AESEC

ENJEUX SOCIO-ECONOMIQUES CONTEMPORAINS
Anglo-American relations : a special relationship?

Beginning of the “special relationship”
Expression invented by Winston Churchill
They share one of the longest alliances in modern history

Not only military or economic
Different bonds:
- Political
- Diplomatic
- Cultural (same language, history and philosophy)
- Economic (trade, agreements)
- Military (research, nuclear weapons, bases)
- Historical
March 5, 1946 = Churchill’s speech (“Fulton Speech”), Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri
- Divided the Iron Curtain (West part lead by US and East by Soviet Union)
- Coined (gave a nickname) to the US-UK relationship: “a special relationship”
- Thought it was a key to victory over communism and totalitarian regimes
- Central (crucial) to the way these two states lead their countries
- Comes from historical closeness, same language, emotional history since WW2, most leaders
are close knitted
- Official and Symbolic
Mentioned in pop culture (movies…)

- A Special Relationship
- Love Actually
- The Crown
News like to mention this relationship that is not that special anymore
But on the website of the US Embassy in the UK, they use that expression to show that the
relationship is still special due to stuff they still share (language,…)
KEY QUESTIONS for the semester: Has there been such a

thing as a special relationship between the US and GB? And if
it actually exists to what extent has it been significant?
3 questions
1. Why have GB and the US often stuck and acted together since WW2?
2. Have their common language and shared cultural traits had an impact on their relationship?
3. Have personal relationships between the statesmen and stateswomen of both countries
mattered at all? (cf: P.WILKINSON: “One way of examining international relations is through
the role of unique individuals”)
COURSE SCHEDULE
1. Introduction : Anglo-US Relations / From Independence to WW2
2. WW2 and the birth of the SR
3. 1945-1956 : beginning of the Cold War
4. 1956-1979 : Britain’s decline
5. 80s, a spectacular revival
6. The turn of the century (end of the Cold War and beginning of the War on terror)
7. What’s next for the SR, Brexit and new geopolitical realities
MARIE MOREAU PAGE 1 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

EXAM : QCM 30min / 30 questions (à points négatifs)
From US Independence to WW2

Anglo-US common historical grounds: English colonies in the
New World
Based on colonialism
- Find gold and new resources
- Trace new trade routes, new paths (to reach Asia easier (India which was South America))
- Religious reason : convert people to Christianism, they were convinced that their mission was
to civilise the populations
- Political Authority: Expend the power of the King / Queen (stronger than opponents), enlarge
the kingdom, reach a bigger influence. More colonies = more soldiers… easier to win wars
“The Empire on which the sun never sets”

At its peak : 1/4 of the world territories belong to the British Empire
Colonies all over the world
The Thirteen colonies

- Future US
- 1585 : First failed attempt : the Roanoke Island colony
- In Virginia, after Queen Elizabeth I « the Virgin Queen »
- 117 colonists sent out under John White
- After going back to GB to get food but when came back, island was deserted
Virginia: the first colony
- An economic venture: Royal Charter: right to “dig, mine and search for all manner of mines of
gold, silver and copper”
- Mostly sent men to WORK and MAKE MONEY
- 1607: foundation of Jamestown (named after James I), first settlement in the US
- Faced many hardships (diseases, no food…) but vastly supported by England (goods and
colonists), the latter were helped by Native Americans that showed them how to hunt and grow
tobacco plantations (also corn)
- Economic colony: based on trade and commerce
- Sold it to Europe = the colony became successful
- They didn't find gold, TOBACCO made their success
Founding of New England
- Religious colonies
- New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut
- 1620: arriving of Puritans (Pilgrim Fathers) in Plymouth, Massachusetts
- They didn't like the church of England, they were more rigorous so they ran away, fled
persecution
- Boat « The Mayflower »
- Particularities of NE: created for religious reasons (which was the center of everything : involved
in a church to vote, had to attend church, no alcohol…)
- Be able to read the Bible (women, children…) : creation schools, libraries…
- « Protestant Work Ethics » how US society works = work hard to deserve what you get, a few
lucky ones would be saved by God without knowing who, the most desservants, encourages
capitalism
The South with these colonies developed slavery for the crops…
In the North not good weather for these types of crops, would construct banks…

- 1607, Virginia (Jamestown) : first one

- 1732, Georgia : last one, created to protect US from the Spanish in Florida
- Northern colonies on working, universities, salaried work…
- Southern colonies : slavery…
- 13 colonies : declared their independence from Britain on 4th of July 1776
- British Empire = powerful and very influential
- Unbalanced relationship
B. Anglo-US common cultural grounds

British influence on US institutions
- very different but similar aspects
- War of Independence 1776-1781
- They wanted to form an independent country
- They fought, hated each other during the War
- But the independence was ok to Britain
- US colonists attached to their British legacy
- Proud of being British
- They didn't want to change everything
- Willing to be treated as free British subjects
- Continuity, lacked British institutions, just didn't like the crown
- US Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776
- Not a break, an evolution from the British institutions
- « brethren » = brother
- English parliamentary tradition
- « No taxation without representation »
- If they want to impose taxes to the colonies, they have to be represented in parliament
- US colonists dont vote, it wasn't fair
- Drew some of their inspiration from British philosophy (John Locke)
- When the right of the citizens are not respected, violated by the government, the go citizens
have the right and duty to rebel against the government or they can demand a change of the
government, they want democracy
- US Constitution March 4, 1789
- Several definitions and values of the institutions
- The government has to be limited
- Rejection of absolutism
- Division of power
- 3 branches : executive (presidence), judiciary (courts…), legislative (Congress)
- Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments of the US Constitution) partly inspired by the 1215
Magna Carta and the 1689 Bill of Rights
- 1st : freedom of speech, religion…
- 2nd : guns
- Magna Carta is the first document that says that everybody must obey laws
Legal common grounds : Common Law
- they share this legal system
- 2 systems in the world : Common Law and Civil Law
- Civil Law comes from the Roman Empire (Continental Europe, 23 out of 25 members of the
European Union)
- Common Law originates in Medieval England (England + former members of the British
Empire)…
Language
Winston Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, 1956-1958
- « The break between the two countries made by the American revolution was neither complete
nor final »

C. Tensions and frictions before 1939

Criticism and Scepticism towards Britain
- Came from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson (one of the Pilgrim Fathers, contributed to write
the Constitution, there is also Alexander Hamilton, George Washington…)
- « They have been taught from their cradles to despise, scorn, insult and abuse Us [...] Britain
will never be our Friend, till we are her Master »
War of 1812
- Between US-UK
- Economic war, territory issues
- 1812-1815 : conflict fought over British violations of US maritime rights
- Blocked goods
- Conflict on the Border between British Canada and the US
- US greatly suffered from the conflict
- No special relationship during this period
The American Civil War 1861-1865 (Guerre de Sécession)
- Abraham Lincoln
- Northern VS Southern states over the conflict of slavery
- N = The Union wanted to abolish slavery
- S = The Confederate States wanted to maintain slavery (« peculiar institution »)
- Wanted to become independent
- Tried to secede from the US
- They declared war
- A lot of people died, massacre
Suspicion towards GB in the North
- GB was supposed to remain neutral, not take sides
- Their attitude raised suspicion
- Strong economic ties between GB and the South (linked to how Virginia was created, with all
their crops, trade in Europe…), so GB would choose them
- South seeking French and British support (both refused but it raised suspicions)
- During the Civil War, GB sent troops to Canada, what are they going to do there? Attack the
North?
- GB taking advantage of the situation for economic purposes
- Accused of wishing the South to win
- Better trading partner as independent
- They would sell a lot of tea, tobacco, cotton
- Geopolitical advantage if the South won
- Too strong and successful as one single country getting bigger, threat
- The division would make each part weaker
- The UK still never intervened but the suspicions remained during this period
Economic and commercial rivalry
- Key tension point : British protectionism the US weren't happy about
- The British Empire had a policy of preferring its empire
- If you sell your goods to the Empire you would have better tariffs
- The US wanted free trade in the world though
- They wanted to sell their goods everywhere (India, Australia…)
- Unequal competition until the 2nd half of the 19th century
- Difficult for the US to access the market
- Then it started to shift later as the US became bigger…
The case of the 1930s (The Great Depression) :
- Economy collapsed around the world
- Led many countries to protectionist measures to protect their economy
- Hawley-Smoot Act (1930) : US protectionist measures
- Great tariffs on imported goods so you better buy from the US
- Ottawa imperial conference (1932) : imperial preference in the British Empire

