EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS AND INTIMACY IN

YOUNG ADULTS’ ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

A Clinical Dissertation

W
Presented to the Faculty of

California School of Professional Psychology

IE
San Francisco Bay Campus
EV

Alliant International University

PR

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements of the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

By

Ona E. Stiles, M.A.

October 2004

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 UMI Number: 3160244

Copyright 2004 by
Stiles, Ona E.

All rights reserved.

INFORMATION TO USERS

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy

W
submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and
photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper
IE
alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
EV

copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

PR

UMI
UMI Microform 3160244
Copyright 2005 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS AND INTIMACY IN

YOUNG ADULTS’ ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

This dissertation, by Ona Elizabeth Stiles, M.A., has

been approved by the committee members signed below
who recommend that it be accepted by the faculty of the
California School of Professional Psychology - San Francisco Bay
Campus in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

W
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IE
Dissertation Committee:
EV

Dalia Ducker, Ph.D.

PR

Chairperson

Christopher vrori, Ph.D.

'oily Lytle, PL,

(hhMu-, /, w f
Date

11

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 W
IE
EV
PR

(c) Copyright by Ona E. Stiles, 2004

All Rights Reserved

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 1

ABSTRACT

EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS AND INTIMACY IN

YOUNG ADULTS’ ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

ONA E. STILES, M.A.

California School of Professional Psychology

W
San Francisco Bay Campus

Alliant International University

IE
EV

This study examined the relations between Early Maladaptive Schemas and

intimacy in young adults’ romantic relationships. In addition, gender differences in both

Early Maladaptive Schemas and the association between maladaptive schema and
PR

intimacy were researched. Participants included 210 female and 69 male university

students between the ages of 18-24, who were currently in romantic relationships. Based

on a series of Multiple Regressions, findings indicated that only the Early Maladaptive

Schema of Emotional Deprivation was predictive of intimacy across intimacy measures.

The schema of Defectiveness/ Shame was predictive of lower intimacy scores on the

Miller Social Intimacy Scale, while Unrelenting Standards was unexpectedly predictive of

higher intimacy scores on the Fischer Narus Closeness Scale. Abandonment and

Entitlement schemas were predictive of higher intimacy distance scores on the Fischer

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 2

Narus Distance Scale. Next, a MANOVA determined that the only gender difference on

Early Maladaptive Schema scores was on the schema of Entitlement, with men scoring

significantly higher than women. In addition, hypothesized gender differences in the

correlational relationship between intimacy and Early Maladaptive Schemas were

examined resulting in mixed findings. Finally, ancillary analyses provided the

opportunity to conduct a series of MANOVAs for further explorations of gender

differences in intimacy in addition to significant differences between Asian and

Caucasian participants on schema and intimacy scores. Overall, hypothesized findings

were mixed and may add to both the literature on Early Maladaptive Schemas and help

W
inform practitioners of Schema Focused Therapy.
IE
EV
PR

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 Acknowledgements

I am sincerely grateful to the many people who have helped me complete this

challenging project. At each different step in this process I was surrounded by professors,

family members, and friends who offered guidance or support. I am especially grateful to

my husband, Glen W. Stiles, D.D.S., for his unwavering encouragement and support and

to my mother and father who taught me to pursue my dreams.

I wish to acknowledge my dissertation committee chair, Dalia Ducker, Ph.D., and

members Christopher Tori, Ph.D. and Polly Lytle, Ph.D. Thank you all for your different

W
areas of expertise and your generous contributions.

