STAT 101

A LECTURE ON THE BASICS OF

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Keith Lester A. Mallorca
Never Been Average
1 234
 A SHORT INTRODUCTION ON
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
 apply sampling
techniques

SAMPLE
characterize using statistics
POPULATION
characterize using parameters

use sample

through: To draw inference,

1. Estimation estimates, and conclusions WHAT IS
2. Hypothesis Testing about the population INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS?
points to consider:
What if it is census?
What is the meaning of
significant in “significant
difference”?
Is it always the case to reject
the null hypothesis?
 PART I
FORMULATE RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Example 1. (EXPERIMENTAL STUDY)
Title: Molluscicidal Property of Phytolacca dodecandra bark and leaf
methanol extracts against Pomacea canaliculata

Problems:
1. What is the percentage mortality of Pomacea canaliculata when
subjected to the different concentrations of Phytolacca dodecandra
bark and leaf methanol extracts?
2. Is there a significant difference on the percentage mortality of
Pomacea canaliculata when subjected to the different concentrations
of Phytolacca dodecandra bark and leaf methanol extracts?
3. Is there a significant difference on the percentage mortality of
Pomaceea canaliculata when subjected to the Phytolacca dodecandra
bark and leaf methanol extracts?
Source: AKLILU LEMMA, Sci. D.
Example 2. (SURVEY/DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL)
Title: Correlational study on emotional intelligence and academic
performance of nursing students in a selected college of nursing,
Kochi
Problems:
1. What is the distribution of students according to type of
family?
2. What is the emotional intelligence level and academic
performance of nursing students?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the emotional
intelligence and academic performance of nursing students?
4. Is there an association between the students’ type of family
and emotional intelligence?
Source: JACOB, W. & PAVITHRAN, S.
 PART II
DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS
 Identifying Data Analysis Tools

DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS STATISTICS

Central Tendency Parametric

(Difference and
Variability Relationship)
Proportion Non-parametric
Frequency Post-Hoc Analysis
Normality Test
Statistical Tests
• One of the biggest factors in achieving a conclusive result in
a research study is the application of the appropriate
statistical test.

• A statistical test provides a mechanism for making

quantitative decisions about a process or processes.

• The intent is to determine whether there is enough evidence

to "reject" a conjecture or hypothesis about the process. The
conjecture is called the null hypothesis.
Statistical Significance
• Statistically significant means a result is unlikely due to
chance

• Statistical significance doesn’t mean practical significance.

Only by considering context can we determine whether a
difference is practically significant; that is, whether it requires
action.

• To declare practical significance, we need to determine whether

the size of the difference is meaningful (effect size).
Parametric Tests
• Parametric test is an area of statistics which
assumes that sample data come from a population
that can be adequately modeled by a probability
distribution that has a fixed set of parameters.

• One can employ a parametric test in the attempt to

evaluate hypotheses through hypothesis testing if the
following assumptions are satisfied.
Parametric Tests
Assumptions for Parametric Tests
Parametric Tests
Other Common Assumptions for Parametric Tests
 Choosing Appropriate Parametric Test
Question:
�What do we need to consider in choosing the
appropriate parametric test?
ͽ what are you testing?
 significant difference on means
 significant relationship or association
 significant predictors or factors
ͽ number of separate variables
ͽ are the variables matched or independent?
ͽ how many independent variables?
 Commonly Used Statistical Tests
Goal Parametric Non-Parametric
One Sample One sample z-test or t-test
Dependent sample or
Difference between Wilcoxon Signed Rank
Paired t-test
two means
Independent sample t-test Mann-Whitney U Test
Difference between
three or more ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis
means
Spearman rho (ordinal)
Relationship Pearson’s r
Chi-square (categorical)
Dependence Chi-square (categorical)
Predictors/ Factors Linear Regression
 Remark

‖If the appropriate test to be used is the independent

sample t-test, one still needs to make sure whether the
variances of the two samples are equal or not. Once they
are equal, then one should use the independent sample
t-test for equal variances. Otherwise, one should
employ the independent sample t-test for unequal
variances.

‖In practice, statisticians use the Levene’s Test to

determine homogeneity between samples or groups.
 Remark: Post-Hoc Analysis for ANOVA
Questions:
�When do we conduct post-hoc analysis?
�What do we need to consider in choosing the
appropriate post-hoc test?
ͽ equal sample sizes?
ͽ groups have equal variances?
�How about in the case of Non-parametric test?
How do we conduct the post-hoc analysis?
 Remark: Post-Hoc Analysis for ANOVA
Some Commonly Used Post-hoc tests:

Tukey HSD Scheffee

• applicable for equal sample
sizes, if NOT use Tukey-Kramer
• can‘t be used for complex
contrasts
• lower chance of committing
Type I error but may lead to
more Type II errors
• most conservative, hence wasteful
of statistical power
• increases chance of committing
Type II error (simple contrast)
• applicable to groups with equal
variances
• better for complex contrasts
Remark
 Remark: Correlation Analysis

