.,:!

j
I
i

i INDO-TIBETAN
i
I BUDDHISM
II
·!;i Indian Buddhists
) and
I Their Tibetan Successors
.)·i
.,.i
~

.)
·;j
j
j
,ll];
David L. :Snellgrove
ii,
~~
·t·!
I·1
-:, ~ I
:I; ~

~
I
.I
'ii
SERINDIA PUBLICATIONS. LONDON

ii
 !''!
--.
r, r.--;..-r
CONTENTS
~;I,, ,

ABBREVIATIONS viii
LIST OF PLATES ix
MAPS xiii
PREFACE xix
NOTES ON TRANSCRIPTION uiv
© David L. s~Hgrove, 1987. I : ORIGINS IN INDIA
1. The Rediscovery of Indian Buddhism l
All righu reserved. No part of this publication may be 2. Sikyamuni: Buddha of the Present World-Age 5
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in S. The Concepts of Sa111.araand Nirv~a
any form or by any mcaoa without the prior written a. The Nature of Sttyamuni'a Enlightenment 11
permission of the publishers. b. The Doctrine of Nomelf and the Dhanna-Theory 19
c. The Relativity of Philoaophical Explanatiom 23
ISBN O906026 14 8 4. The Preeminence of Buddha hood
a. Sakyamuni u Buddha and Man 29
b. The Cult of Relics SS
5. The Buddhist Comm11nity 89
II: LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
1. Buddhian becomes a Pan-Asian Religion 44
2 . The Buddha Image
a. The Earliest Representations in Human Form 47
b. Can there be more than one Buddha at the same time? 52
8. Bodhisattvas
a. Their Function as Q.uasi·Celestial Beneficent Beings 58
b. The Career of a Bodhisattva as a Human Aspiration 61
c. An Evaluation of a Bodhisau.va's Skill in Means ( upii,aAawalya) 66
d. Bodhisauvu in Paradiee 71
e. All Buddhas and Bodhisauvas essentially one and the same 76
4. The Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Doctrine 79
a. The First Turning 80
b. The Second Turning 81
Published in association with c. The Third Turning 94
Shambhala Publicationsh1e., Boston, Maasachusetta. d. The Theory of Buddha -folds 109
e. The Theory of the Buddha-embryo 111
Typeset by Amaranthua, 56 Vicarage St. Warmina~r. Wilts.
f. The Theory of Buddha-bodies llS -

