SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
ferrous state. These can give
SOIL COLOR AND TEXTURE
Physical Properties
● The physical properties are often the most
important properties for evaluating the
suitability of a soil for a particular purpose
○ Can the soil support trees?
○ Is the soil too anaerobic?
○ Can the soil withstand vehicle traffic?
● Characteristics, processes, or reactions of a
soil that are caused by physical forces and
that can be described by/expressed in
physical terms/equations.
● These include:
○ Color
○ Texture
○ Structure
○ Bulk density
○ Porosity
○ Water-holding capacity
○ Consistency
SOIL COLOR
- Reflects an integration of chemical, biological,
and physical transformations and
translocations that have occurred within a soil
Three major factors that influence soil colors:
1. Organic matter
- Organic coatings tend to darken and
mask the brighter colors of the
minerals
- Generally, the higher the OM content,
the darker the soil
2. Water content
- Soils are generally darker when wet
than when dry
- Following rain, water temporarily
darkens the soil’s color by increasing
light absorption. But moisture can
also have long-term effects on soil
color
- e.g. with enhanced anaerobic
conditions, there is
waterlogging, resulting in iron
oxides being primarily in the
the soil a subtle bluish-gray
tint
- Affects oxidation state of Fe and Mn
3. Presence of oxidation states of Fe and Mn
oxides
Other minerals that sometimes give soils
distinctive colors are:
- Manganese oxide - black
- Ferric oxide - ​yellowish brown ​to ​red
- Glauconite - ​green
- Calcite - ​whitish color
- Soluble salts - ​whitish color
- Soil color is a property that will give important
information about the soil’s characteristics
- It is determined by comparing the color of the
soil to the chips in the ​Munsell color charts​,
invented by Albert H. Munsell in 1905
Soil color consists of three (3) parts:
● Hue
- redness/yellowness
● Value
- darkness/lightness
- A value of 0 = black
- expressed as the numerator of the
fraction
● Chroma
- intensity/brightness
- A chroma of 0 = neutral gray
- the denominator of the fraction
- low chromas have dull colors
- high chromas have bright
colors
Example: A color of 10YR 3/2:
- Hue = 10YR
- Value = 3
- Chroma = 2
- The significance of soil color relates to the
properties we can infer from certain colors:
( r​efer to HANDOUT ​)
Mottled
- Mottles may occur either:
- as splotches of reddish-brown color in
a gray matrix; or
- as gray spot in a brown matrix
- Usually the result of alternating periods of
reduction and oxidation caused by seasonally
fluctuating water tables
● Coarse fragment
- > 2 mm
- Gravels, cobbles, boulders
- Not considered part of fine earth
fraction (soil texture refers only to the
fine earth fraction or sand, silt, and
clay)

