Reconceptualising Film Policies Book Abstracts Chapter by Chapter

Introduction
This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the subsequent
chapters of this book. The book examines the traditional film policy paradigm, which
has governed state intervention since the birth of cinema. It focuses on the actions and
voices of the various stakeholders participating in the film policy ecosystem, by either
creating the policies, benefitting from them or protesting against them. The book also
examines the coexistence of several layers of film policy. It describes the logic behind
the creation of supranational programme Ibermedia and evaluates it by comparing it
with other programmes. In the context of the digital turn and the convergence
phenomenon, the book shows how the film policy paradigm is currently being not only
reinvented in countries with a tradition of state intervention in cinema, but also
invented in countries with no such tradition.

Chapter 1

‘France needs to position itself on the

global media map, as a cultural
reference and a production centre’
ByStephan Bender
Film policies are not solely developed by state agencies, but are also devised and
implemented by organizations known as 'quasi-autonomous non-governmental
organizations' or 'quangos.' One such organization benefitting from state subsidies and
fulfilling state missions in France is the Pole Media Grand Paris. The Pole Media Grand
Paris is a media cluster whose goal is to provide tools and services to build a stronger
media industry. When the Pole started to be active, in 2003, its first decision was to
create the Commission du Film de Seine-Saint-Denis. The Commission was created to
generate economic, media and cultural impacts. Film France is a state-funded agency,
supported by the Centre National du Cinema et de l'Image Animee (CNC). It coordinates
the network of forty local film commissions, including the Commission du Film de Seine-
Saint-Denis. Its mission is to attract foreign audiovisual production activity in France.

Chapter 2
A Fragile Industry
Government Policy and Dubbing in Quebec
ByChristine York
In the wake of the Quiet Revolution that transformed Quebec society in the 1960s,
numerous cultural institutions and industries underwent sweeping changes as the state
sought to assert the primacy of French as the language of daily life. However, any
attempts to develop a strong Quebec dubbing industry have always run up against a
major obstacle: the French protectionist decree stating that to be exhibited in France,
any film dubbed in French must be entirely produced in a dubbing studio located on
French territory. The impetus to dub films locally reflected the government's aim to
attain 'cultural sovereignty' in the area of film production and distribution and thereby
ensure that French would not only be the language of the workplace, but also the
language of leisure. The dubbing industry in Quebec has always been about something
more than jobs. In the future, the Quebec dubbing industry is likely to remain fragile at
best.

Chapter 3

Monitored Relations
The US Film Industry, Chinese Film Policy and Soft Power
ByDeron Overpeck
The Chinese film market is one of the few large enough to compete with that of the
United States. This chapter outlines the political frameworks that shape the interactions
between the Chinese film industry and Hollywood, with a focus on the policies set forth
by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). These policies limit the amount of influence
foreign media companies can have within China and monitor Chinese companies'
international activities. They are best understood as an expression of China's
preference for 'soft power': the use of economic and cultural investment rather than
military force to increase a nation's global influence. Miao Xiaotian, the president of the
Chinese Film Coproduction Corporation (CFCC), has stressed that his agency monitored
potential US-Chinese co-productions to ensure that they met the CCP's expectations
about pro-Chinese content. These co-productions also have to clear regulatory hurdles,
most notably in terms of

Chapter
Cool Japan and Heated Politics
Japanese Film and Media Policies within the Economic Politics
of Global Markets
ByJennifer deWinter
This chapter highlights the intense cultural ambivalence surrounding media policies in
general and Cool Japan in particular, as they pertain to film policy and practice within
transmedia strategies and national branding practices. The challenge with Cool Japan as
a media policy that encompasses film and television is that it is, at heart, a descriptive
policy – it attempts to describe and subsequently harness the success of Japanese
youth cultures abroad. As a descriptive policy, Cool Japan originally emerged in an
attempt to respond to the success of film, anime, manga and video games in
international markets. The mediated worlds of anime, film, manga, and videogames and
the economic goals of Cool Japan may seem disconnected from the political
machinations of Japanese power brokers. The extremist bifurcation of Japanese political
ideologies necessarily has an impact on global brand strategies and policies such as
Cool Japan.