Printed and bound in the United Statea of .America. Ill : TANTRIC BUDDHISM
1. Connections with the mOl't' conventional Mah!y:ma 117
2. The Vajrayana as a new and distinct "way" 128
S. Vajrapliµ (alias Vajradhara) becomes preeminent IM
4. Magical Formulas 141
 5. The Votaries of the Tantras 144 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
6. VariousKindsofTantras 1. Political and Social Facton
a. Tantras relatable to Mahayana Sutras 147 a. TheRulersofTibet 381
b. Tantras with non•Buddbist Association.s 15! b. The Cultural Effects of Territorial Expansion S86
7. Tantric Feasts 160 c. Early Situations leading to the later emergtlnce of
8. The Argument for Implicit lnterpretatiom 170 rNying-ma•pas and Bonpos S96
9. The lmponance of one's chosen Teacher 176 d. Royal lntcriptions and Edicu 408
10. The Later Amalgamation and Promulgation of Tantric Teachings 180 2. Religiou$ Factors
11. Buddha-Families 189 a. Factions and Disputes 426
)2. The Ma~q.ala 198 b. Varieties of Teaching 436
JS. Initiations and Consecrations c. Early Tibetan Tantras 451
a. Initiation as distinct from "Ordination" 213 d. Freedom from Restraint 46!
b. The "Descent" of Ab8olute Wiadom 220 8. The Combination of Politics and Religion
c . The Use of Jars in Consecration Ceremonies 225 a. The Rulers of Western Tibet 470
d. The Order of Consecrations in various claases of Tantras 228 b. The Founding of Religious Orders 485
e. The Power of Cocn:ion ~5 , c. Final Reflections 508
f. The Processof Self-Consecration 240
PLATES 529
14. Further Consecrations
BIBLIOGRAPHY 617
a. Interpretations of the Higher Consecrations, Scholastic, Lyrical
INDEX 634
and Ritual MS
b. Scholastic Equations in Sets of Four 247
c. Th<!Higher Consecration, according to the Tradition ofHna.jra 254
d. Consecration as a Psychophysical Process 262
e. References to Higher Consecrations in Yoga Tantras 266
f. The Problem of Textual Obscurity 270
15. Special Concepts of Tantric Yogins
a. Buddbahood as Twofold rather than Joivefold 278
b. Wiadom and Means .281
c. The Cult of the Human Body 288
d . The Coa)CKen<:eof all co~epts through the practice of
Tantric Yoga 294
IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIF.S IN INDIA AND BEYOND
1. Traces of Buddhism in India
a. Continuity in Buddhist Monastic Life S05
b. The apparent lateness of Iconographic Representation in
relationship with the relevant texts !116
2. Tra~s of Buddhism in Central Asia
a. The Historical Background 324
b. Khotan 551
c. Other Important Sites 343
d. The Tibetan Occupation 350
3. Buddhism in Nepal
a. The Early Period .S6!
b. The Later Period 375
 ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF PU TES
(Between pages 528 and 617)
AF Asiatiache Forschungen (publication aerie$ on the history, culture, Ja. Bodhgaya . 18a. Padmapa~i Avalokites~ara, late
and languages of the peoplea of East and Central Asia, issued by J b. Sarnluh. Pila (British Museum).
the Seminar fllr Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens. 2a. Kaaia (Kusinagara) stiipa. 18b. ~akyamuni, flanked by Padma-
University of Bono) 2 I>, SMlcl (general view. p~ and Vajnpal].i, c.12th
AOH Acta Orientatia, Hungarian Academy of Sciences J. The Wheel of Life. century (British Museum).
ASP A~,asil.hasrik4 PrajiiaparamitiJ 4a. Mara's a111ault(Nagarjunakonda 19a. Vajrap~i. 10· 12th century (Bri-
BEFEO Bulletin de rtcole frantaise d'Extrhne Orient Museum, Andra Pradesh). tish Museum) .
Blue Annals See Rocrich in Bibliography 4b. Sakyamuni being offered bundle 19b. Vajrapiu:ti in aggtt.uive mood
BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London of grass as a cushion (Lahore (British Museum).
CAJ Central Asiatic Journal. The Hague and Wiesbaden Museum). 20a. Bell and Vajra,
DTH Documents de Touen-houang relat!fs a l'histoire du Tibet,
Bacot , J. in the Bibliography
11tt ,a. Sti\ct, details of stone carvings. 20b. Vajradhara/Vajrapa~. a Pflla
;b. Saiict, details of stone carvings . image in stone (India Museum ,
EFEO Ecole fra~aise d'Eztreme Orient 6. Slii\ei, Stkyamuni's footprints. Calcutta).
cos Gaekwad's Oriental Series, Baroda, India 7a. Bhaja, rodt-cut temple. 21a . HAriti, stone image, Ratnagiri .
GST Guhyasamtija Tantra 7b. Be4la,rock-cut temple. 21b. Mabaklla, stone image, Ratna-
HJAS Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Sa. Nlsik, Buddha images. giri.
HT Hevajra TantTa Sb. Kanheri, Buddha imaget. 22a. Tara, stone image, Ratnagiri.
IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly, Calcutta 9. Buddha image, GandhAra style 22b. Avalokiteivara, stone image,
JA Journal Asiarique, Paris (National Museum of India, New Ratnagiri.
JAOS Jounual of the American Oriental Society, Baltimore Delhi). 2Ja. Malwiddha Avadudhlpa, 14th/
JASB Journal of Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 10. Buddha image, Mathura style l&th century (Victoria & Albert
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London (Mathura Museum). Museum).
MCB M~langes Chinois et Bouddhiq11es, Brussels 11. Dipankara Buddha (Kabul 2Jb . Maha&iddha Gha~\apa and
MK Maifjusrlmulakalpa, ed. Ga~apati Sa,sui Museum). partner, 15th/17th centuries
MMK Miilamadh,amakalcarilca, see Prasannapada inSkr/Tib Bibi 12, Maitreya Bodhisattva (National (Victoria & Albert Museum).
MVP Mahavyu.tpatti. ed. A. Saka.Id, Kyoto. 1916 and 1925, together Museum of Pakistan, Karachi). 24. Sambara, a Tibetan thang-lcha,
with Tibetan index by K. Ni.,hio, Kyoto. 1936 1 Ja. Sakyamuni's birth scene, Gan- c.18th c:entury(from G. Roerich,
OUP Oxford University Press dhara style (Lahore Museum). Tibuan Paintings, Pan,, 1926,
PTS Pili Text Society. London IJb. Saityamuni's decease, Gandhara p. 40).
RAS Royal Asiatic Society, London style(Lahore Museum). 2J. Yamintaka, a late Tibetan
SBB Sacred Books of the Buddhiats, PTS, London 14a. Ajanta, cave 26. image (British Museum).
SBE Sacred Books of the East, PTS, London and Max Muller, Oxford Hb. Ajanta, cave 10. 26. Hevajra, mural painting, Dolpo.
SDPS Sanxul.urgatiparuodhana Tantra U. Buddha, enhaloed by flames. 27. Vajravarah1, a Tibetan ima~
Skr/Tib Bibi Sanskrit/Tibetan and Pa.Ii Bibliography Candhara style (Kabul Museum). (Victoria & Albert Museum).
STTS Sarvatalhogatalattvasa,,.graha 16. Sttyamuru, earth-witness pose, 28. A 4,lltinl, a Tibetan im.a~
("Symposium of Truth"= STTS) Ratnagiri (Orissa). (British Museum).
TI Tibetan Tripitil,.a, Tokyo-Kyoto, 1968 17a. Manjuiri image, c.l0th ccmtury 29a. Yogini temple, Hirapur, Ori•a.
ZAS Ze1ural A.liatiache Studien, Wiesbaden (British Museum). 29b. Yogini temple, Hirapur, Orissa,
ZDMG Zeiuchrift der deutschen Morgenlindischen Getellschaft, Berlin 17b. Maiijuiri image, c.12th century interioT IC'Ction.
(British Museum). J0-1. Miniature paintings from an
x LIST OF PLA1'£S LJSl' OF PLATES .xi

