1
American War of Independence [1776 -1783]
Context • First modern mass revolution • 4 th
July 1776 – declaration of independence –
against the colonial rule of Britain – outbreak of
full blown war as British tried to reassert
authority • Defeat of Britain and treaty of Paris
[1783] – Britain accepted independence of 13
American colonies • World’s first republic and
modern constitution was born
2 British colonization of Americas • 1607 –
James Town – first colonial possession • 1620 –
travellers of Mayflower ship – established first
permanent colony • Reign of Charles I –
Catholic King who wanted absolutism –
migration increased - ‘pilgrim fathers’ who
wanted religious freedom and less interference
from state – America was a land of
opportunities also and hence no one wanted to
go back • But remained as English subjects –
threat of French colonies near • By mid 18th
century – 13 colonies across the Atlantic coast –
90 % of the white population were English -
And almost all colonies had the same politico –
administrative life of England and legislatures
Nature of colonial rule in America • Colonial
rule – but not much exploited till 1763 • British
rule was nominal – American colonies was not
seen as source of profit – but a matter of
prestige and strategic importance • Burden of
taxes on Americans were even less than that of
the British – enjoyed free military service •
There were many colonial legislations – but
many were not imposed rigidly
Sense of Independency – political, social,
economic and intellectual maturity • Part of
British empire which witnessed Glorious
revolution – popular assembles existed in every
colonies • Affected by Enlightenment – liberal
and progressive outlook • Appreciation of rule
of law, natural rights, constitutionalism and
republicanism etc • Growth of trade and
commerce and economic well being • Worked
hard for it – love for property • Economic
prosperity increased the love for materialism –
strengthening of individualism
Sense of Independency • Salutary Neglect –
unofficial policy of P.M Walpole – relaxation of
trade restrictions – to focus more on European
politics • French threat also got eliminated by
1763 – seven years war • Religious experiments
– many new Churches emerged – they were
‘new experiments of democracy’
7 Seven years war [1756-63] and Americans
• France lost Canada • End of French threat
created sense of independency from mother
country • Gained valuable military experience
Seven years war and Britain • British state –
retreat of Salutary Neglect and more
restrictions • Over confidence – huge military
and political victory for King George III –
thought they had the historic right to extract
revenue at will • Financial strain to Britain –
colonists also benefitted from the war – so they
should bore some cost of the war – previously
the Americans enjoyed the British military
service free of cost
American Capitalism vs British Mercantilism
British Mercantilism – benefitting Britain
through direct and indirect taxes and
restrictions • Colonial navigation Acts [1750,
1761] – only British ships for import and export
– began to implement it rigidly only after the
war • American leather, rice, tobacco etc to be
exported only to Britain • Restrictions on iron
and steel industry – to protect British
companies • Royal Proclamation of 1763 –
prohibited all settlements west of Appalachian
Mountains • for conciliation with Red Indians -
Britain did not want another conflict • but
created discontent among Americans
Number of new Acts • Sugar Act [1764] –
duties on sugar to support British companies –
made sugar expensive • Currency Act [1764] –
tight monetary policy - restricted the use of
currency for payment of debts – created
difficulties as gold and silver were not abundant
• Quartering Act [1765] – charges for
maintaining British military in colonies • Stamp
Act [1765] – introduced direct tax – stamp duty
for all official documents – stiff resistance and
eventual withdrawal • Resistance nonetheless
contributed to the spirit of unity and
organization - Stamp Act Congress and its
Declaration of Rights and Grievances of 1765 –
first time the colonists echoed the demand ‘No
taxation without representation’ – prelude to
declaration of independence
Emergence of Secret Societies
• Radicals - after the passing of these Acts •
Sons of Liberty – Samuel Adams - conducted
‘Boston Tea Party’ - “Liberty, property and no
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stamps” • Pulled down the image of the King,
forced officers to resign, burned the court
records and even looted the home of the chief
justice, Thomas Hutchinson. 12 Townshend
Acts and the Tea Act
Townshend Acts [1767] – proposed by Charles
Townshend • series of laws passed by the
British Parliament on the American colonies –
P.M Northbrook • To exercise the historic right
to exert authority in colonies • Suspending Act -
prohibited the New York Assembly for failing to
meet the obligations under Quartering Act •
Revenue Act – imposed direct revenue duties
that will be directly deposited to British
treasury
• Commissioner of Customs Act – strict
machinery and more personnel for custom
collection • Indemnity Act - gave the company
refund of 25% duty on tea reexported to the
colonies – made Company’s tea more attractive
Emergence of Resistance • Assemblies – ‘No
taxation without representation’ – raised the
question of non constitutionality of these Acts
• Public – defiance and violent confrontation –
boycott of British goods 14
Boston Massacre - 1770 • British troops in
Boston to deal the unrest and implement Acts •
Radical crowd harassed the soldiers – firing by
soldiers – death of 5 residents • Guilty soldiers
only awarded light punishments – strong and
radical anti – British sentiments • Committees
of Correspondence – to warn each others
against British actions and future plans
• Repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act [1770]
– attempt of reconciliation by Northbrook
