Neuroscience - NEU242

Lecture 7

Somatic Sensations

Dr. Sulagna Dutta

Assistant Professor (Physiology)
Basic Medical Sciences Department
College of Medicine
 Somatic Sensations and Pathways

Learning Outcome:
1. Classify somatic sensations and their receptors.
2. Enumerate the characteristics of sensory pathways.
3. Explain the cerebral processing of the sensory signals.
• Somatic sensations are sensory signals from the
skin, muscles, bones, tendons, and joints that are
processed by the central nervous system.
• These sensations allow us to perceive touch,
temperature, pain, and the position and movement
of our body parts (proprioception).
• They are essential for our interaction with the
environment and are mediated by the
somatosensory system, which includes sensory
receptors and neural pathways that relay
information from the periphery of the body to the
brain.
— Sandra Blakeslee, The Body Has a Mind of its Own
• Exteroception: replays sensory information about the body's interaction with the external environment.
(Patestas, 137) The ability to perceive the world outside the self. (Blakeslee, 212)

• Interoception: relays information about the body's internal state. (Patestas, 137) The ability to read
and interpret sensations arising from the "viscera" and internal tissues of (the) body. (Blakeslee, 213)

• Nociception: somatic sense of pain. (Blakeslee, 8) The stimulus-response process involving the
stimulation of peripheral pain-carrying nerve fibers and the transmission of impulses along peripheral
nerves of the “central nervous system,” where the stimulus is perceived as pain. (NCIt)

• Proprioception: perception of the position and movement of the body, limbs, and head. (Kolb, 371)
(The) sense (of) things inside our own bodies, especially the positions of our joints and muscles in space
and the tension they are under. Essential for coordinated movement.
 Sensory System
• The sensory system is the part of the nervous system
responsible for detection, transmission, and processing of
sensory information about events occurring at the internal and
the external environments.
• It consists of Receptors, Afferents, Tracts & Sensory cortex
• Sensation carried by a somatic afferent neuron is known
as a somatic sensation whereas a sensation carried by an
autonomic afferent neuron is known as visceral sensation.
• The sensory information obtained after arrival of action potentials
to the brain include:
 Type of sensation (modality)
 Site of stimulation (locality)
 Strength of stimulation (intensity)
 Duration of stimulation
 Somatosensory Receptors

• Sensory receptors are found at the

peripheral ends of afferent neurons.
• They respond to sufficient
stimulation (>threshold) by
generating action potentials that are
transmitted through afferent
neurons towards the brain.
• The stimuli that activate the sensory
receptors include various forms of
energy; therefore, receptors act as
transducers that convert energy into
action potentials.
 Somatosensory Receptors in Skin
Pacinian corpuscles:
• Sensitive to deep pressure and vibration.
• Located deeper in the dermis or subcutaneous tissue.
• They have a layered, onion-like structure.
Ruffini's endings:
• Respond to sustained pressure and skin stretch.
• Help in the perception of object slippage and joint angle
change.
• Located in the deeper layers of the skin.
Krause's end bulbs:
• Sensitive to cold temperatures.
• Concentrated in mucous membranes like the lips and the
external genitalia.
Meissner's corpuscle:
• Sensitive to light touch and changes in texture.
• Located in the upper dermis, especially in fingertips and lips.
• Provide detailed information about an object's surface.
Merkel disks:
• Sensitive to light touch and pressure.
• Located in the upper layers of the skin, especially
fingertips.
• Enable fine detail resolution when feeling an object.
Root hair plexus:
• A network of nerve fibers surrounding the base of each
hair follicle.
• Sensitive to light touch; detects hair movement.
Free nerve endings:
• Distributed throughout the skin and mucous membranes.
• Sensitive to pain, temperature, and crude touch.
• Function in the sensation of itch and tickle.
 Proprioception
• Proprioception is a key neuromuscular sense under the broader
category of somatosensation, which also includes mechanoreception,
thermoreception, nociception, and equilibrioception. Sense of balance

• It originates from the peripheral nervous system (PNS), providing

feedback to the central nervous system (CNS) for both reflexive actions
at the spinal cord level and higher processing in the cerebral cortex.

Sub-modalities of proprioception include:

• Joint Position Sense: Ability to perceive and reproduce joint angles
• Kinaesthesia: Awareness of body motion (direction, speed, and timing)
• Sense of Force: Ability to reproduce a specific level of force,
influenced by feedback from Golgi Tendon Organs and muscle
spindles.
• Sense of Change in Velocity: Ability to detect vibrations, using the
same type of nerve fibers as general proprioception.
 Excitability of Receptors
• Stimulation of the receptor results in receptor potential.