l lth-ccntury Pila MS of the biahed (Heibomh.a Publishing ,1. Mural pamung, Tun•huang, 6Jb. b&m •ya (Central Tibet),
A flasimasnla Prajnaparamitd Co.,Japan). cave no. 159, illustrating Vima- founded in the late 8th ttntury
(Cambridge University Library, 444. Slltyamuni Buddha and di11 - lakJrti's diacounc with a Tibetan as Tibet's first Buddhist monas -
Add. 1645). dples, a fragmented painting king and entourage in bottom tery (ff. Richardson).
J2. Vajradhara and panner, Newar· from Mirln (Sir Auttl Stein right corner. 64a. Tibetan rock inscription (block
Tibetan (private collection). collection, now in the National ,2. Painting on cloth from Kbara- letter style).
JJa. The Five Buddbas, caned on a Museum of India, New Delhi) . khoto, c.12th century: Sikya- 64b . Example of Tibetan manuscript
rock-face (Shey, Ladakh). 44b. Vairocana Buddha, a fragmen- mun.i in earth-witness pose from Tun-huang, 9th/10th
JJb . Three siupas repreienting Maii- ted painting from Balawaace, (Hermitage, Leningrad). century, cursive style (India
juhl, Avalokitdvara and Vajra- Khotan (Sir Aurel Stein col- ,J. Painting on cloth as above: Office Library, London).
pai;u (Changspa. Leh. Ladak.h). lection. now in the National Eleven-beaded Avalokitcivara 6j. Padmasambhava, late Tibetan
J4. Ma94ala of Mahavairocana Museum of India, New Delhi). (Hermitage, Leningrad). image (British Museum).
(Akhi , Ladakh). 4'. A king and queen of Kucha with '4. Painting on wood from Khara- 66a. The present chief abbot of all
J,. Marxlala of Sakyamuni and the a monk, mural painting from khoto , c.12th century: Mas,.4ala Bonpos, Sangs-rgyas bsTan-'dzin
eight U~i,~-Buddhu (Alchi, Kizil. Kucha (A. Grllnwedel, of U~~avijaya (Hermitage. Jong-dong.
66b . Memben of the Bonpo com-
J6.
Ladakh).
Mural painting of Vajrap~i/
Vajrasattva (Basgo, Ladakh),
464.
Alt-Kutsc"4).
The Arhat KMyapa at the JU.
jagrha ("..ouncil, mural painting
,,a. Leningrad) .
Cl·blhf, Nepal, one hundred
yean ago (from H. A. Oldfield,
munity established in exile in
India.
J7. Three-dimensional ma~ala, from Kiiil, Kucha (A. von le Sltetclae.sin Nipal, India Office 67. gShen-rab, the founder of Bon:
Sino-Tibetan, 18th century Coq, Buddhistische Spiitantike). Library, London). thang-klaa painted by a Bonpo
(Ml.lKe Cuimet, Paris). 46b. Croup of Centtal Asian monks, JJb . Cl-bahf, Nepal. as seen today. e:xilein India (T. Skorupski) .
J8a. A small st'llpa inset with Bud- fragmented mural painting from .16. K.ha&tt (Bodhnlth), Nepal, u 68a.. One of the small tempics ( namely
dhas and Bodhisattvas, 6th/7th Ming-oi, Kara-shahr (Sir Aurel viewed through the 19th-century Kbra-'brug) , reputedly founded
century (Dhvaka-blha, Kath· Stein collection, now in the stucco-entrance, now destroyed. by King Srong-brtsan sgam-po in
mandu). National MUICUmof India, New 57. Lokeivara Padmapal}i , a fine the 7th century (H. Richardson).
J8b. A set of five small stllpas, poaibly Deihl). example of many such images in 66b. The ruined fort of Wanla (south·
7th/8th century (Cuka-baha, 47a. Two scenes: Sakyamuni's decease the Nepal Valley, c. l ltbcenuuy. em Ladakh) and its adjacent
P.i.tan, Nepal). (below), and the cremation tttt· JB. Bhairava Temple, Kirtipur, monastery.
J9. The Cilandyo Stupa (Kinipur , mony u performed by the Nepal. 69a. Shey, the earlier Tibetan capital
Nepal). Mallas, mural painting from 59. S~gu or the Svayambhu Stupa, of Ladakh, showing ruins of the
40. Maitreya and leading Kushlna.s, Kiiil, Kucha (A . Grunwedel • Nepal. earlier fort and the later palace.
.cone plaque (Kabul Museum). Alt-Kutsch.a). 60. Intricate wood-carving and 69b . General view of Akbi Monaetery.
41a. Kb!r~\hl script (from the Gan- 47b. The contest for Saltyamuni's metalwork adorning the entrance 70. The main image of Vairocana
dha.rl D"4rmapada). relics. painting from Kizil, Kucha to a shrine, Catunaroa-vihha, (with four faces) in the Aichi
41 b. Brt.hmt script (from the Kho - (A. Gr6nwedel, Alt-Kutscha). Bbadgaon, Nepal. aaemblyhall.
tanese Surangamasamodhisfitra) 48a. Fivefold stupa tower. Kocho, 61. The main divinity in a shrine, 71. Portrait of Rin-chen bzang-po at
42. Vailrava~a and the king of Turfan (German Turfan F..lt· KvlbhO.-blhl, Pltan, Nepal. Aichi.
Khotan. mural painting, Tun- pedition). 62. Doorway of a Newar house where 72. Ati.5a and Padmasambhava,
buang. cave no. 154 (Heibonsha 48b. Stopa towers among the ruins of the family ia Buddhist (viz.. , set of mural painting in the Lh.akhang
Publishing Co., Japan). Yar, Turfan 1905/7. the Five Buddhas above the Soma, Aichi.
4:la. Bamiyan, general view of Bud- 41. Meditating Buddha, Tun-huang, entrance). 7J. Tathtgata Buddha and eight
dhist ca~. cave no. 248. 6Ja . 'Phyong-rgyae (Central Tibet), Bodhisattva&, Tibet, 1Sth/l4th
4Jb . Tun -huang, general view of JO. Buddha flanked byBodhisattvu, site of the tombs of the Tibetan century (Los Angeles County
Buddhist caves as recently refur- Tun-huang, cave no. 427. royal family (H. Richardson). Museum of Art, from the Naali
 xii LIST OF PLATES

and Alice Hecramaneck collec· uncertain date(BritiahMuseum).