- Tariffs to protect goods from the country instead of imported goods (except from British
colonies)
Conclusion of the tensions :

- No economic cooperation
- No military cooperation (fought against each other except during WW1 : no special relationship
but weren't fighting)
- No geopolitical cooperation, were fighting for territories…
- No special relationship
Conclusion
Disagreements and competition > no special relationship before 1939
Yet, some examples of cooperation : allies during WW1
Obvious cultural grounds that made it possible for a close alliance to develop between the 2
countries > WW2
1. How and why it all began

Roosevelt elected 4 times (only president to achieve this)
(2 terms maximum)
Democratic Party
US President (1933 to 1945)
He was okay to do the war against Germany
- Wanted to side with France and UK against Nazis but the US were very isolationist
- However, FDR was an “Internationalist” (=ready to deal with other countries) which was good
because as a President he’s a Chief Diplomat, a Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
A. FDR and US isolationism

Two strong other players in the US : Congress and the people
President is Chief Diplomat but Congress signs treaties
FDR (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) internationalist =/= Congress and public opinion
They didn't want to be involved in any kind of war
1935 : Neutrality act = no trade with countries at war
Beginning of WW2 : moral support from US to GB but no loan

Closer ties between France and GB
- Neville Chamberlain, UK PM : expected nothing from the US
FDR (Roosevelt) tried to move the US closer to GB
- September 1939 : ‘Cash and Carry’ Agreement (US-UK)
- Creating an alliance lowkey
- The US is allowed to sell military material to GB
- Two conditions
- Pay immediately, no loan and no credit
- GB had to transport the material itself, they had to send boats or planes
- The US didn't want to cross the Ocean (a risk to cross the Nazis)
2 major events that forced the US involvement in WW2

B. June 1940: France surrenders

GB and its Empire was the only one to face the Nazi Germany, left alone
May 1940: Winston Churchill got elected as the Prime Minister
Didn't want to negotiate with the Nazis, the UK would fight them, not surrender
Desperate need from the US
The special relationship was a matter of survival so they dragged the US into WW2, economic
support, Churchill’s objective
The US moves closer to GB

Greater military collaboration
- June 1940 : US sides with GB as a non-belligerent nation
- September 1940 : Destroyers for Bases Agreement : 50 US destroyers given to the UK in
exchange for US access to some British military bases around the world, strategic victory for
the US
- March 1941 to 1945 : Lend-Lease Agreement : war material and funds provided to allied
countries free of immediate charge, GB was the main beneficiary (weapons, warships,
warplanes, ships, dynamites… free of charge), gave a new lifeline to GB
- The people supported Roosevelt, he got elected for the 3rd time in November 1940
C. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (Honolulu, Hawaii)

December 7, 1941 : US naval base sunk, ships destroyed…
- 2404 Americans killed
- The US declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy
The Special relationship during WW2

A. Military collaboration
Feb 1942: Combined Chief of Staff = Joint command for US and British military forces, worked
together, combined forces
- Like a single state or nation, merged
- CCS is one of the highlights of the Special Relationship : reflects how close they were, how
closely they worked together
Couldn't last after the war, they refused
B. Intelligence
Collecting information on enemies, areas, spying…
Only field where GB was the strongest partner (stronger than US)
- US didn't have much experience due to their isolation
- GB taught them and they eventually worked together
- US intelligence service : OSS (Office of Strategic Services > CIA in 1947)
- British intelligence service : SIS (Secret Intelligence Service / MI6)
2 agreements signed in 1940 and 1943 (BRUSA > Britain - USA)
- To increase their cooperation in this field by exchanging personal, creating common process to
collect information…
Enduring feature of the SR

Lasted after the war
They still work in close collaboration in the field of intelligence

C. Nuclear cooperation
GB started it with a research program : Tube Alloys project
Code name to develop nuclear weapons
The US took the lead in nuclear research during the war : Manhattan project
- 1945 : 1st atomic bomb
August 1943 : Quebec Agreement involved
- Churchill
- Roosevelt
- MacKenzie (Canada) present but didn't signed
- To involve GB in the Manhattan project, the US and the UK would join their resources to
develop nuclear weapons
- Mutual consent to use the nuclear bomb, couldn't use the bomb against the other / against
other countries without mutual agreement
D. Making plans for the postwar world

To organize the world after the war
Secure a good place to the UK in the world with the US
1941: Atlantic Charter > US/GB joint declaration

- No value, just thinking
- Blueprint for the new world, what they hoped the world would look like after the war
- No territorial increasings, no more territory gains
- People independent in colonised countries
- No tyranny…
1944 : Bretton Woods conference
- Financial blueprint after WW2
- GB would remain an important player in the new world
- The US is still the stronger one, GB is following, making sure to remain close to the US
- Imposing its agenda, ideas, ideals…
E. Personal friendship
Churchill and Roosevelt really got along, they believed in this SR
Warm feelings
FDR to Churchill > « It is great fun to be in the same decade with you »
After WW2 :
- Framework for diplomatic discussions, exchanges
- Personal memories and shared habits by working together
3. Limitations : tensions and mutual suspicions

They still put their nation interests first
A. Hidden agendas
Shift of power during WW2
- GB was weakened (massive and wealthy Empire in the beginning) / US was strengthened
(Great Depression in the beginning)
- GB spent 1/4 of its wealth, lost power…
- The US took over, ongoing competition for world power, work together during the war was the
goal, they knew the other country’s agenda, grew suspicions on weakening the other
Decline of British influence : seeking to protect its empire

The US on the rise : seeking to extend its influence
Foreign Affairs FR = Foreign Office GB = State Department US
B. Anglo-American bones of contention (sujet de discorde)

Things they fundamentally disagreed on
- British Empire : the US trying to undermine it (reduce their influence to expend their own), GB
to save/preserve it ; US had the upper hand on that
- Cf. Atlantic Charter
- People claim back their power
- Trade : Free trade for the US / Imperial preferences for GB (imposed tariffs on goods coming
from outside the empire)
- Middle East : crucial sphere of influence for GB
- OIL became a more and more important resource
- Competition in the region between both countries
- 1943 : Tehran conference
- Strategy meeting to end the war
- FDR closer to Stalin than to Churchill, objective of FDR, Churchill was disappointed
- Different approaches to the Soviet Union :
- GB worried, difficult to be heard by the US / FDR optimistic, he wanted to stay close to the
USSR
Conclusion
A Special Relationship between both countries during WW2
National self-interest remained important
US established itself as the stronger partner
The Special Relationship after WW2

Beginning of the Cold War (1945-1956)
The Special Relationship was born during WW2 because the US and the UK had a common
enemy : Nazi Germany, Italy, Japan
They created an alliance to survive after the war
To continue to exist, they needed the alliance
The UK wanted the SR but the US wasn't really into it
New common enemy : Communism
1945-1947 : the Special Relationship on the wane (=declining)

Everybody thought that the SR would disappear after the war, no more reason for it to be
maintained, the US wasn't interested I continuing it
The UK were looking for continuing it because they were weakened by the war so the needed the
US support
Change of partners :
- US Roosevelt - Harry Truman (1945) because Roosevelt was sick and died before the end of
the war, was replaced by his Prime Minister
- UK Churchill - Churchill lost the elections to Clement Attlee
The dynamic changed because Truman wasn't as interested as Roosevelt in the SR