Finally, I offer special thanks to others who helped me along the way: Robert
IE
Bartee, Ph.D., Jeff Andreas Tan, and Dorrit Gordon.
EV
PR

iv

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 Table o f Contents

List of Tables.......................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER 1...............................................................................................................................1

Statement of Problem................................................................................................................ 1

Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 5

Early Maladaptive Schemas..................................................................................................... 5

Intimacy.................................................................................................................................... 19

The Connection Between Early Maladaptive Schemas and Intimate Relationships 23

Gender...................................................................................................................................... 32

W
Other Possible Moderating Variables................................................................................... 40

Summary and Hypotheses...................................................................................................... 43

IE
CHAPTER II........................................................................................................................... 46
EV

Methods....................................................................................................................................46

Power Analysis........................................................................................................................ 46

Participants.............................................................................................................................. 46
PR

Measures..................................................................................................................................50

Procedure.................................................................................................................................55

CHAPTER III.......................................................................................................................... 57

Results...................................................................................................................................... 57

Preliminary Analyses..............................................................................................................57

Hypothesis Testing..................................................................................................................61

Ancillary Analyses..................................................................................................................69

CHAPTER IV ......................................................................................................................... 73

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 Discussion................................................................................................................................73

Summary of Findings..............................................................................................................73

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Intimacy............................................................................74

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Gender.............................................................................. 82

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Race.................................................................................. 85

Intimacy and Gender...............................................................................................................90

Intimacy and Race...................................................................................................................91

Gender Differences in the Relations

Between Early Maladaptive Schemas and Intimacy............................................................ 92

W
Limitations of the Current Study............................................................................................95

Suggestions for Future Research............................................................................................97

IE
Clinical Implications...............................................................................................................99

References..............................................................................................................................103
EV
PR

vi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 List of Tables

1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants..........................................................48

2. Descriptive Statistics of Raw Data for Early MaladaptiveSchema Scores,

Intimacy Scores, and Social Desirability Scores for AllParticipants..................... 58

3. Descriptive Statistics of Transformed Data for

Early Maladaptive Schema Scores for All Participants...........................................59

4. Correlation Matrix for Preliminary Analysis Assessmentof Validity................... 60

5. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for

Schemas Predicting Miller Intimacy Score.............................................................. 62

6. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for

Schemas Predicting Fischer Narus Closeness Score................................................64

W
7. Hierarchical Regression Analysis for
Schemas Predicting Fischer Narus Distance Score.................................................66
IE
8. Correlations between Intimacy
Measures and Schemas for Men and Women.......................................................... 69
EV
PR

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 1

CHAPTER I

Statement o f Problem

Many people seek therapy because of relationship problems (Pistole, 1993; West,

Sheldon, & Reiffer, 1989). In addition, many diagnosable mental disorders have

interpersonal difficulties as key components (e.g., Cicchetti, Cummings, Greenberg, &

Marvin, 1990). Most of the relational difficulties people experience are influenced by the

ways they perceive themselves and others, which in cognitive behavioral therapy are

called a schema (Beck, 1967). The development of a schema can often be traced back to

childhood. According to Young (1999), because of negative childhood experiences,

W
some people develop Early Maladaptive Schemas that affect the way they think, feel, and

behave in later intimate relationships as well as in other aspects of their lives. This study
IE
was designed to test the theorized relation between Early Maladaptive Schemas and
EV

intimacy. In addition, gender differences in the development of individual Early

Maladaptive Schemas and in the association between Early Maladaptive Schemas and

intimacy was examined.

PR

Young (1999) developed Early Maladaptive Schemas as an aspect of Schema-

Focused Therapy. These maladaptive schemas are automatic, enduring, highly affectively

charged, generally negative views of the self, the world, and other people. They are

closely tied to a person’s self-concept and develop early in life through accumulated,

ongoing, negative experiences with family and peers. Although this model has been used

in therapy, there has been limited research on Early Maladaptive Schemas (Clifton, 1995;

Leung, Waller, & Thomas, 1999; Shah &Waller, 2000; Waller, Meyer, & Ohanian,

2001) and on the psychometric properties of the Young Schema Questionnaire (Lee,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 2

Taylor, & Dunn, 1999; Schmidt, Joiner, Young, & Telch, 1995; Waller et al., 2001) used

to measure this construct.