● Sand
SOIL COLOR AND SOIL ATTRIBUTES
- < 2 mm to > 0.05 mm
Brown to black Accumulation of OM - Visible without microscope
(surface horizon) - Rounded or angular in shape
- Sand grains usually quartz if sand
Black (subsoil) Accumulation of Mn
looks white or many minerals if sand
Parent material (e.g. Basalt)
looks brown
Yellow to reddish Fe​3+​ (Ferric) - Some sands in soil will be brown,
Well-aerated soils yellow, or red because of Fe and/or Al
oxide coatings
Gray, bluish-green Fe​2+​ (Ferrous) - Feels gritty
Poorly drained soils
- Considered non-cohesive -- does not
White to gray Accumulation of salts stick together in a mass unless it is
very wet
White to gray Parent material: marl, - Low specific surface area
quartz - Has less nutrients for plants than
smaller particles
- Voids between sand particles
SOIL TEXTURE promote free drainage and entry of
- The first and most important property to air
determine when investigating soils on a site - Holds little water and prone to
- Will provide information about: drought
- Water flow potential
- Water holding capacity ● Silt
- Fertility potential - < 0.05 mm to > 0.002 mm
- Suitability for many urban uses, like - Not visible without microscope
bearing capacity - Quartz often dominant mineral in silt
- The percent of sand, silt, and clay in a soil since other minerals have weathered
sample away
- Critical for understanding soil behavior and - Does not feel gritty
management - Floury feel
- Not subject to change in the field - Wet silt does not exhibit
stickiness/plasticity
Particle Diameter Size - Smaller size allows rapid weathering
- Soil particle diameters range over several of non-quartz minerals
orders of magnitude: - Smaller particles -- retain more water
- 1 m boulders for plants and have slower drainage
- Coarse fragments > 2 mm than sand
- Sand < 2 mm to 0.05 mm - Easily washed away by flowing water
- Silt < 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm -- highly erosive
- Clay < 0.002 mm - Holds more plant nutrients than sand
 ● Clay
Pollutant-leaching High Medium Low
- < 0.002 mm potential (unless
- Flat plates or tiny flakes cracked)
- Small clay particles are colloids
- If suspended in water, will not settle Ability to store plant Poor M to H High
- Large surface area nutrients
- Wet clay is very sticky and is plastic or
Resistance to pH Low Medium High
it can be molded readily into a change
shape/rod
- Easily formed into long ribbons
Soil Textural Triangle:
- Shrink-swell -- none to considerable
depending on the kind of clay
● Sandy Soils
- Pore spaces are very small and
○ Coarse texture
convoluted
- Sands
- Movement of water and air -- very
- Loamy sands
slow
- High water holding capacity
● Loamy Soils
- High capacity to absorb water
○ Moderately-coarse texture
- Not all available for plants
- Sandy loam
- Soil strength - shrink/swell affects
○ Medium texture
buildings, roads, and walls
- Very fine sandy loam
- Chemical absorption is large
- Loam
- Silt loam
Generalized influence of soil separates on soe
- Silt
properties and behavior of soils:
○ Moderately fine texture
- Sandy clay loam
Property/behavior Sand Silt Clay - Silty clay loam
- Clay loam
Water-holding capacity Low M to H High

Aeration Good Medium Poor ● Clayey Soils

○ Fine texture
Drainage rate High S to M V slow - Sandy clay
- Silty clay
Soil OM level Low M to H H to M
- Clay
Decomposition of OM Rapid Medium Slow
Textural Profile
Compactibiliy Low Medium High - “Textural Profiles” aid in looking for the
Susceptibility to water Low High Low translocation of clay
erosion (unless fs) (aggrega - The graph of the % clay from the surface to
ted), the parent material will show if clay
high if translocates down in the soil profile
not - Subsoils generally have more clay than
topsoils
Shrink-swell potential Very low Low Mod to
v high
Changing Soil Texture
Sealing of ponds, dams, Poor Poor Good ● Adding sand to a clay soil creates a
and landfills cement-like substance
● Adding peat/compost to a mineral soil is not
Suitability for tillage Good Medium Poor considered changing the texture, it only adds
after rain
OM not sand, silt, or clay
 ● Over long periods (1000s of years), pedologic - Often inherited from the parent
processes alter soil horizon textures materials, especially those laid down
● As soils get older, sand weathers to silt and by water or ice
silt weathers to clay - Most noticeable in the surface layers
● Therefore old soils have more clay of virgin soils but may characterize
the subsoil horizons as well
SOIL STRUCTURE
- The arrangement of primary particles into ● Block-like
secondary particles, units, or peds - Fragments range from a fraction of an
- Describes the clustering of soil particles into inch to 3 or 4 inches in thickness
aggregates of certain size, shape, and stability - Usually confined to the subsoil and
- Particle arrangement their state of development and other
- Soil particles are aggregated by binding agents characteristics have much to do with
such as organic matter, lime, and other soil drainage, aeration, and root
binding agents like Fe/Al oxides, clays, and penetration
silica - Could either be:
- Can modify the effect of texture on air-water a. Angular blocky
relations in soils - Edges of the blocks
- Types can be classified on the basis of the are sharp and the
shape of the peds rectangular faces
distinct
Types of Soil Structure: b. Subangular blocky
- The corners are
● Single grain mostly rounded
- Particles show little or no tendency to (sub-rounding has
adhere to other particles occurred)