A. Pressures on the British economy

Increased the tension between the UK & US, differences between the countries:
- British economy in tatters (ruined, en lambeaux) ≠ US economy booming, created tensions
- The UK expected some help from the US but the opposite happened
- Angered the UK, at the end of the war, Truman (US) put an end to the Lend Lease Agreement
(created by FDR) in August 1945 that concerned the supply of food, oil, war material… UK used
the Agreement to support their economy
- Another thing that angered the UK, they owned/odds the US a lot of money (4 billion), after
WW2 the US started to claim that money back and thought that the US canceled their debt as
a reward for their contribution during the war – started to collect the money again (money they
didn’t have). US refused to cancel British debt.
- UK physically destroyed, bombed and needed to be rebuilt – needed a new loan from the US
– less friendly rate: New loan granted to the UK: $3,75 billion to be repaid in the 50 years at
2% interest rate = caused public outcry in GB. They finished to pay in 2006
- US trying to undermine GB’s imperial protectionism, preferences: detrimental to other
countries. US trying to take advantage of the UK weakness in order to undermine GB’s
imperial preference system – by enforcing the GATT system (General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade) signed in 1947 = that was a result of the Bretton Woods Conference. Put in place a
multilateral system : encourage free trade in as many countries as possible, no longer trading
blocs but countries individually + weakened the British system of imperial preferences
- GB in this SR is the one who lost out – the US partially succeeded in weakening the UK to their
own benefit
B. The dangers of US isolationism

- One of the UK biggest fear: US going back to isolationism as they did after WW1
- US troops were back to the US by 1947 – complete retreat of all its troops in motion. Pushed
forward by the US Republican Congress (president not able to do what he wants because
Parliament belongs to the other party).
- As a consequence: British diplomacy main goal was to convince the US to remain involved
in Europe ! drawing the attention of US leaders to the Soviet threat (US should not go back to
isolationism)
- Churchill’s Fulton speech (1946) : tried to convince the US that Europe had been divided into 2
blocks (the free world / the communist block). « Iron curtain ». The only solution to protect
the world from the Communism threat would come from the SR: united alliance.
- The American public was not convinced, Truman took his distances from Churchill > SR not
doing well…
C. Nuclear let-down
- UK led down by the US
- British research program = « Tube Alloys project » (started nuclear research)
- US started after with their Manhattan project but went faster than the UK: joined the Quebec
Agreement (nuclear cooperation in favour of the US) in 1943
- During the war: Hyde Park Agreement (FDR/Churchill) signed in 1944 – it was signed that the
nuclear cooperation would continue after WW2 + decided they would bomb Japan
someday in the agreement, which is not mandatory, and Truman did not want to share nuclear
program with the UK anymore – he cancelled this agreement – reserve US autonomy.
- US Congress agreed with him and in 1946 signed and voted (by US congress) the McMahon
Act (an Act is a law) = the US cannot communicate any information about nuclear research
to any foreign country (including GB). The British felt betrayed.

D. Palestine
Created a lot of tensions between the US & UK. Before WW2:
- 1922: when the world power was redistributed, GB was awarded a mandate to govern / look
over Palestine by the League of Nations (= Société des Nations) sorte de tuteur pour le pays.
Convenient for the UK, Middle East = a strategic sphere of influence for GB (Egypt, Syria, oil…)
Became complicated for UK & Palestine : 1917 – Balfour declaration (Balfour = Britain Foreign
Secretary). The British government decided to support the establishment of a jewish home
in Palestine. Decision made public by a letter that he wrote (Balfour Declaration) in 1917. The
goal was to satisfy the jews wanting to go back there and the Arab people already living there.
Created a lot of tensions. The jews had two respect the rights of the Arab population. They
decided to put quotas : a small amount of jews could emigrate each year. The jews were
pressuring the British government to increase the quotas and the Arabs were pressuring to limit
the quotas.
- After WW2, Truman administration were great supporters of Jewish immigration to

Palestine and openly supported this immigration. In favour of large Jewish immigration. Put the
British in an even trickier situation because the UK didn't agree on this. Truman knew it could
trigger a rebellion from the Arab people and the UK felt betrayed.
- 1945: Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin wrote to British embassy in Washington DC “I feel that
the Americans have been thoroughly dishonest in handling this problem”. Truman was making
the situation worse and he wasn't even in charge of Palestine, he supported the Zionists.
- 1948: GB withdrew, they couldn't do anything anymore ! birth of the state of Israel. US
undermine the British authority.
2) The Beginning of the cold war and containment

policy – the special relationship revived
A. The cold war begins
The US & UK gradually became on the same page regarding the USSR : reached the conclusion
that it should not be trusted, they wanted to create a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe so the
US and UK wanted at least to protect Western Europe.
Turning point that triggered events:

- 1947: GB supported Greek & Turkish governments against communist insurrections
(facing insurrections from communist group that wanted to take power in these countries)
- GB was in a difficult financial situation, they didn’t have the money to help them
- The US did not want Greece & Turkey to become communist so they stepped in (sending
money, soldiers, military advice...). Voted in Congress to support Greece & Turkey. Western
Block
- Beginning of the Truman Doctrine: a policy of containment (= politique d’endiguement)
against communist expansion, (construire des digues autour du pays pour empêcher au
communisme de s’étendre). The US would provide assistance (political, military, economic
assistance) to all democratic nations that would be under threats from communist forces, the
US would help & intervened = interventionism.
- Reorientation of the US policy : from isolationism to interventionism. US providing assistance to
any country in any continent with any political form of government (excluding communism) to
resist the communist forces = Beginning of the cold war ! Resist progress of communism
around the world

B. US involvement in Europe: GB’s diplomatic priority

- 1945: Labour government elected in GB (Clement Attlee, PM)
- The Special Relationship was the priority of the UK regardless of the political party, everybody
was in favour of the SR (Conservative AND Labor Parties)
- During the war, the SR was the priority of GB because they needed to defend themselves
against Nazi Germany ; after the war, the SR would protect Western Europe, GB… against
Soviet Russia, new common enemy, the SR was a matter or survival again
- They had to convince the US that it was beneficial for them, what do they win of the SR
C. Burden sharing: GB as a useful and necessary ally to the

mighty United States
The US decided to police the world with the UK which seemed a legit ally:
- GB greatly weakened from WW2 (economic, military, strategies, empire declining…) BUT still
very powerful in the world
- 1946:
- 1,5 million British soldiers around the world which is good strategically speaking
- Had the 1st army in Western Europe
- 2nd largest Navy in the world
- London Harbor as the 1st harbour in Europe
- Military bases all around the world thanks to the empire
- One of the five member of the UN (= ONU) security council
- Excellent intelligence service (they taught the Americans so they were better)
- GB developed a nuclear weapon in 1956 becoming one of the few nuclear powers in the world
GB’s world power status important for US Cold War strategy
- US plan = fight and contain the communist threat everywhere, too much work for a single
country
- British imperialism and presence in all parts of the world was very convenient
- USSR was unreachable from the US military bases
- GB could help the US police the world
- 1950s : US developed long distance missiles
- The US did need the UK to share the burden (+ British bases)
- The US couldn't count on France and Germany because they were too weakened by the war
and were more focused on Europe rather than being world powers, they didn't see communism
as a threat
GB = useful ally in other ways :

- Occupied Western Germany alongside the US and France
- 1950 : GB joined the US to fight the Korean War to prevent Korea from becoming communist ,
eventually divided into two parts (before the Vietnam War)
- The Special Relationship was ready to operate
June 1948 : US Department of State, internal policy statement:
« The basic objectives… » British cooperation, national interest
What did GB get in return?