tion. Museum Associates Pur·
chase).
82. Eleven-headed Avalokitdvara
(bCu-gcig-zhal}, Tibetan, date IUODHIST
,__...
74a. Image of Maitrcya at Tabo.
74b. Example of ceiling decoration at BJ.
uncertain (British Museum).
Manjuiri, Tibetan, uncertain
CH I A
MOOltllOITIH
I
------
Tabo. date (British Museum). ·t-'Ji~~~~~J._:4-_..l.--~\-----\--11"
7Ja. The Kanaka Stupa at Sani 84. Vajrabhairava, Tibetan, date
Monastery, Zangskar. uncertain (British Museum).
1,b. Cave paintings near Saspol. 84. Vajrabhairava, Tibetan, dated
Ladakh. 181 l (British Museum). One may
'16. Image of NAropa with Vajra- note that this image is dearly
dhara behind him in a cave at dated as it comes from Pekin 0£
Dzong·khul, Zangskar. the Manchu Buddhist period.
77. bl>c-chcn bla-brang ("Blissful u. Tha.ng-hka of Mahakala, Ti-
"
Hermitage"), Dolpo. betan, possibly 18th/19th cent.
78. Ma1)4ala of Samantabhadra, (Asian Art Museum. San Fran-
Supreme Buddha (Musee Gui• cisco).
met, Paris). 86. Tha.ng-kha of Sakyamuni, sur-
71. Ma~aJa of Kalacakra (M~ rounded by scenes from his life
Cuimet, Paris). (Victoria & Albert Museum).
80a. The famo1.11 Tibetan yogini, 87. Prince Siddhartha (the future
Ma•gdg, thang-klw. painted Sakyatnuni) cutting off his hair
c.1955 inDolpo. at he renounces the world(Musee
BOb. Collection of gtor-mo (1,acrificial Guimet, Paris).
cakes) and other offerings in a 88. Sakyamuni's final nirvaiµ (Mu-
village temple, Dolpo. Stt Guimet, Paris).
81. Image of Alqobhya, Tibetan,

.:7Yi
'

© 1967 by Gofflnment of India, ccunay ol Dd>ala Mitra.

 :> ..
Q
Z>,- .. t
1
~::j -.i
::c:
-l j
0
[-,~

~
\\ J,......
..........
}.
,
•
\
CEN TRAL ASIA .

I 'BET

© Kathleen Borow·,k and Meiropoli ianMuaeumof Art,NewYod

 PREFACE

Sin<.-e1959 when the fourteenth Dalai Lama followed by some one hundred
thou,and of hi, subjects began his life of exile in India, there has been a great
upaurge of interest in Tibetan culture generally and especially in Tibetan
religion. Meanwhile Tibetan cuhure and religion in Tibet itself have been
40
ruthlessly wbvcncd by the new Communist rfgime, and although recently the
Chineee authorities have been e:itprasing regrets for the damage that has been
done, it baa already been done on so vast a scale, that such regrets come far too
late. Writing earlier (1957) about the importance of the Himalayan rcgiom for
an understanding of Tibetan Buddhism, I observed that "thete regions which
once saw the passage of Buddhism to Tibet, have now become dependent on
Tibet for the w:ry life of their religion. The aource in India has long been dead.
and only the Tibetans possessthe living traditions which can enliven the ancient
places." Now over the lut twenty ~ara the Tibetan exiles have not only been
enlivening the ancient places by means of new communities that they have
er.tabliahed there, but they have alao founded monasterie1 in many new areas as
well as reprinting vast quantities of the literature that hu been accumulating in
Tibet over the lase ten centuries and more. Much was brought out by the exiles
themselves and much more has come to light in Himalayan land& that were
subject to Tibetan cultural and religious influences in the past. but which. not
being pan of political Tibet, have not fallen under Chinese control. Such land1
include Bhutan, much of northern Nepal, Ladalth and Zangskar, Spiti and
Lahui. Moreovff, the acceasibility of 10 many Tibetan lamas and monks hu Jed
to an enthusiastic interest in Tibetan religion on the part of many yOWlg
Wettern "truth-eeekcrs," 10me of whom have become dedicated translators with
facilities available to them that were untbought of thirty years ago. Such is tbi&
present-day cnthuaiasm for Tibecan religion, that it ia easily forgotten that
Tibetan Buddhism is not only of Indian origin, but hu perpetuated forms of
m
Indian Buddhism long since lost the land where Buddhism originated. The
worltaof many great European scholan of the put who have done 10 much to
prepare present-day underaandings are now scarcely read by a new generation
and the esaentially Indian nature of Tibetan Buddhism ii often forgotten
altogether, even though all great Tibetan lama-scbolan have never ceased to
draw their inspiratio111 and their teachings from Indian sources, albeit for a long
time now available to them in Tibetan translation. We now have the extra-
ordinary tituation that just u Buddhism finally diaappeated from India largely
70 u a result of foreign conquest, so Buddhiml, which survived in Tibet as a

