Activated Carbon in Aquaculture

Tech Talk 42

We typically use activated carbon in three different facets of aquaculture: taking impurities out
of water as it is brought into the facility; removing halogens such as ozone, chlorine and
bromine; and removing color and metabolic by-products in recirculating systems. Activated
carbon is the generic term used to describe the family of carbonaceous adsorbents with an
extensively developed internal pore structure. A wide variety of activated carbon products are
available, exhibiting markedly different characteristics. They are commonly made from wood,
coal, lignite and coconut shell.

In activated carbon's manufacture, the material is first subjected to a heating process called
carbonization, which forms a fixed carbon mass full of tiny pores. It is then activated by a second
heat/steam treatment (200–1,600°C) while regulating oxygen level, which creates an even larger
internal pore network and imparts surface chemistries that give carbon its unique filtering
characteristics. Some carbons are activated with phosphoric acid, potassium hydroxide or zinc
chloride, which makes them unsuitable for use in aquaculture. When selecting an activated
carbon, consider the adsorptive characteristics of that carbon on the chemicals to be removed.

Activated carbon’s adsorptive characteristics are based on the principle that the greater the
surface area, the higher the number of adsorptive sites available. The pore size and the pore size
distribution are extremely important, as they affect the efficacy of the carbon. The macropores
(larger than 25 nm) are used as the entrance to the carbon, the mesopores (1–25 nm) for
transportation and the micropores (less than 1 nm) for adsorption. It is a generalization to say
that the porosity of an activated carbon can be measured by adsorption of iodine from solution,
but this measurement may not at all predict its ability to adsorb other chemicals.

The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the
faster the rate of adsorption. Small pore size must be weighed against pressure drop, as this will
affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size can provide significant operating
benefits.

Activated carbon will adsorb the following from water: chlorine and some chloramines, many
dissolved organic contaminants, trihalomethanes (THM) and phenolics, total organic carbon
(TOC), oil and hydrocarbon contamination, ozone, bromic acid and total organic halogens
(TOX), adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) including chloroform, colors, pesticides, odors and
more. Activated carbon will also reduce biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD).

It is important to be able to measure the contaminant that the carbon needs to adsorb in order to
know when the saturation capacity of the carbon is reached. Particle size, water flow rate, carbon
bed depth and, in recirculating systems, the number of passes through the bed must be optimized
for every system design. Typically, for a single pass system, a deep bed with very slow flow
rates would be required, so that removal of dissolved organics can take place in the top portion of
the bed. Change the carbon before it becomes saturated. If the carbon is not replaced, it could
desorb what it has already removed. This can cause a nasty, toxic release. Always backwash the
filter before use. In backwashing, a bed expansion of at least 25 percent should be used to
remove any carbon dust.

If it is absolutely necessary to remove a contaminant from the water, use a series of activated
carbon filters and do water sampling after the first filter. The second filter will act as guard bed.
Carbon, like all surfaces in recirculating aquaculture, will support bacteria that consume some of
the absorbed organics and, if left too long, can slime over the surfaces. Ozone and chloramines
oxidize the carbon's surface, and they do not accumulate in the carbon structure.

Aerator Selection
Tech Talk 4

Efficiency versus Type ...

Select the right type of aerator for the application.

An aerator's standard aeration efficiency (SAE) is an important consideration when comparing

one aerator with another.

The SAE can be calculated by measuring the aerator’s oxygen transfer and the amount of energy
used per horsepower, per hour, under standard conditions. An SAE of 2.1, for example, means
that 2.1 pounds of oxygen per horsepower, per hour, are transferred to the water under standard
conditions. The higher the SAE, the higher the oxygen transfer, the higher the efficiency.

However, SAE numbers are a fair comparison only when comparing aeration equipment of the
same exact type. You cannot use the SAE as your only tool in the selection of an aeration
system. Before looking at the SAE numbers, choose the right type aerator or oxygenator for the
job.

Here are some examples (analyze the differences):

A surface aerator like our Kasco 3/4-hp (with an SAE rating of 2.9) may be a good choice
where the volume of water is small and the stocking density is high, such as in a culture
tank or small pond. It may be a poor choice, however, if cold water temperatures are
required when air temperatures are warm (summer trout culture), because both the motor
and the airborne water droplets will add unwanted heat.
A surface aerator would be a poor choice for a large or deep pond. Without moving water
away from the aerator, it will continue to pump the same water over and over again,
adding no oxygen where it is needed.
A surface aerator may be excellent in emergencies because it quickly raises the oxygen
level in a small area. If trained, the fish will move to that location. Again, it will not be a
good choice for full-time aeration because it will not disperse oxygen throughout the
pond.
 A diffused air system (with an SAE rating of 2.7) may be the best choice for multiple
tanks and ponds because the energy source (blower) can be centralized and just the right
amount of energy (compressed air) can be easily directed where it is needed. What
appears to be lower SAE efficiency (2.7) is more than offset by comparative application
efficiency.
Water-moving aeration devices like the AIRE-02® Series II aerator and paddle wheel
type aerators are excellent choices for medium and large ponds where movement of
oxygenated water away from the aerator is most important.
If destratification alone will solve a bottom oxygen problem, only a few air diffusers may
be needed to accomplish this. For instance, a 10-acre lake, 15' deep, may need only 3/4
hp (see Lake Aeration). Only 1 cfm of air may be needed to aerate a 1/20-acre pool when
raising tropical fish (see FAT CAT™ aerators), compared to 6 cfm per pool using airlifts.
A destratification system, such as our Great Lakes® aeration system, should not be used
as an emergency aerator because it very quickly mixes the water. Its rate of oxygen
transfer is excellent; however, it cannot raise the oxygen level of such a large volume
quickly enough to avoid a fishkill. It can actually aggravate the problem.
Even noise is a consideration above and below the water surface. AES diffused air
systems are preferred over agitators in bait stores, improving conditions for both the fish
and the employees. As more of our research is conducted under water, we are
increasingly aware of underwater noise produced by devices such as paddle wheels,
agitators, airlifts and drilled pipe spargers (our Sweetwater® air diffusers have a barely
audible hiss). Some fish breeders have reported that diffused air is the only aeration
method they can use that will not disrupt breeding. The situations and considerations are
virtually endless, so take some time to research the best aeration method for your
particular application. For the price of a phone call, you can discuss your application with
an AES aquaculture technician and get an expert opinion (407-598-1401).

Standard aeration efficiency tests conducted at Auburn University showed that the AES
Sweetwater® diffuser and 1-hp blower combination yielded a 2.71 SAE. Prior to rating our
diffusers, Auburn gave air diffusers in general an SAE rating of only 1.6. That 70 percent
increase illustrates how much efficiency can change when the right combination is used.

How much oxygen will aeration devices deliver?

Tech Talk 35

None at all if the oxygen level in your water is at saturation!

Many commercially made aerators have been tested for their standard oxygen transfer rate, but
that much oxygen can almost never be expected. Because the rate of oxygen transfer is
concentration and temperature-dependent, an aerator will only provide its measured (advertised
maximum) oxygen transfer rate when the oxygen level in the water is close to zero. Use this
chart to estimate the oxygen transfer an aerator will give when there is already oxygen in the
water. Example: if the water temperature is 68°F and the oxygen level is 4 mg/l, an aerator that is
rated at 3 pounds of oxygen per hour will really only provide under 1.3 pounds per hour (3 lbs x
41 percent = 1.23 lbs).
 D.O. 50°F 59°F 68°F 77°F 86°F
Level (10°C) (15°C) (20°C) (25°C) (30°C)
in Water
Being
Aerated

0 89% 90% 91% 92% 96%

1 82% 82% 82% 82% 82%

2 75% 73% 72% 72% 67%

3 67% 64% 62% 58% 56%

4 58% 55% 51% 47% 44%

5 52% 46% 41% 35% 31%

6 41% 36% 30% 24% 17%

7 34% 27% 19% 10% 3%

8 25% 17% 8% 2% 0

9 17% 8% 0 0 0

10 9% 0 0 0 0

*These percentages are approximate for fresh water at sea level.

Aeration Energy Consumption

Tech Talk 52

Mechanical aerators break water into droplets to produce liquid/air contact, while underwater
diffusers introduce bubbles from a depth to achieve oxygen transfer and mixing. Bubble type
aeration systems are replacing many mechanical aerators because of their low maintenance,
reliability, safety, flexibility and overall efficiency. They excel where small amounts of aeration,
circulation and carbon dioxide degassing are needed in many locations. Bubble aerators are also
better at removing gases, such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. Diffusers are made to deliver
either coarse (approximately 6 mm), medium (approximately 3 mm), or fine (approximately 1
mm) air bubbles.

Coarse-bubble systems require the lowest air pressure and are very resistant to clogging, but are
about a third as efficient as medium-bubble systems in transferring oxygen to the water. The
medium-bubble diffuser requires only slightly higher air pressure, but its superior oxygen
transfer more than compensates for the increase in maintenance. The fine-bubble diffuser’s
superior oxygen transfer usually does not compensate for its higher pressure and maintenance
requirements. Fine-bubble diffusers are typically chosen for pure oxygen or ozone systems
where pressure requirements are less important than transfer efficiency. Overall, when aerating
with air, medium-bubble diffusers are the most popular among aquaculturists.

Diffuser clogging can occur from the inside of medium and fine pore diffusers by dust and dirt
particles carried by the air supply, if an air inlet filter is not used. But clogging is most often due
to calcium carbonate deposits. (This source of plugging is prevalent in hard water and salt
water.) Another source of plugging is bacterial slime, which also forms on the external surface of
the diffuser.

Replacing medium- and fine-bubble diffusers with coarse-bubble diffusers might seem like a
good way to avoid periodic cleaning, but it’s not very cost effective. Let’s work out the
economics on a 10 horsepower system:

If a 10-horsepower, medium-bubble aeration system can support 40,000 pounds of fish, a coarse-
bubble system would require 30 horsepower! Electricity currently costs about $70 per
horsepower per month in our area. This would make the utility cost rise from $700a month to
$2,100— that’s an extra $16,800 per year paid to the power company. An additional 20
horsepower in blowers would need to be purchased, as well as a larger diameter air-distribution
pipe, if coarse-bubble diffusers were chosen over medium bubble diffusers.

System Design With Medium-Bubble Diffusers

Diffuser placement should allow for easy removal and time should be allotted to clean all the
diffusers in one section at one time. This not only reduces the aggravation created by multiple
individual cleanings, but also it suggests when to schedule the next cleaning. With our
Sweetwater® glass-bonded diffusers, frequency of cleaning can range between monthly in very
hard water to once per year in soft water. Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc. introduced the low-pressure,
low-maintenance, medium-bubble air diffuser to the aquaculture industry in 1978. Our glass-
bonded silica, medium-pore diffuser is still the standard . We’re always looking for a better
diffuser; that is, one with finer bubbles, lower pressure loss, self-weighting, non-clogging and
less expensive. When we find one, we’ll let you know. If you find one better than the
Sweetwater®, please let us know.
Aeration Requirements for Bait Tanks
Tech Talk 50

It is best to hold and transport bait at lower water temperatures, if possible, and at a minimum of
6 ppm dissolved oxygen (D.O.) to minimize stress. The fish consume less oxygen when they are
cold and cold water holds more oxygen than warm water. Oxygen consumption rates of fish at
80°F (27°C) can be double those at 63°F (17°C). Twice as many pounds of fish can be supported
in 63°F water than at 80°F with the same aeration system. Note that aeration systems cannot
bring D.O. concentrations above saturation (9.65 ppm at 63°F). If the oxygen level was higher
than saturation, an aeration system would actually drive oxygen out of the water and bring it
back down to the saturation point.

How Many Pounds of Fish Will A Bait Aeration System Support?

The following chart is based on test results with minnows at 63°F (17°C) fresh water. Note that
the tests were done at two depths—one foot and two feet—and that air or oxygen induced at
greater depths will result in greater oxygen transfer. However, low pressure compressors give
less air deeper in the water, resulting in less oxygen transfer. Air by itself (20.9 percent oxygen)
cannot get the D.O. above the saturation point.

