a neurotransmitter (for example acetylcholine) crosses
over to carry impulses from the neurite end of a neuron to the next neuron
dendrite.

The nervous system is anatomically grouped into 2 major parts, namely

1. Central nervous system (in the midsection)
Consists of :
a. Brain
Consists of 3 parts:
1) Big brain (cerebrum)
Its function is to regulate all mental activities related to
intelligence (intelligence), memory (memory), awareness, and
consideration.

Consists of :
a) Occipital (back) ➔ center of vision
b) Temporal (side) ➔ hearing center
c) Parietal (center) ➔ skin & muscle control center for heat, cold,
touch, pressure
 d) Between the bags. Middle of the back don➔ center of
development of intelligence, memory, will, attitude

2) The cerebellum (cerebellum) functions to control and coordinate

body muscle movements and balance the body.

3) Midbrain (mesencephalon) as a bridge connecting the left and right

cerebellum, as well as connecting the cerebellum & spinal cord).

Organs in front of the midbrain (diencephalon):

a) Thalamus (Center for sensory control)
b) Hypothalamus (Center for temperature control, appetite
regulator, body balance); whereas at the top of the optic lobe
ado (center of the eye reflex)

b. Spinal cord / spinal cord

The spinal cord functions as: a control center for breathing, constricts
blood vessels, regulates heart rate, regulates body temperature. b. The
spinal cord (medulla spinalis) The spinal cord extends inside the spinal
cavity, starting from the vertebrae of the neck to the second vertebrae
of the loin.

Spinal cord, spinal cord is also covered by the meninges membrane.

When observed transversely, the outer spinal cord appears white
(substance alba) and the inside is shaped like a butterfly, gray
(substance grissea). The white part contains many axons (neurites)
covered with myelin. This section is to deliver impulses to the brain
and from the brain to the effectors. The gray part contains nerve fibers
without myelin. This part is divided into two, namely the dorsal root or
posterior root and the ventral root or anterior root. The dorsal root
contains sensory neurons and the ventral root contains motor neurons.
The spinal cord functions to: carry impulses to and from the brain,
giving the shortest possible path of reflex motion.(Sitorus, 2014)
 2. Peripheral nervous system (nerve tissue extension of the brain and spinal
cord located peripherally to the central nervous system)
Consists of :
a. 12 pairs of brain (cranial) nerve fibers
b. 31 pairs of spinal cord (spinal) nerve fibers
c. Ganglia
d. Sensory receptors.

Functionally it is divided into sensory and motor divisions. The sensory

division is subdivided into the somatic nervous system, which is involved
in voluntary action and the autonomic nervous system, which is involved
in involuntary (involuntary) responses.

B. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The function of the respiratory system is to take

oxygen (02) from the atmosphere into the body's cells
and to transport carbon dioxide (C02) produced by the
body's cells back to the atmosphere.

The organs (respiratory) also function in speech

production and play a role in acid-base balance, body
defense against foreign objects, and hormonal
regulation of blood pressure.

Source
https://hellosehat.com/sehat/infor
masi-keseh/anatomi-tubuh-
manusia/

Respiration involves the following processes:

1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. External respiration
3. Internal respiration
 4. Respiration of the respiratory tract

Respiration components and their functions:

1. Nose
The nostrils allow air to enter and exit the nasal cavity; filters the nasal
cavity, warms, and humidifies the inhaled air
2. Pharynx
Carries air between the nasal cavity and larynx; filters, warms and
humidifies the inhaled air; serves as a conduit for food from the mouth to
the esophagus; equalizes air pressure with the middle ear through the
auditory tube
3. Larynx
Carries air between the pharynx and trachea; contains vocal cords to
produce sound in vocalizations; prevent objects from entering the trachea.
4. Trachea
Carries air between the larynx and bronchi; filters, warms, and humidifies
the inhaled air
5. Bronchi
Carries air between trachea and bronchioles; filters, warms, and humidifies
the inhaled air
6. Bronchioles
Regulates air flow rate through bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation
7. Alveoli
Allows gas exchange between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
surrounding capillaries

Respiratory Mechanism:
During inspiration, external intercostal muscles are found between the rib
contractions, moving the ribs up and out. The diaphragm muscles also contract
and form a flat dome. This increases the space in the lungs and causes air to be
automatically drawn into the lungs. During expiration, the external intercostal
muscles relax and the ribs return into their resting position. The diaphragm
relaxes, returning to its original dome shape. This causes the space in the lungs to
become smaller, forcing air out.

C. CARDIVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system is a system that generally plays a role in

circulating blood throughout the body, as well as carrying oxygen and nutrients to
all body tissues and transporting all waste substances.

In general, the cardiovascular system has the following functions:

1. Transports nutrients, oxygen and hormones throughout the body and
releases metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous waste).
2. Protection of the body by white blood cells, antibodies and complement
proteins that circulate in the blood and defend the body against foreign
microbes and toxins. The clotting mechanism also helps protect the body
from blood loss after injury.
3. Regulation of body temperature, fluid pH and cell water content.
4. The cardiovascular system, however, requires the cooperative function of
other systems to maintain blood composition and so to maintain
intracellular homeostasis. For example, digestive and excretory organs that
play a role in maintaining the constitution of blood homeostasis,
autonomic nerves, endocrine system, cardiovascular coordinate system,
and other functions.
The cardiovascular system consists of:
1. Heart / cardio (four bear muscle pumps that push blood around circulation)
The heart lies in the mediastinal space of the chest cavity, which is
between the lungs. Apex of the heart, is between the fourth and fifth ribs in
the midline of the clavicle. In adults the average length is about 12 cm and
9 cm wide with a weight of 300 to 400 grams.

The heart consists of 4 chambers, namely

a. 2 thin-walled spaces called the ventricles (foyer)
b. The 2 spaces with thick walls are called the atria (chambers).

The heart consists of two layers, namely:

a. Inner layer or visceral pericardium
b. Outer layer (parietal pericardium).
These two layers are separated by a small amount of lubricating fluid,
which reduces friction caused by the pumping motion of the heart. The
pericardium also protects against the spread of infection or neoplasm
from the surrounding organs to the heart.

The heart valve consists of four, namely:

a. tricuspid valve
b. pulmonary semilunar valve
c. bicuspid (mitral) valve
d. aortic semilunar valve.

The heart is regulated by several cardiac regulatory systems viz

a. purkinje fiber
b. sinoatrial node (SA node)
c. atrioventricular node (AV node)
d. AV files (HIS files).
2. Blood vessels / vascular
The vascular system or blood vessels consists of arteries that carry blood
from the heart to the tissues, thin-walled capillaries that allow diffusion of
gases and metabolic substances, and veins and venules that return blood to
the heart. The main function of this system is to deliver oxygenated blood
to cells and tissues and return venous blood to the lungs for the exchange
of oxygen gas (02) with carbon dioxide (CO2). The organs that make up
the circulatory system are blood, heart and blood vessels

Blood vessels consist of several layers, namely:

a. tunika intima
b. tunika media
c. tunica adventisia.

The types of blood vessels, namely:

a. arterial blood vessels
b. veins
c. capillary blood vessels.

In the human circulatory system there are two circulatory pathways,

namely the pulmonary circulation (small blood circulation) and the
systemic circulation (large blood circulation). These two blood circulations
are called double circulation.
D. MUSCULOSCELETAL SYSTEM
Musculoskeletal comes from the word musculo (muscular) which means muscle
and the word skeletal which means skeleton / bone.

The musculo and skeletal systems have mutually supporting functions, especially
in the process of movement and body posture formation.(Irawan, 2013)

1. Skeletal system
The skeletal system is a system that has the function of storing mineral
materials, a place for the formation of blood cells, a place where skeletal
muscles attach, protects a soft body and supports the body.
Broadly speaking, the human skeleton is divided into two, namely the
axial skeleton (body tumbu) and the appendicular frame (limb).

a. Axial Frame
The axial skeleton consists of the spine (vertebrae), skull and ribs.
1) Skull
The skull protects the brain. The bone connections found in the
cranium are suture in nature, that is, they cannot be moved.
2) Spine.
 In the spine there is curvature - curvature that serves to support the
weight and allows humans to perform various types of positions
and movements such as standing, sitting, or running.
3) Hioid
The hioid is a U-shaped bone between the larynx and the mandible.
Hioids function as a place for attachment of several muscles of the
mouth and tongue.