Chapter

‘Sophisticated Cyber Terrorists’

The Film Industry, Rhetoric and National Security
ByMike Van Esler
This chapter takes domestic and international American intellectual property (IP) policy of the
digital era as its objects (or Foucauldian 'things') of study and is concerned with the discourses of the
state and industry, while focusing on press releases, public statements, executive orders and
regulatory hearings. By using the Sony Hack as a case study, it looks at the nascent shift in the way
Hollywood uses discourses of national and cybersecurity influence the ways in which Hollywood's
logics of IP and copyright protection become embodied in (inter)national policy. The close working
relationship between the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and film industry was further made
manifest by the response issued from Motion Picture Association of America chair and CEO Chris
Dodd. Like the FBI, Dodd conflates American corporate interests, the economy and national
security. Dodd's invocation of terrorism speaks to the emerging rhetorical tropes the film industry
uses in lobbying.

Chapter

National Film Policies

Discourses and Loopholes
ByJoël Augros
The National Film Development Corporation, which stems from the amalgamation of
several existing agencies, has a variety of roles. One of them, when it was founded in
1980, was to develop the network of cinemas in India. It thus financed the creation of
about a hundred screens in fifty states, thanks to soft loans and subsidies to private
developers. The heads of German studios and the technicians working for them did not
protest against the misuse of the tax-shelter system, as they were happy to be working,
regardless of the nationality of the films. The situation is similar in the Czech Republic
and Romania, for example, where policies encouraging filming in these countries
focused more on giving work to the Prague and Bucharest studios than on actually
stimulating national film production. Legislators could be wise, but discreet as to their
real intentions. Finally, legislators could also be disputed by voters themselves about
the actual meaning of their intentions.

Chapter

‘Qualified Personalities’
Sociology of the French ‘Media Government’ from Cinema to
the Digital Era
ByOlivier Alexandre
The nature of French audiovisual sector is determined by a layering of policies, created
at various periods of time. A public policy system has been continuously developed and
adapted since the 1950s, mostly focusing on the support to and defence of the artistic
and moral quality of film and television programmes. This institutional system has
relied on 'qualified personalities' emanating from diverse sectors such as cinema,
television, arts, culture, education, administration and the political world. The chapter
presents a sociological analysis of the French model matrix. It focuses on the revolving-
door system and the policy-making personnel that have enforced a stable regulatory
frame for audiovisual industries. The rise of digital operators and executives – more
internationalised and engineering-solution oriented – is currently destabilising this
ecosystem. There is an important generational, cultural, ideological and linguistic gap
between the French 'Media government' and the management teams of the new
players.
Chapter

Informal Collaborations and Formal

Agreements
Chinese-Korean Film Encounters 1
ByBrian Yecies
To shed light on the Chinese-Korean film policy power struggle, this chapter
interrogates how informal industry-to-industry relations are formalised by an official
agreement and whether this formalisation actually works to the benefits of the film
industry players. Specifically, it analyses how the 2013 MOU and 2014 film treaty have
been built on a foundation of collaboration, while further benefitting both film
industries in concrete ways. The chapter briefly sets the background for this Sino-
Korean cooperation, before exploring the making of Korean mega-distributor CJ E&M's
romance drama A Wedding Invitation, which re-clad an original Korean story in Chinese
dress. It explains the official China-Korea co-production policy framework and how
Korean directors, actors and special effects practitioners have offered their skills to the
rapidly expanding Chinese film industry in return for massively increased exposure and
investment opportunities. The chapter also analyses the subsequent China-Korea co-
production 20 Once Again, a remake of the Korean rom-com Miss Granny.

