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UNIT 1
CELL AND TISSUE STRUCTURE

CELL
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of
every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.All
organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular).
Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide
structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.Cells are complex and their
components perform various functions in an organism. They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like
bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.

STRUCTURE OF CELL: Structure and Functions of suborganells

The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s processes.
These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.

Cell Membrane
➢ A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to
protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic
entities into the cell. For this reason, cell membranes are known as semi-permeable or selectively
permeable membranes.
➢ The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of
the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
➢ The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm
and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
➢ By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective substances
in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage
and leakage.
➢ It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
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Cytoplasm
➢ The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
➢ Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
➢ The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in
this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
➢ It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and
chromatins.
➢ The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
➢ It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
➢ The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
➢ The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.
Nuclear Membrane
➢ It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear envelope.
➢ A nuclear membrane is composed up of two membranes – an inner and an outer membrane.
➢ Both membranes consist of phospholipids that are organized in a bilayer. The complete nuclear membrane
includes four series of phospholipids.
➢ The perinuclear space separates the outer and inner membrane.
➢ The outer membrane works by the rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is an organelle which is important in
the transportation of proteins.

➢ The outer membrane and the rough endoplasmic reticulum both are covered in ribosomes as these are the
true location of protein production.
➢ On the nucleoplasm, nuclear lamina is connected to the inner nuclear membrane. The nuclear lamina also
attaches to and secures chromatin which is organized loosely in protein structure and DNA. A protein
layer gives support and strength to the nuclear membrane.
Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The centrosomes
are where microtubules are produced.
Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzymes which help in digestion,
excretion and in the cell renewal process.
Golgi Apparatus
➢ Golgi complex is mostly found near the nucleus.
➢ It is a flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle.
➢ Animal cells generally contain around 10 to 20 Golgi stacks per cell, which are connected by tubular
connections.
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➢ Its main function is the packaging and secretion of proteins. It receives proteins from Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
➢ It packages it into membrane-bound vesicles, which are then transported to various destinations, such as
lysosomes, plasma membrane or secretion.
➢ They also take part in the transport of lipids and the formation of lysosomes.
➢ Golgi apparatus is the site for the synthesis of various glycolipids, sphingomyelin, etc.

Mitochondrion
➢ The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell.
➢ Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter.
➢ The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material called the matrix.
➢ The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid layers separated by
the intermembrane space.
➢ The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of special proteins
known as porins.

Functions of Mitochondria
The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative
phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:
1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell
2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and oestrogen
6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell
7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling, cell senescence,
controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.
Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites of protein synthesis.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

➢ The endoplasmic reticulum transpires in two forms: a type with a ribosome-studded surface and another
with a smooth surface.
➢ The latter is called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and the former is called the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. These membranes form continuous folds, eventually joining the outer layer of the nuclear
membrane.
➢ The structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is shaped like a sac. Since ER is of two types, each has its
own distinguishing features:

a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure

➢ The rough endoplasmic reticulum is named so because of its appearance.
➢ It is a series of connected flattened sacs having several ribosomes on its outer surface, hence the name.
➢ It synthesizes and secretes proteins in the liver, hormones and other substances in the glands.
➢ Rough ER is prominent in cells where protein synthesis happens (such as hepatocytes).

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

➢ The majority of the functions of rough ER is associated with protein synthesis.
➢ The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
➢ Also ensures quality control (regarding correct protein folding).
➢ The second most important function after protein synthesis and protein folding is protein sorting.
b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
➢ The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, does not have ribosomes.
➢ The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a tubular form.
➢ It participates in the production of phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell membranes and are essential in
the process of metabolism.
➢ Smooth ER transports the products of the rough ER to other cellular organelles, especially the Golgi
apparatus.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

➢ Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol.
➢ Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
➢ It is also responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.
➢ The smooth ER store and releases calcium ions. These are quite important for the nervous system and
muscular systems.
Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing water, food, wastes,
etc.
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Nucleopore
They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movement of nucleic acids and
proteins across the nuclear membrane.