Breastbone and ribs

The sternum and ribs together form a protective shield for the
important organs found in the chest, namely the lungs and heart.
The ribs are also associated with the spine.

b. Appendicular Frame
The appendicular frame consists of the hips, shoulders, palms of the
hands, bones of the arms, legs and feet. In general, the appendicular
frame composes the means of motion, namely the hands and feet
which are differentiated into the upper and lower frames.

The upper appendicular skeleton consists of the following bones:

1) Collarbone. The collarbone or collarbone forms the front of the
shoulder.
2) Shoulder blade. The shoulder blades are located above the shoulder
joint and form part of the shoulder.
3) Base of the Arm. Pickers, cubits. The base of the arm together with
the collecting bone and the hasta bone make up the tool of
movement, namely the hand.
4) Hand Bone. The hand bones are composed of the wrist bones,
palms and fingers. The hand is composed of the scaphoid, lunate,
triquetrum, pisiform, trapezoidal, trapezoidal, capitatum, hamate
carpal. The palm (metacarpal) consists of the base, trunk and head.
 Fingers consist of three segments, except for the thumb which has
two segments.
5) Foot bone. The lower appendicular bone consists of several bones
that make up the leg (lower appendix).
The foot consists of the leg bones and the soles of the feet.
The leg bones are composed of the femur, kneecap, shin and calf
bones. The ankle is composed of the heel, calcaneus, talus, cuboid,
navicular, cuneiform, and finger bones.

Human body skeleton

The human skeleton is composed of bones, both long and short
bones. Its functions include:
1) To give the overall shape to the body
2) Keeping the organs in place
3) Protect organs such as the brain, heart and lungs
4) To move when the muscle wills
5) Produce blood cells in the bone marrow.
Types of bones Bones are grouped according to their shape:
1) Pipe bones. For example the thighbone
2) Short bones. For example the wrist bone
3) Flat bones. Take the shoulder blade, for example
4) Irregular bones. For example the jawbone

Pipe bone arrangement

1. Epiphysis (head)
2. Metaphysis (stem)
3. Periosteum: thin layer
4. The bones are hard and dense
5. The soft part like a sponge
6. Marrow cavity
7. Cartilage (cartilage)
 c. Joints
Joints are joints between bones.
Types of joints:
1) Hinge Joint. Can be moved in one direction. Examples of joints in
the elbows, knees, knuckles, and toes.
2) Bullet Joint. Allows movement in all directions. One bone can
rotate on another bone. Examples of joints in the upper neck
vertebrae and groin.
3) Saddle Joint. Can move in both directions. Examples of joints on
the palm and base of the thumb.
4) Rigid Joints. Very few or limited moves. Examples of joints in the
spinal space.
5) Sliding Joints. One end of the bone displaces the end of the other
bone. Examples of joints in the cubit bone and the bone graft.
6) Swivel Joint. One bone can rotate around the other which acts as a
shaft. Examples of joints in the atlas (the first neck bone) with the
skull bones.
2. Musculo system
a. Striated / skeletal muscles
Moving according to our will (involuntary) because of the stimulation
through the motor nerves, the movement is fast but quickly tired,
strong, easily tired, irregular. Long fibrous (elongated cylindrical),
colored / striated with light and dark lines, has many cell nuclei,
located on the edge. Located in the thigh muscles, calf muscles, chest
muscles.
b. Smooth muscle
Work against our will (involuntary muscles) by stimulation through
autonomic nerves, slow motion, rhythmic and not easily tired. The
protoplasm is slippery and does not have transverse lines (plain), the
shape of long fibers is like a coil (spindle) with both tapered ends, one
core is located in the middle. These muscles are found in the internal
 organs such as the ventriculus, intestines, bladder, blood vessels and
others
c. Cardiac muscle
Can move on its own automatically because it is stimulated by the
autonomous arrangement, the motion is slow, rhythmic and does not
tire easily. Its structure is the same as striated muscle, its fibers are
elongated (cylindrical) alternating dark and light and there are
branching cells, but if you look at the function is the same as smooth
muscle. It is located only in the heart which has its own function.

E. URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, bladder (blader) and
urethra. The main function of the urine is for fluid and electrolyte balance.
Electrolytes consist of ions which then dissolve in water and equilibrium
occurs when the same electrolytes that enter the body are released. Hydrogen
is an ion that affects the solution concentration and acid-base balance or pH.
Another major function of the urinary system is the release of toxic metabolic
products, such as nitrogen components, especially urea and creatinine.

