Leadership Ethics

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Leadership Ethics
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Please note that these are the contents and introduction to volume I on
leadership theory a 3 volume reference work called Leadership Ethics. You
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LEADERSHIP ETHICS
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The SAGE Benchmarks in Leadership series boldly cuts across disciplines to
examine the multifaceted concept of “leadership”. Covering both classical and new
approaches to the topic, the multi-volume collections in this series bring together the
most exciting and influential works on leadership in a number of key areas, such as
business and management, education and psychology.
The sets in this series are each curated and introduced by a leading figure(s) in the
field. Each major work’s selection is examined and placed in context through a newly-
written introductory chapter, which in turn provides a thorough map of the subject
with regards to its history, current developments and prospective future. These inval-
uable collections provide readers with an excellent research and teaching resource,
providing the depth and breadth of coverage necessary to faithfully represent this
fast-growing and ever-evolving area of study.
Joanne B. Ciulla is Professor and Coston Family Chair in Leadership and Ethics at the
Jepson School of Leadership Studies, University of Richmond and a visiting Professor at
the European Business Ethics Institute at Nyenrode Business Universiteit. Ciulla has also
held the UNESCO Chair in Leadership Studies at the United Nations International Lead-
ership Academy. A PhD in philosophy, she has published extensively in leadership ethics
and business ethics. Some of her books are The Ethics of Leadership, Ethics: The Heart of
Leadership, and The Working Life. Among her edited collections is her three-volume set
of original papers, Leadership at the Crossroads. She sits on the editorial boards of The
Business Ethics Quarterly, Leadership, The Leadership Quarterly, and The Encyclopedia of
Leadership Studies, and she edits the New Horizons in Leadership Series for Edward Elgar
Publishing. Ciulla is a past president of the Society for Business Ethics and President of
the International Society of Business, Economics, and Ethics.
Mary Uhl-Bien is Professor and Howard Hawks Chair in Business Ethics and
Leadership at the University of Nebraska. She has been a Visiting Scholar at Lund
University in Sweden and Pablo de Olavide University in Seville, Spain. Her research
is published in premier journals in management and organizational behavior, and her
edited volumes include The Sage Handbook of Leadership (Sage, 2011), Advancing
Relational Leadership Theory: A Dialogue Among Perspectives (Information Age, 2012),
Complexity Leadership (Information Age, 2008), and Follower-Centered Perspectives on
Leadership (Information Age, 2007). She has served on the editorial boards of The
Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review, The Leadership
Quarterly, and Leadership, and is Senior Editor for the Leadership Horizons Series
(Information Age Publishers). She is a founding member of the Network of Leader-
ship Scholars (NLS) in the Academy of Management, and has served on the Executive
Committees for the NLS and the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy.
Patricia H. Werhane is the Wicklander Chair of Business Ethics, Managing Director

of the Institute for Business and Professional Ethics at DePaul University and Professor
Emeritus at the University of Virginia. She has been a Rocke feller Fellow at Dart-
mouth College and visiting professor at Cambridge University. Professor Werhane has
published numerous articles and is the author or editor of over twenty books including
Adam Smith and his Legacy for Modern Capitalism, Moral Imagination and Management
Decision-Making, both published by Oxford University Press, and Profitable Partnerships for
Poverty Alleviation with L. Hartman, D. Moberg and S. Kelley. She is the founder and former
Editor-in-Chief of Business Ethics Quarterly, the journal of the Society for Business Ethics,
and she is an Academic Advisor to the Business Roundtable Institute for Corporate Ethics.
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SAGE BENCHMARKS IN LEADERSHIP
LEADERSHIP
ETHICS
VOLUME I
Theoretical Aspects of Leadership Ethics
Edited by
Joanne B. Ciulla, Mary Uhl-Bien
and Patricia H. Werhane
Los Angeles | London | New Delhi

Singapore | Washington DC
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SAGE Publications Ltd © Introduction and editorial arrangement by Joanne B. Ciulla,
1 Oliver’s Yard Mary Uhl-Bien and Patricia H. Werhane, 2013
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London EC1Y 1SP First published 2013
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library
ISBN: 978-1-4462-5735-7 (set of three volumes)
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Contents
Appendix of Sources xi
Editors’ Introduction: Leadership Ethics xxi
Joanne B. Ciulla, Mary Uhl-Bien and Patricia H. Werhane
Volume I: Theoretical Aspects of Leadership Ethics

Introduction: Theoretical Aspects of Leadership Ethics
Joanne B. Ciulla xxv
Part I: Foundational Questions about Ethics and the Meaning of

Leadership
1. Leadership Ethics: Mapping the Territory 1
Joanne B. Ciulla
2. The Romance of Leadership 23
James R. Meindl, Sanford B. Ehrlich and Janet M. Dukerich
3. What, after all, Is Leadership? ‘Leadership’ and Plural Action 53
Eva D. Kort
4. Justice and the Leader 89
Plato
Part II: Normative Models of Leadership
5. Selections from Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature
of Legitimate Power and Greatness 99
Robert K. Greenleaf
6. The Structure of Moral Leadership 107
James MacGregor Burns
7. Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct
Development and Testing 125
Michael E. Brown, Linda K. Treviño and David A. Harrison
8. Authentic Leadership: A Review of the Literature
and Research Agenda 161
William L. Gardner, Claudia C. Cogliser, Kelly M. Davis
and Matthew P. Dickens
9. Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future 215
Nicola M. Pless and Thomas Maak
Part III: Ethics and Effectiveness and the Problem of Dirty Hands
10. Ethics and Effectiveness: The Nature of Good Leadership 231
Joanne B. Ciulla
11. The Moral Aspect of Leadership 267
John W. Gardner
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vi Contents
12. Selections from The Prince 281

Niccolò Machiavelli
Translated by W.K. Marriott
13. Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands 289
Michael Walzer
Part IV: Ethical Failure and the Use and Abuse of Power
14. “The First Sermon” and “The Synopsis of Truth” 297
Buddha
15. The Bathsheba Syndrome: The Ethical Failure of Successful Leaders 303
Dean C. Ludwig and Clinton O. Longenecker
16. Abuse, Privilege, and the Conditions of Responsibility for Leaders 317
Terry L. Price
17. Leadership and the Problem of Bogus Empowerment 333
Joanne B. Ciulla
18. Book III, Chapter 4 and Book V, Chapter 9 of Politics 355
Aristotle
Part V: Self-Interest and Altruism in Leadership
19. Why Rulers Rule 361
Arnold M. Ludwig
20. Leviathan (Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind,
as Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery) 381
Thomas Hobbes
21. Ethical Dimensions in Leadership Motivation 387
Rabindra Nath Kanungo and Manuel Mendonca
22. The Reverent Leader 397
Paul Woodruff
Part VI: The Role of Trust, Care, Virtue, and Duty
23. The Instruction of Ptah-Hotep and the Instruction of
Ke’Gemni: The Oldest Books in the World 411
Ptah-Hotep
24. Being There: Why Leaders Should Not “Fiddle” While Rome Burns 415
Joanne B. Ciulla
25. Virtue as Moral Capital from The Moral Capital of Leaders:
Why Virtue Matters 437
Alejo José G. Sison
26. A Kantian Theory of Leadership 451
Norman Bowie
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Contents vii
Volume II: Behavioral and Psychological

Aspects of Leadership Ethics
Introduction: Behavioral and Psychological Aspects of Leadership Ethics
Mary Uhl-Bien vii
Part I: Ethics and the Leader Role

