The Brain and Nervous System

(Psychology) Unit 14
An Academic Report
by Adebukola Busiayo
Terms of Reference

This academic report for Unit 14 (The Brain and Nervous System (Psychology)) was
produced by Adebukola Busiayo in June 2021.
This paper is intended to provide information on the key aspects of the brain and the nervous
system. This report is subdivided into two sections of which section one will address the
major structures and functions of the brain and the differences between the central nervous
system, the peripheral nervous system, and the two branches of the autonomic system.
Section two will explain the differences between glial cells and neurons in terms of their
structure and function, process of communication between neurons and the role of
neurotransmitters in relation to the behaviours they influence.

Contents list

Page 2. Terms of Reference

Contents

Research Methodology

Page 3. The role of social motivational factors in health and ill health

Page 5 The role of social support networks and how a lack of support impacts health

Dementia

Page 6-7. Conclusion

References

Bibliography

Research Methodology
Information contained in this academic report has been sourced from relevant and credible
websites and also from LearnDirect materials which indicate secondary qualitative method of
research. All relevant theories are referenced appropriately and a references list was therefore
provided.
 Findings
SECTION ONE

Major structures and functions of the brain

The human brain is one of the most complex systems on earth. Every component of the brain
must work together in order to keep its body functioning. The brain and the spinal cord make
up the central nervous system, which alongside the peripheral nervous system is responsible
for regulating all bodily functions.

The Structure of the Brain

The developing brain goes through many stages. In the embryos of vertebrates, the
predecessor to the brain and spinal cord is the neural tube. As the foetus develops, the
grooves and folds in the neural tube deepen, giving rise to different layers of the brain. The
human brain is split up into three major layers: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

Hindbrain
The hindbrain is the well-protected central core of the brain. It includes the cerebellum,
reticular formation, and brain stem, which are responsible for some of the most basic
autonomic functions of life, such as breathing and movement. The brain stem contains the
pons and medulla oblongata. Evolutionarily speaking, the hindbrain contains the oldest parts
of the brain, which all vertebrates possess, though they may look different from species to
species.

Midbrain
The midbrain makes up part of the brain stem. It is located between the hindbrain and
forebrain. All sensory and motor information that travels between the forebrain and the spinal
cord passes through the midbrain, making it a relay station for the central nervous system.

Forebrain
The forebrain is the most anterior division of the developing vertebrate brain, containing the
most complex networks in the central nervous system. The forebrain has two major divisions:
the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon is lower, containing the thalamus
and hypothalamus (which together form the limbic system); the telencephalon is on top of the
diencephalon and contains the cerebrum, the home of the highest-level cognitive processing
in the brain. It is the large and complicated forebrain that distinguishes the human brain from
other vertebrate brains.

Lower-Level Structures
The brain’s lower-level structures consist of the brain stem, the spinal cord, and the
cerebellum.

The Hindbrain
The hindbrain, which includes the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is
responsible some of the oldest and most primitive body functions. Each of these structures is
described below.

Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata sits at the transition zone between the brain and the spinal cord. It is
the first region that formally belongs to the brain (rather than the spinal cord). It is the control
centre for respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive functions.
Pons
The pons connects the medulla oblongata with the midbrain region, and also relays signals
from the forebrain to the cerebellum. It houses the control centers for respiration and
inhibitory functions. The cerebellum is attached to the dorsal side of the pons.

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a separate region of the brain located behind the medulla oblongata and
pons. It is attached to the rest of the brain by three stalks (called pedunculi), and coordinates
skeletal muscles to produce smooth, graceful motions. The cerebellum receives information
from our eyes, ears, muscles, and joints about the body’s current positioning (referred to as
proprioception)

Cerebrum
This is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs
higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning,
emotions, learning, and fine control of movement (Nielsen et al., 2013). The cerebrum is
divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2) They are joined by a bundle of
fibres called the corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other. Each
hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right side of the
brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or paralyzed (Nielsen et al., 2013). Not all functions
of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls speech,
comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial
ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language
in about 92% of people.

Brainstem
This is the area at the base of the brain that lies between the deep structures of the cerebral
hemispheres and the cervical spinal cord and that serves a critical role in regulating certain
involuntary actions of the body, including heartbeat and breathing. The brainstem is divided
into three sections in humans: the midbrain (mesencephalon), the pons (metencephalon), and
the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon). Brainstem, area at the base of the brain that lies
between the deep structures of the cerebral hemispheres and the cervical spinal cord and that
serves a critical role in regulating certain involuntary actions of the body, including heartbeat
and breathing. The brainstem is divided into three sections in humans: the midbrain
(mesencephalon), the pons (metencephalon), and the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon).