● Spheroidal ● Prism-like
- Aggregates not over ½ inch in - Characterized by vertically-oriented
diameter aggregates or pillars which vary in
- Lie loosely and are readily shaken length and may reach a diameter of 6
apart or more inches
- When wetted, the intervening spaces - Commonly occur in subsoil horizons in
generally are not readily closed by arid and semi-arid regions
swelling - When well developed are a very
- Characteristics of many surface soils, striking feature of the profile
especially those high in OM - Could either be:
- Could either be: a. Prismatic
a. Granular - Tops of the prism are
- Porous, may be relatively angular and
separated from each flat horizontally
other in a loosely b. Columnar
packed arrangement - Pillars with distinct
b. Crumb rounded tops
- Very porous
● Massive
● Platy/Plate-like - Show little or no tendency to break
- Characterized by relatively thin apart under light pressure into
horizontal peds or plates smaller units
Influences of Soil Texture, Soil Structure and Density:
● Water movement
● Water retention
● Soil temperature
● Gas exchange
● Erosion potential
● Fertility
Formation of Soil Aggregates:
How do aggregates form?
● Several biological, physical, and chemical
processes interact to form aggregates
Chemical Processes:
A. Flocculation
- The mutual attraction of clay and
organic molecules
- Flocculation of clay particles results
into microscopic clumps or floccules
B. Absorption of cations
- Polyvalent cations: Ca​2+​, Fe​3+​, Al​3+
- Can effectively neutralize the
negative surface charges on
clay particles
- Can form bridges that bring
clay particles together
- Monovalent ions (especially Na​+​)
- Can cause clay particles to
repel each other and create a
dispersed condition
Physical Processes:
A. Volume changes in clayey materials
● Swelling and shrinking actions that
accompany freeze-thaw and wet-dry
cycles in soils create fissures and
pressures breaking apart large soil
masses and compressing soil particles
into defined structural peds
Biological Processes
A. Action by plants
● Plant roots move particles as they
push their way through the soil
○ This forces soil particles to
come into close contact with
each other, encouraging
aggregation and creating
pores
● Plant roots and fungal hyphae exude
sugar-like polysaccharides and other
organic compounds forming sticky
networks that bind together
individual soil particles and
micro-aggregates into
macro-aggregates
B. Action by animals
● Burrowing and molding activities of
soil animals
● Earthworms and termites move and
mix soil particles
Some factors influencing aggregation:
1. Organic Matter
● Binds soil particles into water-stable
aggregates
● During the aggregation process, soil
mineral particles become coated and
encrusted with bits of decomposed
plant residue and other organic
materials
● OM also provides the energy
substrate that makes possible the
biological activities
2. Tillage
● Both promote and destroy
aggregation
Promote aggregation:
● If soil is not too wet/dry, tillage can
break large clods into natural
aggregates resulting to loose, porous
condition conducive to root growth
and seedling emergence
● Tillage can incorporate organic
amendments into the soil and kill
weeds
Destroy aggregation:
● Over longer periods, tillage hastens
the loss of soil OM, weakening soil
aggregates
● Tillage operations tend to
crush/smear soil aggregates resulting
to loss of macroporosity
 Grading Soil Structure:
3. Fe/Al oxides
● Fe and Al sesquioxides coat soil
Soil Structure Grade
particles and cement soil aggregates,
preventing their ready breakdown Structureless soil No aggregates have
when the soil is tilled formed and the soil
● Cementing action of Fe oxides and consists of either
other inorganic compounds produces individual separate
very stable small aggregates called grains, as in a sand, or a
densely packed mass of
pseudosand
particles without many
pore spaces
Aggregate Stability
- The ability of soil aggregates to resist Weakly developed soil Poorly formed
disruption when outside forces are applied structure aggregates that are hard
(usually associated with water) to distinguish from the
rest of the soil
Importance of aggregate stability: Moderately developed Mainly well formed
● Aggregation affects: soil structure aggregates that, when
- Erosion disturbed, will break
- Movement of water down to whole and
- Plant root growth broken aggregates and
● Desirable aggregates are stable against only a little
rainfall and water movement unaggregated soil
● Aggregates that break down in water release
Strongly developed soil Almost all of the soil
individual soil particles, hence, can seal the structure particles are in clearly
soil surface and clog pores identifiable aggregates
● Pore space provides zones of weakness
through which plant roots can grow
SOIL DENSITIES AND POROSITY