AES Number
Tech Talk 84

AES Numbers indicate how many pounds of fish an aeration device can support. They are a
quick reference for sizing aeration systems. If your system parameters differ significantly from
the AES Number standard conditions listed below or if you are designing an aeration system for
a commercial facility, call our Technical Department at 407-598-1401 for assistance.
Numbers may seem overly conservative because they are based on heavy oxygen demand
conditions. AES Numbers assume the following conditions: half-pound catfish or tilapia in tanks
(nonsoil bottoms) at 80°F (27°C) at sea level, stocking densities from .1 to .7 pounds of fish per
gallon of water (12 to 84 kg/m³ ), recirculating system with a .82 alpha factor, 5.2 mg/l (67
percent of saturation) dissolved oxygen (D.O.) concentration, feeding rate at 3 percent of
standing crop weight per day, pelleted feed at 40 percent protein, continuous solids removal, less
than 3 ppt salinity, and a low algal population. If you stock at or below the rate indicated by the
AES Number, your DO level will remain above 5.2 mg/l under these water quality conditions.

We've chosen warm water for our AES Number standard conditions because the oxygen
consumption rate goes up with the water temperature. Keeping your fish weight below the AES
Number value will insure a D.O. above 67 percent of saturation, which is generally considered
adequate (while being very cost-effective) for most species raised in recirculating systems. If 50
percent of saturation were acceptable, you could support about 50 percent more fish with your
aerator than the AES Number indicates. At 82 percent of saturation, you could support about 50
percent less (see aeration Tech Talks for details). AES Numbers are not practical to use where
heavy algal populations are present because algae oxygen consumption (plant respiration) at
night has not been taken into account.

Air and Oxygen Diffusers: Submerged diffuser AES Numbers assume diffuser placement at a
depth of 3' and assumes that air or oxygen flows to the diffuser at the average recommended rate.
Oxygen transfer is proportional to bubble size and contact time. Small bubbles have a greater air-
to-water contact surface area than the same volume of gas in fewer large bubbles (see Bubble
Size Tech Note). Although fine pore diffusers may produce finer bubbles, they will require more
pressure and they must be cleaned much more frequently.

Regenerative blowers work best with medium pore diffusers. Medium-sized bubbles (1–3 mm
diameter) rise at about one foot per second in water, which means that a bubble released at a
depth of 3' will exchange gas with the water for 3 seconds. So, if you are operating your diffusers
at 1.5' instead of 3', divide the AES number by 2—your diffusion system can only support half as
many fish. If your diffusers are 4' deep, you can support 33 percent more than the AES Number
shown. Be careful using air at depths greater than 4' because dissolved nitrogen can cause gas
bubble disease (see Tech Note). When using air with a diffuser that is rated for pure oxygen,
divide the pure oxygen AES Number by twelve.

Pure Oxygen: Pure oxygen AES Numbers are rated at 100 percent saturation (7.9 mg/l DO)
rather than 5.2 mg/l (67 percent saturation). Oxygen purity near 100 percent, as you would get
from a liquid or gas oxygen cylinder, is also assumed. For oxygen generators, multiply the AES
Number by the oxygen content of your generator gas output. For example, if your oxygen
generator delivers 90 percent pure oxygen, multiply the AES number by .90. If you are using
pure oxygen with diffusers that are rated for air, multiply the AES Number by twelve.

Splash Type Aerators: Surface aerator AES Numbers assume that the water is being circulated
efficiently from the point of aeration to where the fish are located and back to the aeration
device—that is, the device is not re-aerating the same water.
Airlift Notes
Tech Talk 68

Airlifts are most efficient when moving water from one place to another within the water
column. They become less efficient as the water is lifted higher above the surface. For our
purpose here, we will split them into two categories: water-moving airlifts, and water-lifting
airlifts, up to 4" in diameter.

Moving Water With Airlifts

Water is heavy when it is in the air, but weighs no more than the water around it when it is in the
water. A water-moving airlift will translocate water using very little energy (compressed air). It
just needs energy to accelerate and overcome friction. The more air that is injected and the
deeper it goes, the more power available. An unconfined airlift doesn't even need a pipe. An air
diffuser moves a lot of water within its mass of bubbles.

Water-Lifting Airlifts
When trying to lift water to a high level, a water pump is simpler and more efficient than an
airlift. However, raising water only slightly above the surface can be done easily and
economically with compressed air and an airlift pipe.

Water-Lifting Guidelines

1. Do not use an air diffuser. Large bubbles work best, as they reduce water slippage. Air-
injecting collars can improve performance slightly on short pipes but, typically, they
are not worth the installation and maintenance difficulty.
2. Smaller pipe diameters work best. If more water is needed, use multiples of small
diameter pipes. Also, a sweep works better than an elbow.

How Does It Work?

1. Water in the pipe is displaced with air, making the total weight within the pipe less
than the weight outside the pipe.
2. Since water seeks its own level by virtue of its weight (and its fluid nature), it will get
pushed up an airlift pipe because the weight is less there (lower pressure).
3. Ever hear the phrase, "Wind doesn't blow, it sucks?" It's true. The direction of flow is
from high pressure to low.
Air Pump and Compressor Comparison
Tech Talk 64

For the safety of our aquaculture customers we only offer oilless type air pumps and
compressors. To select the one that is right for you first determine the volume of air you require
in cubic feet per minute (cfm) and the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) to get it there
(Hint: It takes 1 psi to push an air bubble 28" below the surface of the water).

cfm x 1.699 = m3h Inches H2O x 2.49 = mbar

m3h x .588 = cfm mbar x .40 = "H2O
Inches H2O x .036 = psi psi x 27.68 = "H2O
Inches H2O x .074 = 1" Hg Inches Hg x 13.59 = "H2O
Inches H2O x 1.868 = mmHg cfm x 28.32 = lpm

These quick guides will help you decide what type of air pump for which to look. Consider the
cost, physical size, noise level, etc., then pick the type most efficient for your situation.
Algae Control in Garden Ponds
Tech Talk 90

We need to first understand algae before we can understand how to control it.

Planktonic algae are very small suspended particles that color water various shades of green,
brown, olive and even orange. Pollen from trees and other terrestrial plants is sometimes
mistaken for planktonic algae, but pollen usually floats on the surface before sinking.

Filamentous algae, commonly referred to as string algae, hair algae and black algae, typically
grow on the bottom and float to the surface when sunlight and photosynthesis provide oxygen
bubbles that get trapped in them. At the surface, the algae is unsightly and can clog pumps and
filters.

Attached algae are referred to as periphyton. They cover the surfaces of shallow stones and other
submerged objects. There are thousands of species of algae, each with its own personality. All
are plants, using chlorophyll for photosynthesis. They all need, to varying degrees, water, light
and nutrients, and there is usually no shortage of any of them in a fed fishpond.

Which of the thousands of species of algae will become dominant in your pond? Over a five-year
period, you may never have the same dominant species of algae twice. A slight change in water
chemistry—pH, hardness, nitrogen/phosphorus (N/P) ratio, etc.—can bring about a change in
species. The seasons, sunlight, shade, turbidity and many other factors will also allow one
species of algae to outcompete the others.
Here are some algae-control methods:

Rake—Filamentous algae is easily raked out of small ponds.

Light—If you reduce sunlight by shading the pond with trees, shade cloth, arbors, etc., there will
be a corresponding reduction in algae. Fifty percent shade is significant, but 70 percent shade
should provide fairly clear water. Water can also be shaded with dye (such as Black Vail), but
fish will be hard to see well.

Nutrients—It doesn't take much. When fish are fed, or fertilizer is added to lilies and other
plants, there is no scarcity of nutrients for algae. The biological filter has no effect on the nutrient
level because a biofilter only converts ammonia to nitrate, which is still nitrogen. Water
exchange has a limited effect and is typically not feasible. One nutrient needed by the algae is
phosphorus, and it can be removed (or tied up) by Phosclear®, when added on a regular basis.
Phosclear® is an inexpensive water clarifier. For more information on algae control, see "Alum
Lake Treatments" Tech Talk.

Algaecides, Commercial—In the right dosages, these can selectively kill the algae without
harming the other plants or animals. However, their effect may be shortlived, as another crop of
algae can "bloom" when the algaecide wears off.

Algaecides, Natural—Things like barley straw and barley extract have a longer effect because
they remain active in the water.

UV Irradiation—A UV sterilizer will disrupt the reproductive process of planktonic algae and
keep your pond clear. Use at least 22,000 μWs/cm² and flow the entire pond's volume through
the unit at least six times per day.

Algae Culture
Tech Talk 20

On-site algae culture is a necessity in most marine hatcheries. Algae is the primary diet for
bivalves, larval shrimp and live larval feeds, such as rotifers and Artemia. Many different species
of algae are cultured throughout the world and each batch is typically just a single species
selected for its size and nutrient profile.

During culture, it is crucial that steps are taken to avoid contamination, either from pathogens or
from other species of algae or ciliates. Sterilization of all equipment and culture media is,
therefore, necessary. They can be autoclaved, dipped in alcohol, chlorinated, etc. Contaminants
are often waterborne; however, air can also be a pathway for contamination. Placing the air
compressor intake in the culture room or an air-conditioned room reduces temperature
fluctuations and contaminant load. Care should also be taken to avoid condensation in the
airlines, which can lead to ciliate infestations. Installing an in-line desiccant filter can eliminate
condensation. To eliminate a recurring contamination problem, sterilize the air delivery system
and use the appropriate inlet air filter.
Alum Lake Treatments
Tech Talk 102

Every lake/pond is unique. If the water is clear, with little submerged weed growth, we’d call it
"clean" and its primary productivity would be low. You might think of it as starving for plant
nutrients. If the water is turbid, due to planktonic algae, its productivity would be high. This
would be considered bad if you wanted to swim in it. It could be considered good, if you were
using it for aquaculture. To some small farm ponds and fishing ponds that are 100 percent on
private property, with no outflow, the owners actually add phosphorus to increase their
productivity so they will grow more fish when stocked with the appropriate species.

If you want to have clear water, you must reduce the productivity. In short, you need to withhold
nutrients that feed the algae. Phosphorus is typically the nutrient that can limit plant and algae
growth in freshwater lakes. To reduce the phosphorus level is to reduce the plant and algae
growth, resulting in clear water. Phosphorus, nitrogen and other nutrients enter the lake from
four sources:

1. Watershed runoff.
2. Sediment cycling.
3. Atmospheric loading.
4. Point source (typically sources known by the owner–can be things such as fish food,
cleaning stations, fertilizer additions, etc.).

To identify and quantify the sources of phosphorus, it is necessary to do a total nutrient budget.
Since most people can't afford that professional service, they typically ask a limnologist or other
lake expert to "eyeball it" and give them their recommendation. Some remedial action can be
inexpensive and other
suggestions can be cost-prohibitive. If the low-cost fixes are not sufficient to bring about the
desired improvement in water clarity, consider an alum treatment to reduce phosphorus in the
water and reduce its cycling out of the sediments. It is probably cheaper than you think.

Phosphorus binds tightly to the alum, which becomes incorporated into the sediments of the lake.
It is totally safe from a human, animal and environmental standpoint. Aluminum, like silica sand,
is one of the most common elements on the face of the earth. It is used in cooking and drinking
water filtration.

Ammonia Removers and Ozone

Tech Talk 113

When using many ammonia removers (AmQuel®, ClorAm-X®, etc.) it is recommended that
ozonation be discontinued for a period of 48 hours from the time of treatment. These products
contain reducing agents that cause the oxidation/reduction potential (ORP) to drop significantly.
If ozonation is not turned off, then the decline in ORP can cause ORP controllers to "falsely"
sense a problem and turn on the ozone equipment with a resulting overdose of ozone. Aeration,
however, should be continued at all times.

Anesthetizing With CO2

Tech Talk 51

High levels of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) can be used to anesthetize fish prior to handling
for purposes such as weighing, injecting, vaccinating, inspecting and slaughtering. Caution:
Carbon dioxide gas can cause drowsiness, blackouts and even death in humans and animals. Use
only in well-ventilated spaces or outdoors.

1. Buffer the water with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda, NaHCO3) to a pH of 7.5 (or
higher if normal for the ASN).
2. Using an ultra fine diffuser (or a downflow bubble contactor such as an AES oxygen
saturator), bubble carbon dioxide gas into the buffered water (remember, any carbon
dioxide bubbles that escape at the surface are wasted gas, so use either an ultra fine
pore diffuser or a venturi at the greatest possible depth).
3. When anesthetizing for temporary handling, be careful not to supersaturate the water
with gases, causing bubble gas disease. When in doubt, check with a saturometer,
which measures total gas pressure (TGP, which above 103 percent may cause
problems). A vacuum de gassing tower may have to be used prior to carbon dioxide
supersaturation.
4. When anesthetizing for temporary handling, run the carbon dioxide level up to about
75 ppm. When anesthetizing prior to slaughtering, 250 ppm or more is required.
5. Hold the fish in the high carbon dioxide water until the fish slow down or become
immobile, as your requirements dictate.
6. To revive them, simply put them back into water without carbon dioxide.