Burning of Gaspee and Hutchinson’s letters
• Burning of Gaspee [1772] – by Sons of Liberty
– a British ship was set on fire [HMS Gaspee]
• Hutchinson’s letters – to loyalists – leaked by
Benjamin Franklin • Advocated ‘great restraint
of natural liberty’ when it comes to colonies –
suggests planned British clamp-down on their
freedoms also • Massachessetts Assembly
petitioned his recall 16
Tea Act [1773] • To bail out the Company who
was on the verge of Bankruptcy • Allowed
direct import of Tea from China – would allow
them to sell tea cheaper than competitors –
would give monopoly over the market • Further
only Company’s ship could carry tea • Britain’s
view – reasserting Parliament’s right – could
impose duties to ensure revenue collection
• Expected a warm resumption – colonies will
get cheap tea • But rekindling of the spirit of
Virginia Resolution – ‘No taxation without
representation’ – public demonstration, non
importation agreements, Consignees were
resigned
Boston Tea Party - 1773 • Sons of Liberty •
Only one participant got arrested - Francis
Akeley – imprisoned • Public did not
cooperated in investigations • Britain decided
to punish the town of Boston as a whole -
blockade Boston Harbour – passing of
Intolerable Acts [1774]
Intolerable Acts • Boston Port Act, the
Massachusetts Government Act, the
Administration of Justice Act, the Quartering
Act and the Quebec Act. • Most problematic
was Quartering Act – allowed Governors to
station troops in the houses of citizens without
the permission of owner • Massachusetts
Government Act – more power to Governor –
council members appointed by him - town
meeting were forbidden without prior
permission from Governor.
First Continental Congress [1774] - Philadelphia
• By the elected representatives of colonies •
Adopted a declaration of personal rights,
requested King to withdrew Intolerable Acts
and demanded representation for American
colonies in British Parliament [Declaration and
Resolves of First Continental Congress] • But
accepted British taxation over American
commercial activities • King declared the
activity as mutiny and ordered the army to
suppress it • Battles of Lexington and Concord
[1775] – victory to colonists – ‘first battle of
Revolution’
Second Continental Congress [1775]
• To manage war efforts and mobilizing armies
• Patrick Henry’s “Give me liberty or give me
death” speech • But ‘Olive Branch Petition’ also
– affirmed loyalty of the colonies for the
recognition of American rights and ending of
Intolerable Acts • King George III – issued
‘Proclamation of Rebellion’ – declared that
colonies are in open rebellion
Third Continental Congress [1776] • Members
were influenced by Thomas Paine’s Common
Sense – 120,000 copies sold within 3 months
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• call to reject the ‘monarchical tyranny’ of the
King and ‘aristocratic tyranny’ of the Parliament
• It is absurd for a small island nation like
Britain to hold American colonies • Declaration
of Independence – drafted by Thomas Jefferson
[Governor of Virginia] • If a govt fails in its
duties to protect the citizens, its the duty of the
people to overthrow that government • Then
establish a government that protects “Life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
Treaty of Paris [1783] • recognized the
independence of the 13 British colonies in
America • All land between the Appalachians
and the Mississippi River was ceded to the new
American republic • United States agreed to
end the persecution of Loyalists and to restore
their property that had been confiscated during
the war. • All prisoners of the war were to be
released
• Treaty of Versailles [1783] - Britain made
peace with France and Spain. • The Spanish
reacquired Florida from Britain • Saint Louisa
and Tobago in West Indies, Senegal in Africa to
France 23 Reasons for American victory •
Political motivation of Americans • Material
and fighting capacity of Americans – matched
their English counterparts • Geography – British
supply lines were stretched due to distance
from Britain • Support of France and Spain
• Leadership of George Washington
Impact of revolution • Blossoming of American
businesses and trade networks • Inspired many
liberation movements – French revolution,
Haitian revolution [1791], Irish rebellion [1798]
and Latin American independence wars
• Inspired many civil right documents –
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
• Influenced political systems across the world
– new concept of social contract based on
natural rights of human beings, liberty, religious
toleration - Origin of modern democratic
politics
American Constitution
Initial developments • Articles of
Confederation [1777] – first Constitution –
work of Second Continental Congress
• Confederation of 13 sovereign states -
provided weak centre • American fear of a
strong central government
Problems of initial constitution • Congress had
the power to pass laws but no power to enforce
those laws. States could simply ignore the laws
passed by the Congress. • No federal executive
or court to enforce the laws • Congress could
not act directly upon the States nor upon
individuals. • Congress had no authority to
regulate foreign or interstate commerce
• Could not collect taxes independently So
Central government was not strong enough to
establish a sound financial system, regulate
trade, enforce treaties, or go to war when
needed.
Constitutional Convention [1787] –
Philadelphia • Need of strong Central
government was felt - Only solution was a new
constitution • States ratified it by 1789 • Came
into force in 1790 • James Maddison – father of
constitution – also the man behind ‘Bill of
rights’ • Bill of Rights [1790] – first 10
amendments – gave trial by jury, due process of
law, freedom of speech, expression and press
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
=process of change from an agrarian and
handicraft economy to one dominated by
industry and machine manufacturing.