CELL MEMBRANE
➢ The outer thin membrane or the layer of the living cell is known as the cell membrane.
➢ It is also known as the plasma membrane in animal cells.
➢ Most of the cell membrane is composed of 40-50 % protein and 50-60 % lipids.
Membrane lipids are of three types:
a) Phospholipids b) Glycolipids c) Steroids
The composition of the plasma membrane is:
1. Phospholipids- 55%
2. Glycolipids- 5%
3. Steroids- 20%
4. Other lipids- 20%
The structure of the cell membrane is explained by the different models. They are as follows :
A. Danielli-Davson Trilaminar sandwich model
B. Fluid mosaic model of the Singer and Nicolson

Danielli-Davson Trilaminar sandwich model

➢ It was proposed by James Danielli and Hugh Davsan in the year 1935.
➢ This model suggests the cell membrane as the solid and the stable structure.
➢ Four molecular layers are present in it i.e. two phospholipids and two protein layers.
➢ It consists of the phospholipid. It is based on the basis of physical and chemical properties of the plasma
membrane.

➢ The plasma membrane is considered to be a protein-lipid-protein sandwich. The plasma membrane is of

three-layer.
➢ The middle one is the phospholipid bilayer.
➢ Outer and inner denser protein is a monolayer.
➢ Protein and lipid are present in the P-L-L-P pattern.
➢ Protein molecules contain both polar and non-polar side chains.
➢ They are globular and aid in giving stability to the plasma membrane.
➢ Each phospholipid molecule is a polar molecule and consists of the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic end.
➢ Head (glycerols) of the phospholipid molecule: They are directed in the opposite directions.
➢ They are associated with the protein molecules by the Hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and electrostatic force
of attraction.
➢ Tail end ( Fatty acids): They are held together by the weak Vander wal force. They lie facing each other.
➢ The plasma membrane is a porous membrane having microscopic pores of 7-10 A.
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Drawbacks of Danielli-Davson Trilaminar sandwich model

➢ The cell membrane is the dynamic structure but not the stable structure.
➢ The cell membrane is not a solid structure. But rather it is the semisolid (quasifluid) structure.
➢ It doesn’t explain the functional specificity and variability in the biomembrane.
➢ It doesn’t explain the movements like active transport and movement of the water-soluble substances.
➢ Active and bulk transport of material through the membrane cannot be explained.
➢ Cell membrane- Definition, Composition, Structure, Functions

Fluid mosaic model of the Singer and Nicolson

➢ It was proposed by Singer and Nicholson in the year 1972 AD.
➢ This model suggests that the cell membrane is a quasifluid (semi-solid) and dynamic structure.
➢ This model is also known as the protein icebergs in a sea of phospholipids.
➢ In this model, the arrangement of the lipids and the integral proteins is in a mosaic style.
➢ Between the lipids and the proteins, there is interaction which results in the fluidity of the membrane.
➢ The interaction is hydrophobic. Two types of globular proteins are present which are embedded in the
phospholipid bilayers.

Membrane proteins are of two types:

Intrinsic protein
➢ Within the phospholipid bilayer, those intrinsic proteins are found to be embedded inside.
➢ Intrinsic or integral proteins or tunnel proteins are soluble in nature. Integral proteins form a channel for
the passage of water, ions, and other water-soluble small-sized solutes.
It has got two parts:
➢ Hydrophilic head: It is polar in nature. It protrudes out from the cell membrane.
➢ Hydrophobic tail: It is non-polar in nature. They are present inside of the membrane facing towards the
center.
Extrinsic protein
➢ They are present on two surfaces of the membrane in the floating form.
➢ Extrinsic proteins are attached to the phosphoryl surface.
➢ They are electrically charged too. Ionic bonds or calcium bridges help in the attachment.
➢ They are loosely attached.
➢ They are also called peripheral proteins.
➢ They are located outside of the lipid bilayer.
➢ They are soluble in nature.
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Membrane protein are of five types:

Structural protein: It helps in maintaining stability.
Channel protein: It is involved in the transport of water and some dissolved substances.
Carrier proteins: For active transport
Enzymes: For different metabolic activities
Receptor protein: For transport of hormones and conduction of nerve impulses.
Advantages of the fluid mosaic model
a) This model explains the dynamic and quasifluid structure.
b) Variability of the cell membrane is explained.
c) It explains the transport of solute and solvent through the cell membrane.
d) It explains the active and bulk transport of material through the cell membrane.
e) Lipid: protein ratio supports this model.
This fluid mosaic model is the scientific and widely accepted model of the cell membrane.

TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE

➢ Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leave a cell, and prevent some harmful
materials from entering and some essential materials from leaving.
➢ Plasma membranes are selectively permeable—they allow some substances to pass through, but not
others.
➢ Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances and must have a way of obtaining these materials
from extracellular fluids.
➢ Non-polar and lipid-soluble material with a low molecular weight can easily slip through the membrane's
hydrophobic lipid core.
➢ Oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules have no charge and pass through membranes by simple diffusion.
➢ Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must have special means of moving through
plasma membranes.
➢ Simple sugars and amino acids also need the help of various transmembrane proteins to facilitate transport
across plasma membranes.

Passive Transport:
1.Diffusion: This is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
➢ Materials move within the cell’s cytosol by diffusion, and certain materials move through the plasma
membrane by diffusion .
➢ Diffusion expends no energy.
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➢ Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has a unique concentration gradient,
independent of other materials' concentration gradients.
➢ Each substance will diffuse, passively, according to that gradient. Within a system, there will be different
diffusion rates of various substances in the medium.
2.Osmosis: Osmosis is a special case of diffusion that specifically involves the movement of water molecules
across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of lower solute concentration (higher water
concentration) to an area of higher solute concentration (lower water concentration).
3.Facilitated Transport:
➢ In facilitated transport or facilitated diffusion, materials that cannot use simple diffusion, are transported
passively across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane proteins.
➢ A concentration gradient exists that would allow these materials to diffuse into the cell without expending
cellular energy.
➢ However, these materials are polar molecules or ions that the cell membrane's hydrophobic parts repel.
➢ Facilitated transport proteins shield these materials from the membrane's repulsive force, allowing them
to diffuse into the cell.

➢ The transported material first attaches to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the plasma membrane's
exterior surface.
➢ The substances then pass through specific integral proteins to move into the cell.
➢ Some of these integral proteins form a pore or channel through the phospholipid bilayer; others are carrier
proteins that contain a binding site for a specific substance to aid its diffusion through the membrane.
Active Transport:
1.Primary Active Transport: This process involves the direct use of energy, typically in the form of ATP, to
pump molecules or ions against their concentration gradient. One well-known example is the sodium-potassium
pump (Na+/K+ pump), which maintains the sodium and potassium concentration gradients across the cell
membrane.
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2.Secondary Active Transport (Cotransport): In secondary active transport, the energy derived from the
primary active transport (often the sodium gradient) is used to transport other substances against their
concentration gradient. This includes symporters (cotransport in the same direction) and antiporters (cotransport
in opposite directions).
Bulk Transport:
1.Endocytosis: This process involves the uptake of large molecules or particles into the cell. There are two main
types of endocytosis: phagocytosis (cellular "eating") and pinocytosis (cellular "drinking"). Both processes
involve the formation of vesicles from the cell membrane to engulf and transport substances into the cell.
2.Exocytosis: Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis, where cells expel materials by packaging them into
vesicles that fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. This is commonly used for
secretion of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other molecules.
Channel Proteins and Carrier Proteins:
1.Channel Proteins: These are integral membrane proteins that form channels or pores in the membrane,
allowing specific ions or small molecules to pass through by facilitated diffusion. Examples include ion channels
like potassium channels and chloride channels.
2.Carrier Proteins: Carrier proteins, also known as transporters, bind to specific molecules or ions and undergo
a conformational change to move them across the membrane. This can occur through facilitated diffusion or active
transport.
Direction of transport: Uniports, Antiports, and Symports

➢ A protein involved in moving only one type of molecule across a membrane is called a uniport.
➢ Proteins that move two different types of molecules in the same direction across the membrane are called
symporters.
➢ If two different types of molecules move in opposite directions across the bilayer, the protein is called an
antiport