1. Kidney
In adults it is about 11 cm long and 5-7.5 cm wide and 2.5 cm thick and
weighs 150 grams. The kidney organ is in the shape of a curve located in
the retroperitoneal area, on the back of the abdominal wall beside the front
of the vertebrae, as high as the 12th thoracic to the 3rd lumbar. , blood
vessels and adrenal glands against trauma.

The kidneys consist of

a. The cortex, which is the outermost part of the kidney and is composed
of nephrons numbering more than 1 million
b. Medulla, consisting of collecting ducts or ducts called the kidney
pyramid which is arranged between 8-18 pieces
c. Pelvis, is an area consisting of minor calix which then merges into
major calix

Nephron
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys, each kidney consists of
1-4 million nephrons. Nephrons consist of vascular and tubular
components. Vascular components or capillary blood vessels include
afferent arterioles, glomerulus, efferent arterioles and peritubular
capillaries. Whereas the tubular component is a buffer for the filtration
results of the glomerulus, consisting of the bowman capsule, the distal
convoluted tubule and the proximal convoluted tubule, the henle ansa, the
distal contotus tubule and the collecting tubule and duct.

Kidney function
a. Regulation of blood volume and composition by means of disposal or
secretion of fluids
 b. Regulation of the amount and concentration of electrolytes in
extracellular fluids, such as sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium,
magnesium, phosphate and hydrogen
c. Helps maintain the acid-base (ph) balance of the blood.
d. Blood pressure regulation by secreting the enzyme renin which
activates the renin-angiontensin pathway
e. Expenditure and cleaning of the body's metabolic products such as
urea, uric acid and creatinine
f. Expenditure of foreign components such as expenditure of drugs,
pesticides and other hazardous substances

2. Ureter
The ureters are tubular tubes from the kidney to the bladder, 25-30 cm
long and 6 mm in diameter. The position of the ureter is oblique and
narrows in three points, namely the point of origin of the ureter in the renal
pelvis, the point when it passes through the periphery of the pelvis and the
point where it meets the bladder.
The oblique position and the presence of this narrowing can prevent reflux
of urine flow
The ureters play an active role in urine transport

3. Bladder
The bladder is a hollow and muscular organ that holds urine before it is
excreted through the urethra. Located in the pelvic cavity. In men the
bladder is behind the pubic simpisis and in front of the rectum, in women
the bladder is under the uterus and in front of the vagina. The bladder wall
has 4 layers. The innermost layer is the mucosal layer that produces
mucus, then the submucosa layer, the smooth muscle layer which forms an
angle to each other or is called the detrusor muscle and the outermost layer
is serous.
The main function of the bladder is to collect urine from the ureter and
then excrete it through the urethra.
 4. Urethra
The urethra extends from the neck of the bladder to the meatus. In women
about 4cm long, its location between the clitoris and the vaginal canal. The
length of the male urethra is about 20 cm, divided into 3 parts, namely the
prostatic urethra which is about 3 cm long, below the bladder neck to the
prostate gland, the second part is the urethral membranasea which is 1-2
cm in length around which there is an external urethral spinter, in this
section. The end is the cavernous or penile urethra which is about 15 cm
long extending from the penis to the urethral orifice

F. SENSORY SYSTEM
The sensory system is a special end organ that receives certain types of stimuli.
These stimuli are delivered by the sensory nervous system from various sense
organs to the brain for interpretation and response. Sensory receptors are cells that
can receive information on conditions inside and outside the body to be responded
to by the central nerve.

1. Sense of touch (skin)

The skin is the largest organ in the body, which is about 15-20 percent of
body weight.
a. Epidermis, is a thin layer on the outermost part of the skin and is
directly in contact with the outside world
1) The stratum corneum functions as protection against trauma,
microorganisms, a barrier against loss of fluids, electrolytes and
chemicals
2) Keratinocytes function to synthesize keratin and for 14 days
migrate to the epidermis
3) Melanocytes function to produce melanosomes, melanin for skin
color, prevention of the effects of heat from the sun
4) Langerhans cells as an immune reaction
5) Basal cells as epidermal reproduction
 b. Dermis, composed of fibrolas, macrophages, mast cells and
lymphocytes to promote wound healing
1) Collagen, reticulum, elastin, are skin proteins and play a role in
shaping the skin texture
2) Fibrolas, as collagen synthesis, provide a strong structure to the
skin and wound healing
3) Macrophages, their function is to phagocyte foreign bodies and
microbes
4) Mast cells, produce histamine for vasodilation and play a role in
the inflammatory response
5) Lymphatic glands, function of cleaning microorganisms and
removing interstitial fluid
6) Blood vessels, which functions to cleanse the metabolic results of
the skin and regulate temperature
7) Nerve fibers, as the perception of the stimulus
8) Subcutaneous functions as energy reserves and energy balance