= ‘Flying shuttle by John Kay in 1733 - ‘Spinning
Jenny’ of James Hargreaves – increased the
speed of weaving= James Watt - ‘steam engine’
= extraction of steel, macadamized roads,
railways, telegraph etc
WHY ENGLAND ? = Agrarian revolution
=wealthy individuals – unemployment =Political
stability =Island nation – free from continental
wars = ‘Glorious revolution’ [1688]– end of
arbitrary decisions = Abundance of coal and
iron reserves =Presence of banking system =
Bank of England – 1694 = Naval supremacy and
overseas colonies
WHY COTTON? =Textile sector – new industry –
absence of monopolistic guilds – only few
alterations required =Walloons from Belgium –
cloth making =Huguenots from France –silk
weaving =Textile – major attraction of world
trade
EFFECTS – POLITICAL
= British Parliament began to get dominated by
Industrialists, who replaced the landed
aristocracy =Colonialism and imperialism –
Industrial revolution also helped the Western
nation to develop terrible weapons of warfare
and improved communication capabilities
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=Socialism and communism –natural reaction
to the over exploitation of labourers.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS =Free trade economics.
The surplus producing nations became the
advocates of this doctrine =Degradation of
labour.=Increase in Western nation’s wealth
= Overall economic development of Europe -
new employment opportunities, mass
production of medicines, lowered costs for
essentials
SOCIAL EFFECTS = Collapse of joint family
=Changes in demography - rural to urban
migration – population explosion =Growth of
working class and middle class. Middle class
began grew due to the development new
occupations created by the revolution.
=Extreme inequality=Human hard labour
replaced by big machines – retreat of
patriarchy, gender equality, democracy,
abolition of slavery
CULTURAL EFFECTS = Romanticism =Growth of
civilization=Increased the potential of humanity
– wealth generation – research and
development in almost all fields – cultural and
civilizational
HOW IT DIFFERED IN OTHER COUNTRIES
England =Organic = Started in Cotton textile
=Growth of infrastructure – a natural outcome
– to meet the rising needs Other countries
=State initiated process =Many of them started
in heavy industries =Infrastructure – a pre
requisite
French Revolution
The mother of all revolutions • Started with
the storming of Bastille Fort in 14th July, 1789 –
ended with the ascendency of Napoleon. • A
period of chaotic violence • Displayed the
power of people’s will • Uprooted absolute
monarchy, feudalism and the privileges created
by them. • Ideas of the revolution later own
permeated the whole of Europe
Political Causes - Rulers • Despotic but
incapable rulers - not fit for centralized
government • Dragged France into unnecessary
wars and were extravagant • ’letters de cachet’
– a system that allowed them to imprison
anyone without trial • divine right of kingship
• The enlightenment eroded these concepts
• Louis XI – ‘I am the state and I am the law’
• Louis XV – ‘After me deluge’
Political Causes • Exploitative and corrupt
nature of bureaucracy and nobility –
degenerated into a body of greedy courtiers –
made public offices hereditary – hence invited
the wrath of middle class • American revolution
and English political experiments – inspired the
French middle class
Social causes • Privileges – “French revolution
attacked privileges and not property”. • Growth
of middle class – led the revolution in the initial
stages • Nobles of the robe, Hobereaux or Little
Falcons – belonged to second estate but not a
privileged class • Businessmen and
professionals - suffered fewer than peasants
and workers but resented more –
maladministration and privileges affected their
interests – they led the third estate • The
peasants or the working class neither had the
brain nor capacity to lead a revolution – they
simply followed the middle class • Growth of
physiocrats [Francois Quesnay] • Physiocracy
means ‘rule of the nature’ • they were the
group who advocated ‘laissez faire’ theory –
meant limited government • Problem of tax
collection – duty of tax collection given to
individuals who gave lump sum money to
government
Social causes - Role of philosophers
• Jean Jacques Rousseau – theory of popular
sovereignty and General Will • Social Contract –
his book • Baron de Montesquieu – separation
of powers, separation of state from religion
• Spirit de Lois or Spirit of Laws - Book • Dennis
Diderot – Encyclopaedia – to end the monopoly
of church over knowledge • Francis Marie
Aurouet [Voltaire] – passionate defence of
freedom of speech and expression – attacked
the abuse of the church • “Though I disagree
with what you say, but I shall passionately
defend to the end your right to say it” • Church
– infamous thing • Christianity – glorified
superstition • Promoted rational thinking and
humanism
Economic causes • Unnecessary wars and
extravagance – depleted the treasury •
Extreme inequality • the upper clergy – 0.5% of
the population – 15% of the total assets •
Nobles – 2% of the population – 20% of the
wealth. • The burden of taxation- almost 85%
of the income of common peasants was taken
as taxes and gifts – “the clergy pray, nobles
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flight and the common man pay” – Tithe [tax to
church], Taille[land tax] and Property tax
• Peasants were tied to land – could not sell
their property and rendered free labour to
nobles • Development of new economic forces
– middle class • Population explosion – only
Russia had a greater population - increased
poverty and unemployment • Consecutive
famines from 1787 – food riots from early 1789
Gabelle: Indirect tax that was applied to
agricultural and industrial commodities – but in
later stages it was applied only to salt – a highly
hated tax in France
Course of the revolution Summoning of Estate
General – after 175 years - to increase taxes –
advise given by Jacques Necker as F.M because
food riots had already started in France
• Third estate represented 97% of France’s