27. The Basis of Authority 1
Mary Parker Follett
28. ‘The Pure Types of Legitimate Authority’ and ‘The Nature of
Charismatic Authority and Its Routinization’ from Charisma
and the Political Sphere 13
Max Weber
29. Performances 19
Erving Goffman
30. Taylor, Schmidt, and Scientific Management 23
Frederick Winslow Taylor
31. Kant’s Advice for Leaders: “No, You Aren’t Special” 27
Terry L. Price
32. Managing Toxic Leaders: Dysfunctional Patterns in Organizational
Leadership and How to Deal with Them 49
Marco Tavanti
33. Narcissism and Leadership: An Object Relations Perspective 59
Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries and Danny Miller
Part II: Relationships
34. The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between Leader
and Subordinate 79
Charles N. Greene
35. The Bases of Social Power 91
John R.P. French, Jr and Bertram Raven
36. The Ethics of Charismatic Leadership: Submission or Liberation? 107
Jane M. Howell and Bruce J. Avolio
37. Ethical Challenges in the Leader-Follower Relationship 123
Edwin P. Hollander
Part III: Followership
38. Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority 135
Stanley Milgram
39. Within Ourselves: Psychological Needs That Make Us Seek Leaders 159
Jean Lipman-Blumen
40. Being Ethical When the Boss Is Not 179
Mary Uhl-Bien and Melissa K. Carsten
41. Why Leaders Not Always Disapprove of Unethical Follower
Behavior: It Depends on the Leader’s Self-Interest and Accountability 197
Niek Hoogervorst, David De Cremer and Marius van Dijke
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viii Contents
42. Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons from

the Past 217
Mark Van Vugt, Robert Hogan and Robert B. Kaiser
Part IV: Psychological Processes and Moral Development
43. Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental
Approach 247
Lawrence Kohlberg
44. In a Different Voice: Women’s Conceptions of Self and of Morality 279
Carol Gilligan
45. A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory 301
James Rest, Darcia Narvaez, Muriel Bebeau and Stephen Thoma
46. Ethical Breakdowns 335
Max H. Bazerman and Ann E. Tenbrunsel
47. Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities 345
Albert Bandura
48. Is Management Theory Too “Self-ish”? 369
Robert Folger and Rommel Salvador
Volume III: Leadership Ethics, Contexts

and Narratives
Introduction: Leadership Ethics, Contexts and Narratives
Patricia H. Werhane vii
Part I: Leadership Ethics in the Context of Gender, Ethnicity and

Race
49. Women Leaders in a Globalized World 1
Patricia H. Werhane
50. Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership 19
Alice H. Eagly and Linda L. Carli
51. Weaving Color Lines: Race, Ethnicity, and the Work of Leadership
in Social Change Organizations 33
Sonia Ospina and Celina Su
52. Of the Meaning of Progress 77
William Edward Burhardt Du Bois
Part II: The Ethics of Leaders and Followers in Groups
53. Groupthink 85
Irving L. Janis
54. Groupthink: An Introduction to Janis’ Theory of Concurrence-Seeking
Tendencies in Group Work 95
Anthony Hempell
55. Eichmann in Jerusalem 103
Hannah Arendt
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Contents ix
56. Satyagraha 111

Mohandas Gandhi
57. Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility 115
John M. Darley and Bibb Latané
58. Followers’ Judgment of Leader Integrity as Situated
Social Cognition 127
Dejun Tony Kong
Part III: The Ethics of Leaders and Followers in Systems
59. Ethics and Network Organizations 145
Robert A. Phillips
60. Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting Leadership from
the Industrial Age to the Knowledge Era 159
Mary Uhl-Bien, Russ Marion and Bill McKelvey
61. Systemic Leadership: Ethical and Effective 195
Jane Collier and Rafael Esteban
62. The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas 211
Ursula K. Le Guin
63. Shooting an Elephant 219
George Orwell
Part IV: Leadership Ethics and Culture
64. Bridging Leadership and Culture: A Theoretical Consideration of
Transformational Leadership and Collectivistic Cultures 225
Dong I. Jung, Bernard M. Bass and John J. Sosik
65. The Paradigm of Ethical Development for
Civilized Leadership in Africa 243
Abiodun Salawu
66. The Socrates of Africa and His Student: A Case Study of
Pre-Colonial African Leadership 255
Max du Preez
67. Leadership and Local Structures in the Amazon Region 265
Ruth Capriles
68. Servant Leadership in the Bedouin-Arab Culture 277
Yasin Khalaf Sarayrah
69. The Races at Tsikuvi: Why the Payupki People Departed 289
Harold Courlander
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Appendix of Sources
All articles and chapters have been reproduced exactly as they were first published,
including textual cross-references to material in the original source.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to

reproduce material in this book.
1. ‘Leadership Ethics: Mapping the Territory’, Joanne B. Ciulla

Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(1) (1995): 5–24.
Published by Philosophy Documentation Center. Reprinted with
permission.
2. ‘The Romance of Leadership’, James R. Meindl, Sanford B. Ehrlich and

Janet M. Dukerich
Administrative Science Quarterly, 30(1) (1985): 78–102.
Published by SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
3. ‘What, after all, Is Leadership? “Leadership” and Plural Action’, Eva D. Kort
The Leadership Quarterly, 19 (2008): 409–425.
© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission from
Elsevier via Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service.
4. ‘Justice and the Leader’, Plato

Republic Book I (Second Edition) translated by G.M.A. Grub,
revised by C.D.C. Reeve (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing
Company, Inc., 1992), pp. 14–23.
Copyright © 1992 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reprinted by permission of Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. All rights
reserved.
5. ‘Selections from Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate

Power and Greatness’, Robert K. Greenleaf
Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and
Greatness (Ramsey, NJ: Paulist Press, 1977), pp. 7–14.
Republished with permission of Paulist Press; permission conveyed through
Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
6. ‘The Structure of Moral Leadership’, James MacGregor Burns

Leadership (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1978), pp. 29–46.
FM-Vol-I.indd xi 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

xii Appendix of Sources
7. ‘Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct

Development and Testing’, Michael E. Brown, Linda K. Treviño
and David A. Harrison
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97 (2005):
117–134.
8. ‘Authentic Leadership: A Review of the Literature and Research Agenda’,

William L. Gardner, Claudia C. Cogliser, Kelly M. Davis and Matthew
P. Dickens
9. ‘Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future’, Nicola M. Pless and

Thomas Maak
Journal of Business Ethics, 98 (2011): 3–13.
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011. Reprinted with kind
permission from Springer Science and Business Media via Copyright
Clearance Center’s RightsLink service.
10. ‘Ethics and Effectiveness: The Nature of Good Leadership’, Joanne B. Ciulla
Source: David V. Day and John Antonakis (eds), The Nature of Leadership
(Second Edition) (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2011),
pp. 508–540.
11. ‘The Moral Aspect of Leadership’, John W. Gardner

Leadership Papers, 5 (1987): 3–19.
Reprinted with special permission of Independent Sector, a nonprofit,
nonpartisan coalition of approximately 550 charities, foundations, and
corporate philanthropy programs. Its mission is to advance the common
good by leading, strengthening, and mobilizing the nonprofit and
philanthropic community. To learn more about the Independent Sector,
please visit: www.independentsector.org.
12. ‘Selections from The Prince’, Niccolo Machiavelli (Translated by W.K.

Marriott)
Source: The Prince (Selections 6), W.K. Marriott (tr), (Project Guttenberg
E-book, 2006) http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm
Published by Project Gutenberg. The article is in the public domain.
FM-Vol-I.indd xii 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

Appendix of Sources xiii
13. ‘Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands’, Michael Walzer

Philosophy & Public Affairs, 2(2) (1973): 160–168.
14. ‘“The First Sermon” and “The Synopsis of Truth”’, Buddha

Source: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds), Source Book
in Indian Philosophy (Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 274–278.
© 1957 Princeton University Press, 1985 renewed PUP Reprinted with
permission of Princeton University Press.
15. ‘The Bathsheba Syndrome: The Ethical Failure of Successful Leaders’,

Dean C. Ludwig and Clinton O. Longenecker
Journal of Business Ethics, 12(4) (1993): 265–273.
© 1993 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Reprinted with kind permission from
Springer Science and Business Media via Copyright Clearance Center’s
RightsLink service.
16. ‘Abuse, Privilege, and the Conditions of Responsibility for Leaders’,

Terry L. Price
Source: Joanne B. Ciulla, Terry L. Price, and Susan E. Murphy (eds), The
Quest for Moral Leaders: Essays in Leadership Ethics (Cheltenham, UK and
Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2005), pp. 65–79.
Published by Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. Reprinted with permission.
17. ‘Leadership and the Problem of Bogus Empowerment’, Joanne B. Ciulla

Source: Joanne C. Ciulla (ed.), Ethics, The Heart of Leadership (Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers, 1998), pp. 63–86.
Copyright © (1998) by Joanne B. Ciulla. All rights reserved. Reproduced
with permission of ABC-CLIO, LLC.
18. ‘Book III, Chapter 4 and Book V, Chapter 9 of Politics’, Aristotle

Politics: A Treatise on Government Book III: Ch. 4 and Book V: Ch. 9,
William Ellis (tr), (Project Guttenberg E-book, 2009) #6762 http://www.
gutenberg.org/fi les/6762/6762-h/6762-h.htm#2HCH0003
19. ‘Why Rulers Rule’, Arnold M. Ludwig

King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership (Lexington:
The University of Kentucky Press, 2002), pp. 1–21.
20. ‘Leviathan (Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind, as

Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery)’, Thomas Hobbes
FM-Vol-I.indd xiii 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

xiv Appendix of Sources
Leviathan, (Project Guttenberg E-book, 2009) #3207, Guttenberg

http://www.gutenberg.org/fi les/3207/3207-h/3207-h.htm, pp. 1–5.
21. ‘Ethical Dimensions in Leadership Motivation’, Rabindra Nath Kanungo

and Manuel Mendonca
Ethical Dimensions of Leadership (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1996),
pp. 33–44.
22. ‘The Reverent Leader’, Paul Woodruff

Reverence: Renewing a Forgotten Virtue (New York: Oxford University Press,
Inc, 2001), pp. 163–185.
23. ‘The Instruction of Ptah-Hotep and the Instruction of Ke’Gemni: The Oldest
Books in the World’, Ptah-Hotep
Battiscombe G. Gunn (tr), (London: John Murray, 1906) [EBook #30508]
http://www.gutenberg.org/fi les/30508/30508-h/30508-h.htm
24. ‘Being There: Why Leaders Should Not “Fiddle” While Rome Burns’,
Joanne B. Ciulla
Presidential Studies Quarterly, 40(1) (2010): 38–56.
Published by Wiley. Reprinted with permission.
25. Virtue as Moral Capital from The Moral Capital of Leaders: Why Virtue
Matters’, Alejo José G. Sison, Alejo José G. Sison (ed.),
The Moral Capital of Leaders: Why Virtue Matters (Cheltenham, UK and
Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2004): 31–45.
Published by Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. Reprinted with permission.
26. ‘A Kantian Theory of Leadership’, Norman Bowie

Leadership & Organization Development, 21(4) (2000): 185–193.
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited all rights reserved. Reprinted
with permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited via Copyright
27. ‘The Basis of Authority’, Mary Parker Follett

Source: Pauline Graham (ed.), Mary Parker Follett: Prophet of Management
(Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1949), pp. 141–154.
Reprinted with permission of Beard Books. www.beardbooks.com
FM-Vol-I.indd xiv 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

Appendix of Sources xv
28. ‘‘‘The Pure Types of Legitimate Authority” and “The Nature of Charismatic
Authority and Its Routinization” from Charisma and the Political Sphere’,
Max Weber S.N. Eisenstadt (ed.), Max Weber on Charisma and Institution
Building (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 46–52.
Published by Macmillan Press. The article is in the public domain.
29. ‘Performances’, Erving Goffman

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Anchor Books, 1959),
pp. 17–21.
30. ‘Taylor, Schmidt and Scientific Management’, Frederick Winslow Taylor

Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Rowe, 1947), pp. 51–53.
31. ‘Kant’s Advice for Leaders: “No, You Aren’t Special” ’, Terry L. Price
32. ‘Managing Toxic Leaders: Dysfunctional Patterns in Organizational

Leadership and How to Deal with Them’, Marco Tavanti
Human Resource Management (HRM), 6 (2011): 127–136.
33. ‘Narcissism and Leadership: An Object Relations Perspective’,

Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries and Danny Miller
Human Relations, 38(6) (1985): 583–601.
Published by SAGE Publications Ltd. Reprinted with permission.
34. ‘The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between Leader and Subordinate’,

Charles N. Greene
Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2) (1975): 187–193.
Copyright © by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with
permission from American Psychological Association.
35. ‘The Bases of Social Power’, John R.P. French, Jr and Bertram Raven
Source: Dorwin Cartwright (ed.), Studies in Social Power (Ann Arbor:
Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research,
University of Michigan, 1959), pp. 150–167.
Published by Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research,
University of Michigan. Reprinted with permission.
FM-Vol-I.indd xv 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

xvi Appendix of Sources
36. ‘The Ethics of Charismatic Leadership: Submission or Liberation?’,

Jane M. Howell and Bruce J. Avolio
The Academy of Management Executive, 6(2) (1992): 43–54.
Republished with permission of Academy of Management (NY); permission
conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
37. ‘Ethical Challenges in the Leader-Follower Relationship’, Edwin P. Hollander

permission.
38. ‘Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority’, Stanley

Milgram
Human Relations, 18 (1965): 57–75.
39. ‘Within Ourselves: Psychological Needs That Make Us Seek Leaders’,

Jean Lipman-Blumen
The Allure of Toxic Leaders: Why We Follow Destructive Bosses and Corrupt
Politicians–and How We Can Survive Them (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2006), Chapter 2, pp. 29–48.
40. ‘Being Ethical When the Boss Is Not’, Mary Uhl-Bien and Melissa K. Carsten
Organizational Dynamics, 36(2) (2007): 187–200.
41. ‘Why Leaders Not Always Disapprove of Unethical Follower Behavior: It

Depends on the Leader’s Self-Interest and Accountability’,
Niek Hoogervorst, David De Cremer and Marius van Dijke
© Springer 2011. Reprinted with kind permission from Springer Science
and Business Media via Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service.
42. ‘Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons from the Past’
Mark Van Vugt, Robert Hogan and Robert B. Kaiser
American Psychologist, 63(3) (2008): 182–196.
Copyright © (2008) by the American Psychological Association.
Reproduced with permission from American Psychological Association.
43. ‘Moral Stags and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach’,

Lawrence Kohlberg
FM-Vol-I.indd xvi 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

xviii Appendix of Sources
51. ‘Weaving Color Lines: Race, Ethnicity, and the Work of Leadership in Social
Change Organizations’, Sonia Ospina and Celina Su
Leadership, 5(2) (2009): 131–169.
52. ‘Of the Meaning of Progress’, William Edward Burhardt Du Bois

Henry Louis Gates, Jr. & T. H. Oliver (eds), The Souls of Black Folk
(New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1999), pp. 46–54.
Copyright © 1999 by Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Terri Hume Oliver. Used by
permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
53. ‘Groupthink’, Irving L. Janis

Psychology Today, 5(6) (1971): 43–46 and 74–76.
54. ‘Groupthink: An Introduction to Janis’ Theory of Concurrence-Seeking

Tendencies in Group Work’, Anthony Hempell
http://www.anthonyhempell.com/papers/groupthink/ (2004) (unpublished).
Reprinted with permission from Anthony Hempell.
55. ‘Eichmann in Jerusalem’, Hannah Arendt

Eichmann in Jerusalem (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), pp. 21–27 and
135–138.
Copyright © 1963, 1964 by Hannah Arendt, copyright renewed © 1991,
1992 by Lotte Kohler. Used by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of
Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
56. ‘Satyagraha’, Mohandas Gandhi

Non-Violence in Peace and War (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1942),
pp. 1–3.
Published by GandhiServe Foundation. Reprinted with permission.
57. ‘Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility’,

John M. Darley and Bibb Latané
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4) (1968): 377–383.
Copyright © by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with
permission from American Psychological Association.
58. ‘Followers’ Judgment of Leader Integrity as Situated Social Cognition’,

Dejun Tony Kong
Source: Joanne B. Ciulla, Mary Uhl-Bien and Patrica Werhane (eds),
Leadership Ethics (Volume I-III) (London: SAGE Publications, 2013).
FM-Vol-I.indd xviii 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

Appendix of Sources xvii
The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral

Stages (Essays on Moral Development) (Volume 2) (New York: Harper
& Row, 1984), pp. 170–205.
44. ‘In a Different Voice: Women’s Conceptions of Self and of Morality’,

Carol Gilligan
Harvard Educational Review, 47(4) (1977): 481–492 and 509–517.
45. ‘A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory’, James Rest,
Darcia Narvaez, Muriel Bebeau and Stephen Thoma
Educational Psychology Review, 11(4) (1999): 291–324.
© 1999 Plenum Publishing Corporation. Reprinted with kind permission
from Springer Science and Business Media via Copyright Clearance
Center’s RightsLink service.
46. ‘Ethical Breakdowns’, Max H. Bazerman and Ann E. Tenbrunsel

Harvard Business Review, 89(4) (2011): 58–65.
47. ‘Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities’, Albert Bandura

Personality & Social Psychology Review, 3(3) (1999): 193–209.
Copyright © 1999 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Reprinted
by permission of SAGE Publications via Copyright Clearance Center’s
RightsLink service.
48. ‘Is Management Theory Too “Self-ish”?’, Robert Folger and Rommel (Bombie)
Salvador
Journal of Management, 34(6) (2008): 1127–1151.
Copyright © 2008 Southern Management Association. All rights reserved.
Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications via Copyright Clearance
49. ‘Women Leaders in a Globalized World’, Patricia H. Werhane

© Springer 2007. Reprinted with kind permission from Springer
Science+Business Media via Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink
service.
50. ‘Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership’, Alice H. Eagly and Linda L. Carli
Harvard Business Review, 85(9) (2007): 62–71.
FM-Vol-I.indd xvii 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

Appendix of Sources xix
59. ‘Ethics and Network Organizations’, Robert A. Phillips

permission.
60. ‘Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting Leadership from the Industrial