Getting Started in Aquaculture

Tech Talk 107

How Do I Get Into the Aquaculture Business?

By coming up with a business plan that can't fail and having a lot of money, skill, patience and
energy. As you know, most new businesses don't make it. Aquaculture businesses are especially
difficult because of the slim margins, burdensome government regulations, lengthy start-up time,
live animal constraints, diseases, power outages, unreliable vendors and fluctuating market
prices.

A beginner in aquaculture must first learn as much as possible about the needs of the species to
be cultured. Use books, videos, publications, extension agents, schools and especially other
people in the same business. Only if you think of a way to make a lot of money should you go to
the next step, which is doing a detailed business plan. After you have included everything you
can think of, have the plan carefully scrutinized by a minimum of three businessmen who are
knowledgeable in that type of business. Do not dismiss their objections!

Here are some things to address in your business plan specific to aquaculture:

Lack of funding is the number one cause of business failure. Ditto for aquaculture.
Time and expense to meet government regulations before even beginning.
Site selection. Don't try to make a bad location work.
Include cost for crop insurance, if available.
Consider starting small, even at the hobby level, to learn all husbandry aspects, growth
rates, costs, etc., and to get a feel for marketing.
Consider niche businesses that do not sell product at commodity prices but rather
specialty or value-added products at higher prices.

If you do come up with a plan that shows the business can be highly profitable, you can only
proceed if you will have enough money to operate the business with zero income until after the
first successful crop has been sold and paid for … and that could be a long time.

This is not a pessimistic view of the aquaculture business but rather a realistic one. Don't become
a statistic; only start a for-profit business if your business plan is rock solid and you really love
the business.

Artemia Decapsulation
Tech Talk 100

Artemia or brine shrimp is commonly used as a larval feed for several aquatic species. In order to
ensure the highest nutritional value, Artemia cysts should be decapsulated prior to hatching. This
will disinfect the cysts, remove the chorion (the indigestible portion of the cyst) and will also
reduce the amount of energy that the Artemia has to exert to hatch. The process increases the
nutritional value and hatch rate of the newly hatched Artemia and minimizes the risk of bacterial
infections and gut obstructions by the chorion.

There are two common methods used to decapsulate the cysts. For both of the methods
described, the first step is to hydrate the cysts by soaking them in either fresh or salt water for
one hour. Dry cysts have a "dimple" that makes uniform removal of the shell difficult.

Chlorine Method
This method uses household bleach (6% sodium hypochlorite solution) or industrial chlorine
(11% sodium hypochlorite solution). Fifteen grams of hydrated cysts are placed in a container
with 300 ml of 6% hypochlorite solution. The cysts are then placed on a magnetic stirrer in a
container of the bleach for approximately 3–5 minutes or until the cysts turn an orange/brown
color. Immediately drain cysts into a 120-micron sieve and wash with fresh or seawater until no
smell of chlorine remains (about 5 minutes). Hatch as usual.
Chlorine/Sodium Hydroxide Method:
This method uses full strength seawater, sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 50% solution), and industrial
chlorine (11% sodium hypochlorite solution). Since the chemical reaction that takes place is
exothermic (it generates heat) the seawater and chemicals used should be very cold (40–45°F/4–
7°C ) to prevent heat damage to the cysts. For each 100 grams of cysts to be decapsulated, place
15 ml of 50% NaOH , 550 ml of 11% chlorine and 800 ml of chilled seawater in a container with
heavy aeration or a magnetic stirrer. Keep in mind that there can be a lot of foam and the
container should be large enough to prevent overspill. Add the hydrated cysts and watch for the
cysts to turn an orange/brown color (3–5 minutes). Immediately drain cysts into a 120-micron
sieve and wash with fresh or seawater until no smell of chlorine remains (about 5 minutes).
Hatch as usual.

Mixing Artificial Seawater

Tech Talk 27

Artificial seawater is a complex mix of many purified salts formulated to have a composition
similar to natural seawater when dissolved in fresh water. Seawater cannot be evaporated to a dry
salt and then be reconstituted by adding water. It just doesn’t work, so artificial blends were
developed. There are many formulas, each with its own characteristics. The quality of a brand of
sea salt is dependent on the formula, the quality of the raw materials and the uniformity of the
blending. The salinity is the sum of all of the dissolved ions. Natural seawater is generally
considered to have a salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or grams of salt per kilogram of
water.

Several mistakes are common when calculating how much sea salt to use. First, do not assume
that ppt is the same as grams per liter (g/l). Because seawater is heavier than fresh water, this
assumption causes an error of about 2.5 percent lower salinity than expected. A second more
serious error is to assume that the salt mix is anhydrous (water free), since all brands of sea salt
use some hydrated salts (for cost and solubility reasons). This causes an error of about 12 percent
lower salinity than expected. A third source of error is adding the salt to the desired volume, as
the volume increases about one percent after adding the salt. What this means is adding 35 grams
of sea salt to a liter of water (1000 grams) will result in a 1.01 liter solution at 29.1 ppt salinity!

Gallon designations for commercial brands are not calculated at 35 ppt. There is no standard.
The weight per fifty gallon package varies among brands from 13.7 lbs to 16 lbs, giving salinities
between 27 and 32 ppt.

For calculation purposes, it takes 41.8 grams sea salt mix to one liter fresh water for 35 ppt
salinity. To calculate salt needed for lower salinities, multiply the 41.8 g/l by the ratio of the
desired salinity, divided by 35 ppt.

Example 1: To mix at 32 ppt solution, solve: 41.8 g/l x 32 ppt/35 ppt = 38.2 g/l.

Example 2: To mix a 1,000 gallon batch at 32 ppt, multiply the 38.2 g/l (from example one) x
3.78 (liters/gallon) x 1000 to get 144,396 grams or 318 lbs
(144 kg) of sea salt.

When purchasing and mixing sea salts, remember to base mix ratios on the weight of salt mix,
not the advertised gallon ratings. The weight is the legal unit of measure.

The information in this Tech Talk was provided by Thomas Frakes, Technical Consultant,
Aquarium Systems, Inc.

Aspirators vs. Agitators

Tech Talk 8
Aspirators and agitators are the aeration devices most commonly used on hauling tanks when the
stocking densities do not require the use of pure oxygen. Agitators use a small motor (normally
12V) to spin a paddle which is in the water. The paddle splashes the water, which adds oxygen
and removes carbon dioxide. Aspirators also use a small motor, which spins a small venturi
device. Air is pulled down through the shaft and exits the venturi underwater, causing a draft of
bubbles. Agitators are the best choice for heavy stocking loads because they transfer more
oxygen than aspirators. Aspirators are a good choice for smaller stocking densities, and they are
much quieter than agitators.

Backup Blower Setup

Tech Talk 3

Anyone who has worked with fish for a while knows that if you don't plan ahead, you won't be in
business for long. When it comes to life support, a backup blower could save your business.

The most crucial of life support requirements is maintaining an adequate oxygen level because it
can be used up so quickly.

We always recommend having a second blower attached to the main air supply line, wired to
come on if the primary blower fails for any reason. Both blowers must have check valves on
them. A pressure switch is located between the primary blower and its check valve. When this
pressure switch senses a loss of air pressure, it closes, causing an electric relay to start the
backup blower (see diagram). The check valves keep air from being lost through the nonrunning
unit.

Check valves must be able to tolerate high temperatures. Be sure the stand-by unit is on a
different electrical circuit breaker.
The cost of fish food can represent 30 to 90 percent of the total cost of raising fish! In some
situations (like indoor culture), feed must provide 100 percent of the complex nutritional
requirements fish need. A less-than-complete diet will show up as poor feeding response, slow
growth and/or disease problems. Poor water quality can also be caused by bad feed.

All feed should be used within the normal 6-month shelf life. Do not overfeed. In general, give
fish a little less than they will eat (stop feeding them before they stop feeding).

Questions often arise about the size of fish food. Here are some suggestions for selecting food
that is the right size for your fish.

Some smaller hatchlings require food as small as 35 microns! Other hatchlings may be
able to accept brine shrimp, large zooplankton or starter crumble from the onset. When
in doubt, use the smaller size food.
When changing food sizes, it is best to do so gradually by mixing the two sizes together,
slowly converting to the larger size in a week or so.
To learn more about feed sizes and feeding practices, consult the book Fish Hatchery
Management (see Index).

Getting Started Guide:

For fish under an inch in size, use brine shrimp, rotifers, powdered foods, flake foods or
00 starter crumble.
To 2 inches: 1/32" granulated food, zooplankton or flake foods.
2 to 3 inches: 1/16" granules, zooplankton or flake foods.

As fish grow to 3 inches or more in length, food sizes become more uniform by species:

3 to 5 inches: 3/32" or 1/8" pellets.

5 to 10 inches: 3/16" to 1/4" pellets.
10 inches: 1/4" to 3/8" pellets.
Bacteria Notes
Tech Talk 25

What is their size? There are thousands of strains and two major groups. Heterotrophs use
organic carbon (as we do). They are elongated, often rod-shaped bacteria, typically .2 µ
(microns) wide and 4-6 µ long. Autotrophs use inorganic carbon (carbonate or carbon dioxide) as
plants do. They are cocci-shaped (round to oval) bacteria, typically .2–.4 µ in diameter.

What do they do? Like all other living things, they have a biological directive to eat and
reproduce. They must compete with each other and with predators. Each strain does only one
job, so it takes a coordinated team of strains to purify water, for example.

What do they eat? An individual strain may digest a specific type of fat, certain proteins,
carbohydrates, cellulose or hydrocarbons. Together the right team can eat sludge, animal wastes,
etc.

How fast do they grow? A population of heterotrophic bacteria can double every 20 minutes.
Nitrobacter can double every 8 hours. This rapid reproduction (with mutations) quickly evolves
new strains.

Where can you buy them? From Aquatic Eco-Systems. Bacta-Pur® bacteria are guaranteed to
have a minimum of 10" cells/ml. That's 100,000,000,000 in a milliliter! (For instructions on
counting method, contact AES or IET.)

Do they move around? Some bacteria form floc, the slippery material one feels on a tank wall.
Although many involved in water purification may get trapped in the floc they typically flow
through the system. The bacteria on a biofilter are immobile, and water movement is essential to
insure that food is brought into contact with them.

Where do they come from? Bacteria can live in most places, but all strains are not everywhere
all the time. Water purification cannot be optimized if all the required strains are not present.
Bioaugmentation with Bacta-Pur® guarantees the presence of the balanced team. If a proper
environment exists, they will multiply.

How are they eliminated? Freezing can kill over 99 percent of some strains, such as
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Spore-forming bacteria are less affected, at least the spores
survive. UV light, disinfectants, heat, acids, bacteriacides and oxidizers (ozone, chlorine,
hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate) will also kill them.

What is the relation between light and bacteria? Light is not only unnecessary for the growth
of beneficial bacteria that improve water quality, but also will inhibit the growth of nutrifiers,
particularly Nitrobacter. Biological filters should be kept in the dark. Ultraviolet light is used to
kill bacteria. The toxicity of the uv light is a function of the wavelength, intensity and exposure
duration.
Assistance on this Tech Talk was provided by IET, Inc.

Bait Counts per Pound

Tech Talk 85

To estimate the carrying capacity of a bait aeration system, approximate the total weight of fish,
based on length and body depth of species. The following numbers are based on the average
condition factor of the fish. The carrying capacity of AES aerators is rated in pounds of fish.

Barley Straw
Tech Talk 37

Research through Aquatic Weeds Research Unit U.K. indicates that barley straw is highly
effective in the control of algae. How about that? An organic approach to algae control! It takes
six to eight weeks for barley straw to become active after it is placed in moving water. After that,
barley straw will remain an active algaecide for approximately six months. Microbial growth,
oxygen and warm water temperatures activate the decomposition of the straw. With sufficient
water flow through the straw, lignins oxidize into homic acids and, with sunlight and oxygen,
destroy algae, with no effect on higher plant and aquatic life.