population but had only 1/3rd of the deputies
of Estate General • demanded taxation on first
and second estates and • Demanded more
representation in Estate General • There was
no feeling of resentment against monarchy as
such – but King got alarmed at the militancy –
refused entry to Estate General • Tennis court
oath – proclaimed themselves as the National
Assembly - took an oath to never to separate
until a new constitution was framed – King
made them illegal – formed National Guard to
protect themselves • King amassed troops in
Paris • Dismissal of Necker and siege of Bastille
Fort - 14th July 1789 – spread like a wild fire –
an uprising against feudal rights and lords
[Great Fear] – attack on castles, destroyed the
records of their feudal services • The King
removed troops, reinstated Necker and
recognized the National Guard – but no respite
to violence –aristocrats fled France [emigres]
• 4 th August - abolished Feudalism and
privileges • 29th August - ‘Declaration of Rights
of Man and citizen’ • 5 th October – women
brought King and Queen to Paris – under the
protection of N.G – legitimized N.A • France
was ruled by this N.A till 1791 12 Analysis on
the works of National Assembly till 1791
• Abolished Feudalism and privileges - Brought
out ‘Declaration of rights of man and citizen’ -
partial building up of a new social order based
upon equality. • Tackled the finance of the
country - The properties of church were
nationalized – issued a new currency called ‘
Assignats’ • Brought out a proper
administration • Framed a new constitution by
1791 – France became a constitutional
monarchy 13 Analysis on the works of National
Assemblytill 1791 • Weak executive – hence
led to mob rule • Tight separation of powers –
communication between King and N.A became
quite impossible • Limited franchise - limited by
property qualification • Civil Constitution of the
Clergy – • Religious toleration was proclaimed
and clergy were supposed to take an oath of
allegiance to a new civil constitution
• clergy were elected – salaried state officials.
• All citizens participated in elections – created
divisions in the society
Rule of National Convention • Constitutional
monarchy but weak executive – rule of
Parliament • Parliament – deputies to it was
elected • Parliament was dominated by two
groups - Girondists [Jacques Pierre Brissot] vs
Montagnards [Jacobins and Cordelles] • Strong
political divide – on the issue of federalism and
nature of change • Girondists – inspired by
Liberalism - strong federal system and gradual
reforms – no issue with a constitutional
monarch as well • Montagnards – wanted
strong union and complete restructuring of
society and economy [The left]
• Girondist expulsion in 1792 – declared France
a republic • Led to a Federalist revolt –
simultaneously France was attacked by Austria
and Prussia • Flight of King and Queen •
Increase of left militancy and strengthening of
republicanism
Reign of terror [1792-94] • By Jacobins –
Maximilean Robespierre • Fear of counter
revolution and economic crisis – driven by fear
and panic • Committee of Public safety – 12
member committee – concentrated power and
began to target people who ought to be a
threat to revolution [September Massacres]
• Guillotine – assumed the title national razor -
execution of opposition members and Catholic
clergy - - Revolution degenerates into anarchy
• Execution of King and Queen
‘Thermidorian reaction’ - 1794 • Victories to
French armies – revolutionary army even
occupied parts of Italy and Austrian
Netherlands [Belgium] – fear and panic fade
away • Growth of discontent to extreme
radicalization • A coup – overthrow of Jacobins
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by other deputies • Brutal suppression of the
left • A new constitution – brought a powerful
executive [Directory]
Effects of French revolution • End of feudalism
• Emergence of the so called left • Idea of
nation • Secularism
Idea of a nation • Idea of fatherland and citizen
• Use of common language – regional dialects
were discouraged • Common flag and hymns
• Rule of law • Centralized government
Some prominent leaders • Jean-Paul Marat
• L'Ami du people [The Friend of the People] –
his newspaper • Strong opponent of aristocracy
and monarchy - played a great role in the
expulsion of Girondins • Georges Danton
• Played a great role in the establishment of
first republic • But executed during Reign of
terror due to his fall out with Robespierre
• Marquis de Lafayatte • A liberal and an
advocate of constitutional monarchy – member
of third Estate • Involved in the drafting of
‘Declaration of rights of Man and the Citizen’
Publications • "Le Patriote Français" (The
French Patriot) – journal by Brissot • "Le
Moniteur Universel" or “Gazzette
Nationale”(The Universal Monitor) –
newspaper by Charles-Joseph Panckoucke
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Political ideologies of
19th cent Industrialization – new material base
– inequality and sufferings
Political Liberalism • The goal of human life in
earth is happiness and human wellbeing. •
Personal choice and hence individual liberty v
imp • Trade, commerce and exchange are good
whereas war and conflicts are bad • Skepticism
towards power – rule of law and constitution
Socialism • Failure of Liberalism to negate
inequality and sufferings • Emergence of a
labour class • “a political and economic theory
of social organizations that advocate that the
means of production, distribution and exchange
should be owned by the population as a whole
and distribute the end result proportionately”
Important aspects of socialism Equal society
Social justice
Utopian socialists- • Socialists before Marx – St
Simon, Charles Fourier and Robert Owen
• Answer lied in changing the hearts of
industrialists – model farms and communes
MARXISM OR SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM
• Divided the history of humanity into six -
Proto – communism, slave mode of production,
feudal mode of production, capitalism and
socialism • Capitalism created Socialism, and it
will be the last achievable phase of humanity.