ACTION POTENTIAL
➢ The action potential is a series of changes in the electrical potential/voltage across the membrane of
neuronal cells that causes impulses to transmit along their membrane.
➢ Action potential in neurons is generated due to changes in cationic gradient.
The mechanisms that maintain the nerve impulse transmission/ action potential across neurons are as follows:
Sodium-potassium pump/ Na+– K+ pump: This transmembrane ATPase is based on an active transport
mechanism in which ions move across the membrane against their concentration gradients. These pumps maintain
membrane potential with a higher concentration gradient of Na+ extracellularly and lower K+ ions intracellularly.
For each ATP used, 3 Na+ are pumped out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell.
Leak channels: These structures are present across the membrane throughout the nerve cell. It works on the
passive transport mechanism, i.e., Na+ and K+ ionic permeability depends on the concentration gradient of the
ions. Ions flow freely without any impedance.
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Voltage-gated channels: These channels are transmembrane proteins that open in response to the voltage
difference across the membrane. Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels are present in the membrane of the neuronal
cells.
The series of changes that occurs during the transmission of nerve impulses are as follows:
1. Resting membrane potential:
➢ It comprises the membrane potential at rest when no stimulus is acting on it. For a neuronal cell, the
value of the resting membrane potential lies between -50mV and -70mV.
2. Depolarization:
➢ When a stimulus that can change the membrane potential beyond the threshold acts on electrically
active nerve cells, depolarization occurs.
➢ The influx of Na+ ions inside the membrane occurs as voltage-gated sodium channels open. The
entry of positively charged sodium ions will change the membrane potential to less negative near
zero and then near +30mV.
➢ This change in membrane potential can open a voltage-gated potassium channel.
➢ The depolarization rises to +30mV, after which the closure of voltage-gated sodium channels occurs.
3. Repolarization:
➢ Voltage-gated sodium channels begin to close, and potassium-gated channels begin to open. K+ ions
start to leave the cell.
➢ The membrane potential hence bounces back to negative again till it reaches the resting membrane
potential.

4. Hyperpolarization:
➢ A state of hyperpolarization is achieved due to the opening of voltage-gated K+ channels for a long
time in which the membrane potential falls below -70mV.
➢ This prevents action potential from developing from any new stimulus for a specified time.
FUNCTIONS
1. Sensory function: Propagation of information from receptors to the central nervous system.
2. Motor function: Propagation of commands generated in the CNS to the periphery/ target tissue.
3. Heartbeat generation due to action potential in cardiac muscle cells.

CELL DIVISION
Cell division is the process in which a cell duplicates itself by dividing its genetic material.
➢ In cell division, the cell that is dividing is called the "parent" cell. The parent cell divides into two
"daughter" cells. The process then repeats in what is called the cell cycle.
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➢ In well-developed organisms, there are two types of cell division observed, mitosis and meiosis. These
are very complex processes that are carried out through different phases.
➢ Mitosis can be defined as the exact duplication of a cell where the daughter cells will have the same
genetic information as the parent cell.
➢ In meiosis, the daughter cells will only have half of the genetic information of the original cell. The
common end phase in both processes is cytokinesis and the division of the cytoplasm.

MITOSIS

➢ Mitosis is how somatic or non-reproductive cells divide. Somatic cells make up most of your body's
tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells. Reproductive cells (like eggs) are
not somatic cells.
➢ In mitosis, the daughter cells each have the same chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter
cells from mitosis are called diploid cells.
➢ Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the daughter cells have exact copies of their
parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is created through mitosis in normal healthy cells.

The cell division phases of mitosis are:

a. Early and late prophase
b. Metaphase
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase
Before mitosis begins, the cell is in a state called interphase and it copies its DNA and so the chromosomes
in the nucleus consist of two copies which are called sister chromatids.