© J. M. R01enfield and Univt!rllityof Califonua Prerit

 ., - r·
- .
.,
PREFACE I PREFACE
I
XX
remarkable Indian inheritance. has now suddenly disappeared from Tibet once
again as a rcsuJt of foreign conquest. Thus it 11ee1IU1 to me suitable to attempt a -1{
general survey in historical penpective of that great religious inheritance, built !-
up in the land of its origin during a period of some 1eventeen hundred years, }
which having been earlier transferred more or less complete to Tibet, has now :,
been restored to India in a sadly fragmented form. _i
As work proceeds with a self-impmed task of such wide scope, one becomes -~
increasingly aware of one's own limitations in 110meof its pans and the need for \I;
funher personal investigation of original sources where one 's competence is ( _
adequate for dealing with them. Delay and a sense of fru&tration an: caused t·
when one finds that one is dealing with tatual problems that are of interest in £·
some cases to fewer qualified scholars than one can count on one's fmgers. ln '.1. ·
other cases so much reading of obtc:ure early texts is required before one can :1
express a reasonably acceptable general account of the kind that is suitable for a ~
book of this nature, that one almost takes fright at the prospect before one. The ·1;
various parts of this book are affected in different ways by these considerations. ~-
For the fint chapter on Buddhiat origins in India there is already a very larF :.'
amount of published work available, mainly in English, but also in French and }
German . This subject is thus comparatively easily treated , and 0~'5 main taak in /I,
this caee is to correct the liberal-minded rationaliiing approach, from which the {t
retelling of ~akyamuni's life may suffer di$lortion. For later ckvelopmencs io :p
India eome macerial is available in European tranalations and textual editions, }J
w~ther Sanskrit or Tibetan. ~ ha~ draw~ largely on these, but al~ays retr~· \•.
lat1ng the ao1uces used, to mamtam a COIWltentvocabulary. Tantnc Buddhwn. ,I
bas n~er y~ been dealt wi~h ad~u.ately within the wh~le context of Indian ~, ; period leading up to the conversion of Tibet and continuing beyond it, when the
BuddhtSm, smce books on th11sub,ect tend to treat Buddh11t development& after ·1
t~e eighth cen~ry as.a period of decline_and ~rupti~, which is.noc worth t~ ~
tune spent on u. This was the very penod durmg which Buddhi.sm was trans- ~,
fefred in its alm01t total availability from India to Tibet, and the absence of any tt
readable account of these time&results in an apparent cultural gap between the :;I.J
two traditions, which it is the main pul'J)OIC of this book to bridge. Thus the :~
chapter on tantras is the longest in the book. Very littJe of this material has been \
tranalated into English or any other European language . 1 have used this >
whettver it was available and have otherwise drawn on untranslated Sanskrit ii
editions of various works, always checking them against Tibetan tranalationa and );
also upon other T ibetan trarulatiom, available ln the Tibetan canon, but of t1··
which the Sanskrit original is unknown. Here the material availabk still in '.t
unedited Sanskrit manuscripts and in ever larger quantities in the Tibetan :;
Canon as well as in noncanonical Tibetan collections, is so vast, that a ff
reuonabk limit hu to be set to one'• work, if a book of this kind is ever to be ·;t
finished. It will be a long time before a more comprehensive account can be :!;-
given, whatever the limitations of the present our. Competence in both Sanskrit -''
and Tibetan as well as familiarity with the philosophical concepts and strange { ·
patterns of thought are required, and in Britain there is now only one young ;;}
~:·t
xxi
scholar who continues this work. Including others in Europe and the U.S.A. ~
might reach the number of ten, but unhappily no university seems to encouraF
these particular studies at the present time. Considerable work is done in Japan
on Buddhilt studies generally, including much work in Sanakrit and Tibetan,
but this ia done usually through the medium of Japanese, thus adding
enormously to the linguistic burden of any Western scholar who wishe, to make
use of their publications.
The chapter on Buddhist communities in India and beyond has been included
partly to restore the balance in the impressions given concerning Indian
Buddhism, following upon the long chapter on tantras, and partly to prepare
the way for the final chapter on the conversion of Tibet. Tibet was convened to
Buddhism as much from the Central Asian and Chinese side as from the Indian,
although Indian Buddhism later predominated almost totally . Apart from one
or two brilliant and scholarly studies, referred to in the notes, on some aspects of
the6C developments, no general survey bas been attempted before as part of a
history of Buddhism. Here fortunately a knowledge of Tibetan will take one a
fair way in dealing with available source materials. Much relevant material from
Chinese sources is available in French and Engliah translations, while Profea10r
Emmerick of Hamburg has been helpful in the matter of Khotancse literature. I
have also drawn on the published results of the laboun of earlier European
archaeologists, and I should mention the time spent with Mr. Kenneth Eastman
in going carefully through a new five-volume Japanese publication of
illU$trations of the wall paintings of the Tun-huang Caves, so as to gain an
impreeaion of the range of iconography in Chinese Central Asia during the
Tibetans in their turn added their literary and cultural achievements to the
history of Central Asian Buddhism. Hsilan-uang's account of his travels acrOIS
Central Asia and throughout the Indian subcontinent during the first half of the
seventh century provide a constantly recurring thrm e throughout this chapter
and I thank Dr. Katherine Wh itaker for checking the Chinese text with me,
wherever an extract from an English or French translation baa been used .
The conversion of Tibet to Buddhism was a long prOCt!SS,just as was the
convenion of Europe to Cbri&tianity, a task which was never really completed in
either cue. I have dealt with the early period of the seventh to the tenth century
in some detail , because here again no coherent account using the available
source materials is generally available. Much information i11,however, available
in the form of articles in learned journals , to which an intere,ted reader would
not find easy acce.s. MorCOVff,in order to tell their full story they need to be
brought together against a general historical background. With this chapter
Dr. Hugh Richardson has been of great help and encouraFment to me in the
interest which he has taken in checking my translations of early Tibetan
manuscript material and in drawing my attention to related references. Also
Mr. Kenneth Eastman of Berkeley, California, who is one of the rarest of young
scholan able to usejapane1e publications in his work on Tibetan Buddhism, and
 x.xii PREFACE
who is now working on early Tibetan Buddhist works of the eighth to tenth