• Theory of surplus value – the only factor that
had value is labour – exploitation of labour is
the profit of the capitalist • Production in
capitalist system thus creates inequality –
problem of over production and under
consumption • Can offset this by capturing
colonies – but cannot go on endlessly – system
will collapse
MARXISM OR SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM
• Class struggle by labourers and class
annihilation – Proletarian dictatorship or state
of working people after revolution – consider
this as greater good • Communism - Socio –
economic equality – productive end or the final
aim of socialism • Spread of communism all
over the world – no need of state – So Marx is
considered an anarchist
Evolution of Socialism
• Marxist – Leninism – a vanguard party and a
supreme leader – hostility towards bourgeoisie
class • Maoism – revolution by peasants –
Capitalism not a prerequisite for revolution –
Power flows through the barrel of gun
• Democratic socialism – Capitalism – wealth
creation – State – welfare – re distribution of
wealth – A society of equal opportunities
Causes of Russian revolution
• Crimean war – opened the gates to the West
for industrialization – along with capital and
technology, ideas also came to Russia • Czarist
regime – very hesitant to political reforms
• Radical ideas – socialism, anarchism, nihilism
– Assasination of Emperor, Alexander II [1881]
– by Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will"), chiefly
by Andrei Zhelyabov . • Peasant discontent –
feudal regime
• Nature of industrialization – concentration of
large industries with huge work force in a
relatively small area – emergence of a labour
class • Russification policy of Czarist regime –
antagonized national minorities • Corruption
and excesses of regime
Czar Nicholas II • Lack of Leadership - no desire
to rule - crown was thrust upon him after the
death of his father [1894] - estranged from his
people • mild-mannered - appeared weak
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before the people • No direct involvement
when resistance aroused – left the issue to the
security forces – led to heavy handedness
Russian Socialist Democratic Party
• Socialist party in Russia – founded in 1898 •
1903 – split – Mensheviks and Bolsheviks •
Lenin [What is to be done] – discredited any
association with progressive bourgeoisie -
wanted a close knit group and complete
overhaul of the existing systems • Pravda – a
Bolshevik newspaper – gave political directions
to strikes and popularized Bolshevik ideals
during WW I
1905 revolution - prelude • Defeat in 1905 war
with Japan – exposed corruption • ‘Bloody
Sunday’ - Protests under ‘Georgy Gapon’ near
palace – soldiers fired upon protestors – led to
a revolution in Russia • Constitutional reforms
[October Manifesto] – Duma and constitution –
Granted civil liberties – Universal adult
franchise • But later made Duma a mere
consultative body later – but could not quench
the revolutionary fire
Great War • Sufferings to people due to
Imperialistic need – set back at the battlefield –
Czar left Moscow to Petrograd • Czarina
Alexander and Grigory Rasputin – fired elected
officials • 1917 – International Women’s Day –
processions – joined by people and workers –
firing on protesters – revolution – spread to
rural areas – Czar Nicholas II abdicated throne
and transferred power to the leaders in Duma
[February revolution]
Provisional Government= • Menshiviks under
Alexander Kerensky led the government –
supported by ‘Kadets’[constitutional
democrats] under Milinkov • But this was a
period of dual power - Provisional Government
held state power but a national networks of
Soviets had tremendous political power due to
the support of lower classes and political left –
they governed the cities – Soviets contained
both Mensheviks and Bolsheviks
Provisional Government – failures
Did not addressed the pressing issues –
withdrawl from war, land and factory reforms
Instead focussed on granting political rights –
led to protests
Arrival of Lenin
• Return was facilitated by German
government – to destabilize Russia
• Lenin – working class should bring an internal
revolution for regime change • Denounced
both Provisional government and Petrograd
Soviet • Only one goal – ‘ All power to Soviets’
– Bolshevik control of Soviets and thus Russia
The April Theses- • series of 10 directives
issued by Lenin • Provisional government and
Petrograd Soviet cannot coexist together
indefinitely – two different classes locked in
class struggle • The Bolshevik Party should
organize workers, soldiers, and peasants and to
strengthen the Soviets • Withdraw support to
Provisional government
The July Putsch or July Days= • Made several
attempts to bring about a second revolution by
inciting the masses • Failed initially and had to
go to exile near Finnish border • But learned
two lessons – need the support of armed forces
– the hesitation of the political leadership to
withdrew from war could be exploited
The Kornilov Affair • Kerensky appointed
General Kornilov as the commander in chief of
the Russian army. • But a mutual distrust grew
between them – Kerensky accused Kornilov for
plotting a coup and even sought the support of
the Bolsheviks – Kornilov became furious
• Opportunity to Lenin – discredited Kerensky
before army – Bolsheviks increased their store
of weapons
Bolshevik resurgence and October revolution
• Began to dominate and enjoy majority in
various Soviets including Petrograd and
Moscow • Kerensky planned for a Constituent
Assembly and elections by November 12 - Lenin
became desperate • Oct 25th – was the
beginning of Second All-Russia Congress of
Soviets at Petrograd • Oct 24 – Bolshevik troops
occupied crucial points in the capital – Kerensky
fled, and Petrograd was captured without firing
a single shot • Provisional government was
removed from the Winter Palace This Photo by
Unknown author is licensed under CC BY.