Chapter

‘The Petrol in Our Tank’

Public-Private Collaboration in Indian State Animation, Visual
Effects, Gaming and Comics (AVGC) Policy
ByTimothy Jones
This chapter evaluates changing relationships between global cultural industry and local
regulation, examining the unique collaboration between the Association of Bangalore
Animation Industry (ABAI) and state government agencies, resulting in the 2011
Karnataka Animation, Visual Effects, Gaming, and Comics (KAVGC) policy. The KAVGC
policy then follows a trend in India for regional political leaders to seek to leverage
cultural industries' infrastructure to rework their rural and urban spaces in alignment
with global markets. Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative data on the
development of the Indian animation sector between 2010 and 2014, the chapter
assesses the growing importance of regional policy and the connecting role played by
ABAI as it facilitates engagement between creative industry stakeholders and state
government agencies. Since 2013, there has been growing interest in expanding ABAI's
model of public-private collaboration beyond the subnational level. Recent interest in
regional animation policy in India must be understood first in the context of
globalisation.

Chapter

‘Unionisation of visual effects is

inevitable’
ByJoe Pavlo
In 2013, British union Broadcasting, Entertainment, Communications and Theatre Union
(BECTU) launched a campaign to organize people working in visual effects (VFX). In the
whole of London, there were maybe less than 200 people working in visual effects in
film, and that seemed a lot at the time. The two main companies then, CFC and Cinesite,
had to write their own software, build their own computer workstations and films
scanners and recorders. That created a great technical expertise base in London. The
main problem with the film visual effects facilities in London is that they have one
business model: how to get people to work for free. In Los Angeles, they have fantastic
visual effects knowledge and expertise, but the facilities are miles apart. Because of this
close-knit community, London was ideally positioned when about fifteen years ago,
visual effects became so vitally important to the economy of Hollywood.

Chapter

Tiptoeing the Red Line

PureMovies and Censorship in China
ByTiecheng Li
From 1949 to the early 1990s, the Chinese film industry followed a planned economy
model inspired by the Soviet Union, with the government allocating production funding
and assigning film duties. The continued rigorous state control over distribution has led
film lovers to create alternative circuits for documentaries. This chapter proposes a
case study of one such grassroots initiative: PureMovies. The current status increasingly
pushes PureMovies to reinforce self-censorship in order to survive. As a consequence,
controversial documentaries are only screened to a selected audience, which makes it
more difficult to attract new spectators. A 'red line' separates ideologically acceptable,
government-sanctioned programmes and activities from censored ones. In November
2016, Congress passed the China Film Industry Promotion Law and China Network
Security Law. Under this new law, the grey area around the red line is rapidly shrinking,
and PureMovies risks crossing it every minute.

Chapter

Bridging the Gap

Towards a Dialogue between Screen Production, Policy and
Scholarship
ByJulia Hammett-Jamart
Drawing upon her professional experience across the screen production, policy and
university sectors in Australia, the author describes the manner in which the lack of
articulation between policy and scholarship has played itself out in the Australian
context. She reflects on the reasons for this and proposes a model for conceptualising
the breach between policy and scholarship and its effects. The author considers
alternative approaches for screen industry research and advocates a
reconceptualisation of the relationship between screen policy, theory and practice. The
'Thought Silo Model' visually represents the lack of articulation between policy and
scholarship and the effects this generates, namely that public discussion remains at the
level of officially sanctioned data. A formal programme of government assistance to the
Australian film industry began in 1970, with the establishment of a public agency to
deliver direct production subsidy, followed by the introduction of indirect subsidies and
other regulatory measures to shore up local production.

Chapter

The Ibermedia Programme

How Supra-National Policy Developed the Ibero-American
Audiovisual Space
ByCarmina Crusafon
Supra-national cooperation has become one of the main tools for expanding
audiovisual policies abroad. The supra-national policy can play a central role in the
creation of a common audiovisual space. This is the case of the Ibermedia programme.
It works in Ibero-America under the supervision of the Ibero-American General
Secretariat, which gathers nineteen Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries in
Latin America and those of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain, Portugal and Andorra. The
chapter presents the implementation of the Ibermedia programme over a period of
seventeen years. It analyses its evolution and its main instruments. The chapter focuses
on the dynamics on both sides of the Atlantic: the European, with the Spanish
leadership, and the Latin American, with Argentina and Brazil as regional leaders.
Finally, it compares Ibermedia with other international audiovisual programmes
implemented in the region. In the Ibero-American space, audiovisual producers can also
apply for other different international funding programmes for audiovisual co-
productions.