Correlation Coefficient
• A measure of degree of relationship.
• Values vary between 1 and -1
• The sign refers to the direction.
• Based on covariance
• Measure of degree to which large scores on X go
with large scores on Y, and small scores on X go
with small scores on Y
 Remark: Correlation Analysis
Correlation Coefficient
• Summary Table on the Descriptive Qualities of the
Strength of Correlation
EXAMPLES
 Mean/
Proportion

ANOVA
Independent
t-test
Frequency

Sum/Mean

Pearson’s r

Chi-square
Other Example Problems:

PROBLEM 1:
A study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the length of
time in pre-service training and entry level employees’ job satisfaction in a
certain company. The job satisfaction scores were measured through the Job
Global Satisfaction (Warr, Cook, and Wall, 1979). Given the data below, is there
a significant relationship between the length of time in pre-service training and
job satisfaction score of entry level employees?
Pearson’s r
Spearman rho (Non-parametric)
Other Example Problems:

PROBLEM 2:
An experimental study was conducted to compare the antioxidant potency of
two commonly consumed polyphenol-rich beverages. These two beverages are
the pomegranate juice (PJ) and a red wine (RW). The Phenol Antioxidant Index
(PAOXI) was used as criterion to compare the antioxidants potency of the said
beverages. 5 mL of each beverage was tested in every trial and the experiment
was replicated 15 times. Given the data below, is there a significant difference
on the phenol antioxidant index of the pomegranate juice and the red wine?

Independent t-test
Mann-Whitney U Test (Non-parametric)
Other Example Problems:

PROBLEM 3:
A plant powder was tested through a study to investigate its effectiveness in
lowering down the cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic rats. Twenty-six
rats were used and were orally fed with the plant powder for four weeks. The
plasma total cholesterol (TC) of the said rats were measured before and after
the feeding. Given the data below, is there a significant decrease on the plasma
total cholesterol of the rats after the feeding of the plant powder?

Dependent t-test
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test (Non-parametric)
 PART III
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Steps in Conducting Hypothesis Testing
The Six Steps of Hypothesis Testing
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
2. State the level of significance.
3. Identify the tail of the test and the statistical
tool to be used.
4. Summary of Values and the p-value
5. Decision
6. Conclusion
 Steps in Conducting Hypothesis Testing
Problem 1.

See complete solution at PDF File:

HYPOTHESIS TESTING ANSWER TO PROBLEM 1
 Steps in Conducting Hypothesis Testing
Problem 2.

See complete solution at PDF File:

HYPOTHESIS TESTING ANSWER TO PROBLEM 1
 Steps in Conducting Hypothesis Testing
Problem 3.

See complete solution at PDF File:

HYPOTHESIS TESTING ANSWER TO PROBLEM 1
 PART IV (SUPPLEMENTARY)
EFFECT SIZE AND
SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
 What is EFFECT SIZE?
• measures the strength of a treatment response
or relationship between variables (Maher et. al,
2013)
• quantifies the magnitude of the difference
between groups or the relationship among
variables (Coe, 2002)
• provides a scale-free measure that reflects the
practical meaningfulness of the difference or
the relationship among variables (Hojat and Xu,
2004)
MEASURING & INTERPRETING EFFECT SIZE
• Measuring Effect Size for t-test
𝑋1 −𝑋2 (𝑛1 −1)𝑠12 +(𝑛2 −1)𝑠22
• Cohen’s d; 𝑑= 𝑆𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑑 =
𝑆𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2

• Measuring Effect Size for Pearson’s r

• 𝑟 (coefficient of correlation) or
• 𝑟 2 (coefficient of determination)
• Interpretation: Cohen, 1992, 1988; Rosenthal, 1996

Medium Very Large

Test Small Effect Large Effect
Effect Effect
Cohen’s d 0.20 0.50 0.80 1.30
Pearson’s r 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70
 Sample Size Determination
• For Survey;
• Cochran’s Sample Size Determination
𝑧 2 𝑝ො𝑞ො
• 𝑛0 = 2 (infinite population)
𝑒
𝑁×𝑛0
• 𝑛= (finite population)
𝑁+𝑛0 −1

• For Experimental
• G Power
The Use of Excel
Activating the Toolpak:
• Go to FILE Menu bar.

• Then, proceed to Options at the bottom of the panel.

The Use of Excel
Activating the Toolpak:
• After clicking the OPTIONS, a command panel will pop-out.

• Then, click Add-ins.

The Use of Excel
Activating the Toolpak:
• At the bottom, go to MANAGE add-ins, then click GO.

• Another panel will pop-out.

Here, CHECKED boxes for both
Analysis Toolpak and with VBA.
Then, click OK.
The Use of Excel
Activating the Toolpak:
• After clicking OK. Go to DATA Menu bar. There you will see the icon
for the toolpak. It is usually located at the far right corner of the
toolbars.
The Use of Excel
Activating the Toolpak:
• The toolpak has the following STATISTICAL TESTS featured in it. In
our discussion, we will be using the dotted tests.