- US economic, military and strategic support
- March 1948 : Marshall plan (European Recovery Program) > 12 billion dollars to Western
Europe > GB biggest beneficiary > 25% of the total (2.7 billion dollars)
- US gave the money (no reimbursing) to European countries destroyed by the war to rebuild
their countries
- They had to swear they would stay on the US side and stand by the capitalist ideology
- Objectives :
- The US needed trading partners so they needed other countries to have money so they
could buy their products
- Prevent the spread of communism by strengthening the Western block
- If countries turn poor they will turn to communism which would provide false promises
- April 1949 : NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)
- Every member defend the others if they are attacked
- The US was officially committed to defend Europe, they can't abandon them (which was the
fear of GB)
- US less critical and even sometimes supportive of the British Empire (no more undermining)
- Malayan Emergency (1948-1960) > GB received US financial support for its colony that
wanted to gain its independence back so they faced a communist insurrection, GB had to
fight it (didn’t work but at least they helped)
- A win-win situation
D. Military and intelligence cooperation continues

Close military collaboration at many levels, common goal to defeat communism insurrection
Intelligence : UKUSA SIGNIT (= Signals Intelligence) in 1947

- To intercept electronic signals used by foreign targets (communication on the phone, radio
transmissions, electronic weapon systems…)
- Between UK and USA but also Canada, New Zealand and Australia (Commonwealth countries)
- Nicknamed « The 5 Eyes »
- Consolidated the cooperation between the two countries
E. The issue of British credibility

They had to make the US believe that they were important and useful to make the Special
Relationship alive and thriving
- SR central to GB’s foreign policy (Attlee + post-51-Churchill)
GB was afraid of :
- Losing credibility as world power
- Losing the confidence of the Americans
- Losing the special advantages they derived from it (financial, economic, strategic, military
supports)
To prove their credibility, they made a lot of sacrifices

- Welfare State > Attlee and his Labor Party was elected because he promised he would create a
Welfare State (unemployment, family, sick benefits > les aides sociales)
- He promised to create a system for free glasses and dental care but he had to abandon the
project because it was too expensive, they redirected the money to the Korean War to prove to
the US they were able to
- GB’s refusal to lose its role as a world power
3. An unequal partnership
1939 : 6 great powers > GB, France, USA, Germany, Soviet Union, Japan
1945 : 2 superpowers > USA and USSR
End of the European power
A. British decline and American ascendancy

British economy in tatters, weakened
Gradual dislocation of the British Empire (India becoming independent…)
They wanted 3 expensive things, too difficult

- Keep its empire
- Keep its big army
- Build a welfare state
The US economy was booming on the contrary, minor casualties, and they made a lot of money
out of the war (they would produce a lot of war material)
B. The Middle East as a case-study

Since WW1, Middle East = « informal British empire », they would manage the Middle East but it
wasn't an official colony
Middle East vital for GB :

- Strategically located for the Royal Navy
- 100% of British oil from the Middle East
1945 : British objective > retain its influence in the region in spite of weakened position due to
- The local population challenging GB
- GB was challenged by the US who was competing with them to steal their position of influence
in the Middle East
Iran
- After WW2, 50% of British oil came from Iran from an Anglo-Iranian company so it was good
and cheap oil
- Early 1950s, nationalisation of the Anglo-Iranian company by Prime Minister Mossadegh so the
UK would stop exploit their oil
- 1953 : operation Boot by GB to remove the Prime Minister with secret services and replace
him by a government that would follow the Western command > friendly regime (the Shah)
- 2 consequences :
- The Special Relationship is working when it’s about military and intelligence fields
- Reduction of the British Empire, they lost the monopoly on Iranian oil, became more
expensive to export oil, they regained control but had to share with the US the oil company
C. Taking a back seat

Churchill back in power in 1951
Theory of the 3 circles :

- Protect and defend the British Empire
- Protect the Special Relationship, the American alliance
- Europe and the alliances
Churchill’s foreign policy priority > transatlantic alliance
ANZUS treaty (1951)

- A defense block in the Pacific under US leadership (Aus, NZ, US)
- 1952-53 : The UK (Churchill) wanted to be part of the treaty which US refused, the US didn't
need the UK in the Pacific zone
Where GB had lost its strategic influence, there could be no Special Relationship
Managing British Decline

Anglo-American Relations from 1956 to 1979
1. The Repercussions of the Suez Crisis and of British
Economic and Strategic Decline

A. The Suez crisis (1956) and its significance

- Anthony Eden, British Prime Minister from 1955 to 1957 (Conservative)
- Dwight D. Eisenhower, US President from 1952 to 1960 (Republican)
The Suez Canal
- Opened in 1869 in Egypt
- Company partially owned by France and GB
- Strategic importance to GB
- Passage between Europe and its colonies
- Important for trade
Egypt
- A British protectorate, GB dominated and administrated the country and the canal
- Strategic importance to GB
- Strong British military presence in the Mediterranean (troops and bases)
- 100% of British oil through the Canal (which became important for the economy)
- They didn't have to pay the fee for the canal so the oil was cheap
GB influence was declining, the local populations were opposing themselves to this system
Egypt in the 1950s

- 1952 : military coup deposed King Farouk (puppet king, controlled by the British) so he has
been replaced
- 1954 : Gamal Abdel Nasser seized power
- 1956 : Nasser became president
- Nasser had a anti-colonial agenda, he wanted to make Egypt independent from the British
imperial power and domination
- GB announced that they would leave Egypt then, the US was ok with this
- They still wanted to collaborate with them, maintain good relations
1956
- Egypt got closer to the Soviet Union, the US didn't appreciate
- Nasser : Aswan dam project : technical and financial help from the US
- Eisenhower administration cancelled the loan they promised because the got closer to the
Soviet Union, they couldn't accept that
- So Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal
- Disaster for GB, Nasser was holding the world in hostage, they lost control of the Canal, they
lost their power in the area, their bases over there…
- Weakened economically speaking : they had to pay to use the Canal, which increased the cost
of oil importation
- Eden was furious and wanted to intervene by force to regain the Canal in Egypt, the US was
not willing to act by force, they wanted to find a diplomatic solution
- GB decided to set a secret operation without the US knowing
France, GB, and Israel VS Egypt
- A secret military operation (with France and Israel)
- To regain control of the canal zone
- US administration know nothing about it (they wouldn't have authorized it if they knew)
- Israel had to attack Egypt and GB had to make peace between the 2 and regain control over the
canal, neutral force
- Operation started in October 1956
- Military success but diplomatic disaster
- When the US found out, they were outraged

Why did the US let GB down?

- GB had double-crossed the US
- They betrayed them, they didn't want a military operation which GB did behind their backs
- US-USSR: competition to dominate 3rd world countries
- GB was military oppressing free countries
- It discredited the free world which could push the Arab world to the Soviet camp
How did the US act against their British ally?
- They deliberately acted to make them fail because they were mad
- Took a stand against GB and France at the United Nations, they condemned their actions
- GB needed money, refused IMF loan that UK asked for, it would be granted only if they
withdrew from Egypt
- Financial threat on the pound, they would devaluate the pound, damages on the British
economy, the US would sell all the pounds they had at the same time
- GB and France forced to withdraw, defeat and humiliation, none of their objectives completed,
discredited
Lessons from Suez

- GB cannot carry out a military operation without US support and consent, the US can though
- Marked the end of GB’s role as one of the world’s major powers
Anthony Eden resigned after that
B. Losing ground: Britain’s strategic decline

Imperial overstretch (too demanding)
- GB lacks strength to be an Empire
- Burden-sharing with the Americans called into question
- Burden-sharing of policing the world and fight against communism
- It was the essence of the Special Relationship during the Cold War
Early 1960s : GB withdrew from several bases in the Indian and Pacific Ocean
They couldn't afford it so they abandoned them
Put a lot of tension in the SR
The Vietnam war (1965-1973)

- Lyndon B. Johnson : US president (1963 to 1968) Democrat, took over Kennedy (JFK) after he
was assassinated
- Harold Wilson : British PM (1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976) Labour
- 1965 : US military involvement in Vietnam
- LBJ asked Wilson to send British troops to Vietnam to help fight against communism, they
needed support
- Wilson refused because the British public opinion was not in favour of the Vietnam war
- Australia and New Zealand helped the US though, they went there
- June 1966 : Wilson condemned the bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong at the House of
Commons (targeting civilians…), the US wasn't happy about that, it damaged the SR
Withdrawal from east of Suez

- GB needs to cut back on global commitments, it couldn't sustain its empire
- 1967 : Wilson announced the end of the British presence in the Middle East and east of Suez
by 1971, could no longer afford it
- Withdrawing troops from major military bases (Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Maldives,
Persian Gulf…), left nuclear programs around the world
- Johnson was furious, bad timing because the US was devoting all its energy in Vietnam (money,
troops, military support…), last thing the Americans needed
Burden-sharing (policing the world and stop communism) seriously called into question, if GB
was no longer able, why should they maintain the Special Relationship?
2. Anglo-US relations and European integration