Barley straw decomposes slowly, so its oxygen demand does not cause problems unless an
excessive amount of straw is used. Stagnant water will go anaerobic inside the straw bundle,
killing the microbes, so be sure to keep the water moving.

How much barley straw to use?

Barley straw is most effective in shallow (1 m) water with sunlight and good circulation. Clear
water needs less straw, but with turbid, muddy water and less sunlight, more straw is required.
Low temperatures are less effective.

Water surface area is used to calculate dosage. In still water ponds, the minimum quantity of
straw needed to control algae is 2.5 grams (.09 oz) of straw per square meter of water surface. In
water with a severe algae problem, high first treatments up to 50 grams (1.8 oz) per square meter
may be required. Start with small quantities and monitor effects. Barley straw may be prestarted
in nonalgae problem areas with good oxygenated water flows.
The research unit suggests you tie the straw in small bundles, make flat sheaves or stuff it into
net bags. Weight or stake them to the bottom in an area with water movement.

Biofilter Performance Standards

Tech Talk 106

"AES/B" stands for Absolute Efficiency Standard for Biofilters. AES/B Numbers indicate how
many pounds of fish a biological filter can support in an exemplary recirculating system. They
are only a quick reference for comparing our biological filters. Note that as much as 50
percent additional ammonia conversion occurs on other wetted surfaces like tank walls and pipes
but, since these nitrification surfaces are often eliminated by cleaning and chemical
therapeutants, it is unwise to count on them (see "Biofilter Sizing" Tech Talk).

AES/B Numbers take into account the bio-film diffusion and oxygen availability characteristics
specific to the biofilter type (bead filter vs rotating biological contactor, for example). Be aware
that feed rate, feed protein content, pH, ammonia concentration, temperature, solids pre-
filtration, and other variables have a pronounced effect on biofilter performance. Actual field
performance can stray from the AES/B Number by a factor of 3 or more, based on these factors
alone. Management skill, and even timing, are other variables, particularly for bead filters
utilized for nitrification rather than solids removal.

AES/B Numbers hold for the following conditions only:

Half-pound tilapia or catfish in indoor tanks.

Nonsoil bottoms, low algae concentrations.
Warm water (80°F, 27°C).
Recirculation rate is at least one system volume per hour.
7.2 pH.
3 mg/l total ammonia-nitrogen (TAN) concentration.
Two percent body weight per day feed rate, pelleted feed at 40 percent protein.
Effective solids pre-filtration (except for bead filters).

Biofilter Sizing and Aeration System Design

Tech Talk 95

Biofilters consist of surface-providing media for attachment of microorganisms that remove

wastes from the water. The media can be commercial products like Bio Barrels, Bio Balls, Bio
Strata, Bio-Fill™, Biofilm Carrier Elements and Siporax® among others. Sand, rock, shells and
other natural material can be used as biofilter media. The relative amount of usable surface area
(square feet surface area/cubic foot of media) and their weight are important.

In aquaculture, biofilters are used to convert ammonia to nitrite, and ultimately nitrate, through
an oxidation process called nitrification. The bacteria attach to the media surfaces where they use
ammonia and nitrite as energy sources and carbon dioxide as a carbon source. These bacteria are
aerobic, requiring oxygen for the conversion process.

The biofilter sizing process can be roughly summarized as follows:

1. Determine the maximum expected ammonia loading rate and the allowable total ammonia-
nitrogen (TAN) concentration. Ammonia loading is a function of feed loading, protein content
and digestion efficiency. The TAN limit is primarily a function of culture water pH and fish
tolerance for un-ionized ammonia (see "Water Quality Guide" Tech Talk). High water
replacement rates dilute culture water ammonia while impacting pH and other water quality
parameters. Mass balance analysis is essential for determining the biofilter load, if any, for these
―partial recirculating‖ and ―flow-through‖ systems.

2. Select the best kind of biofilter for the application. Many types of biofilters have been used in
aquaculture, including rotating biological contactors (RBCs), trickling filters, submerged filters,
fluidized beds, bead filters and low-space bioreactors (LSBs). One may be better than another for
a given application.

3. Calibrate the biofilter standard nitrification rate to the field water quality conditions. These
conditions include hydraulic loading rate, TAN concentration, oxygen availability and
temperature. Poor solid waste pre-filtration will reduce biofilter performance and require a larger
biofilter.

4. Calculate the biofilter size based on the biofilter surface area, projected field nitrification rate
and the maximum expected ammonia load.

Biofilter surface area requirements can range from 3 to 30 square feet per pound of fish
depending on the biofilter type and the factors described above. For this reason, we recommend
that the AES/B Numbers (pounds of fish supported, see "Biofilter Performance Standards" Tech
Talk) as well as the feed and TAN limits listed in this catalog be used for comparison purposes
only and not for biofilter sizing.

Blower Buying and Operating Tips

Tech Talk 83

Compare blowers not by horsepower ratings but by watts. That's what you pay for!

Electricity cost should be a major concern when motors operate continuously. Don't get fooled
by low horsepower ratings on electric equipment. Always compare work being done to power
consumed in watts.

For instance, you may have seen air blowers and water pumps advertised with lower horsepower
ratings than other equipment of the same size. The gimmick is to use an undersized, low-cost,
high service factor motor to imply superior performance. But this smaller motor has to work
harder to do the job. The small motor may get through a temporary overload condition, but is not
reliable for continuous duty. It will actually use more electricity, operate at a higher temperature
and have a shorter life than a larger 1.0 service factor motor doing the same work.

Sweetwater® blowers run cooler because they use the correct 1.0 service factor motor for the
continuous duty work being done.

Here are some blower operating tips:

Bleed off as much excess air as you can while you still have as much air as you need. The
blower will run cooler and use less power.
If the ambient air is so dirty (feed dust, bird feathers, etc.) that the air filter requires
frequent cleaning, pull a sock over the filter. Then change your socks frequently!
After three years of continuous operation in critical animal life support applications,
purchase a new blower and have the original blower's motor bearings replaced. Operate
the original unit for a month to be sure the work was done correctly, then switch back
to the new blower, keeping the original one as a backup.

You can't measure watts without a watt meter - BUT you can estimate watt consumption with
these formulas:

Single phase watts = volts x amps x power factor.

Three phase watts = volts x amps x 1.73 x power factor.

The power factor of a fully loaded electric motor is about .9, but this goes down significantly as
the load on the motor is reduced.

Blowers, Air Pumps or Compressors

Tech Talk 82

Blowers
Blowers are designed to provide large volumes of air at low pressure (less than 4 psi). They
are commonly used in conjunction with air diffusers and airlifts. This combination adds
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide with low power consumption. Typical applications
include recirculating fish tank and aquarium systems, bait fish and lobster holding
facilities, and shallow pond aeration. Regenerative blowers are preferred in the aquaculture
industry because they are the most reliable and economical in this pressure range.
Air Pumps
Fractional horsepower Sweetwater® Linear Piston Air Pumps fill the gap between
aquarium air pumps and blowers. These units supply up to 5 cfm at depths to 8 feet. Air
pumps provide long service life, very quiet operation and very low energy use. They are a
perfect fit for koi ponds, bait shop tanks, classrooms, laboratories, etc.
Compressors
Sweetwater® oilless rotary vane and piston compressors are used in applications where
water depths are greater, such as with lake aeration, algae culture and lobster pounds. These
compressors allow airlines tobe run thousands of feet when electricity is not nearthe water.
A compressor as little as 3/4 hp can be used to aerate and destratify a 10-acre lake.
Compressors used for aquaculture should always be "oilless."

System Sizing
To size a system, first determine the pressure required. Enough pressure is needed to overcome
the water pressure at the diffuser’s depth, the piping friction loss, and the diffuser's resistance to
airflow.

Example: For a water depth of 36", a low restriction piping system of 4" of water and a low-
resistance air diffuser of 10" of water (just prior to cleaning), will require an air pressure of at
least 50" of water (36" + 4" + 10"). This is equal to about 2 psi.

The next consideration is the volume of air needed to accomplish the job. If there is only one fish
room, one linear air pump compressor with an additional one for emergency back up may be
sufficient. In a larger facility, two or more primary blowers or compressors and one emergency
back up may be required. When using low-pressure air, it's important that the air piping system
and diffusers offer little resistance to air flow (request our bulletin "Air Distribution Systems for
Sweetwater® Blowers").

Performance charts and tables are available for all of our blowers and compressors. Selecting the
right system for your application is accomplished simply by comparing your pressure and
airflow requirements with manufacturer’s performance charts. If you need help, call an AES
technician at 407-598-1401.

Blue-Green Algae
Tech Talk 77

The Problem
Blue-green algae, also known as cyanobacteria, can form unsightly and unhealthy algal blooms.
Certain blue-green algae (Microcystis, Anabaena and/or Aphanizomenon) produce harmful
toxins that damage nerves, cause muscle tremors, damage the liver and cause cancer. Recent
evidence has shown that the probability that any blue-green algae bloom will be toxic is 45-75%.
Since laboratory tests are needed to confirm toxicity, experts recommend that all blue-green
algae blooms be treated as if they were toxic to humans and all animals.

Blue-green algae toxins, called cyanotoxins, have been linked to human and animal illness
around the world. The World Health Organization has identified blue-green algae in drinking
water as an "urgent concern" and established a 1 microgram per liter (1 part per billion, or ppb)
standard for microcystin-LR, the most common cyanotoxin. Pet, farm and wild animal deaths
occur when cyanotoxins are concentrated, which can happen when accumulated near the shore.
People swimming in waters with concentrated cyanotoxins can experience skin irritations,
gastrointestinal and respiratory problems and allergic reactions without actually ingesting any
water.

Controlling Blue-Green Algae with Aeration

Artificial mixing of lakes using aeration has been shown to shift the dominant resident
planktonic community towards more desirable green algae and diatoms. Aeration and
destratification have been shown to dramatically reduce the abundance of Microcystis by
circulating the water and reducing the amount of time the blue-green algae spend in water with
enough light available for photosynthesis (photic zone). Mixing eliminates another condition for
blue-green algae growth: the stable, warm layer of water that can form at the surface of lakes or
ponds during warm months. In addition to removing blue-green algae from the photic zone and
creating circulation, synergistic airlift destratification systems also dramatically increase lake
bottom (hypolimnion) oxygen concentration, which reduces the level of phosphorus—a key
nutrient for algal blooms—released from lake sediments.

Controlling Blue-Green Algae with Algaecides

In addition to controlling blue-green algal blooms with aeration, you can use algaecides.
Algaecides with sodium carbonate peroxyhydrate are effective at rapidly eliminating blue-green
algae. When added to water, these compounds break down into hydrogen peroxide and sodium
carbonate and typically last for less than 48 hours. Hydrogen peroxide quickly destroys the thin–
membraned cell wall of the blue-green algae at low concentrations of .3 to 1.7 ppm. These
algaecides can also control both planktonic algae (green water) and filamentous algae (long,
string-like algae) at higher concentrations. Algaecides that form hydrogen peroxide are 100%
biodegradable. Unlike some copper-based ones, peroxyhydrate algaecides applied according to
label directions will not harm fish and other freshwater animals.

Cage Culture Suggestions

Tech Talk 31

Cages may be the best method of fish culture in nonseinable water bodies. But there are
peculiarities to cage culture that must be considered. As Bismarck said, "... it is better to learn
from the mistakes of others."

1. Seek help from people in your area who have successfully cage-raised the same
species. Your State Aquaculture Extension Service is an excellent source of
information.
2. Your fish will be totally dependent on you for food and water quality. Still, no-wind
periods are the worst without aeration.
3. Build a cage that's easy to handle and harvest, and consider the possible need for sun
shading.
4. Consider feed waste potential and waste buildup below cages. Keep cage bottom at
least one foot above lake bottom.
5. Cage position is very important for water quality, feeding access, etc. Use an aerator or
a current inducer for no-current periods.
 6. You may need to aerate the entire impoundment if it is, or will become, eutrophic as
production (nutrient enrichment) continues.
7. Inspect fish for mortalities, condition and, depending on where you are, loss to
poachers!
8. Inspect cages for turtle holes, overall condition, and biofouling (algae, bryozoans,
invertebrates, etc.) that can restrict circulation.
9. Be prepared for foul weather with heavy waves and strong currents. Also cloudy
weather, plankton die-offs, overturns, etc.

Calculation of Pond and Tank Volume

Tech Talk 118

Determining the volume of your pond or tank accurately can be critical for many reasons,
including sizing of pumps, piping, filters, etc., when calculating stocking rates and for correct
chemical dosages.