Although a theoretical connection has been made between nine specific Early

Maladaptive Schemas and relationship satisfaction (Young & Gluhoski, 1997), the link

between Early Maladaptive Schemas and certain aspects of relationships has not been

empirically explored. Thus, Young and Gluhoski (1997) hypothesized that satisfaction is

achieved in romantic relationships only when developmental needs have been

appropriately met. When needs are not fulfilled, specific Early Maladaptive Schemas

may result, and these are thought to have a direct impact on romantic relationships. One

W
of the areas partners must successfully negotiate in order to achieve satisfaction in their

relationship is the connection spectrum (Young & Gluhoski, 1997), which refers to the
IE
ability of partners to either move towards intimacy or away from it (i.e. towards
EV

isolation). Thus, intimacy is considered necessary for a satisfying romantic relationship.

It has in fact been identified as a “core element” (Marcus & Swett, 2002, p. 574) of close

relationships; therefore, it should follow that Early Maladaptive Schemas, believed to be

PR

linked to romantic relationships, also will be related to intimacy. The present study

empirically tested the theorized connection between Early Maladaptive Schemas and

intimacy, within romantic relationships in young adulthood. This developmental stage

was chosen because it is the time when intimacy is considered the primary developmental

task (Erikson, 1968). It was hypothesized that the more maladaptive a schema, the less

intimacy a person would experience in a romantic relationship. In addition, specific Early

Maladaptive Schema’s relative predictive ability of intimacy levels was examined.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 3

Gender differences in schemas and in the hypothesized relation between Early

Maladaptive Schemas and intimacy were also investigated. Research on gender

differences in intimacy within romantic relationships has generally yielded results of

gender differences (e.g., Heller & Wood, 1998). The nature of the findings may be

related to the definition of intimacy used, with a typically feminine definition (e.g., self­

disclosure) leading to gender differences, and a more gender-neutral definition (e.g., a

combination of self-disclosure, shared activities, and affection) potentially leading to

gender similarities. The present study defined intimacy as a close and positive

relationship, as measured by the Fischer Narus Scales (Fischer & Narus, 1981), with felt

W
love and affection, as measured by the Miller Social Intimacy Scale (Hook, Gerstein,

Detterich, & Gridley, 2003).

IE
Limited evidence about gender differences in the development of individual Early
EV

Maladaptive Schemas is inconclusive. Two studies have found no gender differences in

Early Maladaptive Schemas (Clifton, 1995; Schmidt et al., 1995), while another study

reported some differences in degree of endorsement of specific Early Maladaptive

PR

Schemas on the Young Schema Questionnaire (Bendo, 2001). The limited research

combined with the conflicting results, warranted further investigation of possible gender

differences in the development of Early Maladaptive Schemas. In addition, gender

differences in the relation between Early Maladaptive Schemas and intimacy were

researched because male and female socialization may differentially influence the

development of Early Maladaptive Schemas. Specifically, girls and boys may form

gender appropriate Early Maladaptive Schemas based on the enforcement of gender

expectations by family, peer, or social influences. It was believed that these influences

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 4

may not only impact which specific Early Maladaptive Schema was formed but, in turn,

may also result in gender differences in the relation between Early Maladaptive Schemas

and intimacy.

Researching gender differences and the relation between Early Maladaptive

Schemas and intimacy has both theoretical and practical significance. Within cognitive

behavioral therapy, Schema-Focused Therapy is a relatively recent model developed for

challenging clients, such as clients with personality disorders who were not responding

well to traditional, brief, cognitive behavioral therapy (Young, 1999). Support for the

theory of Early Maladaptive Schemas as well as revisions to specific Early Maladaptive

W
Schemas (Schmidt et al., 1995) have been reported. The present study contributed to this

literature by empirically testing predictions based on Early Maladaptive Schemas.