A. A reluctant applicant: GB, European integration, and the US
The US played an active role in European integration because:
- A direct interest in economic recovery of Europe
- A strong western bloc to stop the Soviet expansion
They had to convince British leaders to be part of the European recovery
At first, the British were not interested

- Churchill’s 3 circles of Foreign policy: Europe = last of the 3 circles in importance
- (1. British Empire, 2. US alliance, 3. Europe)
1957: Treaty of Rome = creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) without GB
The US wanted the GB to be part of the EEC but GB didn't want to
Late 1950s and early 1960s: GB gradually losing her world power status
Members of the EEC were doing better than GB economically speaking
1960: creation of the European Free Trade Association to compete with the EEC (failure)
The US urged their British ally to join the EEC

The UK was eventually convinced but Charles de Gaulle was blocking the entry
Charles de Gaulle, President of the French Republic, 1959-1969

- He knew what was the plan of the US to have the UK in the EEC was to reduce France’s
power, in order not to have a France led Europe that would not be receptive for American
demands
- The US was a Trojan horse for the US
- De Gaulle’s foreign policy: gain autonomy from the US
- 1966: France withdrew from NATO
By the 1960s, the British leaders understood that they would be more powerful by joining the EEC
and be useful to the US
- GB applied for EEC membership (to sustain the SR)
- A way to carry more weight in Washington for the UK > remain useful to the US
- 1962: 1st application turned down by the French
- He did not believe in their real motive to join and benefit Europe
- 1967: 2nd application turned down by the French
- Other countries were in favour to negotiation but De Gaulle would leave
- 1973: GB became a member of the EEC (De Gaulle was no longer the French President)
B. Edward Heath and the European connection

Edward Heath, British PM from 1970 to 1974 (Conservative)
Heath’s foreign policy

- Priority: get GB to join the EEC to be accepted by the US and maintain the SR
- Distanced himself from the US to integrate the EEC, pretended the SR was not that important
compared to Europe, it was a handicap
- Refused to establish close personal relationship with US President Richard Nixon
- Chose Europe over the US several times
- 1973 : EEC membership for GB

C. Down but not out: the SR lives on

Military and intelligence relationship
Collaboration on nuclear control talks (ABMT in 1972)
ABMT : Anti Ballistic Missile Treaty
- To get control over the nuclear weapons that were developed around the world
No desire to break with GB, the US needed the UK to be on their side
D. Development of the nuclear relationship

Every country after WW2 was trying to develop its nuclear field and the UK tried to get their own
nuclear bomb
- 1948: McMahon act > GB went it alone (the US was kicked of every project to develop nuclear
weapons)
- 1952: GB’s own nuclear bomb
- The problem was that they were still dependent on the US because they didn't have missiles to
put the nuclear in, bombers not adapted to the bombs, they needed the US to get it
- 1958: Agreement for Cooperation on Uses of Atomic Energy for Mutual Defence Purposes
> repeal of McMahon act (they just mutually agree to defend each other)
- Nuclear cooperation resumed, the UK could use the US nuclear bomb
Nuclear crisis of the 1960s:
- Diplomatic crisis between the UK and the US
- Robert McNamara (JFK’s Secretary of Defense) against independent nuclear powers (GB,
France), risk of proliferation, US could lose superiority
- Creation of a MLF (Multi Lateral Force) to have one organisation that has a nuclear power, that
would decide when to use the nuclear power… (led by NATO but controlled by the US), UK and
France would have to abandon their independent nuclear power which they refused obviously
- Turned down by General de Gaulle and British PM Harold McMillan
- So, US stopped selling missiles to the UK, they could not use their nuclear weapons
- McMillan convinced JFK to resume selling missiles to the UK > they were close, personal
relations = special relationship
Nuclear relationship OK again
Conclusion
SR weakened by the British decline but it continued to exist (military, intelligence and nuclear
cooperation)
1980s: a spectacular revival under M. Thatcher et R. Reagan
Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s : an

extraordinary relationship
Margaret Thatcher wasn't a big fan of the Europe, she wanted to focus on the US
Ronald Reagan would provide a consistent support to the UK
Was it mutually beneficial or Thatcher was the poodle/puppet of the US?
1. Spectacular revival of the SR

Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) British PM from 1979 to 1990 (Conservative)
Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) US President from 1980 to 1988 (Republican)
Political soulmates on several fields, part of the Conservative revolution / Counter revolution
Economics
After the WW2, most governments in Western countries had a central role in their countries
- Post-war Keynesian consensus from 1945 to the 1970s
- The countries have been so much damaged and destroyed, it was the responsibility of the
government to take care of their citizens, their needs
- Temporary end of laissez-faire economics (= unregulated capitalism)
- The government doesn't intervene in the economy or in people social’s lives and the
market regulates itself through competition, economic circles with inflations peaks…
- Establishment of Welfare state (= état providence), the government regulates the
economy > nationalisation d’entreprises (la poste, airfrance, sncf, gaz…), unemployment
policies, family allocations, if you’re poor or have difficulties, the government provides
financial help
- Increased government spending
- « Big government » because it’s really present and spends a lot of money
1970s : stagflation / high public debts
- Slow economic growths, the debts accumulated including GB and the US
- Post-war economic consensus called into question
- Most western countries were opened to Conservative leaders
1980s conservative counter-revolution

Thatcher and Reagan = 2 main figures of the conservative counter-revolution
- They wanted to reduce government spending and deregulate the economy to see what
happens when the market regulates itself, less government intervention
Revival of laissez-faire economics

- Attempt at reducing government spending (less financial and social helps)
- Dismantle welfare state, less government intervention
- Privatisation of companies
Ronald Reagan first speech as a President
« In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem »
They believed the market would grow faster

Reagan and Thatcher worked hand in hand
Separated Thatcher from other European leaders who didn't believe in it
« The problem with socialism is that you eventually run out of other peoples’ money » Thatcher
« Socialism only works in two places: Heaven where they don’t need it and hell where they already
have it » Reagan
Foreign policy
Early 1970s, Nixon and Brezhnev = détente period
They wanted to increase trade between US and USSR, reduce nuclear proliferation that was
dangerous for everyone, Brezhnev came to the US in 1973, they were doing better
Late 1970s: growing tensions between the US and the USSR:

- Failure of talks over nuclear disarmament
- December 1979: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
- US boycott of the 1980 Olympics in Moscow

Under Reagan, beginning of the « second cold war »

- Massive increase in military spending to show that they have more power
- End of arms control negotiations
- Contain any communist effort in the 3rd World
Aggressive and moralistic foreign policy against USSR
European leaders didn't like it, it was unnecessary, dangerous, counter-productive
Thatcher was Reagan’s closest ally against other amor European powers, she shared that passion
against communism, they had the same ideas, it paved the way for the revival of the SR
B. Interpersonal relations: a perfect match

True friendship between them, they liked each other outside the political sphere
Ideological soulmates
Thatcher, at her first meeting with Reagan in 1981:

« Your problems will be our problems and when you look for friends we shall be there »
15 summits between the two countries between 1980 and 1988
Thatcher supported Reagan during the Irangate scandal

- Controversy during Reagan second term
- His administration secretly sold military tools to Iran which was the enemy of the US
- They used that money to support an anti-communist insurrection in Nicaragua that the UN
prohibited them to go there
- She visited him at that time and told him he was a good president…
- She never gave that support to European leaders, she wasn't involved at all in Europe
Thatcher gave priority to the transatlantic connection and often turned her back on the EEC
- She didn't believe in Europe
- She wanted Britain to keep its sovereignty
- Full priority to the SR
C. Nuclear and military cooperation: business as usual

US supplying GB with its most advanced nuclear devices (Trident program)
The only country with who the US would sell and talk about nuclear stuff was GB
Sign of trust
Intelligence services worked hand in hand (CIA and MI6)

- Echelon system in 1988 a global system to intercept information and communication
- Between US, GB, Canada, Australia, New Zealand (The 5 Eyes)
D. The military special relationship in action: the 1982

