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GSA Lecture 2
Dr Bushra Javed Siddiqui
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
The Basis of Life: Cell Structures and Functions
Objectives:
◦ Identification of cell, its types and structures
◦ Definition of cell and its structures
◦ Formation/composition of cell and its structures
◦ Importance of cell and its structures
◦ Diagrammatic representation
Cell and its types:
◦ The unit of structure and function of all living organism.
◦ Building block of living things.
◦ Discovered by Robert Hooke. (MCQ)
◦ Cytology is the study of all aspects of a cell.
◦ Two types of cells based on the complexity of structure: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.
◦ Organism classified based on the number of cells their bodies contain: Uni-cellular and multi-
cellular.
Cell membrane:
◦ The cell membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside
environment which protects the cell from its environment. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer,
including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.
◦ The semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell i.e. the outer most boundary of a
cell.
◦ AKA plasma membrane.
◦ Schleiden (cell as the basic unit of plant structure) and Schwann (cell as the basic unit of animal
structure) proposed the cellular theory explaining the structure of Cell membrane, nucleus, and
cytoplasm.
Cell membrane (cont.)
Structure of Plasma membrane (Fluid Mosaic Model):
◦ Proposed by Singer and Nicolcon.
◦ The fluid mosaic model describes the cell membrane as a tapestry of
several types of molecules (phospholipids, cholesterols, and proteins)
that are constantly moving.
◦ This movement helps the cell membrane maintain its role as a barrier
between the inside and outside of the cell environments.
◦ The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of the plasma
membrane.
◦ Its main function is to separate the contents of the cell from the outside.
Cell membrane (cont.)
Functions of cell membrane:
◦ Transport of material (Passive - Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active transport through channels).
◦ Maintenance of internal environment of the cell through differential or selective permeability.
◦ Maintenance of concentration gradient of ions.
◦ Endocytosis (Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis).
◦ Transmission of nerve impulses.
◦ Transport of toxic substances out of the cell.
◦ Protection to the cell.
Cell wall:
◦ The cell wall is an outer protective membrane in many cells including plants, fungi, algae, and bacteria.
◦ The main functions of the cell wall are to provide structure, support, and protection for the cell.
◦ The cell wall in plants is composed mainly of cellulose and contains three layers in many plants.
◦ It is formed through the process of apposition i.e. Deposition of layer upon layer.
Cytoplasm:
◦ The gelatinous living content of protoplasm between plasma membrane and nucleus is cytoplasm. (Living contents
i.e. nucleus and cytoplasm collectively form protoplasm)
Functions:
◦ The cytoplasm functions to support and suspend organelles and cellular molecules.
◦ Many cellular metabolic processes (energy production) also occur in the cytoplasm, such as protein synthesis,
the first stage of cellular respiration (known as glycolysis), mitosis, and meiosis.
◦ The cytoplasm helps to move materials, such as hormones.
◦ Storage house (starch is stored in cytoplasm).
◦ Removal of waste material.
◦ Streaming movements (active mass movement of
cytoplasm) for the movement of free floating organelles
such as mitochondria.
Cytoplasm: (cont.)
Components of cytoplasm:
◦ Prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria and archaeans, do not have a membrane-bound nucleus. In these cells, the cytoplasm
consists of all of the contents of the cell inside the plasma membrane.
◦ In eukaryotic cells, such as plant and animal cells, the cytoplasm consists of three main components. They are the
cytosol, organelles, and various particles and granules called cytoplasmic inclusions.
1. Cytosol: The cytosol is the semi-fluid component or liquid medium of a cell's cytoplasm. It is located outside of the
nucleus and within the cell membrane. True solution (small molecules and ions) and colloidal solution (large
molecules and ions).
2. Organelles: Organelles are tiny cellular structures that perform specific functions within a cell. Also located within
the cytoplasm is the cytoskeleton, a network of fibers that help the cell maintain its shape and provide support for
organelles.
3. Cytoplasmic Inclusions: Cytoplasmic inclusions are particles that are temporarily suspended in the cytoplasm.
Inclusions consist of macromolecules and granules. Three types of inclusions found in the cytoplasm are secretory
inclusions, nutritive inclusions, and pigment granules.