Volume is calculated by multiplying surface area times depth. Some geometric shapes are simple
to calculate, e.g., squares, rectangles and circles. Unfortunately, many ponds are free form in
shape and/or have variable depths. Their volume can be estimated by dividing the pond surface
into simple geometric shapes, calculating the volume of each section based on depth and adding
all sections. Be sure to include the water in filters, piping, waterfalls, etc.

The following tables present equations that are used to calculate the area and volume of various
geometric shapes.

Volume in Cubic Feet x 7.48 = Gallons

Alternative methods of determining the volume include:

1. checking with the contractor who built the pond for records of pond area and volume,
2. obtaining aerial photographs from which the pond area can be estimated,
3. surveying the ponds using a transit to determine area (get depths from topography),
4. drawing the pond on graph paper divided into squares of known size to calculate
surface area,
5. determining the area using CAD software,
6. filling the pond using a totalizing water meter or
7. estimating the volume by adding a known measure of salt, then determining the volume
by salinity.
Carbon Vane Replacement
Tech Talk 6

Sweetwater® models AQ3, AQ5, AQ7, AQ73, AQ9 & AQ93

DO NOT REMOVE THE ROTOR OR LOOSEN ANY OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR-

THROUGH BOLTS.

Aquatic Eco-Systems recommends carbon vane replacement at nine-month intervals to ensure

trouble-free operation of your compressor. The following tools are required: 3/8" or 7/16"
socket/wrench, small hammer and antiseize compound.

1. Remove the two end caps from the front of the muffler box (if applicable) and the five
muffler box bolts, being careful not to damage the gasket. If the gasket is torn, scrape it
off with a sharp knife and replace.
2. Tap the box with a small hammer to loosen it. Do not pry with a screwdriver.
 3. Remove the six bolts holding the end plate to the body. Remove the end plate. Do not
remove the rotor or loosen any of the electric motor through bolts.
4. Check that vanes are moving freely in and out of vane slots. Replace any vane if more
than 50% extends past the vane slot. Top clearance (between rotor and body) may be
adjusted by loosening body bolts and lightly tapping on the compressor body while
turning the rotor. About .004 inch—this paper's thickness—works well.
5. Remove vanes and clean both sides with fine emery cloth. Clean the end plate with fine
emery cloth.
6. Flush vanes, body, rotor and end plate with solvent (AES part no. AQ255), and remove
all solvent from each part.
7. Check the body, rotor and end plate for scoring. If each part is clean and shows no
signs of scoring, reinstall parts. If scoring is present, replace with new part(s) or contact
Aquatic Eco-Systems for service.
8. Insert new vanes as shown.

Reassemble by reversing the previous directions. AES always recommends using an antiseize
lubricant on each bolt to ensure its easy removal for the next vane replacement. Bolts should be
reinstalled and tightened in a similar manner to replacing the lug nuts on a vehicle wheel. Start
with one bolt and move to the right, skipping one and tightening the next.

When reinstalling the muffler box (if applicable), be certain to install the center bolt first to
ensure proper gasket alignment. Before replacing the muffler box, plug your compressor in for a
quick sound check of the valve rotation. If an unusual sound or stopping of the rotor takes place,
disconnect and recheck the vane replacement.

If you have any problems, contact Aquatic Eco-Systems at 407-598-1401 for assistance.

Chiller Installation and Sizing

Tech Talk 59

1. Insulate water lines to and from chillers.

2. Insulate as much of the water tank as possible.
3. Keep the chiller well ventilated. The higher the temperature around the chiller, the
longer it has to work.
4. Submersible water pumps add heat to the water. If a submersible pump must be used,
choose the next size larger chiller.
5. Water must be run through the chiller at all times while unit is on.
6. For tanks less than 3,000 gallons, allow 24 hours for initial chilling. For tanks larger
than 3,000 gallons, allow 48 hours or more.
7. Reduce bio-fouling by filtering water prior to chiller. Check the filter often. If it clogs
and reduces water flow below the minimum required, freeze damage can occur.
8. Consult AES technical department for flow-through and other applications.
9. Ambient air temperature for sizing should be measured directly above the tank to be
chilled.
10. An oversized chiller will not cost more to operate, as it only turns on when needed and
runs for a shorter time.
11. De-icing Lakes
Tech Talk 56

12. Most of us are aware that aeration systems are primarily required in summer, when the
oxygen consumption rate is highest and stratification is most severe. In some lakes and
ponds, winter fish kills are also quite common.
13. When ice covers a lake, oxygen transfer from the atmosphere is eliminated. If there is a
significant accumulation of snow on top of the ice, the photosynthetic oxygen production
can also be virtually eliminated. If the ice and snow cover persists long enough and the
oxygen consumption rate underneath the ice is great enough, there will be a fish kill.
Clean lakes, that is, those with a low trophic state index, may not require winter aeration.
14. During the summer, thermal stratification occurs when warmer water floats above cooler,
heavier water. Near freezing, the situation is reversed. As water approaches the freezing
point, it expands and floats on top of warmer water.
15. The oxygen consumption that takes place in a lake is the result of biological and chemical
reactions. Since the rate of these reactions is related to temperature, the winter aeration
system needs to be only about 20 percent of the size of a summer aeration system.
16. If it is acceptable to have an open hole in the ice, the simplest way to prevent a winter
fish kill is to keep a small area ice free, either by using air or an electric de-icer. The
electric de-icer may work best at the shoreline, perhaps mounted on a dock, while air-
powered systems seem to be preferred where longer distances are involved. When the air
compressor is mounted on the shore, the air line is buried below the frost line into the
lake and directed to the area that is to remain ice-free. Caution must be taken due to the
hazards of open water in the winter, where people or animals may be on the ice. Also, be
careful not to open too large a hole in the ice, which can result in the loss of too much of
the lake's heat.
Cleaning Diffusers
Tech Talk 53

How to Clean Sweetwater® Diffusers

Sweetwater® air diffusers, made of glass-bonded silica, are virtually indestructible and will give
many years of service.

The only maintenance normally required is periodic cleaning. The frequency of cleaning will be
determined by the mineral and organic content of the water in which the air diffusers are used. In
clean, cold, soft water, cleaning may only be necessary every 2 or 3 years. In very hard water or
water high in organics, it could be necessary as often as every 2 months.

1. Remove from service and blow out excess water. If fouled with barnacles or other
gross foreign material, scrape or hose off.
2. If you have a 1/2" NPT white fitting on the end of your diffuser, immerse the diffuser
portion, not the fitting, completely in undiluted muriatic acid for a sufficient time to
dissolve the clogging material. This may take from one minute to eight hours in the
most extreme cases. Be very careful when using acid! Wear eye, face and hand
protection and have clean water available for rinsing and acid diluting in the case of an
acid splash or spill.
3. After the clogging material has been dissolved, rinse thoroughly before reuse.
4. Discard the used acid after reducing its strength to a neutral pH by diluting with at least
ten times as much water as acid. Add acid to water; never add water to acid.

Diffuser Comparison Chart

Tech Talk 62
Dissolved Oxygen in Aquaculture
Tech Talk 1

The First Limiting Factor of Water Quality

Air breathing animals are used to air containing about 21 percent oxygen, whereasaquaculture is
conducted in water containing less than .0001 percent oxygen (10 mg/l). With so little oxygen
available in the best of conditions, it is apparent that knowledge of dissolved oxygen (D.O.),
oxygen measuring and aeration equipment is very important to the aquaculturist.

If the oxygen level is too high, fish can be killed (some fish transporters have done this using
pure oxygen). If it is too low, the fish may not eat and may expend additional energy seeking
oxygen. If lower yet, they can experience severe stress and, of course, death.

The diurnal oxygen cycle in outdoor ponds should be well understood, as the delicate balance of
dissolved oxygen vs the rate of oxygen consumption can shift rapidly with changing algal,
temperature and wind conditions. In outdoor ponds, lower D.O. levels will occur in the summer
because the rate of oxygen consumption increases as the temperature increases. Oxygen is THE
MOST IMPORTANT thing to monitor. Monitoring and record-keeping will provide predictive
knowledge.

Measure oxygen after altering water flow rates, feed rates, etc., and when developing new
growing systems. No one can just look at the water and know the oxygen level. Oxygen can only
be measured with a test kit or, more conveniently, with an oxygen meter.
Dissolved Oxygen Meters and Probes
Tech Talk 26

Model Manufacturer Parameters D.O. Accuracy Resolution Waterproof Backlit Warranty Memory/RS232 Oxygen
Range (ppm or Display Meter/Probe Probe Type
(ppm mg/l)
or
mg/l)
DO62 American D.O. Only 0-20.0 ±.2 ppm .1 No No 2 yr/2 yr No Polargraphic
Marine
9142 Hanna D.O. Only 0-19.0 ±1.5% .1 Yes No 1 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Y2004 YSI* D.O., 0-20.0 ±2% .1 No No 1 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Temp
Y55 YSI* D.O., 0-20.0 ±.25 .01 No Yes 2 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Temp
Y52 YSI* D.O., 0- ±.02 .01 No No 2 yr/6 mo Yes Polargraphic
Temp 19.99
Y58 YSI* D.O., 0- ±.03 .01 No No 2 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Temp 19.99
Y550A YSI* D.O., 0- ±.03 .01 Yes Yes 3 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Temp 50.00
Y85 YSI* D.O., 0- ±2% .01 No Yes 2 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
Temp, Sal 20.00
100017 WTW D.O., 0-20.0 ±.5% .1 Yes No 3 yr/6 mo Optional Galvanic
Temp
Y5561 YSI* D.O., 0- ±.5% .01 Yes Yes 3 yr/1 yr Yes Polargraphic
Temp, pH, 50.00
ORP, Sal
HQ10 Hach® D.O., .01- ±.1% .01 Yes Yes 3 yr/1 yr Yes Luminescent
Temp, pH 20.00
DO600 Extech D.O. Only 0-20.0 ±2% .1 Yes No 1 yr/6 mo No Polargraphic
FDA Regulations
Tech Talk 103

Water Conditioners and Aquaculture

If you are involved with the production of aquatic organisms, at some point you will probably
need to add one or more chemicals to your water. Finding and using the correct chemicals
according to the labeled instructions is very important. You must always abide by the local, state
and federal regulations that apply to your specific applications. Situations where organisms for
human consumption are concerned require special consideration in the United States. Certain
high regulatory priority drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be
used only under very specific circumstances. It is always advisable to seek the current regulatory
status of each chemical before use, as the previous status is subject to change.

Chemicals that are typically used as water conditioners (even ice) also have a regulatory status.
These chemicals are determined by the FDA to be low regulatory priority aquaculture drugs
because they have no significant animal or human drug uses.

Both therapeutic and non-therapeutic chemicals have very specific requirements regarding their
usage. We recommend that you conduct a thorough investigation into the regulatory status of the
products you intend to use and then keep a complete log of the purchase and usage of these
chemicals.

For more information about specific regulations, contact the FDA.

Food and Drug Administration

Center for Veterinary Medicine
Communications Staff
7519 Standish Place, HFV-12
Rockville, Maryland 20855
301-827-3800

www.fda.gov

Feeding Larval Fish and Shrimp

Tech Talk 19

Larval fish and shrimp are plankton feeders. They feed on algae and/or animals of a size they can
eat in one bite. In nature, they may live in a plankton soup, from which they can select what they
want to eat. There will also be other things choosing to eat them.

In aquaculture, this process must be controlled in order to achieve a consistently high survival
rate at an acceptable cost. Larval culture in ponds controls the process by timing: fill a dry pond
then add fertilizer a few days before stocking with just-hatched larvae. The naturally occurring
plankton algae and the zooplankton that appear shortly thereafter are at just right the stage for the
growing larva but too small for larger predators.

Indoors, Artemia and rotifers, which are fairly easy to raise, are used as carriers for delivering
algae and enrichments to larval fish and shrimp. The algae can be fed or soaked in a HUFA
emulsion for a few hours before feeding to the larva.

Artemia older than 24 hours and rotifers have very little nutritional value. It is essential to enrich
them with algae or dried diets immediately before feeding to the larva. Using live algae in the
culture tank (green water culture) has the added benefit of improving water quality by removing
ammonia and other metabolic by-products of the larva. Algae paste can also be used as an
enrichment; however, it does not remove ammonia as the live algae does. Emulsified, dried diets
can also be used, but they should not be added directly to the larval rearing tank, as they can foul
the water.