Age to the Knowledge Era’, Mary Uhl-Bien, Russ Marion and Bill McKelvey
The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4) (2007): 298–318.
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Inc. Used by permission. Reprinted with
permission from Elsevier via Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink
service.
61. ‘Systemic Leadership: Ethical and Effective’, Jane Collier and Rafael Esteban
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 21(4) (2000): 207–215.
62. ‘The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas’, Ursula K. Le Guin
The Wind’s Twelve Quarters: Stories, (New York: Perennial, 2004,
pp. 275–284.
63. ‘Shooting an Elephant’, George Orwell

Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays, (New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Company, 1950), pp. 3–12.
64. ‘Bridging Leadership and Culture: A Theoretical Consideration of

Transformational Leadership and Collectivistic Cultures’, Dong I. Jung,
Bernard M. Bass and John J. Sosik
The Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 2(4) (1995): 3–18.
Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications via Copyright Clearance
65. ‘The Paradigm of Ethical Development for Civilized Leadership in Africa’,

Abiodun Salawu
Leadership, 8(1) (2011): 17–27.
66. ‘The Socrates of Africa and His Student: A Case Study of Pre-Colonial
African Leadership’, Max du Preez
Leadership, 8(1) (2011): 7–15.
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xx Appendix of Sources
67. ‘Leadership and Local Structures in the Amazon Region’, Ruth Capriles
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 21(4) (2000): 194–200.
68. ‘Servant Leadership in the Bedouin-Arab Culture’, Yasin Khalaf Sarayrah

Global Virtue Ethics Review, 5(3) (2004): 58–78.
Published by Southern Public Administration Education Foundation.
Reprinted with permission.
69. ‘The Races at Tsikuvi: Why the Payupki People Departed’, Harold Courlander
Harold Courlander (ed.), Hopi Voices: Recollections, Traditions, and
Narratives of the Hopi Indians (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico
Press, 1982), pp. 78–91.
FM-Vol-I.indd xx 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

Editors’ Introduction:
Leadership Ethics
Joanne B. Ciulla, Mary Uhl-Bien and Patricia H. Werhane
T
hroughout history, scholars and ordinary people have paid attention
to the ethics of their leaders. This is not surprising, as leaders are
leaders because they have a relationship with followers who, in turn,
recognize them as leaders either by choice or by institutional design. The
relationship between leaders and followers, like all human relationships, has
real or potential moral implications. Furthermore, most forms of leadership –
directly or indirectly and for better or for worse – have an effect on the well
being of others. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to conceive of the job of a
leader without using moral terms such as responsibility, duty, care, etc. Often
people distinguish between a leader who holds a position of power and a
“real” leader, who is someone in a formal or informal position of leadership
that they admire because of their ethics and their competency as a leader
(see Volume I, numbers 1 and 3). Given the centrality of ethics in both the
role and the concept of a leader, the need for an interdisciplinary area of
study on leadership ethics seems quite obvious.
The Sage Major Works in Leadership Ethics is the first extensive inter-
disciplinary compilation of articles on leadership ethics. The set aspires to
accomplish three things. First, it offers some of the best work on or related
to leadership ethics. Second, it brings together the descriptive and theoreti-
cal research on leadership and ethics by social scientists with the descriptive
and theoretical scholarship on leadership and ethics from philosophy and
the humanities. And third, it provides a general framework that guides and
stimulates research that expands our knowledge and understanding of the
ethics of leaders and leadership.
So what is leadership ethics? Leadership ethics is an interdisciplinary
field of inquiry that is analogous to other areas of applied ethics such as busi-
ness ethics or medical ethics. We call it leadership ethics and not “leadership
and ethics,” because we do not consider ethics as an add-on to the study of
leadership. Rather, we see ethics as embedded in the concept and practice of
leadership. Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges
that are distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes
of leading and following. The field includes the study of ethical issues in the
performance of effective leadership, the moral relationship between leaders
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xxii Editor’s Introduction
and followers, and the personal and psychological challenges of being an

ethical leader or follower. Also included are the moral dynamics of leaders
and followers in groups, organizations, cultures, and other complex systems.
Leadership ethics seeks to understand good and bad leaders and followers.
In short, it examines the successes, failures, and struggles of the imperfect
human beings who lead, aspire to lead, or follow. Lastly, the study of ethics
and leadership also offers a critical perspective on leadership research and
literature.
The volumes in this set provide the reader with a topical sketch of the field.
The articles in the first volume cover some of the theoretical elements of leader-
ship ethics and the ethical challenges that are unique to leaders and followers. It
includes articles on the meaning of leadership, normative models of leadership,
and the relationship between ethics and leader effectiveness. It also examines
ethical failures of leaders, the abuse of power, the tension between self-interest
and the good of others, and the place of trust, care, and duty in leadership.
Volume II focuses on psychological and social aspects of leadership ethics. It
looks at the ethics of leading and following in relationships characterized by
power, status differentials, and obedience to authority. Topics include charisma,
toxic leadership and followership, and the psychological processes that shape
the moral relationship between leaders and followers. The third volume engages
literature from a variety of disciplines to explore some of the distinctive ethical
aspects of leadership in a number of contexts, from small groups to systems and
cultures. It also considers ethical issues that arise because of a leader’s gender,
ethnicity, and race.
This collection is by no means comprehensive. We have selected major
works on ethics and leadership from both the humanities and the social sci-
ences. In most cases, we have tried to pick articles that are unique for their
contribution to leadership ethics, representative of a stream of literature in
the field, or on topics that are central to leadership ethics, such as power and
the nature of legitimate authority. In some cases, we have shortened articles
to focus on the key ideas that are relevant to leadership ethics.
Since there has not been much contemporary work on leadership eth-
ics in leadership studies, we have included literature from a number of
disciplines. Most academics in leadership studies agree that it must be an
interdisciplinary field but not many scholars actually do research that spans
the humanities and the social sciences. There are still few researchers who
conduct empirical studies on the ethics of leaders who know much about
philosophical ethics and vice versa. The editors of these volumes all do inter-
disciplinary work; two have backgrounds in philosophy and the third in the
social sciences. Each editor has taken responsibility for a volume. In the
introductions to the volumes, the editor will bridge the topical or disciplinary
gaps between the various articles by showing how articles from different
areas are related to each other and how they contribute to our understand-
ing of a particular facet of leadership ethics.
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Editor’s Introduction xxiii
The reader will notice that not all of the articles in this set are directly
about leadership ethics. We have included some articles because they are
classics from areas such as leadership studies, the social sciences, philosophy,
and the humanities that are about foundational issues in leadership ethics.
For example, some of the articles from leadership studies include John R.P.
French and Bertram Raven’s article on the types of power (Volume II, num-
ber 10) and James R. Meindl, Sanford B. Erlich, and Janet M. Dukerich’s
research on “the romance of leadership,” on ways in which people think
about leadership and the qualities that they attribute to leaders (Volume I,
number 2). From psychology, the volumes contain articles such as Stanley
Milgram’s seminal study on obedience (Volume II, number 14) and Irving
Janis’ work on groupthink (Volume III, number 8). We pulled selections from
respected literature in sociology and management such as Irving Goffman’s
important book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Volume II, num-
ber 3) and Mary Parker Follett’s exposition on the basis of authority (Volume
II, number 1). Some of the philosophic articles include Thomas Hobbes on
self-interest, authority, and liberty (Volume I, number 20) and The Buddha
on the dangers of desire (Volume I, number 14). In other areas of the human-
ities, we have brought in short stories including Ursula Le Guinn’s cautionary
tale about the costs of making the majority happy (Volume III, number 20)
and George Orwell’s short story about how followers influence leaders (Vol-
ume III, number 21). There are also excerpts from Mahatma Gandhi on non-
violence (Volume III, number 11) and W. E. B. DuBois lyrical rumination on
the role of Black leaders in The Souls of Black Folk (Volume III, number 7).
This set of books is designed to bring new scholars into the field, both as
teachers and researchers, and enrich the work of experienced researchers. By
combining foundational works with contemporary literature, we hope that
this collection offers a solid base for research and teaching in leadership eth-
ics. Leadership ethics is open to all kinds of research from single discipline
empirical studies to purely philosophic works; however, leadership ethics is
about ethics. To work in this area and ignore the literature on ethics from
philosophy and other areas of the humanities does not make much sense.
Similarly, as an applied field of ethics, knowing the philosophic literature on
ethics is not enough. Scholars also need to know how leaders and followers
actually behave and how leadership operates in various contexts. The main
challenge in leadership ethics centers on how to synthesize these two bodies
of knowledge. Future research that is well grounded in the humanities and
the social sciences will make giant strides toward developing this field. This
set offers scholars some of the sources needed to do that kind of research,
and it gives teachers guidance on articles and topics that they might use in a
course. Lastly, for readers who are not teachers or scholars, we hope that the
variety of ideas and perspectives in these volumes tickle the imagination and
perhaps provide flashes of insight into a topic that has fascinated humanity
for a very long time.
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xxiv Editor’s Introduction
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Sage for initiating this project and our editors there
Delia Martinez-Alfonso and Colette Wilson. We are also grateful to our pro-
duction coordinator at Sage India, Bhairav Dutt Sharma. Also, Joanne Ciulla
would like to thank her husband René Kanters for his help and support and
Mary Uhl-Bien would like to thank Howard Hawks for his dedication and
commitment to the advancement of business ethics and Ivana Milosevic for
her tremendous assistance in compiling the articles for Volume II.
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Introduction: Theoretical Aspects of
Leadership Ethics
Joanne B. Ciulla
A
lthough the field of leadership ethics seems new, theories about how
leaders should behave are quite ancient. This volume explores old
and new theories and ideas about the ethics of leaders and leader-
ship. The articles draw from philosophy, religion, history, and the social sci-
ences. There has not been much theoretical work on leadership ethics in the
leadership studies literature, because most of the research has been done by
social scientists. Yet if you critically examine prominent leadership theories,
you discover that many of them contain either explicit or implicit normative
assumptions about leaders and leadership. The first three sections of this
volume examine some of the foundational issues in leadership ethics. These
include the meaning of the word “leader,” normative leadership theories,
and the overarching theme of the relationship between ethics and leader
effectiveness. In the next two sections, we explore some of the ethical chal-
lenges that seem to be inherent in the role of a leader. The last section looks
at leadership through the lens of various moral concepts and theories.
When philosophers ponder the ethics of leadership, they consider
the moral obligations of leaders and followers, the moral principles that they
use to make judgments, and the ethical problems that are unique to being
in a leader/follower relationship. Social scientists seek accurate descriptions
of leaders’ behavior, traits, and the way leaders influence followers and fol-
lowers influence leaders. Philosophers and social scientists examine some
of the same aspects of leadership ethics using different methods and asking
different questions. Philosophers evaluate ethical behavior and the norms of
ethical behavior in leaders, whereas social scientists describe and measure
moral behavior. They often look at different sides of the same coin, but they
do not always agree on what the coin is. That is why the articles in the first
section of this volume address the question, “What is a leader?”
Foundational Questions about Ethics and the