◦ Examples of secretory inclusions are proteins, enzymes, and acids. Glycogen (glucose storage molecule) and lipids are
examples of nutritive inclusions. Melanin found in skin cells is an example of a pigment granule inclusion.
Sub-cellular structures :
◦ Importance: Division of labour.
◦ AKA cell organelles.
◦ Include:
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum.
2. Ribosomes.
3. Lysosomes.
4. Golgi apparatus.
5. Mitochondria.
6. Nucleus.
7. Chloroplasts (in plants and algal cells).
8. Centrosomes.
9. Vacuoles.
Nucleus:
◦ Discovered by Robert Brown.
◦ A nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell‘s genetic material.
◦ Visible only during the non-dividing stage (chromatin network and nucleoplasm) and disappears and is
replaced by chromosomes in dividing cells.
◦ Cells may be mono-nucleate (one nucleus) or bi-nucleate (two nuclei).
Nucleus: (cont.)
Function of the Nucleus:
◦ Controls all activities of the cell.
◦ Control of transfer of hereditary characters from
parents to off-springs.
◦ Cellular reproduction and growth.
◦ Synthesis of DNA and RNA molecules (synthesis of
proteins).
◦ Important for life of cell.
Mitochondria:
◦ Power house of the cell (involved in manufacturing and supply of energy).
◦ Present only in Eukaryotic cells.
◦ Vesicle, rod, or filament shaped.
◦ Self-replicating contain own DNA.
◦ Protein synthesis contain own ribosomes.
◦ Inherited from the mother only.
Mitochondria: (cont.)
Functions of mitochondria:
◦ Site of important metabolic processes such as Krebs cycle (production of energy through oxidation)
◦ Aerobic respiration.
◦ Fatty acid metabolism.
Golgi Apparatus:
◦ Discovered by Golgi.
◦ The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an
organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.
◦ Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm.
◦ Stack of sacs called cisternae.
Golgi Apparatus: (cont.)
Functions of Golgi Apparatus:
◦ Packaging of cell secretions - It packages proteins
into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell
before the vesicles are sent to their destination.
◦ Transportation of material outside the cell (process
the material to be exported).
◦ Formation of glycolipids (modification of proteins
and lipids).
Lysosomes:
◦ Isolated by De Duve.
◦ A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes.
◦ Lysosomes originate by budding off from the membrane of the trans-Golgi network (primary lysosomes),
a region of the Golgi complex responsible for sorting newly synthesized proteins, which may be
designated for use in lysosomes, endosomes, or the plasma membrane.
Function of lysosomes:
◦ They break down excess or worn-out cell parts (intra-cellular and extra-cellular digestion).
◦ They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria (phagocytosis).
◦ If the cell is damaged beyond repair, lysosomes can help it to self-destruct in a process called programmed
cell death, or apoptosis.
◦ Process of auto-phagocytosis (through auto-phagosomes aka secondary lysosomes).
◦ Lysosomal storage diseases
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
◦ Endoplasmic reticulum, continuous membrane system (network of channels) that forms a series of
flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and serves multiple functions.
◦ Types of endoplasmic reticulum: Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER).
Endoplasmic Reticulum: (cont.)
Functions of ER:
◦ Mechanical support and maintenance of shape.
◦ Transport of material (connection with nucleus).
◦ Synthesis of proteins (RER).
◦ Storage of compounds (temporary).
◦ Metabolism of lipids (SER).
◦ Detoxification of drugs (SER).
◦ Transmission of nerve impulses (SER).
Ribosomes:
◦ Ribosomes are minute particles consisting of RNA and associated proteins that function to synthesize
proteins.
◦ There are two types of ribosomes, free and fixed (also known as membrane bound). They are identical
in structure but differ in locations within the cell. Free ribosomes are located in the cytosol and are able
to move throughout the cell, whereas fixed ribosomes are attached to the rER.
◦ Composed of Ribo-Nucleo-Protein (RNA+Protein).
◦ Nucleoli are factories of ribosomes.
◦ Polysomes are a group of ribosomes attached to the
Same mRNA.
◦ Each Ribosome is composed of two sub-units:
1. 60s
2. 40s
Vacuoles:
◦ Storage bubbles found in the cells i.e. a membrane that surrounds a mass of fluid.
◦ Found in both animal and plant cells but larger in plant cells.
Vacuoles: (cont.)