If you choose to use the freshly hatched Artemia, which have some nutritional value, it is
important to decapsulate the cysts prior to hatching them. Decapsulation is a process of removing
the outer shell of the Artemia cyst. This is done so that the larva does not ingest the shells, which
can cause obstruction and death. The outer shells are also a common source for bacterial
infections. Decapsulation is usually done by hydrating the cysts and soaking them in a
hypochlorite solution until the shell is dissolved. Reference the Plankton Culture Manual
(WBQ32) for a complete description of this process.

Hand or Automatic Feeding

Tech Talk 21

Hand or automatic feeding … which is better?

Automatic feeders save time. All business people know – time is money. Most fish farmers are in
short supply of both. The manual labor involved in feeding your fish every day by hand may
seem small, but over the period of a year, can easily equate to thousands of dollars in man-hours.

For example, an operation with 10 tanks, feeding 3 times a day for 3 minutes per tank, at $7 an
hour will cost you $10.50 per day in manual labor.

------- X -------- X -------- X -------- = --------

(# of Tanks) (#Feeding/Day) (Min./Tank) (Cost/Hr.) Cost/Day

Automatic feeders require only a minimal amount of manual labor, including weekly filling of
the hopper and resetting feeding rates (and recharging batteries if not tied into a central power
source). An estimate for this maintenance is 15 minutes per week/per feeder. That equals $2.80 a
day in labor.

Manual Labor Automatic Feeders Savings

$10.50/day $2.80/day $7.70/day
$315/month $84/month $231/month
$3,780/year $1,008/year $2,772/year

You can buy a lot of automatic feeders for $2,772!

Automatic feeders allow feedings to be tailored to the biological clock of each species. They are
ideal for the multiple feedings required when raising fry. Implementing a schedule of several
feedings spread throughout the day may help to cut down on size variance of the fish, improve
feed conversion ratios and level the load on the biofilter.

Filtration Spectrum
Tech Talk 99

Fish and invertebrate wastes are comprised of uneaten feed, fecal material, algae, fish scales,
organic debris, etc. The solid wastes are characterized by particle size and density. Aquaculture
wastes vary among between species and applications. Even a change in fish food brands, or
going from sinking to floating food, can make profound changes in waste characteristics.

Removal of fish wastes is especially important in recirculating systems, as suspended solids can
cause disease, damage gills, foul biofilters, increase oxygen demand, raise ammonia
concentrations and cause off-flavor. The removal of suspended solids can be done by
gravatational settling (sedimentation tanks, tube settlers, etc.) and physical separation (granular
filters, screening, cartridge and bag filters), plus affinity bead filtration, vegetable filters and
others. The smallest solids may be removed using foam fractionation, diatomaceous earth
filtration or membrane filtration.
Fish Food
Tech Talk 17

The cost of fish food can represent 30 to 90 percent of the total cost of raising fish! In some
situations (like indoor culture), feed must provide 100 percent of the complex nutritional
requirements fish need. A less-than-complete diet will show up as poor feeding response, slow
growth and/or disease problems. Poor water quality can also be caused by bad feed.

All feed should be used within the normal 6-month shelf life. Do not overfeed. In general, give
fish a little less than they will eat (stop feeding them before they stop feeding).

Fish Metabolism
Tech Talk 16

We refer to fish as being "cold blooded" (some people fit that description, too). That doesn't
mean they don't give off heat. It works as follows:

100 pounds of fish fed @ 5 percent of weight per day.

5 pounds of feed x 700 kcal/lb feed = 3,500 kcal/day.
 3,500 kcal/day = heat that would raise a 400-gallon culture tank's temperature (perfectly
insulated) 2–3°C.

This explains how fish metabolism, together with pumps, lights, etc., is responsible for raising
the temperature.

Float Switches
Tech Talk 70

Automatic float switches can burn out motors if they cycle too frequently. Pumps should not be
started and stopped every few minutes. The switches will wear out prematurely and the motor
can overheat and burn out. Never let cascading water or wave action cause a float switch to
bounce. Design a sump large enough (or a pump small enough) so that the pump does not turn on
more than once every five minutes. Do not use in potable water.

Flocculation
Tech Talk 115

Polymers or polyelectrolyte flocculants can be used to concentrate waste solids collected from
recirculating systems and other aquaculture applications. An example would be the concentration
of backwash wastes from microscreen filters. The flocculation process involves the optimization
of the electric charge of the wastes and bringing floc particles together to form larger particles
that can easily settle in a sedimentation basin.

A wide range of polymers are available. They include organic polymers that are cationic
(positively charged), anionic (negatively charged) or nonionic (no charge). Because wastewater
particles are generally negatively charged, cationic polyelectrolytes are more often used to
neutralize or reduce the negative charge on the particles, thereby allowing aggregation and floc
formation.

Since everyone's water and waste chemistry is different, a jar test must be completed to
determine the optimum flocculant dosage and the duration of mixing. The standard jar test
apparatus uses several containers, each with a sampling port about 10 cm below the water line,
so that samples may be taken during the test. A paddle stirrer is placed in each container. These
stirrers are all driven by a variable speed motor from 0 to 300 rpm. Polymer solutions are
prepared according to the manufacturer’s recommendation and added in varied concentrations to
the containers along with water being tested.

The flocculation process includes 1) a period of rapid or flash mixing when flocculants are added
to the wastewater and stirred at high speed, 2) a period of slow mixing when the wastewater is
slowly stirred to form large flocs that can be easily settled and 3) a period of rest when the floc
formed is allowed to settle. The jar test procedure is a small scale representation of the larger
scale treatment system and is used to optimize flocculent dosage and time periods for mixing and
settling. With this information you can design either a batch or a continuous flow sedimentation
system.

A control sample is included to evaluate the effect of the polymer addition. The percent
reduction of the wastewater parameter of interest is calculated in relation to this untreated,
unflocculated, wastewater sample. For most applications, the evaluation of the effectiveness of
polymer treatment is completed by analyzing the percent reduction of turbidity, which is an
indicator of suspended solids removal. In aquaculture and other applications, the percent
reduction of phosphorus may also be used to evaluate effectiveness of treatment. It has been
shown that the majority of the phosphorus discharged from intensive aquaculture systems (50-
85%) is contained in the settleable solids. Thus, any method that removes solids will also reduce
the total phosphorus.

Flow Meters
Tech Talk 13

Most flow meters, including all AES meters, are calibrated with no back pressure on the outlet
side (unless specified). Rarely, however, are flow meters used without some back pressure.
Because pressure compresses the gas being measured, the measured volume will change
depending on the pressure at which it is being used. At high pressure, the meter may read five
cfh, but the flow may actually be ten cfh. When used in vacuum applications, flow meters are off
even further. Therefore, you should never expect the meter to provide an accurate reading, unless
it has been calibrated for the same gas at the pressure and back pressure at which it is to be used.
As inaccurate as these meters may be, they are good tools for "relative" flow adjustments and for
resetting the same flow used in the past.

Fluidized Bed Filters

Tech Talk 112

The purpose of a biological filter is to convert ammonia to nitrate. Fish excrete ammonia in
proportion to the amount of food they eat. In the AES catalog, you will see a "Feed per Day"
rating based on a 40% protein content, 10% moisture content feed, with typical digestibility.

Fluidized bed biofilters using sand media are extremely compact and very inexpensive compared
to other biofilters because the media is sand. Water flows upward through the sand causing the
sand grains to float or "fluidize." When the water flow is too low to fluidize the bed it is called a
"collapsed bed." When the proper amount of water is flowing, the sand expands upward, a
condition referred to as an "expanded bed." If too much water is flowing, the bed will over
expand and the smaller grains will be carried out of the biofilter in the outflow water.

There are three important aspects of fluidized sand biofilters. The first is the water inflow
diffuser at the bottom. The diffuser creates a uniform, low-turbulence sand flow pattern.
Excessive turbulence can erode the biofilter vessel and scour nitrifying bacteria from the sand
grains. The second aspect is water flow velocity. A narrow water flow range must be maintained
to keep the sand properly fluidized. Flow variations caused by pre-filters can result in collapsed
or "blown-out" sand beds. The third aspect is refluidization. At start-up, a little extra pump
pressure and an effective water diffuser design are required for initial fluidization.

Floating Fountains
Tech Talk 104

Do fountains aerate?

Yes, but they are not the most cost-effective way. Aeration systems are designed to aerate.
Fountains are designed for appearances. Lake aeration systems like AES's Great Lakes®
technique are located on the bottom of the lake and lift huge quantities of low-oxygen water from
the bottom using a comparatively small amount of energy. They are the more cost-effective way
of aerating lakes deeper than six feet. Traditional floating fountains aerate only the surface water
near the fountain and only when the surface oxygen level is low. To achieve some of the benefits
of destratification, aeration and fountain attractiveness, locate the pump's intake near the bottom
of the lake. Use a dissolved oxygen (D.O.) meter to measure bottom D.O. and when it drops
below 4 mg/l, operate the aerator/fountain 24 hours a day.

Our fountains are distinguished from our aerators by their intended function and aeration
efficiency. The standard aeration efficiency SAE of a fountain is typically less than 1.5 lbs/kWh,
whereas an aerator is greater than 2.5 and a Great Lakes® system can be as high as 10! This poor
SAE of fountains is due to the wasted energy from throwing water much higher than is needed
for aeration. However, a fountain can also aerate, especially if used in a pond that is not too
large, if the fountain draws its water from a deeper depth and if it is operated at night.

How to ensure a long life for your fountain.

The fountain needs two things to ensure long life: adequate electricity and adequate cooling. For
prolonged pump and motor life (regardless of brand), an adequate level of electricity must be
provided to the motor. There are two cardinal rules for floating fountains concerning electricity:

1. Calculate from TRUE SOURCE to the motor when figuring cable size. True source is
typically the electric company's installed meter.
2. Use one continuous (NO SPLICING) PVC-jacketed electrical cable from motor to
control panel.

All submersible pump motors are water-cooled. When you see that the fountain is shrinking, turn
it off, as there is an obstruction of some kind that needs to be cleared. Some motors contain oil
and require periodic oil changes. Most manufacturers include ground fault circuit interruption
(GFCI), surge protection and sized breakers to turn off the fountain when either electricity or
cooling is inadequate. If not included, have your electrician take care of it.
Friction Loss in PVC Plumbing
Tech Talk 61

The AES Technical Department set up this actual pumping system (shown at left) six different
times using our SHE2.4 pump. Two elbow types and three pipe sizes were used to illustrate the
importance of correct plumbing.

Study the results below to understand these principles:

Elbows vs. Sweeps

Flow vs. Pipe Size
Vertical Head vs. Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Pumping Cost vs. TDH

NOTE: Centrifugal Pumps (not self priming) perform best with flooded suction (pumps filled by
gravity) as shown. The suction pipe should be nonrestrictive. To control pump’s output, put a
valve on the discharge side.
 Friction Loss in PVC Pipe

1. From the chart at left, using gpm and pipe size, find the friction loss per 100' of pipe.

Example: 40 gpm in a 11/2" pipe = 10' loss per 100' of pipe. 40' then causes about 4' of
head loss.
2. Next find the friction loss caused by the fittings. Please note that the friction loss depends
on the fitting diameter. A standard 1.5" elbow is equal to about 4' of pipe; long elbows,
sweeps, and 45° elbows are equal to about 2' of pipe; straight through a "T", about 3' of
pipe; and a 90° turn through a "T", about 9' of pipe.

Example: 40 gpm through 5 standard 1.5" elbows = 20' of pipe, which equals 2' of head
loss. Add this to the pipe’s head loss and the actual vertical head height in feet to get
Total Dynamic Head (TDH).

All pumps sold by AES are performance tested. It is up to you to determine which pump to
purchase and how to plumb it correctly. If you need help, send us a sketch and we’ll size the pipe
for you – at no charge.

NOTE: The electric energy required for a centrifugal pump usually goes down as the head
pressure goes up. It is the opposite of an air compressor.
Generator Selection
Tech Talk 119

If your electric power goes off for a few hours, will you lose your animals? Most modern
aquaculture is heavily dependent on public electricity (the "grid") because it is an extremely
good value. Our 1981 Aeration Handbook and Catalog states, "[O]ne kilowatt-hour is equivalent
to about two days of hard work by one man." Hmm, let's see...one day's work lifting water by
hand or 5¢ for electricity?