Differences between the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the
two branches of the autonomic system.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as “central”
because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the
whole organism (American Association of Neurological Surgeons, n.d.) while the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) is the division of the nervous system containing all the nerves that lie
outside of the central nervous system (CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to connect the
CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin. These nerves extend from the central nervous system to
the outermost areas of the body.
The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that's responsible for
regulating involuntary body functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat, digestion, and breathing
(Bankenahally and Krovvidi 2016). In other words, it is the autonomic system that controls
aspects of the body that are usually not under voluntary control. This system allows these
functions to take place without needing to consciously think about them happening. This is
subdivided into two part such as Parasympathetic and sympathetic system.

Parasympathetic system
This helps maintain normal body functions and conserve physical resources. Once a threat
has passed, this system will slow the heart rate, slow breathing, reduce blood flow to muscles,
and constrict the pupils (McCorry, 2007). This allows us to return our bodies to a normal
resting state.

Sympathetic system: By regulating the flight-or-fight response

The sympathetic system prepares the body to expend energy to respond to environmental
threats. When action is needed, the sympathetic system triggers a response by accelerating
heart rate, increasing breathing rate, boosting blood flow to muscles, activating sweat
secretion, and dilating the pupils (Goldstein, 2010).

SECTION TWO
Neurons & Glial Cells
Neurons
Neurons are the conducting cells of the nervous system. A typical neuron consists of a cell
body, containing the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm; several short radiating processes
(called dendrites); and one long process (called the axon), which terminates in twiglike
branches and may have branches projecting along its course.
Cell Body
In many ways, the cell body is similar to other types of cells. It has a nucleus with at least one
nucleolus and contains many of the typical cytoplasmic organelles. It lacks centrioles,
however. Because centrioles function in cell division, the fact that neurons lack these
organelles is consistent with the amitotic nature of the cell.
Dendrites and Axons
An axon is a long, hair-like extension of a nerve cell that carries a message to another nerve
cell.
Dendrites are thread-like extensions of the cytoplasm of a neuron that receive signals from
other neurons. Typically, as in multipolar neurons, dendrites branch into treelike processes,
but in unipolar and bipolar neurons, dendrites resemble axons.
Glial Cells
Glial (Neuroglial) cells do not conduct nerve impulses, but, instead, support, nourish, and
protect the neurons. Glial cells are far more numerous than neurons and, unlike neurons, are
capable of mitosis. Neurons would be unable to function without the vital roles that are
fulfilled by these glial cells. Glia guide developing neurons to their destinations, buffer ions
and chemicals that would otherwise harm neurons, and provide myelin sheaths around axons.
They are generally smaller in size and do not consist of axons or dendrites. They are
generally smaller in size and do not consist of axons or dendrites. There are several different
types of glia with different functions. These area Astrocytes, Satellite glia, Microglia,
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cell, Radial glia, and Ependymal cells.
Process of communication between neurons
Neurons communicate at structures called synapses in a process called synaptic transmission.
The synapse consists of the two neurons, one of which is sending information to the other.
The sending neuron is known as the pre-synaptic neuron (i.e. before the synapse) while the
receiving neuron is known as the post-synaptic neuron (i.e. after the synapse). Although the
flow of information around the brain is achieved by electrical activity, communication
between neurons is a chemical process. When an action potential reaches a synapse, pores in
the cell membrane are opened allowing an influx of calcium ions (positively charged calcium
atoms) into the pre-synaptic terminal. This causes a small 'packet' of a chemical
neurotransmitter to be released into a small gap between the two cells, known as the synaptic
cleft. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and interacts with specialized
proteins called receptors that are embedded in the post-synaptic membrane. These receptors
are ion channels that allow certain types of ions (charged atoms) to pass through a pore
within their structure. The pore is opened following interaction with the neurotransmitter
allowing an influx of ions into the post-synaptic terminal, which is propagated along the
dendrite towards the soma (Webmaster, 2011).
The role of neurotransmitters in relation to the behaviours they influence
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and balances signals between
neurons (also known as nerve cells) and target cells throughout the body. These target cells
may be in glands, muscles, or other neurons. Billions of neurotransmitter molecules work
constantly to keep our brains functioning, managing everything from our breathing to our
heartbeat to our learning and concentration levels. They can also affect a variety of
psychological functions such as fear, mood, pleasure, and joy.
In order for neurons to send messages throughout the body, they need to be able to
communicate with one another to transmit signals. However, neurons are not simply
connected to one another. At the end of each neuron is a tiny gap called a synapse and in
order to communicate with the next cell, the signal needs to be able to cross this small space.
This occurs through a process known as neurotransmission. In most cases, a neurotransmitter
is released from what's known as the axon terminal after an action potential has reached the
synapse, a place where neurons can transmit signals to each other. When an electrical signal
reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of small sacs called vesicles that contain
the neurotransmitters.
After release, the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and attaches to the receptor site
on the other neuron, either exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron depending on what the
neurotransmitter is (Kendra 2020).
Conclusions
From the report, it is evident that the brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory,
emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that
regulates our body through the means of various systems found in the body. These systems
include the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system which is further
divided into somatic and autonomy peripheral nervous system. It is stated in the report that
the brain is also responsible in regulating the flight-or-fight response through the sympathetic
system of autonomic nervous system.
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