IE
It is also hoped the results of this study will assist clinicians in better using
EV

Schema-Focused Therapy in their work with couples or people experiencing issues with

intimacy. With the identified link found between specific Early Maladaptive Schemas

and components of intimacy, psychologists now have a better idea that schema work (i.e.,
PR

challenging maladaptive schema) concerning specific Early Maladaptive Schemas may

also affect a client’s experience of intimacy. It is also important to be aware of possible

gender differences in this relation between Early Maladaptive Schemas and intimacy.

Many clients have difficulty with intimacy, and this information has the potential to allow

better treatment of such clients by assisting in identifying schemas that influence intimacy

so these maladaptive schemas can be understood and challenged through therapy.

Further, based on the findings, mental health providers who administer the Young

Schema Questionnaire will be better able to make inferences regarding a client’s

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 5

experience of intimacy based on the results on the questionnaire. For example, if a client

were to score high on certain specific Early Maladaptive Schema (a higher score meaning

the schema is more maladaptive), hypotheses regarding aspects of the client’s level of

intimacy in his or her romantic relationship can be formulated.

Literature Review

Early Maladaptive Schemas

Background. Within psychology, both Piaget and Bartlett independently

conceived the general concept of schemas during the 1930s. They used the same term,

“schema,” to describe a cognitive process each had separately observed. In Switzerland,

W
Piaget was interested in how individuals accrued knowledge. He believed that they did so

by using hypothetical cognitive structures that he called “schema'' Meanwhile, during

IE
the same time period, Bartlett was studying memory at England’s Cambridge University.
EV

Bartlett developed the theory that people remember things by mentally “organizing

material into meaningful wholes called schemas” (Goodwin, 1999, p. 401). Since then,

the term schema has been widely used throughout psychology, and many versions of
PR

schema theory exist in the literature. Specifically, schemas are one of the primary

concepts within cognitive psychology. They are described as developing after repeated

experiences and are reportedly present in all populations, regardless of pathology (Hollon

& Garber, 1988). In cognitive psychology, schemas have also been described as

heuristic processing strategies used to help process information, based on already existing

ideas held by the individual that may or may not be accurate (Klaczynski, 2001). With

this type of processing strategy, misrepresentations of situations occur, called distortions

(Hollon, 1998). Though generally similar to this cognitive psychology view of schemas,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 6

cognitive behavioral psychologists have their own view of schemas. This study will

specifically focus on schemas within a cognitive behavioral framework.

In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) schemas (also known as schemata) are

considered the most important and deepest cognitive processes of the human mind. The

broad and commonly accepted definition of schemas in CBT holds that “schemata consist

of organized elements of past reactions and experiences that form a relatively cohesive

and persistent body of knowledge capable of guiding subsequent perception and

appraisals” (Segal, 1988, p. 147). Beck (1967) discussed the importance of schemas early

in his career, especially within the context of depression. Beck stated that:

W
A schema is a structure for screening, coding and evaluating the stimuli that

impinge on the organism. . . on the basis o f . .. schemas, the individual is able to

IE
orient himself in relation to time and space and to categorize and interpret
EV

experiences in a meaningful way (p. 283).

Beck further hypothesized that schemas are consistent because they continually cause

people to interpret themselves, the world, and the future in the same biased way. They
PR

are considered the deepest cognitive level, deeper than automatic thoughts, cognitive

distortions, and underlying assumptions. “An important concept with relevance for

psychotherapy is the notion that schemas, many of which are formed early in life,

continue to be elaborated and then superimposed on later life experiences, even when

they are no longer applicable” (Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003, p. 7).

In general, schemas can be either negative or positive and can be formed at any

time throughout life. People suffering from emotional problems can most frequently be

understood to be suffering from the activation of a negative schema that is deeply

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 7

ingrained from childhood. Thus, this cognitive lens through which they view others, the

world, and the self influences their affective and behavioral responses, which causes them

unhappiness and distress (Beck & Freeman, 1990; Young, 1999; Young et al., 2003).