Meaning of Leadership
The articles in this section unmask the moral concepts behind the meaning of
leadership. We begin with the article “Leadership Ethics Mapping the Territory.”
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xxvi Introduction
This was the first article to outline the field of leadership ethics. In it Joanne
B. Ciulla argues that ethics is so embedded in the idea of a leader that ethi-
cal assumptions lurk below the surface of most so-called “value-free” empirical
studies and are embedded in the way researchers define leadership. After exam-
ining sample definitions of the word “leader” from research in the 20th century,
she observes that the meaning of the word “leader” is a social construction that
reflects the values and conditions of the times. When researchers define leader-
ship, their definitions do not differ much in terms of what a leader is, but they
differ in terms of what a leader ought to be. From her analysis of definitions,
Ciulla concludes that most leadership research ultimately aims at answering the
question “What is good leadership?”
This is a difficult question to answer because of what Ciulla calls
“The Hitler Problem,” which was originally based on an observation that
Gardner made. The Hitler problem is about how to answer the question “Was
Hitler a good leader?” The answer is “yes” in terms of some of the ways that
he was effective and “no” in terms of the morally horrendous things that
Hitler did. The Hitler Problem shows us that you cannot give an unqualified
answer to the question “What is a good leader?”without considering both
ethics and leader effectiveness. Out of this simple observation she formulates
the overarching question for leadership ethics, which is “What is the relation-
ship between ethics and leader effectiveness?”
Social scientists have also examined the emotional and implicitly
normative properties of the word “leader.” James R. Meindl, Sanford B. Ehr-
lich, and Janet M. Dukerich’s classic article on the romance of leadership
offers insight into the social construction of leadership. Their research shows
how the meaning of “leader” has been romanticized to the point where peo-
ple think that leaders can and do control the fates of their organizations and
followers. From the three studies in their article, Meindl et al. draw some
intriguing conclusions about leadership research. First, they worry that the
increasingly romanticized view of leaders will push researchers to demystify
leadership by quantitatively studying it. They argue that this kind of scien-
tific study might end up trivializing what is important and different about
leaders. Empirical studies often filter out attributions that are uniquely part
of how people construct their idea of a leader. Many of these attributions
relate to the moral qualities and responsibilities of leaders. Second, Meindl
et al. suggest that the romance and mystery of leadership may be what sus-
tains followers and moves them to work with leaders toward a common goal.
Lastly, Meindl et al. illustrate one of the most morally distinctive aspects
of leaders. Unlike people who are not in leadership roles, we hold leaders
responsible for things that they did not know about or do and are unable
to control. This is because people need to believe that someone is respon-
sible for the things that happen around them, which explains why human
beings need leaders (and also gods). Moral concepts such as responsibility
are embedded in the idea of what a leader is supposed to be.
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Introduction xxvii
Philosopher Eva Kort argues that the answers to “What is a leader?”

and “What is a good leader?” are in fact the same. She goes on to say that
group actions, not leader/follower relationships, reveal the features that
identify real or proper leaders from cases of formal or purported leaders. For
example, a concertmaster holds a formal leadership role. If she gives the
orchestra instructions that the musicians know are bad, they will follow her
because of her position. In this case, the concertmaster is merely a purported
leader, not a proper leader. Kort says that only when the concertmaster par-
ticipates in the plural action of the orchestra in the right sort of way is she a
leader in the proper sense. Notice how a purported leader simply describes
the position, whereas a proper leader or real leader judges that the person
in that position is doing her job the right way. Leaders are people whom we
choose to follow because they seem competent and – where relevant – ethi-
cal. Kort’s definition of real leaders refers to leaders whose ideas people vol-
untarily endorse and act on in various situations. We frequently hear Kort’s
description of a leader in ordinary conversation. When we say “she is a real
leader,” we mean that she leads in a way that leaders should lead, which is
in a good way.
Plato’s characterization of leadership in the Republic describes a real
leader, or what he calls a true leader, as ethical, effective, and un-self-inter-
ested. For Plato leading is a craft, and the virtue or excellence of every craft
is about performing its function well. So a doctor practices the craft of medi-
cine not for himself but for the health of his patients, and a ship’s captain is a
ruler of sailors and leads for the good of the sailors. Plato observes that being
an ethical leader is difficult and not in a leader’s self-interest because an
ethical leader is bound to make some people unhappy – for example, friends
and family do not receive special favors. Plato’s language is similar to Kort’s
when he discusses the craft of leadership. He says, “anyone who is really a
true ruler does not by nature seek his own advantage, but the advantage of
his subjects.” Plato’s true ruler is a just or moral ruler. Plato and the ancient
Greeks call unjust rulers by a different name – tyrants.
Normative Models of Leadership
Given the normative assumptions and attributions embedded in the idea of a

leader, we are not surprised to find normative models and theories of leader-
ship. A normative model or leadership theory consists of explicit moral norms
for analyzing leaders and leadership. One of the oldest normative models is
servant leadership. It has been around since ancient times but was made
popular by Robert Greenleaf in 1977(also see Volume III, Article 68). The
idea of servant leadership is simple – leaders are supposed to serve followers.
Yet when we look at history, we see that that is easier said than done. Even
today, we find societies and organizations with leaders who operate on the
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xxviii Introduction
assumption that followers are there to serve them. According to Greenleaf, it