Bolsheviks consolidate their control
• Lenin proclaimed the establishment of a new
government - Soviet of the People’s
Commissars - Lenin was its chairman, and all of
its members were Bolsheviks. • Renamed the
country as Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic [Russian SFSR] • True power rested
with the Central Committee of the Bolshevik
Party
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Cultural sphere • Maxim Gorky – ‘The Mother’
– famous novel depicting the plight of Russians
• Battleship Potemkin – a film by Sergei
Eisenstein – also directed a film based on the
novel ‘'The Ten Days that Shook the World’
• 'The Ten Days that Shook the World’ – John
Reed • Leo Tolstoy – prophet of revolution
[Anna Karenina, War and Peace], ‘Russia’s
second Czar’ – Lenin – addressed Tolstoy as the
‘Mirror of Russian revolution’
Civil war • Too radical steps in a short span of
time – Ended war by signing treaty of Brest-
Litovsk – Introduced land reforms – Workers
control over factories – Attacked the wealth
and institutions of the church • Had to conduct
elections to Constituent Assembly promised by
Kerensky – Social Revolutionaries gained
majority – Lenin was hesitant to transfer power
and disbanded the Assembly – Justification –
highest form of democracy as only Bolsheviks
knew the plight of lower classes This Photo by
Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.
• Red army vs white army – red terror by
‘chekka’ - suppressed 245 peasant uprisings in
1918 alone • White army - Social
Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, ex-tsarist officers
• Fears of a Capitalist West – gave the
surrendered territories to White army – allied
support to Whites – but was half hearted
• Fall of Ukraine to Red Army proved to be the
game changer – unified the rest of the regions
by 1923 – leadership of Trotskky proved pivotal
• Unification made complete by 1923 –
disturbances continued in Central Asia till 1934
New political structure
• Soviet or Worker’s Council at district level •
Provincial Soviets • National Congress – Central
Executive Committee – Cabinet Ministers or
People’s Commissars [Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic] • Federal structure – All
Union Congress – Central executive and a
Council of Commissars – Chairman or Premier
[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]
Consequences of Bolshevik revolution
• First political victory for Socialism • Spread of
socialism across the world – labour and peasant
militancy across the world
• West vs communism – political democracy vs
social democracy –liberalism vs communism
• Welfare politics • Gender equality –
liberalized divorce and abortion laws,
decriminalized homosexuality, permitted
cohabitation – Political participation and
empowerment
New Economic Policy [NEP] – 1922
• amalgamation of good things of both
Capitalism and Socialism - a temporary
makeshift to protect their cherished ideas of
socialist revolution – Liberal forced food
requisition policy - Peasants were allowed to
sell their excess produce in open markets after
paying their taxes. – Nationalization was limited
to big industries and public utilities. – Private
enterprises in small scale were allowed. – Profit
sharing concessions were offered to foreign
investments to attract foreign capital and
technology. – Along with state run retail shops,
private retail trade was also permitted to some
extent
Joseph Stalin • ‘Socialism in one country’.
• planned economy, nationalization of
resources and collectivization of agriculture.