Schemas are problematic if they cause persons to see themselves and the world in

a negatively biased way that causes them distress. Schemas that have become

maladaptive generally result in interpersonal behaviors that confirm and reinforce the

schemas leading to chronic life problems (Beck & Freeman, 1990). For example, there is

much evidence for the role of dysfunctional schemas in depression and anxiety disorders

(for a review, see Beck, 1991; Dozois & Dobson, 2001). Pretzer and Beck (1996) also

W
asserted that people with Axis II personality issues are differentiated from mentally

healthy people by their dysfunctional cognitive and interpersonal patterns that are self-
IE
fulfilling, rigid, and extremely difficult to change.
EV

Young (1999) was motivated to develop a type of cognitive behavioral therapy

that would help clients who were experiencing distress and were not responding well to

traditional CBT. One such group was clients with personality disorders. Although
PR

Young developed Schema Focused Therapy primarily to treat clients with personality

disorders, he also stated that this therapy can be applied to a nonclinical population to

understand normative psychological functioning (Young 1999). However, healthy

populations have not been the primary focus of published research studying Early

Maladaptive Schemas, thus further research is needed in this area. Schema-Focused

Therapy “expands on traditional cognitive-behavioral therapy by placing much greater

emphasis on exploring the childhood and adolescent origins of psychological problems,

on emotive techniques, on the therapist-patient relationship, and on maladaptive coping

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 8

styles” (Young et al., 2003, p. 5). It specifically adds the following five theoretical

constructs to Beck’s (1979) cognitive model: Early Maladaptive Schemas (the deepest

level of cognition), schema domains (five areas of primary developmental tasks children

undertake that can result in Early Maladaptive Schemas), schema maintenance (processes

that reinforce Early Maladaptive schemas), schema avoidance (processes that avoid the

triggering or experienced affect connected to an Early Maladaptive Schema), and schema

compensation (processes that overcompensate for an Early Maladaptive Schema).

Young’s description of Early Maladaptive Schemas was originally based on clinical

observations (Young, 1999).

W
Young (1999) focused his efforts on further elaborating the cognitive behavioral

perspective on schemas, focusing on problematic schemas that cause people

IE
psychological distress. Through his experience and work with clients with personality
EV

disorders, he began to observe and document the repetitive patterns of thoughts, feelings,

and behaviors in these clients. Subsequently, he introduced the concept of Early

Maladaptive Schemas, which he described as “extremely stable and enduring themes that
PR

develop during childhood, are elaborated throughout an individual’s lifetime, and are

dysfunctional to a significant degree. These schemas serve as templates for the

processing of later experiences” (p. 9). They can be defined as broad and pervasive

themes made up of memories, thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations. They involve

one’s view of self and one’s relationship with other people, and are significantly

dysfunctional. Finally, they are developed during childhood or adolescence and

elaborated upon throughout one’s life (Young et al., 2003). A 205 question (long

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 9

version) and a 75 question (short version) self-report measures were developed to

measure Early Maladaptive Schemas (Young, 1999).

Characteristics. Young (1999) identified six defining characteristics of Early

Maladaptive Schemas. First, Early Maladaptive Schemas tend to be rigid and

unconditional beliefs and feelings that are taken as fact and used to relate to the world.

When an Early Maladaptive Schema is activated, the person tends to believe he or she

cannot change the inevitable, negative outcome defined by that schema. For example, an

activated Early Maladaptive Schema may make a person think, “Despite what I try to do,

I am unlovable” (or incompetent, worthless, etc.). The difficulty of escape makes

W
schemas very powerful determinants of behavior.

Second, the automatic and rigid nature of Early Maladaptive Schemas makes them
IE
very difficult to change. They stem from experiences early in life and often form the root
EV

of a person’s identity. They influence the way a person identifies him or herself and the

manner in which the environment is interpreted. People tend to distort or disregard

information that does not support their Early Maladaptive Schemas, reinforcing their self-
PR

concept as defined by their schemas.