Improving soil structure:

Density
- Represents mass (weight) per unit volume of
● Organic matter management
a substance
- Regular additions feed the organisms
Density = VMolume
ass
that build soil structure
- Soil density is expressed in two well accepted
- Residues left at the surface protect
concepts as a particle density and bulk density
aggregates from rain and encourages
the growth of fungi that help stabilize
Bulk density
aggregates
- Bulk density normally decreases, as mineral
soils become finer in texture
● Compaction prevention
- The bulk density varies indirectly with the
- Compaction pushes aggregates
total pore space present in the soil ***
together and eventually breaks them
- Bulk density is of greater importance than
down
particle density in understanding the physical
behavior of the soil
● Crops/cropping systems
- Generally, soils with low bulk densities have
- The dense roots of grasses, small
favorable physical conditions
grains, and pastures stabilize soil
- Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a
aggregates and improve structure
material; it can change depending on how the
material is handled
 - The bulk density of soil depends greatly on
the mineral make up of soil and the degree of
compaction
Factors affecting bulk density:
- Particle density is also termed as “true
density”
- PDs for most mineral soils = 2.60 - 2.75 Mg/m​3
- Average PD of typical mineral soils = 2.65
Mg/m​3

1. Pore space Bulk vs. Particle Density:

● Soils with high proportion of pore
In the field: If all the solids were
space to solids have lower bulk One cubic centimeter of a compressed to the
densities than those that are more certain soil will appear as: bottom, the cube would
compact and have less pore space look like this:
● Any factor that influences soil pore
space will affect bulk density