Glands in the skin

a. Sweat glands, divided into 2, namely eccrine sweat glands which
function to secrete water and help the body's evaporative cooling to
maintain body temperature and apocrine sweat glands which are
specialized sweat glands and are active from puberty
b. Sebaceous glands soften the skin and are bactericid
c. The mammary glands play a role in the breastfeeding process

Skin function

The skin plays an important role in protection against external threats,

homeostasis, sensation, temperature regulation, fluid balance, vitamin
D production, immune response and communication functions.

2. Sense of Vision (Eyes)

Eye structure
a. Sclera, is a strong fibrous connective tissue, opaque white and opaque
white
b. The cornea, which is the window of the eye and is located at the front
of the eye, corresponds to the sclera. Is a place where light enters and
focuses light beams
c. The choroid layer, dark brown in color and a pigmented layer, contains
many blood vessels to provide nutrients and oxygen to the retina
d. The iris, which extends from the ciliary body to the anterior, is
connected to the surface of the anterior lens. Serves to control the
amount of light that enters the eye by changing the size of the pupil
e. Lens, which functions to focus light entering the front of the retina
through an accommodation mechanism, namely the process of
automatically adjusting the lens to focus objects clearly at various
distances
f. The retina, which is the innermost layer of the eye, covers two-thirds
of the eyeball at the back
g. The central fovea is a part of the retina that has many cone cells but no
stem cells
h. Lutea macula, a yellowish area that is slightly lateral to the center
 Eye function

Namely converting light energy into nerve impulses so that it can be

translated by the brain into visual images

3. Sense of Hearing (Ear)

Is part of a special sensory organ capable of detecting various sound

stimuli

Ear structure
a. Outer ear
Consists of auricle and ear canal. The ears are located on both sides of
the head at eye level. The function of the earlobe is to collect sound
waves to be transmitted to the outer ear which then goes to the
eardrum.
The outer ear canal is a narrow passage, about 2.5 cm long from the
earlobe to the tympanic membrane
b. Middle ear
It is a cavity that contains air in the petroscus of the temporal bone.
The middle ear cavity is connected to the eustachian tube which
connects the middle ear and pharynx. The function of the eustachian
 tube is to balance the pressure between the tympanic sides by opening
or closing
c. Inner ear or labyrinth
1) Labyrinth of bones
It is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid-like fluid called
perilymph fluid
2) Membranous labyrinth
The membranous labyrinth is immersed in perilymph fluid and
contains endolymph fluid. The two fluids have the right balance
in the ear so that balance regulation is maintained.
4. Sense of Smell

The nose is a sense that we use to recognize an environment or something

from the smell produced. The fibers of the olfactory nerve are found at the
top of the mucous membrane of the nose. These olfactory fibers have a
function to detect chemical stimuli in the form of gases in the air
(chemoreceptors).
The parts of the nose are as follows:
a. The nostrils have a function for the entry and exit of air.
b. Nasal hair has a function to filter the air that enters when you breathe.
c. The mucous membrane has a function as a place to attach dirt and as a
sense of smell.
d. These nerve fibers have a function to detect chemicals in the
respiratory air. These smell nerves have a function to send smells to
the brain.
 The way the nose works is as follows:
The stimuli (smell) go to the nostrils and then go to the olfactory
epithelium then go to the olfactory mucosa then go to the olfactory nerves
then go to the thalamus then go to the hypothalamus and finally to the
brain.
5. Sense of Taste