Falklands war
Falkland Islands : British since 1837 and claimed by Argentina
1980 : 1,800 Kelpers, almost all British
Military dictatorship in Argentina so they weren't appreciated in the Western World

- They thought the if they gained back the Falklands, they would gain credibility
- April 1982: 5,000 Argentinean soldiers invaded Falkland Islands
- Thatcher government intended to strike back immediately to keep the Falklands British

Britain and the US during the Falkland war

- However, Argentina was an ally of the US, because the military dictatorship was combating
the left in Argentina and the US supported that regime because it suppressed communism
- Argentina was a member of the OAS (Organisation of American States)
- They were neutral because they didn't know who to choose
UN resolution against Argentina + American efforts to work out a compromise failed
US sided with GB
US stopped selling weapons to Argentina
US provided GB with crucial military and strategic support during the conflict
June 1982: victory for GB, Argentina was kicked out of the Falklands
The SR served the UK during this war
Libya and the United States

1980s: growing tensions between Libya and the US
The US accused Libya of sponsoring terrorism
April 1986: bombing in a nightclub of West Berlin, there were a lot of US soldiers, Libyan agents
involved
- Retaliation : US air raids to bomb Libya
- GB supported the US, they were allowed to use British bases to launch their planes for the air
raids, they were also allowed to fly over British territories (France wasn't allowed)
- Thatcher criticized in Europe and in GB, but stayed firm on her decision to support the US
- She believed she could turn her back on the EEC but not on the SR
2. Anglo-American disagreements in the 1980s

When she chose not to follow the US
When the US abandoned the UK
A. British autonomy from the US

She supported the US when she could, she never took Europe into consideration
UK’s interest before the SR
1981: martial la established in Poland

- Communist Poland, Marshall law to punish the people who didn't agree with communism
- Everybody condemned this (US, UK, FR…)
- Reagan wanted to go further in the sanction, economic sanctions imposed on Poland, he asked
Europe to cut trade ties with Poland to show that they condemned the political repression in
Poland, BUT the US was still trading with USSR (enemy!!)
- GB refused to cut trade ties with communist block as requested by the US, other European
countries said no to Reagan’s request to cut trade ties
- It would have undermined British interest
- SR but not at all cost, she put her own country first
B. Grenada
In the West Indies, close to the US
1983: Government overthrown by communists so it became communist

US unwilling to accept a hostile communist regime in the Caribbean (they already had Cuba with
Fidel Castro)
They wanted to intervene to make sure that Grenada did not remain communist
Problem: Grenada = member of the Commonwealth (as it was a British colony)

Technically speaking, strong ties between Grenada and GB so they were part of the equation
Thatcher government opposed to US military intervention
October 25, 1983: US Operation Urgent Fury crushed the military government of Grenada
Humiliation for GB, she personally felt let down by her closest ally
She publicly condemned the US intervention in Grenada
Even if they had a strong SR and personal relationship, they could let down each other for their
personal interests.
3. An assessment of Margaret Thatcher’s foreign policy :

Clever Tactician or British Poodle?
A. Margaret Thatcher as clever tactician
GB has an impact in world affairs under Thatcher thanks to the SR
SDI (Strategic Defence Initiative)

- Any missile from the Soviet Union attacking the US would be destroyed (like the Iron Dome)
- Thatcher negotiated to have GB included in the SDI
- Commitment of the US defending Europe
- US involved in the defense of Europe because they were afraid of the Soviet Union
- But it was never developed, way too expensive, Congress voted against it
Mid-1980s: M. Thatcher acted as an intermediary between the USA and the USSR
- Mikhail Gorbachev, a man with whom « she could do business together », she actually liked him
after meeting him
- She considered him as a new vision for the Soviet Union
- She convinced Reagan to talk to the USSR and Gorbachev, led to resume their talking,
peaceful end of the cold war
- GB had an impact for the US
An incredibly prominent role for a second-rate nation
- Served GB through the SR
Lot of opponents, people thought she was serving the US first, demonstrations throughout the
country to celebrate her death
B. Great Britain as a poodle?

They were too dependent on the US, relying too much on them, she admitted that there was a
dependency on the US, it was her strategy
Thatcher accused of kowtowing to the Americans (= lécher les bottes)

Nuclear relationship : lack of autonomy, they could not use the bomb by themselves
Grenada : humiliation because US took GB’s support and approval for granted, the UK would
stand by their side anyway even if they did not respect them
Accused of turning her back to Europe and the Commonwealth to defend the USA
4. The end of the Cold War

A. The special relationship at risk

Georges H. Bush
US President from 1989 to 1993 (Republican)
Wanted to take his distances from GB and Thatcher
He had the same ideology as Reagan but didn't care about GB
Thatcher was disappointed, SR difficult to maintain
December 26, 1991: the USSR declared officially dissolved > end on the Cold War
- Surprise for both USA and GB
- Cold War was the raison d’être of the SR, they had a common enemy
Competition with Germany for the US attention
- Bush on US-German alliance in May 1989 « partnership in leadership »
- Considered Germany as the leader of Europe
- Convenient for the US because they had the same economic ideology + strategic partner for
including the Eastern part of Europe in Europe (countries emerging after the dissolve of the
USSR)
Reunification of Germany (1990) > East and West Germany

- Bone of contention between US and GB
- Thatcher was opposed against the reunification of Germany, against a strong Germany
- The US supported the reunification
B. Revival of Anglo-US relations during the Gulf war

August 1990 : Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
- Iraq had a debt
- They wanted the territory of Kuwait
- They wanted their oil
International condemnation led by the UN (the US condemned)
- They strongly criticized Iraq
- Thatcher wanted to demonstrate her support to the US administration
November 1990: end of Thatcher’s premiership, the members of her Party said it was time for her
to be kicked out of power
- John Major, Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997 (Conservative)
- He wanted to help the US in the war
Gulf war
Coalition of several countries under US leadership
Revival of the SR > Britain = 2nd contributor to the war effort
Close working relationship between British and US commanders
The US was still making the decisions and UK following, but the SR was working
US decision to put an end to the military intervention after 4 days, alone, without consulting the
other countries
Conclusion
Impact of the Cold War : shaping the world for 4 decades
The good guy was the American and the bad guy was the Soviet in every movie that came out
(Rocky, The Americans…)

The SR at the Turn of the Century: From the 1990s to

the War on Terror
Introduction
1989 to 1991 : Eastern Communist bloc falling apart
1991 : end of the Cold War
- Event of paramount importance
- Binary opposition between the US and Western bloc
- The USSR and the eastern bloc had shaped the world since 1947
- Every country had to choose a side
Can the SR survive the end of the cold war ?
The 1990s: The Best of Times, the Worst of Times

A. John Major and Bill Clinton: Hard Times
John Major
British Prime Minister (1990-1997), Conservative party
Bill Clinton
US president from 1993 to 2001 (Democrat), did 2 terms
- No interest in the SR
- More emphasis on Asia
- No personal relation with John Major, they didn't like each other, opposite political beliefs, they
were too different
1993: Maastricht Treaty > Created the European Union

- UK became more involved in Europe, European foreign policy, military, defense… independent
from the US, created a gap between the US and the EU
Northern Ireland
- Part of the UK
- Protestants VS Catholics (fight for decades)
- Protestants were seen as first class citizens and Catholics as second class citizens because
the rest of the UK were Protestants
- Protestants wanted to still be part of the UK and Catholics wanted to be independent from
the UK and belong to Ireland
- Led to terrorism : in the 1970s, by the Irish Republican Army (IRA), wanted a free Northern
Ireland in Ireland
- 1970s-1990s = « The Troubles »
Pressure from Irish-American politicians

Internal matter for the UK
- Why did the US feel concerned?
44 million Irish Americans in the early 1990s
Bill Clinton willing to make a difference > GB not happy
- Northern Ireland was at the top of the US foreign policy agenda at the time

Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Fein (political party that supported the IRA), granted a visa to the US
in February 1994 (the UK asked to US to deny 8x to give him the visa), finally allowed to organize
fundraisers events to finance Sinn Fein
No restriction on Sinn Fein fund-raising in the US in March 1995
Northern Ireland = a major bone of contention between the Americans and the British
B. Tony Blair and Bill Clinton: Two like-minded leaders