is not enough for servant leaders to be ethical and care for their constituents.
They also have a moral obligation to improve their followers. Greenleaf says
the test of servant leaders is whether the people they serve become better,
freer, healthier, and more likely to serve others, especially the less fortunate.
One of the most influential leadership theories is James MacGregor
Burns’ theory of transforming leadership. It rests on the idea that leaders
and followers have an obligation to make each other morally better. Burns
believes that leaders should improve their followers and followers should
improve their leaders. According to Burns, transforming leadership grows
out of “the seedbed of conflict.” Burns criticizes 20th century social science
doctrines that focus on harmony, adjustment, and stability because he thinks
that conflict is a catalyst for change, innovation, and empowerment. In Burns’
model, dialogue emerges out of conflicts in which both leaders and follow-
ers move toward agreement about shared moral values, and in this process
they elevate each other’s moral values. Change comes when they agree on
higher-order values about what is important. Burns says we judge leaders by
two types of values – modal values and end values. Modal values, such as
honesty and integrity, concern the way leaders and followers work with each
other. End values are overarching moral norms, such as equality and justice,
which encompass the ultimate ethical standards for judging the actions of
leaders and followers. Transforming leadership aims at empowering follow-
ers and making them independent of their leaders. Burns’ description of the
transforming process resembles Jürgen Habermas’s (1987) discourse ethics,
which is a common theory used in European discussions of leadership ethics.
Bernard Bass builds his theory of transformational leadership on
Burns’ theory. We did not include Bass’s work in this volume but is worth say-
ing a few words about his theory because of its influence on other leadership
theories. As a social scientist, Bass focuses on measuring transformational
leadership. Bass and his colleague Bruce Avolio developed the Multi-factor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), which is extensively used in leadership
research (Avolio and Bass, 1991). Bass’s (1985) theory of transformational
leadership does not incorporate Burns’ emphasis on conflict and the dialogue
between leaders and followers about values, nor does it include normative
considerations using end and modal values. Instead Bass focuses on how
leaders use their idealized influence (charisma), intellectual stimulation,
individual consideration, and inspirational motivation to change followers
so they perform well. Moral concepts are implicit in some of these variables,
but unlike transforming leadership theory, there were no explicit overarching
ethical norms in his theory.
Ciulla criticizes Bass’s theory of transformational leadership
because it depends on charismatic leaders who could be evil transforma-
tional leaders such as Hitler. Bass (1998) then attempts to put his theory
on a moral footing by contrasting transformational leaders who are ethical
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Introduction xxix
with pseudo-transformational leaders who are unethical. In a later article,

Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) distinguishes between pseudo-transformational
leadership and authentic transformational leadership. He then describes the
moral qualities that leaders should have and asserts that only moral leaders
are transformational. Bass’s argument fits with the normative connotation
of leadership that we have seen in other articles – only the real or authentic
leaders are ethical. As Price (2003) argues, however, Bass’s adjustment to
his theory does not work because Bass assumes that altruism is adequate for
ethical success, yet there are many cases where altruistic leaders are seri-
ously misguided about the nature of morality.
The theory of authentic leadership evolved out of Bass’s work on authentic
transformational leadership, positive psychology, and popular management
literature on the subject. The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ)
measures self-awareness, balanced processing, internalized moral perspec-
tive, and relational transparency (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing,
and Peterson, 2008). Since there are many variations of this theory and
an extensive literature on it, we have included a review article, “Authentic
leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda.” Some research-
ers define authentic leadership along the lines of Fred Luthans’ and Avolio’s
definition – “a process that draws from both positive psychological capaci-
ties and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both
greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of
leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development” (Luthans and
Avolio, 2003, p. 243). This definition later takes on some explicit moral ele-
ments such as: “a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes
both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster
greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced process-
ing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders work-
ing with followers, fostering positive self-development” (Walumbwa et al.,
2008, p. 94). Authentic leadership focuses on how leaders’ self-knowledge
contributes to making them effective and ethical leaders. There appears to be
an inherent circularity in the notion of morality in this theory. Morality seems
to be both the result of a leader being authentic and a quality of authenticity.
Nevertheless, this is another example of a theory that connects moral leader-
ship with leader effectiveness and characterizes real or authentic leaders as
ethical leaders.
The next normative theory of leadership, “ethical leadership,” is a
descriptive study designed to help us understand how ethical leadership
affects leader effectiveness. The authors Michael E. Brown, Linda K. Treviño,
and David Harrison define ethical leadership “as the demonstration of nor-
matively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal
relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-
way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making.” They ground
their work in social learning theory and emphasize the idea of leaders as
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xxx Introduction
role models. The theory also draws on the literature on transformational and
authentic transformational leadership. Brown et al. isolate moral variables
such as honesty, trust, fairness, openness, and consideration and hypothesize
that ethical leadership will be positively related to employees’ satisfaction
with their leaders and employee effectiveness. The name “ethical leadership
theory” is somewhat misleading in that the instrument used in these studies
only measure people’s attributions of ethical leadership. The fact that the
majority of people attribute ethical qualities to a leader is not sufficient to
say that the leader is ethical. A complete picture of what constitutes ethical
leadership requires both descriptive studies and analysis of leaders based on
a broader set of moral norms and philosophical questions concerning the
nature of morality in leadership.
The next article in this section looks at one of these broader ethical
questions: “For what and to whom are leaders responsible?” The theory of
responsible leadership draws some of its ideas from the previous articles.
The authors, Nicola M. Pless and Thomas Maak, define responsible leader-
ship as a “values-based and thorough ethical principles-driven relationship
between leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a shared sense
of meaning and purpose through which they raise one another to higher lev-
els of motivation and commitment for achieving sustainable values creation
and social change.” Their theory draws on discourse ethics as well as the
business ethics literature on stakeholder theory and corporate social respon-
sibility. Responsible leadership theory proposes an expansive way of thinking
about the scope of leaders’ moral obligations in terms of the stakeholders
and interests inside and outside of their organizations. This view of leader-
ship holds leaders responsible for a far wider range of people and things than
other theories.
Ethics and Effectiveness and the Problem of Dirty Hands
We now take an in-depth look at the relationship between ethics and effec-
tiveness and the difficulties leaders have filling the demands of both. In the
first article, Ciulla elaborates on the historical and philosophical background
behind the idea of good leadership as ethical and effective leadership. The
article raises questions such as: “To what extent is an incompetent leader
unethical?” What role does moral luck play in the assessment of leaders?
Ciulla outlines the various dimensions of ethics and effectiveness that com-
prise both philosophic inquiries and the normative leadership theories in the
previous section of this volume. These dimensions include the ethics of the
leader as a person, the ethics of the leader/follower relationship, the ethics
of the process of leadership, and the ethics of the actions leaders take. She
observes that leader effectiveness can also be a normative concept depend-
ing on the scope and time frame of the assessment. Long-term sustainable
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Introduction xxxi
notions of effectiveness tend to include normative assumptions, whereas

short-term assessments of effectiveness are either morally neutral or some-
times unethical.
John Gardner writes about the challenges of effective leadership in
the public sector. He argues that the public wants leaders who are willing
to act on their moral principles, yet throughout history leaders have not
always been able to honor them. Gardner’s cure for this problem is simi-
lar to Burns’. Gardner says that the job of a leader is to develop commit-
ment and responsibility in followers and seek a common ground based on
the overarching values of society such as justice, freedom, equality, and
the dignity of the individual. He believes that the moral goals of leader-
ship are to release human potential, to balance the rights of the indi-
vidual with the needs of communities, to keep faith with the values of the
leader and the pluralistic values of society, and to encourage individual
initiative.
Like Gardner, Niccolò Machiavelli also knows how difficult it is for lead-
ers to act on their moral principles, especially when they operate in a com-
petitive environment. In this famous selection from The Prince, Machiavelli
tells us that the Prince needs to know how to do wrong when it is necessary.
To be effective, he does not need to be loved, but he must not be hated either.
Machiavelli says it is important for a Prince to appear moral, even if he is not,
because if he does not pretend to be moral, he may lose some of his power
over the people. Lastly, Machiavelli notes that leaders should be strong like
lions, cunning like foxes, and decide when they want to keep agreements
and when they do not. Readers often write off The Prince as an immoral
argument about the ends justifying the means. However, Machiavelli offers
us an astute description of a central moral challenge of leadership. He does
not recommend that leaders behave unethically but rather explains why it
is difficult for them to be ethical. Because leaders hold responsibility for the
well-being of others, they may face situations that compel them to make a
deal with the devil.
Philosophers call this deal with the devil the problem of “dirty hands,”
and Michael Walzer’s article explores this problem. Walzer says no leader
leads innocently. The job of most leaders is inherently utilitarian, yet we tend
to judge the moral character of leaders in terms of their virtues and their
commitment to moral principles. Hence, leaders confront a tension between
their own ethical values and consistency and the obligations that they have
to their followers. Sometimes a leader’s moral obligation to prevent harm to
followers can only be filled by doing something unethical. We call such cases
ethical dilemmas because they have no satisfactory moral solutions to them.
In these cases, any choice leaders make leaves them with dirty hands. Walzer
thinks that feeling dirty is a good thing because when leaders stop feeling
dirty and easily rationalize bad behavior in the name of the greatest good,
they lose their sense of morality.
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xxxii Introduction
Ethical Failure and the Abuse of Power
Power stands out as another obvious challenge to ethical leadership. How