The tongue is a type of sense that has a function to feel stimuli from the
taste of food that enters our mouth. The tongue can respond to various
types and various kinds of flavors such as sweetness, bitter taste, sour taste
and salty taste. On the tongue there are two groups of muscles, namely the
intrinsic muscles (making a smooth movement) and the extrinsic muscles
(making a rough motion when chewing and swallowing and hooking the
tongue to its surroundings). On the part of the tongue that the rashes are
called papillae, namely the nerve endings of the taste buds. Each of these
taste buds has a certain sensitivity to taste based on its location on the
tongue. At the base of the tongue can taste bitter taste, on the edge of the
tongue to taste salty and sour taste and on the tip of the tongue its function
is to taste sweetness.
On the surface of the tongue which is covered by three kinds of papillae,
they are as follows :
a. Papilla sirku valata
b. Filiform papillae
c. Fungiform papillae
 How the tongue works as follows:
The food / flavored solution goes to the tongue papillae then to the
gustatory nerve then to the medulla oblongata then to the thalamus and
finally to the brain.

G. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is responsible for the balance of the body through
homeostatic mechanisms, so that the body's organ functions run normally.

The endocrine system has 5 main functions, namely the development and division
of cells in fetal development, stimulation of cell and tissue growth, coordination in
the reproductive system, maintaining and maintaining the internal environment
and adapting responses to emergency situations.

Endocrine Organs:

The endocrine system includes glandular organs or cells that produce hormones.

In the human body there are two types of glands, namely:

1. Exocrine glands
2. Endocrine

Endocrine Glands:
1. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that is located between the
cerebrum and brainstem, precisely above the optical chiasm and below the
thalamus.
2. Pituitary or pituitary
The pituitary is a gland located in the basic part of the brain, precisely in
the sella Tursika. This gland is divided into two lobes, namely the antarior
or adenohipofisis lobe and the poserior lobe or neurohipofisis. The two
lobes secrete different hormones.
3. Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located in front of the trache, under the cricoid
cartilage and is shaped like a butterfly and weighs about 20 grams. The
thyroid gland is supplied by the superior thyroid artery, which is a branch
of the external carotid artery and the inferior thyroid artery. This gland has
2 lobes which are connected by a mass of tissue called the isthmus
4. Parathyroid glands
This gland consists of 4 glands located close to the teroid glands. The
parathyroid produces parathormin (PTH) which is a polypeptide hormone.
Parathormone functions include:
a. Stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium from bones
b. Inhibits osteoblasts, by reducing calcium and bone deposits
c. Increases renal calcium reabsorption to reduce urinary calcium loss
d. Stimulates the formation and secretion of calcitriol in the kidneys
which plays a role in caring for calcium and phosphate in the digestive
tract
e. Activates vitamin D to help increase calcium in the intestines
5. Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are located at the ends of the right and left kidneys.
They are composed of two layers, the outer layer is called adrenal and the
inner layer is called the adrenal medulla.
6. Pancreas
 The endocrine glands in the pancreas are islets of Langerhans that produce
hormones. Hormones are organic substances that have special properties
for physiological regulation of the survival of an organ or system.
7. Gonad Glands
Gonadal glands consist of ovaries in women and testes in men. The
ovaries produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen plays a
role in the growth of sex organ tissues and other tissues related to
reproduction. Estrogen also plays a role in bone strengthening.
Progesterone promotes changes in the uterus in preparation for
implantation of ovum and prepares the mammary glands to produce milk.
8. Thymus gland
The thymus gland is located at the top of the chest, near the heart. This
gland produces the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin for the
development of T lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell for
immunity.
9. Pineal Gland
These glands, located in the brain near the thalamus, produce melatonin,
which is important in regulating sleep and feeling cycles. also plays a role
in inhibiting the release of gonadotropins and inhibiting melanin
production by skin melanocytes.

H. REPRODUCTION SYSTEM

Female and Male Reproductive Organs

The reproductive system in humans, both male and female, has its own internal
and external organ structures. Each organ in the system has a different function.
The beginning of the human reproduction process occurs when a sperm cell meets
an egg, which generally occurs in sexual intercourse. This process can take place
thanks to the functioning reproductive organs. Reproductive organs, along with
glands and hormones, form the reproductive system that plays a role in the
process of human reproduction. The reproductive system in men and women is
different, and works specifically for each sex genetically.

The reproductive system of bitter melon serves to produce and store, and deliver
sperm to fertilize an egg. Meanwhile, the female reproductive system has a
function to produce eggs and provide a place for the fetus during pregnancy.
These two functions complement each other in the reproduction process.