Early and Late Prophase

➢ In the early prophase, the cell initiates cell division by breaking down some cell components and
building other components and then the chromosome division starts.
➢ In this stage, the chromosomes start to condense which helps them to separate easily in later stages
➢ Afterwards, the mitotic spindle starts to form, a structure made of microtubules. It organizes the
chromosomes and moves them around during mitosis.
➢ The mitotic spindle grows between the centrosomes of the cell as they move towards different poles.
➢ The nucleolus then disappears which is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break down.
➢ In the late prophase which is also called prometaphase, the mitotic spindle starts to organize the
chromosomes.
➢ Once the chromosomes finish condensing, they form a compact structure.
➢ Then the nuclear envelope breaks down and the chromosomes are released.
➢ At the end of the prophase, the mitotic spindle grows, and some microtubules start to capture and
organize chromosomes.
Metaphase
➢ Metaphase starts when the mitotic spindle organizes all chromosomes and lines them up in the middle
of the cell to divide.
➢ All chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
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➢ At this stage of metaphase, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be attached to
microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
➢ Before proceeding forward to anaphase, the cell will check if all kinetochores are properly attached
to microtubules and it is called spindle checkpoint.
➢ The spindle checkpoint ensures that the sister chromatids are split equally into two daughter cells.

Anaphase
➢ In this stage, the sister chromatids separate from each other and move towards the opposite poles of
the cell. The protein glue that holds them breaks and allows them to separate.
➢ Microtubules that are not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart.
➢ In doing so they separate the poles and makes the cell longer.
➢ These processes are controlled by motor proteins and these proteins carry the chromosomes and
microtubules as they move.
Telophase
➢ In this stage, the cell is almost divided and starts to re-establish its normal cellular structures as
cytokinesis takes place.
➢ The mitotic spindle breaks down into its building blocks and two new nuclei are formed, one for each
set of chromosomes.
➢ The nuclear membrane and the nucleoli then reappear and the chromosomes begin to de- condense
to return to their normal form.
Cytokinesis
In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile. There's a pinch-like formation within the cell which divides it in
two like a coin purse with a 'drawstring'. The "drawstring" is a band of actin protein filaments. The pinch
crease is called the cleavage furrow.

MEIOSIS
In meiosis, a single cell divides twice to produce four cells that contain half of the original amount of genetic
material. It can be observed in sperm cells in males and egg cells in females.
There are 9 meiotic cell division phases.
Interphase
➢ Similar to mitosis the genetic material of the cell is copied and two identical sets of chromosomes are
formed.
➢ The centrosomes and the centrioles are also copied and in this phase, the microtubules extend from
centrosomes.
Prophase I
➢ The two sets of chromosomes condense into an X-shaped formation
➢ Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids which contain identical genetic information.
➢ All chromosomes pair up. For example, both copies of chromosome 1 and both copies of chromosome
2 are together.
➢ The chromosome pairs may then exchange parts of DNA through crossing over or recombination.
➢ In the end, in this stage, the nuclear membrane dissolves and releases the chromosomes.
➢ The meiotic spindle which consists of microtubules and other proteins extends across the cell.
Metaphase I
➢ The chromosome pairs align next to each other along the center of the cell.
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➢ The centrioles move at the opposite poles of the cell and the meiotic spindles extend from them. Their
fibers attach to one chromosome of each pair.
Anaphase I
➢ The chromosome pairs are then separated by the meiotic spindle and move one chromosome to
opposite poles of the cell.
➢ In meiosis, the sister chromatids of the cell stay together.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
➢ The chromosomes move to opposite poles of a cell and each pole has a full set of chromosomes.
➢ A nuclear membrane starts to form around each set of chromosomes to form two new nuclei.
➢ Cytokinesis takes place and two daughter cells are produced.
Meiosis II
Prophase II
➢ At the end of meiosis, there are two daughter cells with 23 chromosomes
➢ The chromosomes condense again and form visible X-shaped structures
➢ The nuclear membrane will dissolve releasing the chromosomes.
➢ The centrioles duplicate and the meiotic spindle is formed.
Metaphase II
➢ Similar to metaphase I, the sister chromatid align along the center of the cell
➢ The centrioles move to opposite poles of the daughter cells.
➢ Meiotic spindle fibers attach to individual sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
➢ The sister chromatids are separated and moved to opposite poles by the meiotic spindle and they
become individual chromosomes.
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
➢ The chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and each pole has a full set of chromosomes.
➢ A nuclear membrane starts to form again and two new cell nuclei are formed.
➢ Cytokinesis takes place.
➢ Once cytokinesis is completed there are four new cells, with a haploid set of chromosomes
➢ In males, all four cells are sperm cells.
➢ In females, one new is an egg cell and the others are polar bodies.