leaders get, use, and control their desire for power has long fascinated writ-
ers, historians, philosophers, and devotees of tragedies and soap operas. The
appropriate use of power requires self-control, which is a fundamental part
of most moral theories. We begin this section with The Buddha’s “First Ser-
mon” because his ruminations on human nature and desire help us appreci-
ate the temptations of power. According to Buddha, desire is the source of
human suffering. These desires include everything from the desire to stay
young to desires for fame, power, wealth, etc. Buddha tells us that the only
way to end suffering and find happiness is to conquer our desires and follow
the eight-fold path – a set of moral principles concerning right behavior. He
reminds us that leaders are fallible human beings who require massive self-
control because their positions give them means to indulge their desires and
sometimes create an unquenchable thirst for things like sex, money, power,
or fame.
In our next article, Dean E. Ludwig and Clinton O. Longenecker use the
Biblical story about King David and his adultery with Bathsheba to illustrate
the moral dangers of success. Ludwig and Longenecker call these moral haz-
ards “The Bathsheba Syndrome.” This syndrome begins when leaders are
successful and become isolated from others in the organization and com-
placent about their work. They do their job on cruise control and lose their
strategic focus. When this happens, leaders start abusing the perks of their
job, such as access to resources, and they indulge their desires. Such leaders
have an inflated belief in their ability to control outcomes, which can lead
to risky behavior. King David and leaders throughout history have abused
their power to cover up improprieties such as sex scandals and monetary
improprieties. The cover-ups are often worse than the original deeds because
leaders drag subordinates into them and make inappropriate use of organi-
zational resources. When followers discover leaders’ improprieties and their
attempts to cover them up, such leaders lose credibility even when they do
not lose their jobs.
Terry L. Price digs into other kinds of moral mistakes that leaders make
in his article, “Abuse, Privilege, and the Conditions of Responsibility.” Some-
times leaders think that they are acting ethically because they are misguided
about their moral beliefs. Although anyone can hold moral beliefs that are
wrong in some way, leaders are different in that when they act on mistaken
moral beliefs, they affect more people and bring about greater harm. Price
describes two varieties of mistaken moral beliefs. The first relates to the con-
tent of morality or the sorts of things that are right and wrong. Price notes
that leaders who grow up in unethical environments or have abusive back-
grounds may not have learned about right and wrong as children. While
they can and should alter their views as they grow older, some do not. This
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Introduction xxxiii
explains (but does not excuse) some moral mistakes of leaders. The second
variety of moral mistakes concerns the scope of morality, or who is and is not
bound by certain moral requirements. Since we often give privileges to lead-
ers, leaders sometimes see themselves as special and not subject to the same
rules as everyone else.
After articles that tackle the personal ethical challenges of power,
success, and privilege, the next article looks at the willingness of leaders
to share power. In “Leadership and the Problem of Bogus Empowerment,”
Ciulla says leaders empower followers by enabling them to recognize the
power that they have, helping them regain the power that they lost, or by
giving them power that they never had. She defines empowerment as instill-
ing the confidence, competence, freedom, and resources for followers to act
on their own judgments. Bogus empowerment ensues when one or more of
these factors are missing. Some leaders do not trust their followers and/or
are reluctant to give up some of their own power. What Ciulla calls authen-
tic empowerment occurs when leaders trust employees and are honest with
them about the scope and kind of power they have. Empowering followers
gives them responsibility for what they do, but it does not make leaders any
less responsible for their actions or the actions of their followers.
Two brief selections from Aristotle’s Politics support this point. Aris-
totle again discusses power in regards to followers, or in his case, citizens.
Aristotle tells us that the state should be set up to make citizens happy, and
that educating and cultivating virtue in leaders and followers offers the best
means for achieving this end. In the first article from Chapter 4 Book V of
Politics, Aristotle says leaders and citizens should know how to command
and how to obey – they learn how to lead by learning how to follow. In the
course of the discussion, Aristotle contrasts the citizen, or free man, with
slaves and women using comments that may be offensive to the modern
reader (and probably a few ancient ones too). However, he makes the point
that the morality of “free” followers or citizens is not much different from
that of leaders and that leaders and followers should work as partners in the
endeavors of the state.
We include Aristotle’s second article because it describes how differ-
ent kinds of leaders exercise power. Aristotle maintains that justice requires
some notion of equality between leaders and followers, regardless of the way
that a state is organized. He also asserts that you cannot have a just state
without just citizens, and if leaders want virtuous and responsible followers,
they must give them some discretion and power.
Self-Interest and Altruism in Leadership
In this section, we turn to an ethical challenge inherent in the idea of a good

leader and the romance of leadership. We expect leaders to look after the
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xxxiv Introduction
interests of followers and put followers’ interests first. When we choose a

leader, we assume that he or she will look after the greatest happiness or
good of people in businesses, countries, communities, and organizations.
In part we know this simply because of how disappointed and angry people
get when leaders put their self-interests ahead of the interests of their fol-
lowers. Transparency International, the NGO that studies corruption around
the world, enshrines this idea in its definition of corruption. They define
corruption as “the abuse of entrusted power for personal gain” (http://www.
transparency.org/). In short, when we entrust leaders and institutions with
power, we expect them to use it for us, not for them.
Plato observes that being an ethical leader is not in one’s self-interest.
So if this is true then why would anyone want to lead? In Arnold M. Ludwig’s
provocative article, “Why Rulers Rule,” he argues that people are ultimately
motivated to lead for their own interests, even when those interests are the
same as that of their followers. Using historical and evolutionary studies he
argues that competition and sex motivate men (as in “males”) to lead. The
idea that leaders should be altruists or utilitarians does not enter into the
equation. Ludwig maintains that people do not need particular training or
superior intellect to be leaders because charisma and the ability to intimidate
and manipulate others usually determine who emerges as a leader. This arti-
cle makes a number of claims that readers might find repugnant, especially
those that compare human leaders with alpha-male gorillas. Ludwig agrees
that human leaders are usually morally superior to gorillas but says this fact
merely confirms his argument about the evolutionary nature of leadership.
When we look at the history of leadership, we cannot ignore parts of Lud-
wig’s description. Thugs and charismatic leaders play a prominent role in
shaping history and in leadership today. Furthermore, we cannot deny that
male leaders have and still do sometimes use and abuse their power for sex.
In a similar vein, we turn to a selection from Thomas Hobbes’ clas-
sic work Leviathan. Hobbes says that human beings are equal in that they
are self-interested and want similar things in life. As a result of this, without
leaders and government, we would be in a constant state of war with each
other. This state of war, based on selfish behavior, would not serve anyone’s
interest because there would be no commerce, arts, or society. In this world,
life would be “solitary, nasty, brutish, and short.” According to Hobbes, we
turn over some of our power and freedom to leaders because they are better
able to ensure our ability to pursue our own interests.
While Hobbes’ notion of a social contract is a political idea, it also
captures the implicit idea that we give leaders power so that they will use
that power for us. According to Rabindra Nath Kanungo and Manuel Men-
donca, the only way to ensure leader role effectiveness is by engaging in
altruistic acts that reflect leaders’ desires to benefit others. They define altru-
ism as “others before myself,” and understand it as both a moral and a practi-
cal principle of leadership. An altruistic leader inspires trust and reciprocal
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Introduction xxxv
behavior in followers, which helps groups of people work together to reach