Third, in order to be considered Early Maladaptive Schemas, the cognitions must

be dysfunctional or cause distress. Young (1999, p. 10) stated that they can “lead directly

or indirectly to psychological distress like depression or panic; to loneliness or to

destructive relationships; to inadequate work performance; to addictions like alcohol,

drugs, or overeating; or to psychosomatic disorders like ulcers or insomnia.”

Fourth, Early Maladaptive Schemas are generally triggered by particular

environmental situations. Thus, for a person who has an Abandonment Early

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 10

Maladaptive Schema, starting a new romantic relationship may be accompanied by the

fear of being rejected. This feeling may not have been present when the individual was

single because the Early Maladaptive Schema was not activated until an intimate

relationship began. Another example might be a person who has a particular schema that

is triggered by an upcoming job evaluation. Specifically, a professionally competent

woman might have the Early Maladaptive Schema of Unrelenting Standards. Knowing

her annual job evaluation is near, she may experience distorted thoughts such as, “I

should have worked harder; my boss is going to know I did not work hard enough; I am

going to look like an idiot; I am going to be fired.” Thus, the environmental situation of

W
an annual job review activates her schema causing her distress.

Fifth, when activated, Early Maladaptive Schemas are often linked to strong
IE
affect. This emotional pain can be quite disruptive and can lead to self-defeating thoughts
EV

and behaviors and even acting-out, resulting in harm to others. This affective arousal can

also be witnessed when people first identify their deeply ingrained Early Maladaptive

Schemas through therapy. For example, a client’s discovery of his or her Early
PR

Maladaptive Schema can cause crying and uncontrollable shaking because schemas are so

closely linked to a person’s identity (Young, 1999).

Sixth, Early Maladaptive Schemas are formed by ongoing, dysfunctional

experiences with parents and other family members or friends. They are not developed

because of isolated traumas but rather from continuous negative interactions that create

and then reinforce and perpetuate the schema. This pattern of environmental influences

likely combines with a child’s biological temperament. For example, children who have

a particularly anxious nature may have more difficulty establishing autonomy, which may

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 11

make them more vulnerable to developing an Early Maladaptive Schema related to

impaired autonomy. This is particularly true if temperament is combined with

problematic parenting and negative social influences.

Originally, 18 different Early Maladaptive Schemas, divided into five schema

domains, were identified. After further research, Young and Lindemann (2002) identified

16 different Early Maladaptive Schemas, divided in to six schema domains. Young

(1999) hypothesized that the 16 Early Maladaptive Schemas, organized into six domains,

are tied to the different developmental needs of a child. He believed there are primary

developmental tasks that each child must navigate for healthy development. When one of

W
these tasks is not accomplished, Young (1999) theorized, a child has difficulty with the

corresponding schema domain and develops one or more Early Maladaptive Schemas
IE
related to the problematic domain. The specific identified core needs and domains have
EV

not been empirically tested and are based primarily on clinical observations (Young et al.,

2003). For this reason, this study researched Early Maladaptive Schemas, rather than the

schema domains.
PR

Schema domains. The schema domains are Instability and Disconnection,

Impaired Autonomy, Undesirability, Restricted Self-expression, Restricted Gratification,

and Impaired Limits. Looking at the specific domains, when people have an Early

Maladaptive Schema in the domain of Instability and Disconnection, the family of origin

is often abusive, explosive, detached, or unpredictable. Individuals with a schema in this

domain have the expectation that one’s basic needs for safety, understanding, and stability

will not be met within intimate or family relationships (Young & Lindemann, 2002).

Children desire to be accepted by their parents, siblings, and peers in order to develop a

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 12

sense of connection. If this task is not accomplished, perhaps because a child is abused,

abandoned, or severely criticized or ostracized, the child may develop a sense of

disconnection, which may result in one or more of the following Early Maladaptive

Schemas:

1. Abandonment/ Instability: The expectation that other people are not stable or

reliable enough to offer consistent support to the individual. The belief that significant

people in one’s life will not remain there to provide emotional support or protection.