• Unlike action potentials, receptor potentials

are:

 Localized: not propagated along axons

of neurons as action potentials.

 Graded: increase or decrease in

amplitude depending on strength of
stimuli (their

 excitability is not all or none as in

action potentials).

 Can be summated: can be added

together to reach sufficient magnitude
and cause action potential).
 Receptor Potential
Receptor potential, also known as a graded potential, is the initial change in membrane potential of a sensory
receptor. It occurs in response to a stimulus acting on the receptor. This stimulus can be mechanical (as in touch
receptors), chemical (as in taste or smell receptors), or thermal (as in temperature receptors), among others. The
receptor potential is a localized change in the receptor's membrane potential, which does not itself propagate
along the nerve.

Mechanism: When a stimulus is applied, it causes specific ion channels on the receptor's membrane to open or
close, leading to a change in the membrane's permeability to certain ions. This change in permeability causes a
movement of ions across the membrane, altering the membrane potential.

Characteristics: Receptor potentials are graded, meaning their amplitude is proportional to the strength of the
stimulus. A stronger stimulus causes a larger change in membrane potential.
 Generator Potential
Generator potential is a type of receptor potential that occurs specifically in sensory neurons. It is the change in
membrane potential that is sufficient to generate an action potential if it reaches a certain threshold level.
Generator potentials are crucial in the process of transducing sensory information into a form that can be
processed by the nervous system.

Mechanism: Similar to receptor potentials, generator potentials are generated by the opening or closing of ion
channels in response to a stimulus. However, if the generator potential is strong enough to reach the threshold, it
triggers an action potential in the neuron.

Propagation: Unlike the receptor potential, which is localized, the action potential generated from a sufficient
generator potential is propagated along the neuron's axon, eventually leading to neurotransmitter release at
synapses and communication with other neurons.
What we could understand so far..

Somatic sensations, such as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception, rely on

the conversion of physical or chemical stimuli into electrical signals by sensory
receptors located throughout the body. The process involves:

• Stimulus Detection: Sensory receptors detect specific forms of physical or chemical energy.
• Transduction: The energy from the stimulus is converted into a receptor potential in the
receptor cell. If the receptor is part of a sensory neuron and the potential is strong enough, it
becomes a generator potential.
• Signal Propagation: If the generator potential reaches the threshold, it triggers an action
potential that travels along sensory neurons to the central nervous system.
• Integration: The brain processes the incoming signals, leading to the perception of somatic
sensations.
 Afferents

• The afferent neurons (sensory neurons)

carry nerve impulses from the receptors or

sense organs towards the central nervous

system.

• They enter the spinal cord through the dorsal

roots and their cell bodies are located in the

dorsal root ganglia.

 Afferent Neurons
According to their degree of myelination, afferent neurons can be classified into:

1. Thick myelinated (Type A) (Rapidly conducting neurons)

Further divided into:
 A alpha (its conduction velocity= 70-120 m/s)
 A beta (its conduction velocity= 30-70 m/s)
Specialized receptors (for proprioception &
 A gamma (its conduction velocity= 15-30 m/s)
touch) send their impulses via type Aβ fibers
 A delta (its conduction velocity= 12-30 m/s)
whereas free nerve endings (for pain and
2. Thin myelinated (Type B)
visceral sensation) send their impulses via
 Less rapidly conducting neurons
type A delta or C fibers.
 conduction velocity= 3-15 m/s

3. Non myelinated (Type C)

 Slowly conducting neurons

 Its conduction velocity= 0.5 -2 m/s

 Type of Type of Afferent Receptor Type Conduction Fiber Type Pathway to CNS
Sensation Neuron Velocity

Touch Mechanoreceptors Merkel cells, Fast Aβ fibers Dorsal column-

Meissner's medial lemniscal
corpuscles, pathway
Pacinian
corpuscles,
Ruffini endings

Pain Nociceptors Free nerve endings Slow to moderate Aδ fibers (fast Spinothalamic tract
pain), C fibers
(slow pain)

Temperature Thermoreceptors Free nerve endings Slow to moderate Aδ fibers (cold), C Spinothalamic tract
fibers (warm)

Proprioception Mechanoreceptors Muscle spindles, Fast Aα fibers Dorsal column-

Golgi tendon medial lemniscal
organs pathway and
spinocerebellar
tracts
There are two main pathways for somatic sensation
Transmits signals from receptors to the spinal cord or directly
leading from “somatosensory receptors” through the to the brain in certain cases.
“thalamus,” to the “primary somatosensory cortex.”