common goals. Kanungo and Mendonca argue that effective leaders are moti-
vated by their need for altruism. This need to put others first compels leaders
to empower and encourage followers and unite them under a shared vision.
Kanungo and Mendonca believe that the quality of altruism is the secret
to effective leadership. This provocative idea may be somewhat simplistic,
because as Price points out, a leader might engage in altruistic behavior but
have a mistaken sense of morality – for example, some terrorists are altruists.
The last article in this section is about the ancient Greek and Chi-
nese virtue of reverence. Its author, Paul Woodruff, defines reverence as the
virtue that keeps leaders from acting like gods and becoming tyrants. Using
a variety of contemporary and historical examples, he illustrates the bad
things that happen to leaders who fail to practice this virtue. Reverence does
not address self-interest or altruism per se. It focuses on leaders’ ability to
respect followers because leaders see themselves and their followers as parts
of a larger whole, and they both share a devotion to some higher set of
ideals. As a mixture of humility and respect, reverence stands as a check
against destructive over-confidence that results in unethical and ineffective
leadership. Reverence requires leaders to listen to their followers and this
inoculates leaders against becoming isolated or thinking that they are spe-
cial. Drawing on Confucius’ writing, Woodruff emphasizes the importance of
ceremonies as a way of cultivating reverence and instilling respect in leaders
and followers for each other and the larger picture to which they belong.
The Role of Trust, Care, Virtue, and Duty
This section offers a sampling of literature that engages specific moral con-
cepts and theories to characterize ethical and effective leadership. Perhaps
no work exemplifies the age-old interest in leadership ethics better than the
first article in this section by the Egyptian sage and advisor to King Djedkare
Isesi, Ptah-Hotep. Written between 2400 and 2300 BCE, The Instruction of
Ptah-Hotep is one of the oldest surviving papyrus manuscripts. Some of Ptah-
Hotep’s advice sounds quite contemporary. He observes that the people do not
overthrow gracious, truthful, law abiding, kind, and just leaders. Ptah-Hotep
highlights the importance of humility and reminds leaders to remember their
roots. Some of his comments about humility echo Woodruff’s description of
the virtue of reverence (Volume I, 22). According to Ptah-Hotep, powerful
leaders should be admired for their knowledge and kindness. They should
not lavish favors on others – or in modern terms, depend on transactional
leadership – and they should do their jobs conscientiously.
Our next selection looks at another moral concept that seems embed-
ded in the idea of leadership, care. Ciulla uses the story of Nero “fiddling”
while Rome burns to illustrate why leaders have to be in the right place
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xxxvi Introduction
during a crisis to demonstrate care and fill the needs of their followers. We
still use the expression “Nero fiddled while Rome burned” to describe the
callous and feckless behavior of leaders. In this article, Ciulla shows how a
leader’s location during a crisis serves as a physical or symbolic representa-
tion of care. As many of the articles in this volume indicate, people expect
leaders to look after them. Care means attending people’s needs, concern
for their welfare, and attention to their problems. It is also a feeling. Ciulla
uses examples of leaders who are criticized or thrown out of office because
they failed to be in the right place during a crisis. These leaders refused to
go to the site of the crisis, stayed on vacation, or failed to return to their
office. Ciulla says we cannot expect all leaders to feel care for their follow-
ers; however, leaders have a duty to care and show that they are attentive
to followers’ needs in times of crisis. One way they do this is by being in the
right place at the right time.
Leaders who have virtues such as kindness, care, and justice possess
what Alejo Sison calls “moral capital.” He says that moral capital consists of
character and excellence in regard to the context in which a person operates.
He uses Aristotle’s notion of virtue, which is a combination of the moral and
practical knowledge that we apply to everything we do. Virtues are habits
of behavior, such as honesty and courage. We do not say that someone is
honest or courageous unless they practice honesty and behave courageously.
According to Aristotle, the end of life (and by extension leadership) aims
at eudaimonia or happiness in terms of human flourishing. Virtues are par-
ticularly useful moral concepts for the study of leadership. They comprise
the way people do things – they are habits that we learn from leaders and
other role models in society. Unlike values, which are things we believe are
important, you cannot have a virtue without practicing it– you are what you
do. Hence, the virtues of a leader are observable. Like Ptah-Hotep, Sison says
that leaders need moral capital, which includes wisdom, virtue, and goodwill
to influence followers and to cultivate virtues in followers. For Sison, moral-
ity is a source of power and influence for leaders.
The last article in this volume focuses on duty as the ethical core of
leadership. Drawing on the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, Norman
Bowie creates a model of a leader who operates according to Kant’s strict
set of moral requirements. Bowie compares and contrasts his Kantian notion
of leadership with other leadership theories. Kant’s theory of ethics rests on
respect for the dignity of all human beings. He says that all humans have an
autonomous will and should be treated as ends and not used as means to an
end. Kant’s categorical imperative states that we must act on the principles
that we would want everyone to act upon, so leaders are not exceptions to
the rules. Bowie tells us that a Kantian leader would have an obligation to
develop the autonomy of followers, which would entail giving followers the
freedom to make their own rational choices. In another formulation of Kant’s
categorical imperative, Kant says that all people should behave as if they live
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Introduction xxxvii
in a “kingdom of ends.” This means everyone in a society makes and follows

the rules of morality through their interactions with each other. Bowie con-
cludes that a Kantian leader would not want obedient followers. Such leaders
would aim to develop free, empowered, and responsible followers. Although
framed around a different set of assumptions, Bowie’s Kantian description of
a leader resembles many of the goals of transforming leadership.
Conclusion
As we have seen in Bowie’s article and the others in this volume, even though
the approach of each author is different, there is a quite a bit of overlap
concerning the issues at stake in leadership ethics. This theoretical hetero-
geneity is imperative in a new field because it stimulates research and ideas
from across the academic and philosophic spectrum. We hope that by putting
so many disciplines to work in one field we will see the kind of cross-pol-
lination that leads to real progress in leadership ethics. The most promis-
ing future research will combine historical insights and philosophic analysis
with empirical studies that describe how leaders behave and are perceived
to behave. Lastly, we should keep in mind the fact that leadership ethics is
about more than academic research. Progress in this field has the potential to
influence the way we select and develop leaders, who in turn affect the way
all of us live and work.
Joanne B. Ciulla
References
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Bass, B. M. (1998). The ethics of transformational leadership. In J. B. Ciulla (Ed.), Ethics,
the heart of leadership (pp. 169–192). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Bass, B. M. and Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational
leadership behavior. Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 181–217.
Habermas, J. (1987). The theory of communicative action (vol. II): Lifeworld and System (T.
McCarthy, Trans.). Boston: Beacon Press.
Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership development. In K. S. Cameron, J.
E. Dutton & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 241–261). San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Price, T. L. (2003). The ethics of authentic transformational leadership. The Leadership
Quarterly, 14(1), 67–81.
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. (2008).
Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory based measure. Journal
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Patricia H. Werhane is the Wicklander Chair of Business Ethics, Managing Director

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Los Angeles | London | New Delhi

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Printed on paper from sustainable resources

ISBN: 978-1-4462-5735-7 (set of three volumes)

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Volume I: Theoretical Aspects of Leadership Ethics

Part I: Foundational Questions about Ethics and the Meaning of

FM-Vol-I.indd v 1/22/2013 2:19:27 PM

12. Selections from The Prince 281

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Volume II: Behavioral and Psychological

Part I: Ethics and the Leader Role

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42. Leadership, Followership, and Evolution: Some Lessons from

Volume III: Leadership Ethics, Contexts

Part I: Leadership Ethics in the Context of Gender, Ethnicity and

FM-Vol-I.indd viii 1/22/2013 2:19:28 PM

56. Satyagraha 111

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Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to

1. ‘Leadership Ethics: Mapping the Territory’, Joanne B. Ciulla

2. ‘The Romance of Leadership’, James R. Meindl, Sanford B. Ehrlich and

4. ‘Justice and the Leader’, Plato

5. ‘Selections from Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate

6. ‘The Structure of Moral Leadership’, James MacGregor Burns

FM-Vol-I.indd xi 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

7. ‘Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct

8. ‘Authentic Leadership: A Review of the Literature and Research Agenda’,

9. ‘Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future’, Nicola M. Pless and

11. ‘The Moral Aspect of Leadership’, John W. Gardner

12. ‘Selections from The Prince’, Niccolo Machiavelli (Translated by W.K.

FM-Vol-I.indd xii 1/20/2013 5:35:53 PM

13. ‘Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands’, Michael Walzer

14. ‘“The First Sermon” and “The Synopsis of Truth”’, Buddha

15. ‘The Bathsheba Syndrome: The Ethical Failure of Successful Leaders’,

16. ‘Abuse, Privilege, and the Conditions of Responsibility for Leaders’,

17. ‘Leadership and the Problem of Bogus Empowerment’, Joanne B. Ciulla

18. ‘Book III, Chapter 4 and Book V, Chapter 9 of Politics’, Aristotle

19. ‘Why Rulers Rule’, Arnold M. Ludwig

20. ‘Leviathan (Chapter XIII: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind, as

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Leviathan, (Project Guttenberg E-book, 2009) #3207, Guttenberg

21. ‘Ethical Dimensions in Leadership Motivation’, Rabindra Nath Kanungo

22. ‘The Reverent Leader’, Paul Woodruff

26. ‘A Kantian Theory of Leadership’, Norman Bowie

27. ‘The Basis of Authority’, Mary Parker Follett

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29. ‘Performances’, Erving Goffman

30. ‘Taylor, Schmidt and Scientific Management’, Frederick Winslow Taylor

32. ‘Managing Toxic Leaders: Dysfunctional Patterns in Organizational

33. ‘Narcissism and Leadership: An Object Relations Perspective’,

34. ‘The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between Leader and Subordinate’,

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36. ‘The Ethics of Charismatic Leadership: Submission or Liberation?’,

37. ‘Ethical Challenges in the Leader-Follower Relationship’, Edwin P. Hollander

38. ‘Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority’, Stanley