To size a generator for your single-phase electrical items you must add up all the loads it will be
asked to handle. Some loads, such as light bulbs, can be determined simply by their watt rating
(volts x amps = watts). Other loads, such as electric motors, will have both a watt rating (for
normal running operation) and a starting watt rating. The starting rating can be more than 4 times
the running watts!

Electricity supplied by the grid has a surge capacity limited only by the circuit protection
provided, such as a 200-amp circuit breaker. When power has been off and comes back on, all
motors will start within a few seconds. A generator, on the other hand, is limited by its engine
torque and the inertia of the rotating parts. To get a motor turning (inertia) by your generator you
will have to have the electricity needed for that starting inertia, or "starting rating," in watts. If
you have numerous motors, you will want to start them one at a time.

To size a generator make a chart like the one below with all the items you wish to operate. We
suggest that you select a generator by its rated "continuous duty watts;" that is, 25% larger than
what you calculate you will need (as it gets old or if operated at a higher altitude than sea level it
will not produce full rated power). Remember, a few seconds after a motor is started it is only
using its running watts, so you can reduce the size of the generator needed by turning on your
motors one at a time, starting with the largest first.

Note: This chart is provided to suggest some typical values. Equipment age, manufacturer,
condition and size can make a significant difference.

Generators are purchased for use in an emergency, so don't let anything prevent them from
working. When you get a new one, test it by operating everything that you expect it to run. Then
keep them dry and either run them every month for a half hour or so (don't let the fuel get too
old), or "pickle" them so that they will not corrode and be ready to operate with just the addition
of fuel. Have power cords tested and ready, and do a full test at least once a year. Portable
generators have one or more outlet receptacles, and you must be careful to not overload them by
dividing the load between them. Generators produce carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas that must
be kept well away from people, animals, compressors and building inlets. You will want to
operate them only outdoors. Remember that electricity and water do not mix. Follow all the
warnings supplied with your new generator, especially grounding instructions. Keep the
instruction manual in a Ziploc® bag near the generator and in it record the hours of operation, oil
changes, etc.
Grading Fish
Tech Talk 69

Commercial aquaculture requires periodic size grading of most species to prevent cannibalism,
reduce growth rate variation and improve yield. When fish are not graded it is common to have a
harvest with 25% of the fish being undersized. This is due to the larger fish dominating the
others and consuming more food.

Efficient management requires knowledge of growth rates, stocking densities, feed requirements
and general health—all of which can be learned through grading and counting.

Graders can be species specific. Selecting the wrong grader type for your species and fish size
can make the grading process inefficient and/or damage the fish, so ask others for their
experience before you buy.

Hardness, Alkalinity and Carbon Dioxide

Tech Talk 76

What is hardness and why is it important?

You know you have hard water when soap does not lather well. Hard water causes scale deposits
after it evaporates, and it forms clogging deposits in pipes and air diffusers. In aquatic systems,
adequate hardness is important and depends mostly on the concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions. Hardness is particularly important to newly hatched fish that obtain much of
their calcium directly from the water. Generally, freshwater fish do best when hardness is
maintained near 100 mg/liter @ CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).

To increase hardness, use calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Why is alkalinity important?

Alkalinity is the buffering capacity of water. That is, its ability to maintain a pH of 7.0 or above.
In aquaculture, alkalinity is most often influenced by the bicarbonate ion (the negative ion in
sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3). When kept above 100 mg/liter @ CaCO3, alkalinity will usually
be an effective buffer, depending on the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the water (see graph).
Alkalinity should not fall below 80 mg/liter @ CaCO3, as it is the source of carbon for nitrifying
bacteria and is consumed during nitrification.

To increase alkalinity, add sodium bicarbonate. To decrease alkalinity, add acid.

How are hardness and alkalinity related?

Hardness and alkalinity are both expressed as mg/liter @ CaCO3. In tap water, when the
concentration of hardness and alkalinity are the same, both are probably due to dissolved calcium
carbonate. Calcium carbonate does not dissolve well above pH 7.0, so other chemicals like
calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate can be used to adjust hardness and alkalinity
independently. If alkalinity and hardness are too high, calcium carbonate will precipitate on air
diffusers, heaters and other submerged equipment.

How is alkalinity affected by carbon dioxide?

Carbon dioxide may build up in water as a result of respiration by fish and bacteria. In poorly
buffered water, this can cause a drop in pH below 7.0 that can inhibit nitrification. Aeration can
drive off CO2 and, in the process, raise the pH. Adequate alkalinity will ensure stable pH and
provide carbon for nitrifying bacteria. Carbon dioxide level can be estimated, using the graph on
this page, if the pH and alkalinity are known.
Hauling Tanks
Tech Talk 22

To successfully transport fish requires an understanding of the physiological aspects of what

happens to the fish as well as their temporary environment–the hauling box water. If the fish die
shortly after delivery, it's usually the hatchery that takes much of the blame but, all too often, it is
the hauler's fault.

Typically, at least 24 hours before the fish are to be moved, they are taken off feed. This reduces
fouling of the hauling tank water. The fish are then counted by weighing (a pretty accurate
method) and placed into the appropriate chamber
of the hauling truck. It is here that attention to detail can make the difference between a good
delivery and a debacle.

Overcrowding can describe symptoms that occur from having too much of something (ammonia
or CO2) or not having enough of something (oxygen). For average travel times, the general rule
of thumb is no greater than 2 pounds of fish per gallon of water. Some fish, like muskie or
walleye, do better at only one pound of fish per gallon. These densities typically require the use
of pure oxygen systems over the agitator or compressor/diffuser aerators. However, short trips
with cool water (55°F or below) will allow higher carrying densities with just an aerator. We’ve
heard of fish haulers carrying up to 5 pounds of catfish per gallon of water on short trips to the
processors! Remember that these fish are not intended to live very long.

Cooler water temperatures play an important part in keeping fish in their best condition. As cold-
blooded animals, their metabolism slows as the temperature drops. This means oxygen intake
decreases, along with ammonia and carbon dioxide. Of course, just the opposite happens as the
temperature increases.

To counter the stress associated with fish transport, many haulers rely upon salt to boost the
fish's electrolytes and enhance mucous production, which will ward off bacterial infections and
parasites. A rough rule of thumb for dosage rates is three pounds of non-iodized salt per 100
gallons of water. For non-food fish, haulers often use anesthetics, ammonia removers and
defoamers.

There are three main types of oxygen replenishment techniques:

Agitators/aspirators, compressors with air diffusers and pure oxygen. Agitators/aspirators rely
upon a mechanical disturbance to splash water or create bubbles to drive oxygen into the water.
They are not very efficient, take up space in the tank and may have mechanical problems
because of exposure to the elements. Compressors with air diffusers are the most popular method
of aerating low stocking densities or for short haul trips. Easily sized for the situation, diffuser
systems rely upon bubble size and bubble contact time to transfer oxygen. If more oxygen is
needed, more diffusers are added. You can never "over aerate" by putting too much air into the
water. The maximum stocking density for this type of aeration is one pound of fish per gallon of
water.

Pure oxygen systems are intended for high stocking densities, long trips and sensitive fish. To
give you an idea of how well pure oxygen works, remember that bags of tropical fish are shipped
around the world for periods of time up to 30 hours in a plastic bag containing 1/3 water and 2/3
oxygen. The key to pure oxygen efficiency in the hauling tank is in the diffuser. The finer the
bubble, the better the diffusion into the water. The best micropore diffusers now on the market
are less than 50 percent efficient in their ability to transfer oxygen into the water at these shallow
depths. Simply put, for every dollar's worth of oxygen bought, you get fifty cents worth of it in
the water. But it does allow very high carrying capacities, where the cost is far outweighed by
the return in healthy fish delivered. Larger trucks and/or longer runs can benefit from the
compact nature of liquid oxygen.

Heater Service Life

Tech Talk 55

Heaters are,— of course, — hot! The very high heat on the skin of the heater causes dissolved
minerals like calcium to precipitate out of solution. The precipitant attaches itself to those hot
spots, insulating the heater casing from the cooling water. Heat that can't get out builds up inside
and, if it gets hot enough, heater failure will occur. Always make sure the heater has a rapid flow
of water over its hot zone. Never let the water get too low or let a crust build up on the
casing.

Heater life can be greatly extended by removing insulating deposits as soon as possible. In hard
water, inspect heaters for deposits once weekly initially and then as experience dictates. It doesn't
take very much to cause a serious problem.

To clean the heater, unplug the power and allow heater element to cool. Remove heater from the
water and treat with a diluted bath of nitric acid (rust remover), citric acid or other lime and scale
deposit remover. Be sure to wear eye protection and rubber gloves when working with acid. The
heater should only require this bath for several minutes. When the scale deposits begin breaking
up or dissolving, remove the heater from the acid and wipe down with a cloth. Rinse with water.
Place heater back into service. If an acid solution is not handy, use a steel wire brush to brush off
the deposits. Be sure to clean the area where the small diameter tube rests behind the heater tube,
as this area is especially vulnerable to deposit buildups. Care should be taken not to scratch,
gouge or wear away the metal surface of the heater when using the brushing technique.

Heater Sizing
Tech Talk 74

If you are bringing water into your facility that must be heated, you can use an electric heater for
all or just a portion of your heating. For instance, you may use solar, waste heat, or room heaters
first and use thermostatically controlled electric heaters as the final temperature control.

To determine the approximate size heater to order, choose ONE of the three categories … then
follow the calculation.

1. Recirculating
In a non-flowing system, heat is only lost to the surrounding air. The temperature
difference between the air ambient and the water is the biggest factor. Also, the open
area of the tank, the amount of agitation, and the heat loss through the tank walls
should be considered. All external pipes, filters, pumps, etc. will further cool the water.

For every 9°F (5°C) difference, there should be 4W of heat per gallon (3.8 liters) of
water. Elevated, uninsulated tanks, with a large amount of surface agitation, could
require as much as 12W per gallon per 9°F. For small glass aquaria, use 8W per gallon
per 9°F.
2. Temperature Raising Only
Cool water is used to fill tanks and the water needs to be warmed before the fish are
added. Time and ambient temperature will be considerations. For every 1,000 gallons
(3800 liters), 1,200W (1.2 kw) is needed to raise the temperature 10°F (6°C) in 24
hours (this assumes ambient temp is the same as the water).
 3. Flow-Through Heating
A flow-through system has cool water entering and warmed water leaving (this is very
wasteful and expensive without heat exchangers). Determine the maximum gallons per
minute that you expect and the greatest temperature difference.

1,000W (1 kW) will raise the temperature of 6 gallons of water (23 liters) one °F
(.55°C) per minute.
Example: 6 gpm with a 10° F difference = 10 kW.

Quick Heater Sizing Guide for Non-Flow Through Calculation

It's difficult to simplify something that is complicated, but use this quick reference chart to
estimate the size of an electric heater.

A tank with 1,000 gallons is in a room that will stay around 60°F, and you want the water
temperature to be 87°F. If 4 W per gallon are needed for every 9°F, then: DT = 27°, 27 ÷ 9 = 3, 3
x 4 W = 12 W per gallon, 12 W x 1,000 gallons = 12,000 W. Assumes one large uninsulated
uncovered fish tank plus one peripheral (such as a sand filter), and a pump with no extreme
water/air interface (such as splash aerator or degassing tower). Minimize heater size and power
use by insulating and covering.

Follow the chart to keep the water at desired temperature, but if a few degrees temperature loss is
tolerable during brief periods of cold weather, use that temperature on the chart.

For more accurate sizing, contact our technical department at 407-886-3939.

Soil vs. Hydroponics

Tech Talk 38

Hydroponics has many advantages over soil culture. The most obvious advantage is having
complete control of the growing environment. In addition, plant spacing is only limited by
available light (which can be increased), virtually any plant can be grown in the same
geographical location, small quantities of fertilizers are easily distributed to all plants with no
leaching beyond the root zone, plant maturity is reached quickly, there are no weather disasters,
pesticide use is reduced or eliminated, harvest cost is reduced and harvest time can be planned
for seasonal high prices.

Hydroponics also produces a much higher yield than standard soil culture. For example: soil
culture of tomatoes may yield 5-10 tons of product per acre per year, whereas hydroponic tomato
production can exceed 200 tons per acre per year!