Political bromance when Tony Blair replaced John Major
Ideological closeness
Tony Blair, British PM from 1997 to 2007 (Labour)
- Both Third Way proponents > taking votes from the Right, they tend to a center political
ideology
- They fought against welfare, workfare (you needed to work to receive social aids), against the
culture of dependency
- Tough on crime (security, violence, criminality)
- Winning over the (forgotten) middle-class
- Close personal relations : ex - Blair’s support during the Lewinsky affair
Example of Northern Ireland and Iraq

Northern Ireland
- US involvement welcomed by Tony Blair
- US involved in Good Friday agreement of 1998 (put an end to the Troubles)
- The Northern Irish parliament was created
Iraq
- (Kuwait invading Iraq under Bush)
- December 1998: Anglo-US air strikes against Iraq > inspectors of the UN were working in Iraq
and Iraq made them leave
- Saddam Hussein accused of developing Weapons of Mass Destruction
- Goal of the air strikes : reduce Saddam Hussein to develop more weapons and threaten to
destroy surrounding countries
- Europe was opposed to the airstrikes
- A purely Anglo-US initiative: no other country involved, the Special Relationship was still alive
C. Blair, a bridge between Europe and the US

Blair refused to choose between the US and Europe
He wasn't a eurosceptic, GB couldn't afford to turn its back to Europe and neither to the US
Europe alliance : a pillar of British foreign policy
The US was the first in his agenda because it was GB’s n°1 ally
His priority was to prevent the US from acting alone, he wanted them to ask internationally before
making decisions
Get Europe closer to the US (not a rival bu a partner)
Blair’s ambition: turn Britain into a bridge between the US and Europe
He knew there was only one superpower: the US, Europe wasn't strong enough to compete
He did not believe in an independent European defence
The SR revived thank to the personal relationship between Blair and Clinton because there was
no more common enemy
2. The War on Terror: the SR lives on
New common enemy : terrorism
George W. Bush Jr
- Republican Party
- US President 2001 to 2009
Clinton was so close to Blair that nobody believed in the SR when Clinton left office
Clinton to Blair « get as close to George Bush as you have been to me »
A. A warm personal relationship

Warm relation from day one
Blair put a lot of effort to keep the SR going
Bush was more skeptical because they weren't from the same party, he couldn't see how they
could get along
Four hours after their first meeting, Bush said that « Britain was their strongest friend and closest
ally »
Close alliance
- Bush: « Ours will be a strong and good personal relationship and an alliance that will stand the
test of time »
Personal friendship
- Both actually really appreciated the other
B. Terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001

Four commercial planes hijacked by members of Al-Qaeda
- Intentionally planed 2 into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center
- One in the Pentagone
- One supposed to crash on the White House but the passengers took control of the plane and it
fell in a field in Pennsylvania instead
September 12, 2001: Tony Blair = 1st foreign leader to talk to G.W. Bush, it cemented their
alliance, close collaboration between Blair government and Bush administration
September 12, 2001: classified letter from Blair to Bush

- « In any event, we need to construct an agenda that puts onto a new footing action against this
new evil. If this is a war - and in practical, if not legal terms, it is - we need war methods »
- The SR used to live during wars
- Blair fully involved in the process
C. Afghanistan
US ultimatum to the Taliban (fail)
They knew the attacks were done by Usama Ben Laden
They ignored all demands of the US
October 7, 2001: Operation Enduring Freedom (with the UK) to attack Afghanistan
- Became a US led NATO operation (almost 50 countries)
- All major European nations involved
- US sent 90,000 troops
- GB sent 10,000 troops > came second

They captured a lot of terrorists but not all of them, they would hid…
Until 2014 with Obama
D. The road to the Iraq war

Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 signed into law by Clinton
9/11 = good opportunity to invade Iraq

- The Bush administration divided
- It could destroy the international coalition created with the war against the Taliban in
Afghanistan
- Bush wanted to get rid of Saddam Hussein but was in favour of getting the approval of the
international community because Blair convinced him to do so (but they both wanted to
invade Iraq), they needed to convince the other countries that there was a real threat with the
weapons of mass destruction (resolution of the UN that it was prohibited to develop weapons
of mass destruction, they needed to find evidence to make this breach a reason to invade
Iraq)
Blair insisted on 2 strategic aspects :

- Rhetoric : GB stressed Weapons of Mass Destruction =/= US emphasized regime change
- Importance of involving the UN
Bush did what Blair told him
- September 2002, Bush addressed the General Assembly of the UN on the dangerousness of
what they were doing in Iraq
- November 2002: Resolution 1441 (written jointly by the US and the UK) > Iraq has to:
- Provide a list of all weapons and programs to develop weapons
- Provide unrestricted access to UN inspections
November 2002 : UN inspectors allowed to return to Iraq
- They found nothing, the inspectors didn't know what to tell the UN, inconclusive report
- They found no evidence of the developing of weapons of mass destruction
- They also found no trace on things that they knew Iraq had, everything had disappeared
(chemicals…), Iraq claimed it had destroyed everything but they didn't show the sites where it
was destroyed so no evidence
- They hid everything
GB and the US tried to secure the support of the UN Security Council =/= France (Jacques
Chirac) vetoed such a resolution
By 2003: US no longer prepared to wait, they wanted to attack
E. 2003, the war in Iraq began

March 2003, military invasion of Iraq « Operation Iraqi Freedom »
US-led operation, with the UK
- Other countries too
- « Coalition of the willing »
- Security of the nations, peace in the world, weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, Iraqi
citizens…
US sent 150,000 troops to Iraq

Tony Blair sent 46,000 British troops to Iraq
GB = second contributor to the war effort

F. The SR: from international to domestic threats

2002: creation of the US Department of Homeland Security in response to the 9/11 attacks
- First foreign trip of the US Department of Homeland Security was to the UK
- Cooperation between UK and US on homeland security
- More severe concerning explosives in liquids when you take the plane…
Conclusion: an assessment of Tony Blair’s foreign policy

A. GB as a bridge between America and Europe
Use GB’s special position to bring the US and Europe closer together
Basic assumption: do NOT let America act alone > multilateralist agenda
2003: Blair’s transatlantic bridge collapsed
Anglo-American attack in Iraq criticized
Blair wanted to rebuild to bridge
B. British influence?
GB as guiding America: « we must stand close to America. If we don’t, we will lose our influence
to shape what they do » Blair
Their responsibility to guide the US naive giant that needed advice
Blair had some influence on the US, for a period of time, he managed to
- Dissuade the US from attacking unilaterally (Iraq)
- To prompt them to work through the UN
Proved unable to bring Europe and America closer together
Damaging impact on British diplomacy
C. Alienating Britain’s allies

Britons felt betrayed by the Bush-Blair alliance
Blair as a poodle or puppet of the Bush administration
Getting estranged from main continental allies, especially France and Germany, lost their
confidence, Blair was going too far for the US in detriment of Europe
Lazarus-like quality of the SR

Revived 3 times
- At the beginning of the Cold War, Soviet Russia as a common enemy
- Ideological alignment of Thatcher and Reagan
- Late 1990s with the ideological alignment of Blair with Clinton along with the War on Terror
After the War on Terror, it was never the same
What’s next for the Special Relationship?