Contains neurons that either directly ascend to the brain or

• Anterolateral Pathway (Spinothalamic): synapse within the spinal cord to second-order neurons.

conveys pain, temperature sense, and crude touch.

(Blumenfeld, 276) Has a 'somatotopic' organization Acts as a relay station. All sensory information (except smell)
passes through here before reaching the cortex.
in which the feet are most laterally represented
(Blumenfeld, 280)
Receives processed sensory information from the thalamus.
• Dorsal/Posterior Column (Medial Responsible for processing somatosensory information.

Lemniscal) Pathway: conveys proprioception,

vibration sense, and fine, discriminative touch.
(Blumenfeld, 276)
 TEMPERATURE, TOUCH, PAIN

ANTEROLATERAL SYSTEM – spinothalamic tract

FINE AND DISCRIMINITIVE TOUCH

DORSAL COLUMN SYSTEM – medial lemniscus

• Sensory Receptors: Detect pain, temperature, and crude touch.
• First Sensory Neuron: arise from the sensory receptors in the periphery, enter
the spinal cord, ascend 1-2 vertebral levels, and synapse at the tip of the dorsal
horn (substantia gelatinosa).
• Second-Order Neuron: carry the sensory information from the substantia
gelatinosa to the thalamus. After synapsing with the first order neurones, these
fibres decussate within the spinal cord, and then form two distinct tracts:
 Crude touch and pressure fibres – enter the anterior spinothalamic tract.
 Pain and temperature fibres – enter the lateral spinothalamic tract.
Although they are functionally distinct, these tracts run alongside each other,
and they can be considered as a single pathway. They travel superiorly within
the spinal cord, synapsing in the thalamus.
• Thalamus: The third order neurones carry the sensory signals, ascend from the
ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, travel through the internal capsule
and terminate at the sensory cortex.
• Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Processes the information.
• The gray matter of the spinal cord that forms the dorsal horn is sub-divided into 6 laminae (from I to VI)
with I being the most superficial and VI the deepest.

• Lamina II and part of lamina III make up the substantia gelatinosa, a lightly stained area near the top of
each dorsal horn
• Synapses of the first order neurons of the spinothalamic
tract with the second order neurons at these laminae are
distributed as follows:

 Type C afferents (carrying pain & temperature),

synapse at laminae I & II

 Type Aδ afferents (carrying pain & cold), synapse at

laminae I & IV

 Type Aδ afferents (carrying mechanoreceptor

sensation) synapse at III & IV

 Type Aβ afferents (carrying mechanoreceptor

sensation) at laminae III, IV, V & VI
Function: Transmits sensations of fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination, and
proprioception from the body to the brain.
Pathway: From sensory receptors → dorsal columns of spinal cord → medulla (via gracile
and cuneate tracts) → medial lemniscus → thalamus → primary somatosensory cortex in
parietal lobe.
First-Order Neurons: peripheral nerves to the medulla oblongata
 Signals from the upper limb (T6 and above) – travel in the fasciculus cuneatus (the
lateral part of the dorsal column). They then synapse in the nucleus cuneatus of the
medulla oblongata.
 Signals from the lower limb (below T6) – travel in the fasciculus gracilis (the medial part
of the dorsal column). They then synapse in the nucleus gracilis of the medulla
oblongata.
Second-Order Neurons: From dorsal column nuclei (gracile and cuneate) in the medulla,
their axons cross to the opposite side (decussation) and ascend as the medial lemniscus to
the thalamus.
Third-Order Neurons: In the thalamus (ventral nuclear group) these neurons relay
information to the somatosensory cortex.
MEDIAL LEMNISCUS – EPICRITIC SENSIBILITY
 SOMATOTOPY IN THE SPINAL CORD

The somatotopic arrangement is depicted with the outline of a

human figure, often referred to as a "homunculus," to illustrate
which body parts correspond to specific nuclei.
 Gracile Nucleus: Receives sensory information from the
lower part of the body (below T6), including touch and
proprioception, via the dorsal columns of the spinal cord.
 Cuneate Nucleus: Processes sensory information from the
upper body (above T6), such as touch and proprioception,
also via the dorsal columns.
 Spinal Trigeminal Tract & Nucleus: Carries pain,
temperature, and crude touch from the face to the brainstem.
This pathway is analogous to the spinothalamic tract for the
body.
The sensory cortex is tasked with processing
somatosensory information, which includes sensations
such as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception

Location of the Sensory Cortex

• The primary somatosensory cortex is situated in the
postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe.
• This positioning is strategic for integrating sensory
information received from various parts of the body.
• The parietal lobe itself is crucial for processing sensory
information and is located just posterior to the frontal lobe,
which is responsible for executing movements and higher
cognitive functions.
 The Somatosensory System is Divided Into
Primary and Secondary Areas
SOMATOSENSORY
S1: Primary Somatosensory Cortex CORTEX

The primary somatosensory cortex (S1) is located in the postcentral gyrus of

the parietal lobe, immediately posterior to the central sulcus that separates
the parietal and frontal lobes. The S1 region is essential for processing
somatosensory information related to touch, including aspects such as:
• Shape: The ability to discern the form of objects that come into contact THALAMUS

with the skin.

• Size: Determining the size of objects through touch.
• Texture: Sensing the surface quality of objects.
Neurons in the S1 region are arranged in a somatotopic manner, meaning
there is a spatial mapping of the body's surface in this area, often referred to
as the "somatosensory homunculus.“ (explained in the Slide No. 30)
S2: Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
The secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) is located in the parietal lobe, typically within the
upper bank of the Sylvian fissure. S2 plays a crucial role in the processing of sensory information
beyond the initial identification of touch characteristics. Its functions include:

• Spatial processing: Understanding the spatial relationships of objects being touched

• Tactile memory: Storing and retrieving information about tactile experiences.
• Sensory Integration: S2 is involved in integrating sensory information from the primary
somatosensory cortex with inputs from other sensory modalities, contributing to our
perception of the environment and our interactions with it.
 Processing in the Sensory Cortex
Thalamus as Relay Station:
• Receives sensory signals from the environment.
• Acts as a relay station, directing information to the
sensory cortex.
• Filters and directs signals to appropriate regions for
further processing.

Somatotopic Organization:
• The sensory cortex has a "cortical homunculus"
arrangement.
• Each area corresponds to different body parts.
• Adjacent areas in the cortex process sensations from
connected body parts (e.g., hands next to arms).
• Areas for body parts requiring precise processing (e.g.,
hands, face) have larger representation in the cortex.

Interpretation of Sensory Signals:

• Sensory cortex determines the type of sensation
(touch, pain, temperature), its intensity, and location.
• This interpretation allows for appropriate reactions to
environmental stimuli (e.g., withdrawing from heat,
feeling a breeze).
 Coding of Somatosensory Information

Sensory information reaches the brain as action potentials, enabling the discrimination of the sensation's
type, site, intensity, and duration.

Modality: Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

•Key Concept: Each sensation type has a dedicated receptor, afferent nerve, sensory tract, and cortical
area.
•Principle: The sensation perceived matches the receptor's specialization, regardless of the stimulation point
along the pathway.

Locality: Law of Projection

•Principle: Sensations are always referred to the receptor's location, even if the pathway is stimulated
elsewhere.
•Clinical Insight: Phantom limb sensations in amputees illustrate this principle, with nerve tangles
(neuromas) at the amputation site causing referred sensations.
 Coding of Somatosensory Information

Intensity: Discrimination Mechanism

•Mechanism: The brain distinguishes stimulation intensity through the number of receptors activated and the
frequency of action potentials.
•Interpretation: Variations in receptor stimulation and action potential frequency signal changes in the
intensity of stimulation.

Duration: Temporal Discrimination

•Process: Duration perception is based on the timing of receptor activation, from energy gain to loss.
•Significance: This allows the brain to recognize the length of a stimulus.

Thus, the coding of somatosensory information involves complex processes that allow the brain to
accurately interpret type, location, intensity, and duration of sensations.
 Practice Questions

1. Explain the different somatosensory receptors.

2. Describe the route and functions of

(a) medial lemniscus pathway

(b) spinothalamic pathway

3. Explain the processing of somatosensory signals by the cerebral cortex.

 Learning References

• Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th Edition,

McGraw-Hill Education 2019
• Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology,13th
edition, Elsevier,2016

Audio-visual references:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vrmKqH8d1RM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hDoO0wcq8Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jf2l9ma6SM