Function of vacuoles:
◦ Storage of food or any variety of nutrients.
◦ Storage and breakdown of waste products into non-harmful small pieces, and eventual excretion.
◦ Storage of water to form water bags to support the plants (turgor and rigidity).
◦ Store cell products and metabolic intermediates.
Centrioles:
◦ A cylindrical organelle composed mainly of a protein called
tubulin (Nine micro-tubule triplets).
◦ Centrioles are found in animal cells but absent in plant cells.
◦ A bound pair of centrioles, surrounded by a highly ordered
mass of dense material, called the peri-centriolar material,
makes up a structure called a centrosome (at right angle).
Function of Centrioles:
◦ Centrioles play a role in organizing microtubules that serve
as the cell's skeletal system.
◦ They help determine the locations of the nucleus and other
organelles within the cell during cell division (furrow
formation).
◦ Formation of cilia (motility).
Plastids:
◦ Membrane bound and pigment
containing bodies present in the plant
cell.
◦ Three types of plastids:
1. Choloroplast: Self-replicating, Green
pigment - Chorophyll, present only in
photosynthetic plants (leaves).
◦ Structure of Chloroplast
Plastids: (cont.)
2. Chromoplast: Pigments other than green, found in flowers and ripened fruits, helps in pollination and
dispersal of seeds by attracting vectors.
3. Leucoplast: Colourless, in under-ground parts of plants such as roots, store food.
Chromosomes:
◦ A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism.
◦ Thread-like structures located inside the nucleus.
◦ Chromosome = chromonema = nucleosomes = Protein (packaging proteins – Histones and
chaperone proteins) + DNA
Chromosomes: (cont.)
◦ Chromosomes occur in pairs i.e. diploid (one from female parent and
the other from the male parent).
◦ Passed down from parents to off-springs.
◦ The two chromosomes of a pair contains genes (A gene is the basic
physical and functional unit of heredity) that correspond to the same
inherited characteristics.
◦ Each pair of chromosome is different from every other pair in the same
cell.
◦ The no. of chromosome pairs in an organism varies depending on the
species.
◦ Sex cells contain half no. of chromosomes and are known as haploid
cells.
◦ Sex cells unite during fertilization to form zygote (diploid).
Chromosomes: (cont.)
Chromosomes: (cont.)
◦ In humans 46 chromosomes are present in each cell in the form of 23 pairs.
◦ Largest = 1st
◦ Smallest = 23rd
◦ 22 chromosomes = autosomes
◦ 23rd pair = sex chromosome (XX in female and XY in male)

Function of chromosomes:
◦ Chromosomes carry the basic genetic material DNA which is responsible to provide hereditary
characteristics and genetic information to the various cells. The cellular functions are important for the
growth and survival of living organisms.
Nucleic Acids:
◦ Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-carrying
molecules in cells.
◦ The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
◦ Nucleic Acids (polymers) of Nucleotide units (monomers).
◦ Nucleotide units = phosphate unit + Nucleoside (sugar + nitrogenous base).
◦ Nitrogenous bases = Pyrimidines – single ringed (Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil) and purines – double
ringed (Adenine and Guanine)
DNA:
◦ Hereditary material of an organism.
◦ First discovered by Swiss Freidrich Mieschler.
◦ Nucleotide of DNA = Phosphate group + deoxy-ribose sugar
molecule + pair of nitrogenous bases (A, T, G, C).

Watson and Crick Model of DNA (Double Helical Structure of

DNA):
◦ DNA is a double Helix (twisted ladder) – two right handed helical
poly-deoxy ribonucleotide strands twisted around the same central
axis.
◦ Two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.
◦ Adenine – Thymine (2 hydrogen bonds) and Guanine – Cytosine
(3 hydrogen bonds).
◦ Amount of A = T = G = C.
◦ Template strand is the only strand that contains the genetic
information.
RNA:
◦ Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding,
regulation and expression of genes.
◦ RNA in cellular protein synthesis and replaces DNA as a carrier of genetic codes in some viruses.
◦ Nucleotide of RNA = Phosphate group + ribose sugar molecule + Nitrogenous base (A, U, G, C)
◦ Present on RER and in Nucleolus.
DNA vs RNA

Transcription and
Replication translation
THANK YOU
Any questions?