centuries, surviving as rediacovered manuscripta in the Tun-huang collection,
· baa done much to keep me on a steady course in my brief treatment of this
material. Here again there is a desperate need for interested support for thCle
studies, if any further progress is to be made. This rare material is divided
between London and Paris; work certainly proceeds in Paris , while in Britain
there is now no OM in any of our univenitia who makes u1e of our collection. 1
The later period of the conversion of Tibet from the eleventh century onward is
well dealt with in Tibetan religioua histories, and the most useful of them all for
this period, namely The Blue Annals of a famous Tibetan scholar and
tranalator, gZhon-nu-dpal (1592-1481), is happily available in an English
translation. This later period leads straight through to what becomes in effect a
hi1tory of Tibetan Buddhism, which would be quite beyond the scope of the
present book and would require a .secondvolume~ Also. owing to an extra-
ordinary increase in interest in Tibetan religion and culture, following upon the
e,codua of 10me one hundred thousand Tibetana from their country when it was
finally taken over by the Chinese Communist government in 1959, the amount of
Tibetan source material now available for writing a hiltory of Tibetan religion ia
already overwhelming. There is only one scholar in the whole world who has
been taking ttodt of the greater part of this material, as it hu gradually
appeared in print in India, and that is Mr. E. Gene Smith, Field Director of the
Library of Congress Office in New Delhi, who happena also from penonal
in~rest to be a highly qualified Tibetan scholar. Hu breadth of knowledge is
displayed in several introductory essays to some of these Tibetan publicationa,
and one only hopes that one day he will produce a general survey of all that has
appeared. There are now Tibetan religious centres scattered over Western
Europe and the United State., and 10me of thete have encouraged the
production of useful surveys and selected translations of Tibetan texts. This
work proceeda mainly ouuide university life, and one might mention an un\11\l&l
exception in this regard, namely Jeffrey Hopkins of the University of Virginia,
who does much to further the cause of the dGe-Jugs-pa (Yellow Hat) Order and
so has the special bleasing of no less a person than the Dalai Lama himeelf.
Western scholars generally find the worb of the earlier Tibetan religious orders
more interesting because of their more eclectic approach and their freer
manners of religious life. Several useful publications have come forth from
Boulder, Colorado, where this bookie al10 being published, and one can scarcely
omit all reference to this remarkable center of Tibetan studies. Trungpa
Rinpoche, now the head of an extensive religioua network cOW!ring much of the
U.S.A., seems to have inspired Mr. Samuel Bercholz to devote bis publishing
inten:su mainly to boob on Buddhiam, and hia company now has a high
1 This is hardly a criticism of ~ who occupy univenity poets, when for Tibetan they are
nedu0td to one in the whole of the British Isles, and when Bll<ldhiatacudiet are usually uaaghc by
diote who have oo knowledge of aIIJ oriental laniruqc. Thett are probably -
exa.ptions.
,r:·'
,,
~
f:.
'
PREFACE xxiii
)·
degree of compe1tru:e in this rather specialized field. PublishCTSnowusually want
'.~ diacritical marks and difficult foreign spellings reduced to a minimum, unless
they are going to be helped on the way with quite a substantial financial
subvention, and in the cowse of my now quite long publiahing life. no publisher
has e1,•erasked me before to ttatore Sanskrit names and titles, where I thought it
more prudent to use English equivalent$. Thw my thanks are more than due to
Mr. Larry Mennebtein of this friendly publishing company for the conaiderable
:~· amount of work that he has done on the whole typescript before publication,
J checking and rec:hecking with detailed care and uncomplainingly imerting into
i} my text the many changes that we have agreed upon. Inddentally he has also
:}. introduced American spellings throughout, thus undoing 10me of the work that
,, . my sister. Una Snellgrove, had done by looking for spelling and typing erron
\ through the whole text.
:? I can hardly allow to appear in print a book of this kind, which represents an
f, overall survey of all the work done throughout my university career. without
{ some words of appreciation for the School of Oriental and African Studies in
" London, which has largely sponsored my activities for over thirty years.
::; Without the use of it1 magnificent library and related facilities, the writing of
this book would have been a far more tedious task. Also I want to thank those
},• other institutiom that have come to our uaiatance with grants for re.earch work
!; and travel over the last decade. The British Academy has come to our help in
j this way on several occasions, and recently the Leverhulme Trust has saved us-
f at a time that has been financially very difficult for our panicular 11udies- from
j losing the momentum of personal initiative, which alone keeps our work in a
thriving condition when direct government support is reduced to a bare
{· minimum in subjects such as ours. FinaJly I must again thank the British
~; Aca~my for their generous help toward the coet of publication of this book by
,· Serindia Publications in the United Kingdom.
{· In the preface to A Cultuml History of Tib.t by Hugh Richardson and my,eJf
i (first published in 1968 in London and reprinted mBoulder. Colorado, in 1980)
: we referred to our founding of a modest Institute of Tibetan Studies in Tring
1 (England). Owing to changed circumstances since its foundation eighteen years
S ago it wu decided in the course of 1985 to reconstitute: this charge of ours as an
'; lnatitute of Buddhiac Studies, while inviting Dr. Tadeusz Skorupski to assume
the responsibility of directing activities. What the future will bring we have yet
to see, but in the meantime I hope that this book, the first to be published in the
name of the newly constituted Institute, will not only supply a need wherever
there ia interest in the great variety of teachings and practices which may be
called Buddhist, but also that it will draw attention to the vast amount of
scholarly labor by others, which alone makes the writing of a general survey of
lndo-Tibetan Buddhism a feasible task for its author. ·
David L. Snellgrove
four ·or five Torre Pellice(ltaly)
14January 1985
•; ........... . .... .
NOTE ON TRANSCRIPTION
Samkrit and Pali are given in the normally accepted Anglo -Ameri can ttanscrip ·
tion . The letters most likely to~ mispronounced by the uninitiated are :
c which repre~nts a aoft unvoiced j sound, as in Vair6jana (correctly spelt
Yairocana): by <-
"Ontrast eh repreacnu fully aspirated Anglo -American eh .
th which rep~nu an aspirated t-h. aa in English "goatherd " and in the
term tfllhagala, pronounced tat!gata , br eathing Mavily on the second t .