• 1928 – five year plans – First plan –
agriculture – collectivization of agriculture –
destruction of ‘kulaks’ - death of 10 million by
famine and repression – Second plan –
industries - Stakhanovite movement - attempt
to create a cult around an enthusiastic worker
named Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov – third
plan – armaments
Fascism and Nazism
Social Darwinism • Fit people dominating
others a natural phenomenon • Survival of fit
people will make societies more strong •
Equality propounded liberal democracies will
lead to crisis of weakness • From 19th cent
onwards
Fascism – a political ideology • Authoritarian
nationalism – unification of country under a
single race • Centralized autocratic government
headed by a dictatorial leader and single party
for social and economic regimentation – to
ensure racial and cultural purity and end
weaknesses of society • Fasces – a bundle of
rods tied around an axe • Mussolini –
‘Fascismo’ • Giovanni Gentile – ‘philosopher of
fascism’ – gave intellectual foundation for
fascism in Italy • Social Darwinism and
Hegelianism – inspired Fascism and Nazism
Italy and Great War • Entered into war in 1915
– treaty of London – Britain promised lands and
economic rewards • Paris Peace conference
 9
– neglected the demands of Italy – national
humiliation – perceived weakness of
government became national debate
• Economic crisis and rivalries among political
parties prevented any scope for rejuvenation –
demand for strong political leadership
Benitto Mussolini • Initially a socialist and
teacher –’Avanti’ – a magazine – criticized
government for being neutral – Italy’s entry
into war made him a popular figure – even
joined the war efforts as a soldier • Moved
away from socialism after Bolshevik experiment
– threat of socialism in Italy - Fascist party in
1919 • Charismatic leader – fascism began to
inspire people – 2 lakh members by 1922
• Squandrist movement – attacking and
capturing the party offices of socialists –
government remained silent – brought more
supporters
Rise of a dictator • 1922 – put forwarded
certain demands to government – gave an
ultimatum • Took 50,000 members and
paralyzed Rome – Emperor invited Mussolini to
form government • Reduced government
expenditure – taxed the rich • Suppressed
dacoity, unionism – but improved the working
conditions of workers • Increased public
expenditure – created jobs
• Changed the system of elections - 2/3rd
majority would be given to the party that
secure a clear majority. • Elections in 1924 –
enjoyed majority – started authoritarianism –
local bodies were suspended – suppression of
opposition – 1926 – banning of all political
parties except fascist party • Re orienting
education along fascist lines
Home policy of Mussolini  Establishment of a
totalitarian state with a single party and single
leader.  Anti individualism and opposition to
democracy. “Everything for the state; nothing
against the state; nothing outside the state” -
no faith in the majority and public opinion. All
political. Economic and social institutions were
dominated by fascist party.  Anti –
communism – never wanted complete
restructuring of society  National syndicalism.
The industries were governed by a syndicate
which consisted of the representatives of
capitalists, workers and the state – private
enterprise was promoted but only those who
sided with fascist]
Accord with Pope – ‘Lateran Accord’ -
recognized Pope as the sovereign of Vatican
and the Italian government agreed to pay 100
million dollars per year to Pope for the loss of
territories - religious education was made
compulsory in schools and the state accepted
to pay the priesthood. As reciprocity Pope gave
up his claim on Rome, recognized the House of
Savoy and promised that opponents of fascism
would not be appointed as Bishops and
Archbishops.  Revamping of educational
sector on fascist principles. All categories of
educational institutions were strictly related to
principles of fascism and the cult of Mussolini. 
Economic development of Italy – perhaps most
important contribution of Mussolini was the
economic development of Italy. National deficit
was greatly reduced by adhering to fiscal
discipline and unemployment dip sharply due
to encouragement of public works. Industries
and infrastructure were made in par with global
standards. Agriculture sector became self
sufficient.
Foreign policy of Mussolini • War an
instrument of foreign policy – “War is to man
what maternity is to a woman” – to increase
the national glory • Converted Albania into a
vassal state • bullied Yugoslavia to cede the city
of Fiume to Italy • Got Rhodes and Dardanelles
islands from Turkey • 1936 – pact with Hitler –
Germany turned a blind eye on Italian
aggression over Abyssinia [Rome – Berlin axis]
• Spanish civil war – supported General Franco
• Anti comintern pact with Germany and Japan
- 1937
Nazism • Similar to fascism • Anti semitism and
anti Catholicism • Superiority of German race -
Uniting all Germanic people in Europe into a
single nation. • The hegemony of an "Aryan" or
the so Called Master Race over the "sub-
humans" (Untermenschen) of inferior races like
Slavs and Jews. • The acquisition of "living
space" (Lebensraum) for primarily agrarian
settlers (Blut und Boden). • the elimination of
Bolshevism
Reasons for the emergence of Hitler = Treaty
of Versailles – loudest opponent
=Dissatisfaction against Weimar Republic –
failed to alleviate the national humiliation
=Economic crisis – increased hatred towards
the government  Rise of communism – a

 • Rearmament of Germany – failure of
foreign ideology with no respect to German
traditions.