TYPES OF SPECIALIZED TISSUES

➢ Tissues are groups of similar cells group of similar cells carrying out related functions. These tissues combine
to form organs like the skin or kidney that have specialized functions within the body.
➢ Although there are many types of cells in the human body, they are organized into four broad categories of
tissues:
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscle Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue
➢ Epithelial tissues provide the body’s first line of protection from physical, chemical, and biological wear
and tear.
➢ The cells of an epithelium act as gatekeepers of the body controlling permeability and allowing selective
transfer of materials across a physical barrier.
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➢ All substances that enter the body must cross an epithelium.

➢ Some epithelia often include structural features that allow the selective transport of molecules and ions
across their cell membranes.
There are three types of epithelial cells, which differ in their shape and function.

1.Squamous Epithelium
➢ Squamous epithelial cells are large, flattened cells filled with cytoplasm possessing a small round nucleus
at the centre.
➢ They are flat and have an irregularly round shape.
➢ The term “squamous” is derived from the comparison of the cells to the fish’s scales.
➢ These cells are typically found lining the surfaces requiring a smooth flow of fluid as seen in the blood
vessels.
➢ They are also found lining the areas requiring a very thin surface for molecules enabling passage such as
air sacs in the lungs.
2.Cuboidal Epithelium
➢ Cuboidal epithelial cells are short cells with roughly similar thickness and width. They usually appear
hexagonal in a cross-section.
➢ The simple cuboidal epithelia are more common than the stratified cuboidal epithelia.

A) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

➢ The cells of simple cuboidal epithelium are almost tall as they are wide.
➢ They contain a single layer of cuboidal cells with large spherical nuclei that are centrally located. Their
major functions are absorption and secretion.
➢ The simple cuboidal epithelium also lines the pigment layer of the retina.
B) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
➢ Stratified cuboidal as well as stratified columnar are rare occurrences.
➢ Stratified cuboidal epithelium occurs in the excretory ducts of sweat glands and salivary glands.
➢ They are also found in mammary glands and in the developing ovarian follicles.
3.Columnar Epithelium
➢ Simple columnar consists of a single layer of tall, thin columnar epithelial cells with oval-shaped nuclei
located at the basal area.
➢ These cells are connected directly to the basement membrane.
➢ Often, these cells are characterized by tall, wide oval nuclei at the base of the cells.
➢ It lines the majority of the digestive system organs in humans, including the stomach and intestines.

Epithelial Tissue Functions

1.Protection: As it covers the entire body surface, it is the first line of defence against any kind of mechanical
injury, chemical exposure, excessive fluid loss and infections. Ciliary projections present in the nose or upper
respiratory tract, trap the dust particles and prevent it from entering the body
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2.Absorption: The epithelial lining of the digestive tract absorbs water and nutrients
3.Exchange of substances: Epithelial tissue regulates the exchange of substances between body and external
environment as well as the internal exchange between different parts of the body. Everything that enters the body
or enters the bloodstream by absorption has to cross the epithelial barrier
4.Sensation: Sensory receptors are present in the epithelial tissue of the nose, eyes and ears, taste bud, etc. that
help in transmitting signals from the external stimuli to the brain
5.Secretion: Various glands made up of epithelial cells secrete hormones, enzymes, saliva, mucus, sweat, etc.