The male and female reproductive organs both consist of external and internal
parts. Most of the organs of the male reproductive system are outside the body in
contrast to women who are more in the body.

The structures of the external reproductive organs in men include:

1. Penis
Penisis a vital male organ that is used for sexual intercourse. When it
reaches climax, sperm will exit through the ducts in the penis.
2. Scrotum
Scrotumis a pouch of skin that hangs at the base of the penis. This small,
muscular sac protects the testicles, along with nerves and blood vessels.
3. Testicles
Testiclesis the most important organ of the male reproductive system
which is located in the scrotum. The testes are the glands where sperm and
testosterone are produced.

In addition, the structure of the male reproductive organs is also supported by

internal organs known as accessory organs. These organs include the urethra, vas
deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands. The various types of accessory organs function to produce,
store and regulate the release of sperm. The performance of the male reproductive
organs depends on the condition of the reproductive hormones in the male body,
namely testosterone which has benefits in the development of a man's
characteristics, including physical and sexual arousal, and FSH (follicle).
stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) which play a role in sperm
production.

Organs that belong to the female reproductive system include:

1. Fallopian Tubes
This organ is shaped like a small tube attached to the top of the uterus. The
fallopian tube acts as a pathway for the egg to move from the ovary to the
uterus.
2. Ovaries The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on
either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and the hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
3. Vagina and cervix.
The vagina is the pathway that connects the cervix (cervix) to the outside
of the body. The vagina is also known as the birth canal. During sexual
intercourse, sperm will be channeled into this organ through the penis.
4. Uterus (womb)
The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is where the fetus develops
during pregnancy.

The female reproductive organs are also equipped with external reproductive
organs, namely the labium major, labium minor, Bartholin's glands, and the
clitoris. These external organs function to trigger women's sexual desire, protect
women's internal reproductive organs from various causes of infection, and assist
in the fertilization of eggs by sperm cells.

I. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system, or gastrointestinal system, consists of the digestive
organs which are divided into two main groups, namely the organs in the
digestive tract and the complementary digestive organs. The digestive tract or
also known as the gastrointestinal tract, is a channel that extends from the
mouth to the anus. This channel functions to digest, break down, and absorb
food nutrients to be sent through the bloodstream.
The organs of the digestive tract include the mouth, esophagus (esophagus),
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Meanwhile, the
complementary digestive organs are the mouth, gall bladder, salivary glands,
liver, and pancreas.
The work of the human digestive system is controlled by the nervous,
circulatory and various hormones. In addition, the digestive process is also
assisted by trillions of beneficial bacteria in the intestines called flora or
microbiome.
Each organ of the digestive system helps move the food and fluids you
consume in a specific order. As long as it is in the digestive tract, all food and
liquid will be broken down into very small forms.
The small digestive products are then absorbed and distributed throughout the
body through the circulatory system. Meanwhile, food waste that no longer
contains nutrients will be excreted in the form of feces.
Digestion is very important because the body needs nutrients from food and
fluids from drinks to stay healthy and function normally. Nutrients are also
needed for energy formation, growth and tissue repair.
The food you consume will be broken down into two kinds of nutrients. There
are macro nutrients (macronutrients) that are needed in large quantities, as well
as micronutrients (micronutrients) that are needed in small amounts.
Macro nutrients consist of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Carbohydrates
have the main function as a source of energy, protein as a builder of body
tissues, while fat is an energy reserve and a protector of the body's organs.
On the other hand, nutrients that include micronutrients are vitamins and
minerals. Even though they are needed in small amounts, micronutrients play a
major role in energy production, immune system, growth, fluid balance, and
much more.