Hypolimnetic Aeration
Tech Talk 114

Trout, salmon, arctic char and other freshwater, coldwater fish can be severely stressed or killed
when the water temperature exceeds 65°F (18°C). Lakes that traditionally contain these
coldwater species are typically clean and clear; that is, they have a low trophic index, which
allows them to maintain an oxygen-rich hypolimnion (bottom zone) during the summertime.

As the lake gets more fertile, the water below the thermocline has a greater likelihood of running
out of oxygen, forcing the fish to move above the thermocline where they are subject to warmer
water than they can tolerate, and a fishkill results.

In the summer most lakes will stratify, wherein the colder water is on the bottom (hypolimnion)
and warmer water "floats" on the surface (epilimnion) with a thermocline* in between.
Typically, oxygen levels in the hypolimnion will be low or non-existent during the warmer
months, making all but the cleanest lakes incapable of supporting coldwater fisheries such as
trout.

A hypolimnetic aeration system can be installed to support these fisheries by adding oxygen to
the hypolimnion without disrupting the thermocline. There are several different designs
available, each with its respective benefits and drawbacks. Some techniques inject pure oxygen
(AES technique), others use air and still others pump water to the surface and back to the
hypolimnion.

The single most important factor in sizing a hypolimnetic aeration system is to have a thorough
grasp of the hypolimnion's oxygen demand to ensure that the design will satisfy the demand. It is
best to have several years of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and sediment oxygen demand
(SOD) data to calculate the need.

Hypolimnetic installations should be planned well in advance and installed prior to thermal
stratification if possible. We recommend contacting Aquatic Eco-Systems' Lake Experts for
assistance.

*The thermocline is the line of significant temperature difference.

Inlet Strainers
Tech Talk 110

Pump inlets can become quickly clogged by just a few leaves, a plastic bag, a small amount of
debris, or even a dead fish. Inlet strainers are devices that keep debris out of a pump that might
otherwise damage or clog it. They generally are not designed to be water filters (requiring
frequent cleaning), but rather pump protectors. A pump’s performance is greatly diminished
when its inlet is restricted. To avoid flow reduction or stoppage, you will need an inlet strainer
with a large enough surface area to not impede water flow, even when partially clogged.

Another reason you need a large surface area strainer is to reduce the water velocity at the
strainer inlets, so that debris, small fish and animals do not become stuck. To prevent this, we
recommend that the strainer screen surface area be a minimum of one square foot for every ten
gallons per minute pumped.

The strainer opening should be small enough to keep out anything that will clog the pump, the
pump’s strainer, and the orifices of any valves, etc. after the pump. Your water filtering device, if
any, such as sand filters, bead filters, cartridge filters, etc. should be located just after the pump.

Stringy materials can be a problem because they can go through small strainer openings and
wrap themselves on the pump’s impeller. To prevent this, use a very large surface area with a
strainer inlet that creates a tortuous path. Spun polypropylene, open cell foam, and even multiple
wraps of window screen over a strainer can be used for this purpose.

A check valve (also known as a foot valve) can be attached to the inlet strainer in applications
where the pump will lose its prime when shut off. The check valve’s orientation is important for
rapid and positive closure.

Iron Removal
Tech Talk 46

If iron is in your water, you can either move to another location or spend some effort to remove
it. The presence of iron above .1 ppm is considered detrimental to most freshwater fish-keeping
(.5 is lethal). Iron-bearing water, when fresh out of the ground, is usually clear because iron is in
the soluble ferrous iron form. As soon as it reacts with a little oxygen (.14 ppm per part of iron),
the iron is changed to the ferric state and turns brown or orange. Then, it either drops out
(precipitates) or remains suspended as a colloid.

There are three general classes of iron-bearing ground water:

1. Those that precipitate immediately after aeration.

2. Those that do not precipitate (acid waters).
3. Those that precipitate only part of the iron.
To remove iron that precipitates readily, simply aerate or spray water into the air using the well
pump's pressure. Hold the water in a settling basin, followed by a slow rate sand filter of about
two gallons per square foot per minute.

For removing more difficult iron, the aerated water may be passed over coarse contact media
(lava, stones, coke, etc.) in a multilevel tray. The media soon becomes coated with iron
hydroxide, which promotes catalytic precipitation of iron and manganese from the water.

All three classes of iron can be removed by the lime-softening process and/or the zeolite process,
sometimes called greensand.

Lake Aeration
Tech Talk 36

It takes a lot more than bubbles to do it right ...

It takes know-how and a properly-sized Great Lakes® aeration/destratification system.

Most lakes cover vast areas and contain millions of gallons of water with a biological oxygen
demand (BOD) of 10 mg/l or less. So a few random air bubbles rising from the bottom just aren't
enough to satisfy a lake's need for oxygen. But, use that same small volume of air to induce a
significant rising current, and you have an extremely efficient lake aerator!

Aquatic Eco-Systems synergistic airlift diffusers are designed to lift and circulate huge volumes
of water, bringing life-giving oxygen from the surface to the bottom. These unique air diffusers
were specifically engineered to cause an upwelling current without turbulence or bottom erosion.

The 4-sq.ft. diffuser assembly creates a vertical current using the rising force of air, moving low
oxygen water up from the bottom and eliminating stratification. Hundreds of man-hours have
gone into the development of this technique, including underwater dye-flow studies and
destratification experiments.

The system is simple, safe and virtually maintenance free. It is the most effective lake aerator
made! As little as 3/4 horsepower can be used to properly aerate a eutrophic 10-acre lake!

Technically Speaking

When oxygen levels are low, you can expect transfer performance of more than 10
pounds of dissolved oxygen per horsepower per hour! (Pumps, fountains and "air
bubblers" are typically fewer than 2 pounds per horsepower per hour).
Bubbles expand and spread out as they rise. The column of water entrained within the
bubbles from a synergistic diffuser rises at about a foot per second, moving 2,000 gpm
from the area above the diffuser (a drilled pipe diffuser with the same air volume
would move only about 200 gpm).
The surface boil–created by the kinetic energy of the rising water–rises approximately
two inches above the surrounding water level. From there, the water rushes outward
 until its energy has dissipated, sometimes traveling more than 100 feet, depending upon
temperature, surface tension and wind.
The lake surface tension is ruptured in the boil area. Supersaturated gases, including
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, escape from the bottom water, and oxygen is
absorbed.
There's no danger to swimmers, boaters or aquatic life—even a marking buoy is
unnecessary. And, like hundreds of others, you'll enjoy watching the surface "spring"
boils. There is no electricity in the water.
It's best to install the system prior to stratification. If the volume of anaerobic bottom
water is greater than 1/6 of the lake's total volume, contact AES for start-up
instructions.
Every lake is different. An AES aeration specialist will be happy to assist with equipment
selection and system design. We'll need to know the lake's shape, size, depths, history,
bottom type, water source, flow, etc. Call for a questionnaire or find one online at
aquaticeco.com.

Lake Aeration Diffusers

Tech Talk 94

The air diffusers used will determine the overall efficiency of a lake aeration/destratification
system. The two most common styles are the synergistic airlift assembly (developed by AES)
and the rubber membrane diffuser. Each was designed for different tasks. The synergistic airlift
assembly (SAM) is made to lift a large volume of bottom water, thus removing stratification.
The rubber membrane type (RM) was designed to aerate waste water.

Destratification is the most economical form of lake aeration. This is only accomplished by
moving large volumes of water. The SAMs were developed through extensive underwater flow
testing to lift the maximum amount of water from above the diffuser to the surface of the lake
with a minimum amount of air (8,000 gpm/hp). This technique requires a specific spacing of the
individual diffuser fingers to provide non-turbulent entrainment of the bottom water into the
column of rising bubbles. For that reason, they must take on the odd shape of the ALA4, 6, and 8
diffuser manifolds. Each is optimized for a specific depth range.

The smaller ALA4 manifold is designed for shallow lakes from 4 to 8 feet in depth. These
shallow depths cause short circuiting of the lifted water back to the diffuser, which limits their
effectiveness. Therefore, more diffuser manifolds per surface acre of water are required than for
a deeper lake of the same size.

The ALA6 diffuser manifolds are best used in water 8 to 40 feet deep. The deeper the water,
however, the greater volume of air that needs to be used by each diffuser. This is true for all
diffusers. The ALA8 diffuser manifold is typically used in water deeper than 30 feet.
RM diffusers are not designed to lift water for destratification, so they are not recommended for
lake aeration. If used for lake aeration, many more of them must be used to achieve the same
result as a single synergistic airlift assembly.

When the rubber membrane diffusers are used in salt water or waste water, they may operate for
as long as one year without excessive clogging. After that, remote cleaning can be accomplished
by doubling or tripling the amount of air delivered to a diffuser. This will blow up the rubber, as
in a balloon, dislodging the fouling matter. Wastewater treatment plants are designed for this, but
it may be impractical for lake applications where there is only one compressor.

Sometimes, RM diffusers will tear, greatly reducing their oxygen transfer ability. If detected,
retrieve the diffuser and replace the rubber membrane.

The ceramic diffusers used on SAMs should be inspected every three years in most cases.
Clogging can be detected by recording the air pressure when new, then annually checking the
pressure to see if it has increased. Diffusers can be cleaned by pouring muriatic acid into the
airlines and turning on the compressor. The original pressure will be quickly restored and the
small amount of acid will be diluted with no effect on the lake.

Lake Destratification System Evaluation

Tech Talk 101

Over the last 30 years at AES, we have seen a lot of lake aeration companies come and go. One
thing they had in common was that they all exaggerated their performance. It is no different
today! We see others with superior claims who have not measured or don’t know how to
measure their performance. It's not easy, but following is the background you will need to
evaluate manufacturers' claims.

Lakes have a very low BOD to volume ratio, as opposed to aquaculture or wastewater. This
difference makes the standard aeration techniques ineffective or impractical. Realizing this
problem early on, we developed the air-driven, unconfined, destratification technique, which is
very efficient at moving bottom water to the surface. The goal of our technique is to move
enough water to keep the lake bottom above 5 mg/l dissolved oxygen, in keeping with the Clean
Water Act of 1972.

During our research and development, we naturally began with a draft tube because of its
"chimney effect," high efficiency and lack of a requirement for a sophisticated air diffuser (for an
explanation of how ducted airlifts work, see "Airlift Notes" Tech Talk). The draft tubes worked
very well; however, we had to discontinue their use for most lake destratification jobs because of
their high capital, installation and maintenance costs. AES then developed the synergistic airlifts
as the best nonducted or unconfined airlifts. We estimate their efficiency at 90 percent.

Measuring Performance
The performance of systems can be quantified, either by measuring the time required to
destratify a large lake-like impoundment or by taking direct measurements of their flow rate.
You can use either a dye or a flow grid (along with a diver and underwater camera) for in situ
measurements. The goal is to identify and measure the uprising column of water's minimum
diameter and speed, then estimate and subtract losses due to eddy currents (dye will provide a
good visual).

Unfortunately, you cannot use a draft tube measuring device (A), as the confining tube will
increase the velocity and flow rate ("chimney effect"). It will also cause all of the tested devices
that have the same airflow rate to have the same water flow rate, making comparisons
impossible. That would be like comparing the rise rate of free floating helium balloons to that of
a chimney full of helium balloons.

The method we used in our R&D, and the one that we feel is the most accurate, is the flow grid,
as illustrated by B. It can be used for diffused air, propeller or venturi type destratification
devices. It will require a wire rack with 2" x 2" grid, with 12" long negatively buoyant ribbons
attached at each intersection and adjustable legs. It is important that this be done in a large lake-
like impoundment with very clear water (much of our testing was done in clear ocean waters).
The flow rack should be fixed at the minimum column diameter in the up-welling stream,
measurements recorded, then flows calculated by the diameter of the current and rise rate.
Subtract losses from eddy currents and express results in gallons per minute per kilowatt hour.

Repairing Liners
Tech Talk 41
When the need arises to repair a cut or hole in a liner, this basic rule applies to all the liner types
we carry: clean and dry the surface of the liner so the adhesive will adhere to it. Use the right
type of repair materials for the type of liner being repaired.

PVC
LRK is a repair kit containing a 12" x 12" piece of liner and a special liner adhesive. Mention
liner color when ordering this kit.

Sweetwater® Liner (EPDM)

The ST3F and ST3R are double-sided tape for patching or overlapping two pieces of liners. The
PT6F and PT6R are single-sided for patching or covering holes and going over seams.

Woven Poly
ST475 is a 4" tape with adhesive on one side to patch, cover holes or reinforce seams.