Connective Tissue
➢ Connective tissues, as the name implies, support and connect different tissues and organs of the
body. They are widely distributed in every part of the body.
➢ They originate from the mesoderm (the middle germinal layer of the embryo).
➢ Connective tissue is made up of a few cells present in the intercellular framework of protein
fibres secreted by the cells, known as collagen or elastin.
➢ The cells also secrete a thin gel of polysaccharides, which together with fibres make matrix or
ground substance.
The classification of connective tissue is as follows:
1. Loose Connective Tissue
2. Dense Connective Tissue
3. Specialised Connective Tissue
Loose Connective Tissue
➢ Loose connective tissues are present all over the body, where support and elasticity both are
needed.
➢ Blood vessels, nerves and muscles, all have a loose connective tissue wrapping.
➢ They form the subcutaneous layer under the skin along with adipose tissues, attaching muscles
and other structures to the skin.
➢ The fibres and cells are loosely arranged in the semi-fluid matrix. They are found between many
organs as a filling and act as a shock absorber and reservoir for salt and fluid.
Areolar Tissue: It is present under the skin and supports epithelium. It contains randomly distributed fibres,
fibroblasts, mast cells and macrophages. It supports the organs present in the abdominal cavity, fills the space
between muscle fibres and wraps around blood and lymph vessels.

Adipose Tissue: They are present under the skin and store fat. It acts as a shock absorber and helps in
maintaining body temperature in colder environments.

Dense Connective Tissue

➢ In the dense connective tissue, fibroblast cells and fibres are compactly packed. Their main function is to
support and transmit mechanical forces.
➢ They are somewhat less flexible than loose connective tissue. On the basis of the arrangement of collagen
fibres, they are divided into two types:
Dense regular tissue: In the dense regular connective tissue, the orientation of fibres are regular. The collagen
fibres are present between the parallel running bundles of fibres. The regular arrangement enhances tensile
strength and poses resistance to stretching in the direction of the orientation of fibre. Examples of dense regular
tissue are tendons and ligaments.
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Tendons and Ligaments: Tendons attach bones to skeletal muscles. Ligaments attach two bones together.
Dense irregular tissue: There are many fibres including collagen, which are oriented irregularly or randomly.
The irregular arrangement gives uniform strength in all directions. Fibres may form a mesh-like network. This
type of tissue is present in the dermis of the skin.

Specialised Connective Tissue

➢ There are supportive connective tissues, that help in maintaining correct posture and support internal
organs, e.g. cartilage and bone.
➢ Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues that circulate in the body and help in interaction and
communication among all the organs.
Cartilage: Cartilage is mostly present in the embryonic stages and works as a supporting skeleton. Most of the
cartilage is replaced by bones in adults, however, it supports some structures in adults too. In humans, cartilage
is present between the bones of the vertebral column, in the external ear, nose and hands.
Blood: Blood is made up of various cells present in the plasma. The blood contains red blood cells (RBCs), white
blood cells (WBCs) and platelets.
Lymph: Lymph drains into the blood and transports absorbed fat to the blood, which cannot enter the bloodstream
directly. Lymph has white blood cells in the liquid matrix. They help in getting rid of toxins and waste materials.
They contain WBCs, which help in fighting infection.

Muscle Tissue
➢ Muscular tissue is a specialized tissue in animals which applies forces to different parts of the body by
contraction. It is made up of thin and elongated cells called muscle fibers.
➢ It controls the movement of an organism.
➢ The muscular tissues are bundled together and surrounded by a tough connective tissue similar to cartilage
known as epimysium.
➢ The bundle of nerve cells that run in long fibers called fascicles are surrounded by the epimysium.
➢ The fascicles are surrounded by a protective layer known as perimysium. It allows the flow of nerves and
blood to the individual fibers.
➢ Another protective layer, the endomysium surrounds the fibers.
➢ These layers and muscles help in the contraction of different parts of the muscles. The different bundles
slide past one another as they contract.
➢ The epimysium connects to the tendons attached to the periosteum connective tissue that surrounds the
bones. This helps in the movement of the skeleton when the muscles contract.
➢ The epimysium connects to other connective tissues to produce a force on the organs and control
everything from circulation to food processing.
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The muscular tissue is of three types:

1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
2. Smooth Muscle Tissue
3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
➢ These muscles are attached to the skeleton and help in its movement.
➢ These muscles are also known as striated muscles because of the presence of alternate patterns of light
and dark bands.
➢ These light and dark bands are sarcomeres which are highly organized structures of actin, myosin, and
proteins. These add to the contractility and extensibility of the muscles.

➢ Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles composed of muscle fibers.