Chapter

Towards a New Film Policy Map in

Argentina
ByLeandro González
In the last two decades, a complex audiovisual map has emerged in Argentina,
characterised by the presence of promotion policies that act at different levels: national,
regional and subnational. National film policies have a long history: the legal framework
dates from 1957, although in 1994, a new law updated the instruments and represented
a turning point for national cinematography. In 1989, twenty-one countries (including
Spain and Portugal) created the Conference of Ibero-American Cinematographic
Authorities (CACI), a body in which the maximum audiovisual and cinematographic
authorities participate. The existence of three levels of film policies represents both a
challenge and an opportunity: the challenge is to articulate these levels in such a way as
to empower each level; the opportunity lies in occupying a position of relevance in the
global market. Despite growing awareness, articulation between the three policy levels
remains a challenge today.

Chapter
‘I have to make a round of every
country’s funding systems’
BySabine Sidawi
France is an important source of funding for several reasons. France promotes its
culture, but also cultures around the world. When a country invests in a foreign film,
first they want their name to appear as a co-production country of the film, and second,
they want at least half of the money to be spent in the country giving the fund. State
funds related to Lebanon are unfortunately almost non-existent. There are other
countries with government funds that finance Lebanese films. In France, there is the
Francophonie and the Aide aux cinemas du monde, which is supported by the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. There is also the World Cinema Fund, managed by the Berlinale, a
film festival also related to the state. The Lebanese government has to make political
decisions to make a fund in Lebanon, not only to take Lebanese films, but also to make
a Lebanese industry.

Chapter

Cross-Border Collaboration
Subnational Film Policies and Cultural Frameworks in Belgium
and France
ByJamie Steele
Regional film funds have become increasingly visible in the French and Belgian film
industries since the late 1990s and early 2000s. Through the example of Wallimage and
Centre Regional de Ressources Audiovisuelles (CRRAV), this chapter considers the move
towards fragmented subnational film policies, the subnational institution's
transnational, cross-border level of collaboration, in an innovative 'trans-subnational'
relation. By focusing on subnational film institutions and their audiovisual policies, it
begins to reveal decision-makers' conceptions and interpretations of culture and
nationhood. The subnational policy outlines the institution's responsibility to 'guarantee
the cultural character of the work' by assessing its adherence to a series of criteria. The
cultural film policy in Belgium functions at two separate levels; the cultural criteria are
decided by the CCA and outline the requirements for a francophone Belgian film,
whereas the films are further supported at a regional level by Wallimage.

Chapter
Between YU and the EU
The Europeanisation of the Serbian Film Policies
ByPetar Mitric
The new post-Yugoslav countries entered the European Union (EU) integration process
independently from one another, each with their own tempo. In the area of film
policies, Serbia's integration process is characterised by two challenges. On the one
hand, the EU perceives the alignment of Serbian policies with the EU policies as 'non-
negotiable negotiations' and remains indifferent to local specificities. On the other
hand, the local Serbian elite in charge of the Europeanisation and EUisation of the
Serbian film policies implements the alignment process well in theory – through passing
the EU laws and fulfilling the administrative requirements. The general process of
Europeanisation as experienced by Serbia and other European, post-socialist societies
can be divided into two chronological phases. The first phase is more inclusive in as
much as it involves the forty-seven member states of the Council of Europe (CoE). The
second phase of Europeanisation, however, can be designated as 'EUisation', primarily a
formal, economic and legal process.