=Anti Semitic policy of Hitler – anti semitism
deep rooted in Germany – stab in the back
theory =Military aspirations of the Germans –
people considered autocracy as a German
tradition – national glory attained by powerful
autocrats= The nature of democratic
installation in Germany= Respect of Hitler to
German traditions and his magnificent
personality
• WW I – a soldier • 1919 – joined German
workers party • 1920 – renamed it as National
Socialist Democratic Party [NAZI] • Creation of
semi militia [SA or Sturmabteilung] – with the
help of Ernst Rohm - to attack socialists and
communists – received the support of
capitalists • 1923 – tried a coup – sent to prison
– ‘Mein Kampf’ • Released in 1924 • Great
depression – more acceptance to Hitler - an
alliance with the nationalist Alfred Hugenberg –
his newspaper gave him a wide audience
• 1932 elections – single largest party – but lost
the Presidential race to Hiddenburg. • Street
battle with socialists and communists –
Hiddenburg offered the post of Chancellor •
Fearing Hitler’s dictatorship, Hiddenburg
dissolved Reichstag and announced fresh
elections. • Reichstag fire – blamed it on
communists – banned communist party and
suppressed other political parties
• Rigged elections – Hitler managed to form
government with nationalists • Enabling Act -
freedom to Chancellor to act without
Parliamentary approvals for four years. • 1933
– proclaimed the establishment of third Reich –
suppression of remaining opposition • 1934 –
death of Hiddenburg – merged the post of
Chancellor and President
– Fuhrer Night of the long knives – it is
described to the bloody purge conducted by
Hitler in 1934 to cleanse Nazi party including
Ernst Rohm
Hitler’s foreign policy • Stufenplan - step-by-
step policy for colonisation of Eastern Europe
and a war of conquest in the West. • Pulled
Germany out of Versailles treaty – 1933 –
Britain did not act as she saw Nazi Germany as
an „Iron Curtain‟ towards rising tide of
communism – Policy of Appeasement
10
disarmament conference an excuse
• Non aggression pact with Poland [1934] - for
10 years surprised entire Europe • Unsuccessful
effort for the rape of Austria [1934] – revolt by
Nazis in Austria – threat by Mussolini forced
him to abandon the plan
• 1935 – Saar basin merged to Germany after a
plebiscite • made his armament policy public -
Britain, France and Italy formed the Stresa
Front to counter Germany • Annexation of
Rhine land [1936] – sent his army – Britain
hesitated to act – policy of appeasement -
French felt safe due to the construction of a
series of defensive walls along the Maignot
Line. • Rome – Berlin Axis [1936] – Spanish civil
war – prelude to WW II – created alliances –
testing of newly developed weapons
• Rape of Austria [1938] – revolt by Nazi party -
rigged referendum after sending the army
• Dismemberment of Czechoslovakia [1938] -
merger of Sudetenland to Germany – wanted
international conference – Munich conference
– gave Sudetenland to Germany • Britain and
France antagonized USSR – she was not invited
• “the cheapest victory ever won by aggressive
militarism”. • Chamberlain – established “peace
in our time”. • “Britain and France had to
choose between war and dishonour. They
choose dishonour, they will have war soon”.
• 1939 – non aggression pact with USSR -
Molotov – Ribbentrop pact • 1939 – invasion of
Poland • Hitler never wanted a world war with
Britain, but a short war with PolanD
WW II“Hitler did not really want a World War.
His intention was only a short war with
Poland.” =– Believed Britain and France not
willing to wage war with Germany – weak
Chamberlain – non aggression pact with USSR –
Wanted a coalition with Britain - Considered
English as the second best society after German
– Aryan racial affinity
British viewpoint • Violation of promise by
Germany – Hitler declared Germany a satiated
nation during Munich conference • No
presence in Central or Eastern Europe – mutual
defense treaty with Poland • Germany was also
considered an underdog by Britain
WW II • Blitzkrieg or lightning war - intense
speed and massive fire power – create
 11

psychological shock and disorganization of

army – Poland surrendered after 3 weeks
• USSR conquered Finland and Baltics • German
navies took the Norwegian ports of Oslo and
Narvik to deny Allied presence in the east –
Chamberlain lost his seat • Winston Churchil - -
“I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears,
and sweat”. • ‘phony war’. • 1940 – Belgium,
Netherlands and France - Dunkirk • Churchill
refused to mediate - Operation Sea Lion –
battle of Britain • North African campaign
• Parallel war of Mussolini - Italian campaign
over Greece – failure – Nazi attack which was
successful • Dismemberment of Yugoslavia by
Hitler – created tensions between USSR • 1941
– operation Barbarossa • Pearl Harbour Attack
1942 – decisive year • Battle of Stalingrad
• Battle of Midway • Battle of Atlantic •
Defeats in North Africa
Axis Retreat • 1943 – Allies landed in Sicily –
execution of Mussolini • Battle of Kursk - 1943
• 1944 – D day • 3 rd June 1945, the Soviets
captured Berlin • Rest of the German forces,
fearing Russian vengeance, ran to the Allied
forces to surrender
Reasons for Allied victory • Quality vs quantity
• Better co ordination and co operation – Italy
entered into war after seeing the German
successes – parallel war of Mussolini – Japan
never attacked USSR • Poor decision making
capacity of Hitler – under estimation of
enemies – personal ego - Dunkirk – Battle of
Britain – Battles of Stalingrad, Kursk and Bulge
• Determination of Allied leaders – Churchill,
Stalin and Roosevelt – Atlantic Charter
Consequences of WW II • Emergence of Liberal
Democracies and Communism at the expense
of Fascism • De colonization of Asia and Africa
• Change in balance of power • UN • European
Integration • Cold waR