Tibetan temu are spek according to the system shown in my Buddkut Him4 -
14ya, pp . ffl -500, where-some simplified rules of pronunciation ar c a bo given.
It is regrettabl e that such spdlings appear formidable to anyone unfamiliar with
the Tibetan language, but there ia no satisfactory solution to this problem .
Artificial spellings wbich are intended to provide easier means toward the actual
preaent-day pronunciation of 5UCh namc:6 (e.g., writing Thr i-d.e-song-tsen
instead of the correct spelling Khri-lde -rrong-brlS4n ) aaaiat the uninitiated
readeT very little, while tending to bewilder anyone familiar with Ti~an . It is
e:uc tly as if one were to spell the English word "knight" a, "nait" for the benefit
of ttaden who do not know how to pronounce English. In any cue , the reader
muat then become familiar with the rules applying to such phoneti c spelling,. I
have however occasionally added in brackeu such 1pellings, and even used them
in the text , where the • ante name occun frequently , e.g., bKa '-brgyud -pa
(Ka ·gy(i·pa ) and bKa '-gdams-pa (Ka -dam-p a). The rules for such phonem
spellin~ are given in my Himala:,an Pi~mage , pp. Z75-9.
It may also be noted that while my system of reproducing correct Tibetan
apellings corresponds alm05t enti rely with that now generally in use by British
and American acbolan , it differs in several reapecu from the system&1tiUused by
French, German, and Italian scholars . To avoid further confusion I ha~
normally transpoted their transliterationa into the Anglo -American system when
I have occ;won to quote their works, to preserve coll.listency. The Anglo -
American l)'atem ia often referred to u the Wylie system, u it wu set out by
Turrell Wylie, "A Standard System of Tibetan Transcription," HJAS, 1959, · .f
pp . 261-7. He reproduced my own •ystem of a few years earlier , with the one ·::
important difference in the use of capital letten , llled by him for the fint letter .,
of a name even when this is a silent prefa, instead of for the radical letter under ·,:
which worda att always listed in Tibetan dictionaries . Thus whereas I write 1'
bSam-yas, pronounced Sam-yl and correctly listed under S, he writes Bsam-ya, . 't
Such differenoea may teem petty to tlw! uninitiated , but , especially in a book of
the preaent liie, one ha, to chooae o~ system and attempt to be cooaiatent . .
I
ORIGINS IN INDIA
1. THE REDISCOVEllY OF INDIAN BUDDHISM
Anyone who writes nowadays about the hittory of Buddhism takes for granted its
promulgation by Slltyamuni Buddha in the central Ganges Valley as the starting
point of this n:ligion , aod it it all too easily forgotten that this great event which
probably occurred about 500 B.C. was acaraly known of in tlw! western scholarly
world until the early nineteenth century and that it was only since then that
several decades of laborious research , mainly in Sanakrit , Plli and Tibetan
Buddbiat literature supportrd by extraordinary archeological discovuies all over
tbe Indian aubcontinent, ha• e given subttance to that belated di4covery. The
problem of establishing the origins of this great pan-Asian religion was by no
means as easy aa it may now appear to us in retrospect. ChriRian miaionarics
had encoontered Buddhi,t monks at the Mongol court of Kublai Khan and his
succesaon in the thirteenth and fourteenth ccnturica, but the origin1 and nature
of Buddhist religion renained totally obscure . Thrtt centuries later when the
fint Christian miuionaries reached Taaparang , capital of the old kingdom of
Gu-ge in we$tem Tibet , in 1624, their interpretations of the ttligioua life that
they saw there remained just ;as naive. Knowing no Tibetan, they suspected that
they were ~rhaps confronted by some strange debued form of Christianity , for
might not the image of Th! (the Saviouress) be a weird form of the "Mother of
God, " or the set of three image. of Tsong -kha -pa and his two chief dilciple, be
some outlandish representation of the Trinity? From the sixteenth century
onward there appear many desc:riptiou of local religioua beliefs, mainly the
work of mimonariet, who. following in the wake of European adventuttn ,
established thcmaelva, often prccarioualy enough, io India and Ceylon , in
Burma , Thailand , China and Japan, but operating only by hearaay and without
any prec:ue knowiedge of th.e relevant literary sources, they found no obviow;
connection between the Buddbi,m of China and that of Ceyloo. 1 Aa for India,
the "holy land" where Buddhinn had indeed originated, all local memory of it
had been lo1t long aince its final eclipae in northern India in the thirteenth
~tury . S~ ancient Buddhist sites were certainly known locally, bat were
qu1cewrongly interpreted by popular tradition . Thua the now famow Buddhist
1
n... bat aeccunt ol t.lieeeearly ,ropln,a after the muh will be found In Hentl de Luba~ . Ltr.
It~, du JJou"""-1 et ,u l 'OttiMrlt , p. 51 ff .
2 I. ORIGINS JN INDIA
caves at Nasik (about one hundred miles northeast of Bombay) were aascx:iated
with the Pandava brothers of the Indian epic, the Mahabharata, and the
magnificent Buddhist cave-temple at Karla (eaeily reached nowadays from
Lanavla half way between Bombay and Poona) was accepted as a Shaivite
shrine, in that the rod-hewn swpa in the apee was assumed to be a huge Siva
lingam. Many other now well-known ancient Buddhist 1itc1, such as Sinc'I and
Ajant~. were totally Jost in the jungle and were discovered often accidentally by
Britiah offtcera in the coune of the nineteenth century.
As early as 1784 due to the cnthwiasm of Sir William Jones, a judge of the
Supreme Court in Calcutta, an institution known as the Aaiatic Society was
founded for the purpose of investigating "the history and antiquities, arts,
sciences and literature of Asia," but it waa a long time before sufficient pressure
could be brought upon the British administration in India to give support to
such operations. However, as soon .u responsibility for government passed from
the old East India Company to the Briti&b Crown (1858) it was decided to·
establish an archaeological department with Sir Alexander Cunningham as the
first Archaeological Surveyor of India (1862).i A few yean earlier a French Sino-
logist, Stanislas Julien, bad compktcd the translation of the travels of the now
famOU&Cbineee scholar-pilgrim Hiuan•tsang, whwe per10nal record of all the
many Buddhist sites that he visited in the seventh century throughout Central
Asia and nonhem India at a time when they were mainly flourishing, remaim
the best description to thia day. There could have been no better guide to the
archaeological treasures of a put Buddhi11 age than this work, and amongst his
many other activities Cunningham act himself the task of identifying as many as
possible of these ancient sites on the ground. Government support of archaeo·
logical work remained unhappily rather hesitant, and it was not until the fint
years of the twentieth century under the viceroyalty of Lord Cunon that
adequate funds were at l.ut made available for the repair and preservation of the