Chapter

Reconciling Economic and Cultural

Goals in Film Policy
Propositions from Europe
ByAnna Herold , Claudia Golser
Besides their economic character, feature films have a specific cultural nature, due to
their role as communicator of ideas and their limited substitutability. Film policies take
into account this dual nature of the film sector by enhancing its competitiveness, while
at the same time bearing in mind its cultural dimension. At the EU level, audiovisual and
film policy expressly pursues two objectives: the promotion of cultural diversity and the
establishment of an internal film market. Through successful mediation between the
cultural diversity of its Member States and internal market values, the EU presents a
model for the integration of audiovisual policies into the international trade law system.
A similar modus still needs to be found at the international level. The model of EU film
policies may be implemented in several ways. The principle of cultural diversity and
thus assertion of cultural (including audiovisual and film) policies within the global legal
order are of utmost importance.
Chapter

Talking to Netflix with a Canadian

Accent
On Digital Platforms and National Media Policies
ByIra Wagman
In 2014, Canada's broadcasting and telecommunications regulator, the Canadian Radio-
Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), undertook a major
investigation of the television landscape in light of the challenges posed by digital
technologies and popular distribution platforms. A major review by the Department of
Canadian Heritage, the government department largely responsible for Canada's
cultural portfolio, is due to wrap up in 2017. Of the different groups participating, it was
the representatives from Netflix that attracted the most attention. The chapter
illustrates how digital platforms like Netflix engage with and disrupt prior policy
frameworks. Netflix's performance before the CRTC reflects the challenges of states to
regulate global digital media platforms. In the Canadian case, the company's popularity
signifies a major challenge to the systemic nature of Canadian media policy, which links
private and public institutions and integrates a variety of groups – from broadcasters to
actor's unions – within a national project that is regulated by a central body.

Chapter

One Script, Several Films

Public Policies and the Digitisation of Movie Theatres in the
United States, France and Quebec
ByAurélie Pinto
The introduction of digital projection in movie theatres offers a particularly interesting
opportunity to examine the collective response to a major technological changeover.
This chapter sheds light on one of the most important elements that has enabled the
switch to digital: the collective regulation of its financing in three different contexts –
the US, France and Quebec. The comparison of the switch to digital in the cinemas of
the US, France and Quebec reveals unexpected convergence effects of contrasting
policies. The policies that both accompanied and enabled the switch to digital in France
show how French state intervention in cinema, which previously relied exclusively on an
internal system of resource reallocation through the fonds de soutien, has evolved
under supra-national constraints. The chapter describes the industrial and cultural
issues raised by the digital changeover and especially the link between dominant
players and mainstream culture, on the one hand, and independent players and cultural
diversity, on the other hand.

Chapter

Unwilling and Powerless

Facing Illegal Distribution and Exhibition in Chad
ByPatrick Ndiltah
Exhibition policies are regulations governing three different areas: movie theatres and
screening places; films and programmes; and distribution format. This chapter presents
the background to and the issues at play in the current film distribution and exhibition
deadlock in Chad. As early as 1968, a state Film Review Board was created to guarantee
the respect of morality, national mores and traditions and to prevent any negative
representation of the country. By establishing controls as a preliminary to any public
exhibition, the Commission had created a contract of trust with exhibitor: once the visa
was delivered, no field monitoring was deemed necessary. Exhibition licenses
regulations have been less and less respected, in the context of the uncontrolled
proliferation of video-clubs. Films are shown to all audiences indiscriminately, with no
consideration for age, public morality or copyright. The advent of digital technologies
has also strongly influenced content and copyright regulations.

Chapter

From Film Policy to Creative Screen

Policies
Media Convergence and Film Policy Trends in Flanders
ByGertjan Willems , Daniel Biltereyst , Philippe Meers , Roel Vande Winkel
This chapter draws attention to the expansion of film policy to broader creative screen
policies. The expansion of the film policy scope was symbolised by the change of name
of the relevant commission from Selection Commission for Cultural Films to Flemish
Audiovisual Selection Commission in 1994. In the same vein, in 2002, the coordinating
Flemish government service Fund Film in Flanders was replaced by the 'Flanders
Audiovisual Fund' (Vlaams Audiovisueel Fonds or VAF). Although the VAF has regularly
been praised for its film creation and promotion policy efforts, the institution has found
it more difficult to respond to the changed film distribution context. More specifically,
the VAF increasingly takes into account media convergence trends by developing policy
strategies aimed at non-film media. Although the regional level is pre-eminent in
Belgian film policy, it should be noted that since 1952, there had been an automatic,
economic film support system on the national level.