The order of digestion in humans is:

1. Mouth
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where mechanical and chemical
digestion takes place. The mouth functions to chew food so that it is easier
to digest. In it there are complementary organs, namely the tongue, teeth
and salivary glands.
Gigi cuts food into small pieces. Small pieces of food are then moistened
with saliva before the tongue and other muscles push the food into the
pharynx and then into the esophagus.
The outer part of the tongue consists of papillae, which are projections that
grip food and recognize taste. Meanwhile, the salivary glands that are
located under the tongue and near the lower jaw producesaliva into the
mouth.
Saliva plays an important role in breaking down food, moisturizing it, and
making it easier to swallow. Saliva also breaks down carbohydrates with
one of the most important digestive enzymes for humans, namely the
enzyme ptialin / amylase.
The movement of the tongue and mouth pushes food down the back of the
throat. At the junction between the throat and esophagus, there is a valve
called the epiglottis that prevents food from enteringrespiratory system.
2. Esophagus (esophagus)
 The esophagus (esophagus) is the tube that connects the mouth to the
stomach. This channel is the way for the chewed food from the mouth to
the next digestion process in the stomach.
The muscles of the esophagus move food by peristalsis. It is a collection of
muscle contractions and relaxation that creates a wave-like motion that
pushes food into the stomach.
3. Stomach
The stomach is an 'J' shaped organ about two fists. The stomach is located
between the esophagus and small intestine in the upper stomach.
The stomach has three main functions in the human digestive system. Its
function is to store ingested food and liquid, mix the food and digestive
juices it produces, and slowly empty its contents into the small intestine.
Only certain substances that can be absorbed directly by the stomach.
Meanwhile, the nutrients from food must undergo a decomposition process
first. The muscular walls of the stomach perform this process by mixing
and churning food together with acids and enzymes.
The food is processed into small portions in a semi-solid form called kim.
After the digestion process is complete, the kim will be released gradually
through the ring-shaped muscles called the pyloric sphincter.
The pyloric sphincter is located on the border between the lower stomach
and the first part of the small intestine called the duodenum (duodenum).
Most of thenew food leaves the stomach up to four hours after eating.
4. Small intestine
The small intestine is a small duct 2.5 cm wide and about 10 meters long.
The small intestine consists of three parts, namely the duodenum
(duodenum), jejunum (empty intestine), and ileum (absorption intestine).
The inner wall of the small intestine is full of protrusions and folds. The
function of the small intestine fold is to maximize digestion of food and
absorption of nutrients. When food leaves the small intestine, about 90
percent of the nutrients have been absorbed for circulation by the blood.
The following is the process that occurs in the intestine in the human
digestive system.
 a. The process of breaking down the food into its smaller form is finished
here. Glands in the intestinal wall secrete enzymes that break down
starches and sugars.
b. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine that help break
down carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The liver produces bile, which
is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps dissolve fat so that it can be
absorbed by the body.
c. The small intestine absorbs nutrients from the digestive process. The
inner walls of the small intestine are covered by protrusions called
villi. These protrusions increase the surface area of the small intestine
massively so that the absorption of nutrients is maximized.
5. Colon
The large intestine forms an inverted 'U' around the small folded intestine.
This channel starts from the lower right side of the body and ends at the
lower left side. The large intestine is about 5-6 meters long and consists of
three parts, namely the cecum, colon and rectum.
The cecum is a sac at the beginning of the large intestine. This area
channels the digestive products of food that has been absorbed from the
small intestine to the large intestine. The colon is where fluids and salts are
absorbed and extend from the cecum to the rectum.
The main function of the large intestine is to remove water and electrolyte
minerals from undigested food waste, then form solid waste that can be
excreted. The bacteria in the large intestine help break down the undigested
material.
6. Rectum and anus
The remaining contents of the large intestine that have become feces are
then channeled towards the rectum. The rectum is the end of the large
intestine which serves as a temporary reservoir for stool before it is
removed from the body.
When the rectum is full, the muscles around it will be stimulated to pass
feces. This is what makes you feel heartburn and want to defecate. The
stool will later be passed through the anus.
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract which is directly adjacent to
the outside environment. The function of the anus is none other than the
place for feces to come out. The muscles can contract under your control to
regulate the passage of stool.
 CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. CONCLUSION

Anatomy comes from the Greek language which consists of ana which means
to separate or unravel. And tomos which means cutting up, so anatomy means
breaking and cutting, while physiology is the study of the physiology of the
function or work of each body tissue or part of the body and to find out the
changes that occur in the body of a sick person, we must first know the
structure and function of each of the organs of the healthy human body in
everyday life.

Anatomy Physiology in humans consists of: Nervous System, Cardiovascular

System and Blood, Respiratory System, Musculoskeletal System, Urinary
System, Five Sense System, Reproductive System, Digestive System and
Endocrine System

B. SUGGESTION

It is hoped that students can know and understand what physiological anatomy
is contained in the human body
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