These people are also seen as unpredictable because they might abandon the individual by

unexpectedly leaving or dying.

W
2. Mistrust/ Abuse: The belief that other people will intentionally “hurt, abuse,

humiliate, cheat, lie, manipulate, take advantage, or explode with violence or anger”
IE
(Young & Lindemann, 2002, p. 96). This belief often leaves the person feeling
EV

unjustifiably cheated in life.

3. Emotional Deprivation: The belief that one’s normal need for emotional

support will not be met. This neglect can take the form of Deprivation of Nurturance (a
PR

lack of attention, companionship, and affection), Deprivation of Protection (a lack of

guidance, strength, or direction from others), or Deprivation of Empathy (lack of

listening, understanding, sharing, and self-disclosing from others).

In the Impaired Autonomy domain Early Maladaptive Schemas may develop

when the family of origin is enmeshed, overprotective, and undermines the child’s sense

of judgment. This family dynamic results in an adult’s inability to separate from the

family and survive and function autonomously (Young & Lindemann, 2002). Children in

these families were frequently not allowed to function independently at home or at school

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 13

and were not given any responsibilities or any power to make decisions (Young, 1999).

When autonomy is not accomplished, the Early Maladaptive Schemas that can result are

the following:

4. Functional Dependence/ Incompetence: The belief that one is unable to

competently take care of one’s average daily responsibilities without excessive help from

others.

5. Vulnerability to Harm or Illness: The unrealistic and exaggerated fear that one

will be harmed unexpectedly or become ill and be unable to protect one’s self or regain

one’s health.

W
6. Enmeshment/ Undeveloped Self: The over emotional involvement with

another person (or people), often parents, resulting in a lack of individuation or social
IE
development and the feeling that one individual could not survive or find happiness
EV

without the other person.

In the Undesirability domain, Early Maladaptive Schema development is based on

a family of origin and/or peer group that is highly critical or rejecting. This experience
PR

leaves the person feeling undesirable to others in the areas of physical appearance, social

skills, morality, worthiness, personality, professional accomplishments, financial

standing, or interests (Young & Lindemann, 2002). For example, one of these schemas

may develop from excessive teasing or ridicule either by family members or peers. The

following Early Maladaptive Schemas may develop from the domain of Undesirability:

7. Defectiveness/ Shame: The belief that one is defective or flawed inside and

would be unlovable if others discovered this inadequacy. There is often a persistent

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 14

feeling of shame about this perceived internal flaw and excessive self-criticism, self-

punishment, and comparison to others.

8. Social Undesirability/ Alienation: The belief that one is outwardly flawed or

undesirable to other people. The person may feel ugly, sexually unattractive, boring, and

so on, leaving one feeling alone and alienated, different from others.

9. Failure to Achieve: The belief that one will ultimately fail or that one’s

achievements are inferior to one’s peers’ in the area of school, sports, or work. This

belief often leaves the person feeling stupid and inferior.

In the Restricted Self-expression domain, the family of origin is often dominated

W
by adults, and the child’s feelings are suppressed. The child learns to restrict excessively

or to suppress emotions and ignore feelings or general preferences in life (Young &
IE
Lindemann, 2002). The following Early Maladaptive Schemas may result from excessive
EV

self-restriction:

10. Subjugation: The feeling that one’s personal desires are invalid to other

people. People with this maladaptive schema excessively relinquish control over
PR

personal decisions and preferences to another, generally to avoid the subjugator's

retaliation, anger, or abandonment. This schema can take the form of subjugation of

needs and/or emotions. This belief often leads to unexpressed anger at the person

considered the subjugator.

11. Emotional Inhibition: The belief that expression of one’s feelings will lead to

embarrassment, abandonment, anger, or loss of esteem. This feeling results in extreme

difficulty expressing or talking about feelings, including happiness, sadness, anger, and so

on.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.