Chapter

South African Post-Apartheid Film Policy

Shifting Discourses on Film, National Identity and
Cultural/Creative Industries
ByNatalie Kowalik , Meers Philippe
Following the 1994 democratic elections, the South African government appointed its
newly established Ministry of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology to conduct
extensive investigations into the creation of a new post-apartheid film industry. Framed
within the field of film and critical cultural policy studies, this chapter focuses on the
political discourses that have emerged in South Africa's post-apartheid film policy
landscape and the motivations behind its creation. It is based on an extensive
systematic analysis of published material including commercial and government media,
as well as in-depth interviews with over fifty key South African policy actors and industry
stakeholders. Film was identified as a key sector in the cultural industries, with the idea
that it would be able to promote a national identity essential for nation-building and
political transformation. Provincial and local governments have also included film as a
focus area within their cultural and creative industries policies.

Chapter

The Vertical Axis of Film Policies in

Europe
Between Subsidiarity and Local Anarchy
ByMarco Cucco
In Europe, the policies that regulate and support the production of films have a very
long history. This chapter examines the public policies operating in Europe in light of a
competitive comparison with the US (horizontal axis) and explains how these policies
(supra-national, national and subnational) integrate and/or contradict each other
(vertical axis). The provision of free services and economic resources for film production
by the regions is somewhere within a legal vacuum, but at the same time appears
entirely in keeping with the principle of subsidiarity as set out by the Italian
Constitution. Local governments actually finance film production for economic rather
than cultural purposes: to boost spending in the territory, increase tax revenues, create
new jobs, develop the local audiovisual industry and perhaps trigger the phenomenon
of film tourism. This contradiction is made particularly important by the current
economic context.

Chapter

The Film Code ‘will promote the

development of the film industry and
make Togolese cinema visible and
competitive internationally’
ByKomi Ati
This chapter presents an interview between the author and Komi Ati about the Film
Code. The Film Code will promote the development of the film industry and make
Togolese cinema visible and competitive internationally. Togolese films are mostly
shown on television. The Code is necessary because it will make it possible to regulate
and organise the film industry sector, towards more efficiency and profitability. This
Code will make the sector attractive for investors. The team behind the Film Code was
composed of about a dozen people: a committee from the DNC, legal experts and film
professionals. Togolese film practitioners need to continuously improve their skills to
make sure they meet international standards, especially as they often participate in
international film festivals. The Code also includes the entire production-distribution-
exhibition film chain. The chapter also presents the challenges for the Togolese film
industry.

Chapter

Films ex-nihilo
Abu Dhabi’s Greenfields Film and Media Policy Model
ByNolwenn Mingant
Inspired by Goldsmith and O'Regan's concept of 'greenfields studio', this chapter argues
that the UAE capital, Abu Dhabi, has developed a 'greenfields film and media policy
model' – that is, the creation of a film and media industry in a country with no film
tradition, no film executives or talent, and little appetence for Arab cinema. While the
ex-nihilo creation of a film and media industry stands as quite unique, Abu Dhabi's
motivations echo similar use of culture around the world, both for economic purposes
and ideological ones. Reinventing Abu Dhabi, through a strategy of importing foreign
expertise and inserting into globally accepted practices, has been an economic but also
ideological project. Furthermore, the Abu Dhabi case shows the ambiguities of the
Greenfields Film and Media Policy Model. By adopting the norms and practices of the
Western-born and globally adopted creative industries models and transplanting them
in their specific local context, this strategy raises issue of adaptability.