2. Texture
To calculate bulk density of To calculate particle
● Fine-textured surface soils such as silt the soil: density of the soil:
loams, clays, and clay loams generally
have lower bulk densities than sandy Total vol of soil: 1 cm​3 Total vol of soil: 0.5 cm​3
soils Mass: 1.33 g Mass: 1.33 g
● Fine-textured soils tend to organize in
Ms 1.33g Ms 1.33g
porous grains especially because of ρb = Vt = 1 cm3 = 1.33g/cm3 ρs = Vs = 0.5 cm3 = 2.63g/
adequate organic matter content
● In sandy soils, the solid particles lie POROSITY
close together, resulting to higher - Volume of the pores divided by the bulk
bulk density volume
%E = V ps/V b × 100
3. Organic matter content - Or, it can be conveniently calculated from the
● The more OM content in soil results in data of particle density and bulk density as:
high pore space, thereby shows lower
bulk density of soil and vice versa
%E = 1 −( ρs
ρv ) × 100
- Soil porosity directly influences soil water
4. Depth in soil profie movement
● Generally, subsoils have higher bulk - Size, shape, and interconnection of pore
densities than the surface soils spaces are more important than the
● Less aggregation, fewer roots, combined volume, in determining drainage,
compaction caused by overlying aeration, and other processes
layers - The amount of porosity in a soil depends on
the minerals that make up the soil and the
● Generally, bulk density is get higher amount of sorting that occurs within the soil
bulk down the soil depth (??) structure
● Cultivated soils have higher bulk - e.g. a sandy soil will have larger
densities than the undisturbed soils porosity than silty sand, because the
silt in silty sand soil will fill in the gaps
Particle density between the sand particles
- The particle density is higher if large amount
of heavy minerals such as magnetite, limonite, Factors affecting Pore Space Relations
and hematite or iron oxides are present in the (soil properties, processes, activities):
soil
- With increase in organic matter of the soil, 1. Hydraulic conductivity (K) *
the particle density decreases ***
 ● Property of soil that describes the
ease with which water can move
through pore spaces
● Can be measured at any state
● Depends on:
- permeability of the material
(pores, compaction)
- degree of saturation
2. Infiltration
● Process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil
● Water enters the soil through the
pores by the forces of gravity and
capillary action
- the largest cracks and pores
offer a great reservoir for the
initial flush of water. This
allows a rapid infiltration
- smaller pores take longer to
fill and rely on capillary forces
as well as gravity
- smaller pores have a slower
infiltration as the soil
becomes more saturated
3. Cultivation and Soil Management
● Continuous cultivation and cropping
reduces macropore space
● Conservation tillage -- (e.g. minimum
tillage, no-tillage, mulch tillage, etc.)
- Increased accumulation of
OM
- Development of network of
macropores (biopores)
- Greater macroporosity of the
surface layers, reducing
surface sealing
- Pores filled with water at field
capacity
- Also known as ​storage pores​ because
of the ability to store water useful to
plants
- Do not have capillary forces too great
so that the water does not become
limiting to the plants
- Mesopores are ideally always full or
contain liquid to have successful plant
growth
- Size: 0.2 μm - 10 μm
3. Micropores
- Pores that are filled with water at
permanent wilting point. Suction is
required to remove water from
micropores
- Water associated is usually absorbed
onto the surfaces of clay molecules
- Water held in micropores is important
to the activity of microbes creating
moist anaerobic conditions
- Water can also cause either the
oxidation or reduction of molecules in
the crystalline structure of the soil
minerals
- Size: < 0.2 μm
General relationship among texture, bulk density,
and porosity of soils:
Textural class Pb (Mg/m​3​) Porosity (%)
Sand 1.55 42
Sandy loam 1.40 48
Fine sandy loam 1.30 51

Pore types: Loam 1.20 55

1. Macropores Silt loam 1.15 56

- Pores that are too large to have any Clay loam 1.10 59
significant capillary force
- Full of air at field capacity Clay 1.05 60
- Can be caused by cracking, division of
Aggregated clay 1.00 62
peds and aggregates, as well as plant
roots, and zoological exploration
- Size: > 10 μm