1. Anglo-American cooperation in the 21st century
A. A continued partnership
Barack Obama, US President 2009-2017 (Democratic Party)
Gordon Brown, UK Prime Minister 2007-2010 (Labor Party)
Bush’s term end was received positively by the UK because it would end the US unilateralism
Great hope that the SR would continue, Obama reaffirmed the SR at his first meeting with Brown
Obama (2009) > after the subprime crisis of 2008: acknowledgement of shared economic values
- « We both believe in free markets, we believe in government that is not overbearing, and
allowing entreprise and business to thrive. But we also have a shared common belief that there
has to be regulation and structures in place so that the market does not spin out of control »
- Sort of economic laissez-faire but with a bit of control
B. American focus shifting away from GB

Obama’s pivot to Asia
- Obama shifting his focus away from Europe, he had an interest in Asia
- « Pivot to Asia » (Hillary Clinton > Obama’s Secretary of State = Ministre des Affaires
Etrangères)
- Rebalancing America’s foreign policy focus away from the Middle East and from a stable
Europe to Asia
- Asian market = opportunities for American investment and trade
American public opinion shifting to Asia rather than UK (which was the past, the future was Asia)
In 2004
- 54% of Americans said Europe was important to their « vital interest »
- 29% of Americans said Asia was important to their « vital interest »
In 2011
- 38% of Americans said Europe was important to their « vital interest »
- 51% of Americans said Asia was important to their « vital interest »
From GB to EU
- Competition with other European countries
- George W. Bush > Germany and France
- Obama:
- Close to Merkel’s set of values (« my closest international partner in the last eight years »)
- France willing to fight alongside the US in Syria (the UK didn't want to because of the public
opinion against the intervention of the UK in the Middle East to help the US)
- Major European states collectively rather than UK alone, Obama’s administration didn't want
to work with individual countries
- UK =/= interpreter and « bridge » between the EU and the US, the US didn't want to have to
pass through the UK to talk to Europe
C. Britain’s struggle to remain relevant to the US

« America is a military behemoth and in war-fighting terms has no absolute need of allies. Long a
mainstay of the Anglo-American defence relationship, but now vital, is that Britain can add military
value in discrete areas and share the political, economic and psychological costs of military
action » Steve Marsh
The US doesn't need the UK’s war force but needs them for all the other supports during wars
(intelligence…)
TWO PROBLEMS:
- Austerity measures: reduction in Britain’s defense budget, not sure that the UK will sustain as a
military force to assist the US
- Growing opposition in Britain against American military interventions (public opinion)
Exemple: Strikes in Syria (August 2013)

The UK wanted to go (Cameron) but the members of Parliament rejected the proposition and
refused to join the US and other allies
2. Challenges to military and intelligence cooperation

A. NATO and the price of collective defense
Bush, Obama and Trump were disappointed of Europe participation in NATO, not enough
Goal: each NATO member should spend 2% of it GDP on defense

Most members do not meet these 2% and rely too heavily on the US
Bush (NATO Summit in 2008): Encourage Europe to invest more into defense to be stronger
Obama 2014: Everybody must participate, even Europe and he said to Cameron that if UK didn't
meet the 2% threshold, there would not be a special relationship anymore
British is one of the few countries that are above 2%, they were afraid to lose the SR
Trump makes tweets to express its frustration on the too heavy relying of other countries on the
US
B. A blow to intelligence cooperation?

Five Eyes (UKUSA agreement) still in place today
One of the most comprehensive agreements concerning spying
Trump threatening US-UK intelligence cooperation if Huawei (Chinese) allowed to build Britain’s
5G network, represented a danger for information and data
- Victory for the US
The 5 countries accepted US demand to ban Huawei to build 5G networks
3. The SR during the Brexit Era : A rollercoaster relationship

June 2016 : the UK voted to leave the EU
- Impact on the SR?
- Huge long-term consequences
- End of the sort of Trojan horse
A. To leave or not to leave, that is the question

Obama administration opposed to Brexit
- US would not rush to create a trade agreement with UK alone, not a single country, they would
stay behind Europe
Trump supporter of Brexit: taking back one’s country

- He campaigned on this subject, take back control of its own country
B. Personal relationships
A lot of tensions between Donald Trump and Theresa May (British PM)
- Disagreements on every key policies (Iran, Russia, China, NATO…)
- He retweeted islamophobic tweets from a far-right party of the UK
Warm relation and ideological similarities between Trump and Boris Johnson, bromance

Trump and Johnson want a « very big trade deal, bigger than we’ve ever had », once the UK is
freed from the « anchor » of the EU around its « ankle »
September 2021, downplayed by Biden’s administration

Going back to what Obama had said, a deal for the UK is not the priority, EU is
Biden = Obama’s VP
Democrats turned towards Europe as a whole
Johnson as a « physical and emotional clone » of Trump (Biden said that)
C. Biden / Johnson, an unspecial relationship?

Reaffirming the SR
- G7 in Britain, first visit abroad for Biden (June 2021)
- Real commitment to the SR by both leaders
- Biden wanted to « Revitalise » the Atlantic Charter (signed during the war, their vision for the
world after the war, common vision of the world, common goals)
British public opinion changed when Biden was elected, they were more confident with the US
president
Crushing Bush and Blair’s legacy: the end of the SR and the War on Terror
- Summer 2021, US troops out of Afghanistan without consulting the British PM Johnson
- Britain left in the dark despite being the closest ally during the war on terror, his calls were
ignored during 36 hours
Blair: « The abandonment of Afghanistan and its people is tragic, dangerous, unnecessary, not in
their interest and not in ours »
- Biden’s mission « seems almost designed to parade our humiliation »
Creation of AUKUS
Fear of growing Chinese power in the Pacific region > new defense agreement
- Australia, UK, US
- September 2021
- France seen as the loser of the deal providing submarines to Australia because now it’s the US
that provide them the submarines
- UK still relevant
Siding with France
G20 summit in Rome (October 2021): Biden meeting Macron
Strengthening diplomatic ties
Britain offended
France and UK fighting about post-Brexit fishing licence and US stood with France on this matter
Conclusion: a current rocky relation

Biden not attending Charles III’s coronation (US never been)
Biden going to Ireland to make sure the « Brits didn't screw around » with commitments under the
US-brokered Good Friday agreement (Johnson offended)
But Biden eventually paying official visit to Charles III
Good and reliable relationships with Rishi Sunak (current PM)
Brought closer together by their alliance against Russia
Still refusing to cut a global trade deal with the US

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ENJEUX SOCIO-ECONOMIQUES CONTEMPORAINS

Anglo-American relations : a special relationship?

They share one of the longest alliances in modern history

Mentioned in pop culture (movies…)

KEY QUESTIONS for the semester: Has there been such a

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 1 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

EXAM : QCM 30min / 30 questions (à points négatifs)

From US Independence to WW2

“The Empire on which the sun never sets”

The Thirteen colonies

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 2 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

- 1607, Virginia (Jamestown) : first one

B. Anglo-US common cultural grounds

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 3 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

C. Tensions and frictions before 1939

- Ottawa imperial conference (1932) : imperial preference in the British Empire

Conclusion of the tensions :

1. How and why it all began

A. FDR and US isolationism

Beginning of WW2 : moral support from US to GB but no loan

2 major events that forced the US involvement in WW2

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 5 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

B. June 1940: France surrenders

The US moves closer to GB

C. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (Honolulu, Hawaii)

The Special relationship during WW2

Enduring feature of the SR

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 6 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

D. Making plans for the postwar world

1941: Atlantic Charter > US/GB joint declaration

3. Limitations : tensions and mutual suspicions

Decline of British influence : seeking to protect its empire

Foreign Aﬀairs FR = Foreign Oﬃce GB = State Department US

B. Anglo-American bones of contention (sujet de discorde)

The Special Relationship after WW2

New common enemy : Communism

1945-1947 : the Special Relationship on the wane (=declining)

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 8 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

A. Pressures on the British economy

B. The dangers of US isolationism

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 9 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

- After WW2, Truman administration were great supporters of Jewish immigration to

2) The Beginning of the cold war and containment

Turning point that triggered events:

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 10 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

B. US involvement in Europe: GB’s diplomatic priority

C. Burden sharing: GB as a useful and necessary ally to the

GB = useful ally in other ways :

What did GB get in return?

D. Military and intelligence cooperation continues

Intelligence : UKUSA SIGNIT (= Signals Intelligence) in 1947

E. The issue of British credibility

To prove their credibility, they made a lot of sacrifices

A. British decline and American ascendancy

They wanted 3 expensive things, too diﬃcult

B. The Middle East as a case-study

Middle East vital for GB :

C. Taking a back seat

Theory of the 3 circles :

ANZUS treaty (1951)

Managing British Decline

MARIE MOREAU PAGE 13 OF 30 BERAHA EDEN

A. The Suez crisis (1956) and its significance

Egypt in the 1950s