➢ 40% of our body mass comprises skeletal muscles.
➢ Each skeletal tissue contains myofibrils.
➢ The cells of these tissues are multinucleated.
➢ These are provided with blood vessels and many elongated mitochondria and glycogen granules.
➢ They bring about the movement of the organs of the body.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

➢ These are non-striated, involuntary muscles controlled by the Autonomous Nervous System.
➢ It stimulates the contractility of the digestive, urinary, reproductive systems, blood vessels, and airways.
➢ The actin and myosin filaments are very thin and arranged randomly, hence no striations.
➢ The cells are spindle-shaped with a single nucleus.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
➢ These are found only in the heart.
➢ These are involuntary muscles and the heart pumps the blood through cardiac contractions.
➢ The cells of the cardiac muscles known as the cardiomyocytes are striated.
➢ They are single-celled and uninucleated.
➢ The ends of the cells are joined and the junctions are called intercalated discs. The cells are attached to
each other by desmosomes.
Muscular Tissue Function
➢ The muscular tissues are connected to the same nerve bundles.
➢ The nerve impulse from the brain tells the muscles to contract.
➢ Each muscle cell contains the proteins actin and myosin. These proteins slide past one another when the
signal is received for contraction.
➢ A single cell contracts up to 70% in length. The entire muscle shortens during contraction.
➢ Muscular tissues help in the movement of bones, squeeze different organs, or compress chambers.

Nervous Tissue

➢ Nervous or the nerve tissue is the main tissue of our nervous system. It monitors and regulates the
functions of the body.
➢ Nervous tissue consists of two cells: nerve cells or neurons and glial cells, which helps transmit nerve
impulses and also provides nutrients to neurons.
➢ Brain, Spinal Cord, and nerves are composed of nervous tissue, they are specialized for being stimulated
to transmit stimulus from one to another part of the body rapidly.
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Structure Of Nervous Tissue

➢ It is made of nerve cells or neurons, all of which consists of an axon. Axons are long stem-like projections
emerging out of the cell, responsible for communicating with other cells called the Target cells, thereby
passing impulses
➢ The main part is the cell body which contains the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell organelles. Extensions of
the cell membrane are referred to as processes.
➢ Dendrite is a highly branched processes, responsible for receiving information from other neurons and
synapses (specialized point of contact). Information of other neurons is provided by dendrites to connect
with its cell body.
➢ Information in a neuron is unidirectional as it passes through neurons from dendrites, across the cell body
down the axon.

Function Of Nervous Tissue

➢ Neurons generate and carry out nerve impulses.

➢ They produce electrical signals that are transmitted across distances, they do so by secreting chemical
neurotransmitters.
➢ Responds to stimuli
➢ Carries out communication and integration
➢ Provides electrical insulations to nerve cells and removes debris
➢ Carries messages from other neurons to the cell body

Types Of Nerves
1. Motor nerves
➢ Motor neurons or motor nerves are responsible to send signals or impulses all the way from spinal cord
and brain to all the muscles of the body.
➢ The impulse enables humans to carry out basic activities such as talking, walking, drinking water,
blinking eyes, sitting, sleeping, etc.
2. Sensory nerves
➢ The sensory nerves or sensory neurons are responsible to generate impulses or signals in the contrasting
directions from another type of nerves known as the motor neurons.
➢ The sense neurons gather information such as pressure, pain, temperature, etc from the sensors that are
present in the muscles, skin and other internal organs which in turn redirect it back to the brain and spinal
cord.
➢ These sensory nerves have the potential of communicating information relating to motion (except for the
eyes, as they themselves do it).
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3. Autonomic nerves
➢ The autonomic nerves system controls the actions of the muscles of the heart, such smooth muscles
located in the stomach and in the interlining of glands and other organs.
➢ The autonomic nerves regulate the functions that are not under control, i.e., involuntary.
➢ There are two functional divisions in the autonomic nervous system, namely:
The sympathetic nervous system
➢ Responsible for the heart rate to speed up and related flight or fight responses
The parasympathetic nervous system
➢ Controls activities such as excretion, digestion, and related metabolic actions.