2. Mesopores
SOIL WATER
Nature, Roles, and Importance of Soil Water
● Water content is one of the most variable
characteristics of soil
● The soil acts as a reservoir for water, making it
available for plants as it is needed
● Soil water is part of the global hydrological
cycle
● How well the soil stores water is of great
importance to crop production and the vitality
of the land
● Water affects soil formation, structure,
stability, and erosion
● Water causes soil particles to:
- Swell and shrink
- Adhere to each other
- Form structural aggregate
● Water alters the soil profile by dissolving and
re-depositing minerals, often at lower levels
● It leaves the soil sterile in case of extreme
rainfall and drainage
● Water is essential to plants for four reasons:
a. It constitutes 85-95% of the plant’s
protoplasm
b. It is essential for photosynthesis
c. It is the solvent in which nutrients are
carried to, into and throughout the
plan
d. It provides the turgidity by which the
plant keeps itself in proper position
Classification of Soil Water
Five categories of water “surrounding” a clay or soil
particle:
1. Absorbed water (hygroscopic water)
- held on the surface of the particle by
powerful forces of electrical attraction
and virtually in a solid state of very
small thickness (~0.005 μm)
- cannot be removed by oven drying at
110⁰C
- maybe considered to be part of the
soid soil grain
2. Water at permanent wilting point
- water that can be removed by oven
drying but not by air drying
- not so tightly held
3. Capillary water (water at field capacity)
- held by surface tension, generally
removable by air drying
4. Gravitational water
- removable by drainage, can move in
the voids between soil grains
- a flooded field will drain the
gravitational water under the
influence of gravity until water’s
adhesive and cohesive forces resist
further drainage and it finally reaches
field capacity
- not of much use to the plants
5. Chemically-combined water
- in the form of water of hydration
within the crystal structure; not
generally removable by oven drying
?????????
- refer to the various stages along a continuum,
and do not imply that soil water exists in
different “forms”
- widely used in practical soil management and
help communicate important facts about
soil-water behavior
1. Maximum retentive capacity
- When all soil pores are filled with
water, the soil is saturated and it is at
maximum retentive capacity
- Matric potential is close to zero and
the volumetric water content is
essentially the same as total porosity
- The soil will remain at maximum
retentive capacity as long as water
continues to infiltrate, because water
held in the largest pores will percolate
downward under the influence of
gravitational forces
2. Field capacity (FC)
- Moisture content of the soil after
gravity has removed all the water it
can. Usually occurs 1-3 days after a
rain
- Smaller pores remain full of water,
many of the intermediate pores are
 partially filled and most of the large
pores are nearly empty
- Plants must exert a suction force of ⅓
bar to obtain water at field capacity
3. Permanent wilting point (PWP)
- Soil moisture percentage at which
plants cannot obtain enough moisture
to continue growing
- Large and medium pores are
completely empty. Water is held very
tightly by the mineral and particles of
the soil
- Plants exert a suction force of 15 bars
in trying to obtain water at this
moisture condition
- Although not yet dead, plants below
PWP cannot recover even if water is
provided
4. Available water storage capacity (AWSC)
- Amount of liquid water stored in the
soil and subsequently released for use
by the plants
- Varies directly with the total amount
of medium-sized pore spaces
(diameter in the range of 0.2 - 10
micrometers (0.0002 - 0.01 mm))
- Pore spaces wider than 10
micrometers drain water readily and
pore spaces narrower than 0.2
micrometer release the retained
water too slowly
- AWSC = FC - PWP
Soil water at FC and PWP with different soil texture:
Texture FC PWP Available
water
Sand 10 5 5
Silt 30 6 24
Clay loam 36 22 14
Silty clay loam 38 22 16
Silty clay 41 27 14
Clay 42 30 12
Water Flow in Soils
● Water moves through soil due to the force of
gravity, osmosis and capillarity
● At 0 - ⅓ bar suction, water moves through soil
due to gravity; this is called saturated flow
● At higher suction, water movement is called
unsaturated flow
● Water flows through the ground unevenly,
called “gravity fingers”, because of the surface
tension between water particles
● Water infiltration rates range from 0.25 cm
(0.098 in) per hour for high clay soils to 2.5 cm
(0.98 in) per hour for sand and well-stabilized
and aggregated soil structures
● Flooding temporarily increases soil
permeability in river beds, helping recharge
aquifers
● Tree roots create paths for rainwater flow
through soil by breaking through soil including
clay layers
● Once soil is completely wetted, any more
water will move downward, or percolate,
carrying with it clay, humus and nutrients,
primarily cations, out of the range of plant
roots and result in acid soil conditions
● Water flow is primarily from coarse-textured
soil into fine-textured soil and is slowest in
fine-textured soils such as clay
Factors controlling water infiltration in soils:

Loamy sand 12 5 7 1. Soil texture

2. Soil structure
Sandy loam 18 8 10 - Fine-textured soils with granular
structure are most favorable to
Sandy clay loam 27 17 10
infiltration of water
Loam 28 14 14 3. Amount of organic matter
- Coarse matter is best, and if on the
Sandy clay 36 25 11 surface, helps prevent the destruction
of soil structure and the creation of
Silt loam 31 11 20
crusts
 4. Depth of soil to impervious layers such as
hardpans or bedrock
5. Amount of water already in the soil
6. Soil temperature
- Warm soils take in water faster while
frozen soils may not be able to absorb
depending on the type of freezing
Three main types of forces which contribute to the
energy state of soil water:
1. Gravitational Potential
- Water has a positive energy and can
flow out of the soil through the large
pores
- A point when cohesive forces are not
large enough to hold onto the water
- Significant only when soils are
saturated
2. Osmotic Potential
- Osmosis​ - the movement of water
from regions of higher potential
(activity) to regions of lower potential
(activity)
- Potential is due to the attraction that
salts have for water through the
phenomenon of osmosis
- Attributable to the presence of
solutes in the soil solution. The
greater the concentration of solutes,
the lower the osmotic potential
- This energy is negative relative to free
water
- Water flows from the solution with
the lower solute concentration into
the solution with higher solute
concentration
3. Matric Potential
- The potential energy of water
attracted to soil solids
- Operational in unsaturated soil above
the water table
- In an unsaturated soil, matric
potential results from the capillarity
and adhesion forces
- Plants must overcome the energy of
matric potential to extract water from
the soil
Soil Moisture Tension
● Tenacity with which soil holds water
● As soil moisture tension increases, the
amount of energy exerted by a plant to
remove the water from the soil must also
increase
● Soil moisture tension is negative pressure and
commonly expressed in units of bars
● At field capacity most soils have a soil
moisture tension between 0.05 and 0.33 bars
Forces on Soil Water
● Two forces that allow water to move through
the soil:
a. Gravitational forces
b. Capillary forces
● Gravitational and capillary forces act
simultaneously in soils
● Gravity pulls water downward when the
water is not held by capillary action
- Influences water in saturated soils
● Capillary action involves two types of
attractions:
a. Cohesion - ​attraction between water
molecules
b. Adhesion - ​attraction between water
the leaves
● Capillary forces are greater in small pores
than in large pores
Capillary Movement of Soil Water
- Enables plant roots to make use of
water from the wetter portions of the
soil profile particularly from a water
table
- The smaller the pores, the higher the
water will rise above the water table
- The higher the rise, the tighter the
water will be held to soil particles to
overcome the force of gravity
Soil Water Content Measurement:
1. Hand-feel method
- The faster method but is prone to
error since it requires experience and
can be subjective
- An acceptable method if the observer
has experience in the hand-feel
method and is comfortable with the
method
 - Will allow for more locations to be - Once placed in soil, water in the
sampled tensiometer moves through the
porous cup into the soil until water
2. Gravimetric method potential in the tensiometer is the
- A direct measurement of soil water same as the matric water potential in
content the soil
- A sample of moist soil is weighed and - As the water is drawn out, a vacuum
then dried in an oven at a develops under the top seal, which
temperature of 105⁰C for about 24 can be measured by a vacuum gauge
hours, and finally weighed again - If rain/irrigation rewets the soil, water
- The weight loss = soil water will enter the transiometer, reducing
the vacuum/tension recorded by the
3. Electrical Resistance Blocks method gauge
- The electrical resistance block uses - Tensiometers are useful between 0 to
small blocks of porous gypsum, nylon, -0.85 bars potential
or fiberglass, suitably embedded with
electrodes
- When placed in moist soil, it absorbs
water in proportion to the soil
moisture content
- Inexpensive and can be used to
measure approximate changes in soil
moisture during one/more cropping
seasons
- However, the accuracy and range of
soil moisture contents measured by
these devices are limited

4. Neutron Scattering method

- A neutron scattering probe contains a
source of fast neutrons and a detector
for slow neutrons
- When fast neutrons collide with H
atoms, the neutrons slow down and
scatter
- The number of slow neutrons counted
by a detector corresponds to the soil
water content
- Once calibrated with the soils in
question, they are versatile and give
accurate result in mineral soils
- Less precise in organic soils since
neutrons collide with many H atoms
that are combined in organic
substances rather than in water

5. Tensiometer method
- A tensiometer is a water-filled tube
closed at the bottom with a porous
ceramic cup and at the top with an
airtight seal