many Buddhiat sites all over India, which the present-day visitor can reach with
comparative ease. Despite other pressing demands on its resources, che
Government of India since the year of independence (1947) baa maintained the
work of the Archaeological Survey, which is concerned not only with Buddhist
monuments (of special intere.t to us in this book), but also Hindu, Muslim as
well as many signifacant prehistoric finds.
Meanwhile the acbolarly investigation of textual source material wu gaining
momentum, and at long last this newly discovered literature combined with
archaeological investigation began to reveal the long forgotten history of the
Buddhist religion on Indian soil covering some seventeen hundred years from
approximately &00B.C. to 1,200 A.D. Three names stand out aignificandy during
the pioneering work of the first half of the nineteenth century. Firstly perhaps
one should think of Brian Hodgson, who lived in Kathmandu over a period of
some twenty-three years from 1820 onward, first u an assistant at the British
a Jim- "Tht ScOTJof Indian An:haeology'" onr may refer to im chapter by N. P. Chaluawarti In
Arclt,uolog, mlndio, an Indian Cowmmenc publicacioo. Calcutta, 1950.
1.1 Rediscovery of Indian. Buddhism 5
Relidency and later as accredited Britwb Resident.' Whereas Buddhwn had
largely disappeared in nonhcm India from the thirteenth century onward, it has
survived in the Nepal Valley uru:il the present day. Moreover, from the seventh
century onward the Nepal Valley served as a halfway home for the trammi11ion
of Buddhism from India to Tibet and lhus considerable accumulations of
Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts are to be found there. The oldest of these are
palm-leaf manuscripts from India dating back to the period of the P~a dynasty
(eighth to twelf,h century) of Bengal. whosemonarcha were generally staunch
supporters of Buddhism during the very centuries that Sanskrit Buddhist
literature waa pauing into Nepal for its eventual translation into Tibetan. Since
Buddhist traditions have survived in Nepal up to the present time the latest
manuscripts are copies of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However,
apart from the inevitable textual errors attributable to so many generations of
copyists, these later works have quite as much significance for the lost history of
Buddhism in India as do the earlier ones. It was Brian Hodgson who first
discovered for the outside world this enormous accumulation of Indian and
Nepalete Buddhist materials, and having obtained a,
many hundreds of ,uch
works as he could, he distributed them between Calcutta, London, Oxford and
Paris. Little account was taken of them except in Paria, where Eugene Bumouf
had become the incumbent of a Chair in Sanskrit at the College de France. His
eventual publication in 1844 of his /ntroductwn '1 l'histoire du Bouddhi.sme
indun opened the whole field of study with which this present book is mainly
concerned. He allO produced the fint translation of any known Mahayana sfltra,
namely the Lotus of th• Tnu Low, to which 1CVeralreference• will be made
below. Mainly a collector of widely ranging interests, Hodgson produced merely
a number of aniclea on the subject of Buddhism as revealed by his Nepalese
sources. and although he refcn to it as Nepalese or even Tibetan Buddhism, its
true Indian origin is in no doubt. His penpicacity was truly amazing and much
of what he wrote remaim fully valid in terms of the considerable amount of later
&cholarlywork to which his discoveries gave birth. It may be noted that this work
on Sanskrit Buddhist materials was initiated at a time when the Theravtdin
tradition, of the Pali Canon of Ceylon were still practically unknown.
The third outstanding name during the fint half of the nineteenth century is
that of Qoma de K6r&, a Hungarian who set out on an adventurous journey
overland eastwards in search of the origins of his own Hungarian race and ended
up from 1825 onward leading an ascetic Hfe in the Indian Tibetan-speaking
borderland of Zangskar, making an inventory of the contents of the Tibetan
Buddhist Canon, as well as compiling a grammar and a dictionuy of Tibetan.
Csoma '1 work allowed conc:lueivelythat the Tibetan canonical worb were almost
entirely translations from Buddhist Sanskrit, and thus another large chapter was
opened in the history of Buddhism in India. Caoola may fairly be regarded as the
founder of Tibetan studies in the outside world, but in fact thi, honor should
e J'or bla life llOl'f .ee the lruroductlon by Phllip DenWOQclto Brian H. Hodp>n, &a:,s cm Ila.
~u. La11rolvr1C111d R.u,itm of Nepal and Ttlla.
4 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
rightly have gone to the Jesuit missionary scholar Ippolito Desideri who lived in
Lhasa from 1716 to 1721. He was the first foreign scholar to master the Tibetan
language. both in ita colloquial and its literary form, and as well u celebrating
Mass and disputing on friendly terma with learned Tibetan monks, he acquired
an amazing knowledge not only of Tibetan religion but also of Tibetan life and
customs. He knew well the Indian origins of Tibetan Buddhism, but owing to
the lad of interest of his superiors, none of his work was published until the
beginning of the twentieth century, and thua what be him~lf knew, ttmained
unknown to the out&ide world until a century later, when esoma ·de Koros made
hi1appearanu .
In the second half of the nineteenth century serious studies on the Pali
literature of Ceylon were undertaken, leading to the founding of the Pali Text
S<>cietyby T. W. Rhys Davids in 1881, thanks to whom the whole of the
Thenvadin Canon has gradually been made available in Western-1tyle editions,
much of it also tramlated into English. Thia has been a stupendous work of three .
ge~rarions of Pali scholars, of whom the last staunch English repre.entative, ·
Mm I. B. Homer, died only recently. Already in 1879 the great orientalist Max
Millier founded his impre55ive series of traPSlations under the general title of
SaCTed ~oks of the East, in retr~pec:t a vaat work that extends right up to
present tunes, when the many reprints att taken into account. It is interesting to
nott that interpretations of Buddhiam in the English language have been mainly
baaed~ Theravldin (Pali} sources, presumably as a result of the spectacular
producuons of the Pali Text Society. Interest in Indian Buddhism, especially of
t~ Mahiyana and Vajrayana periods , has been mainly a European preserve
with m01t of the scholarly worb on the subject appearing in French. One thinks
a~ ~nee of Sylvain Uvi, Louis de la VaU~ Poussin and Paul Demit-ville, of Jean
Fllhoiat, Alfred Foucher and Jean Pnluui, of ttienne Lamotte, Comtantin
Regamey and Andre Bareau, whoee works wiD receive special mention in the
footnotes throughout this book. Without doubt the one great scholar in Indo-
Tibctan Buddhiam is my old rcven:d profcasor Giuseppe Tucci, w~
~xpedi~ in western and central Tibet during the 1950s and 1940s brought to
J~ht hitherto unknown treasures of Tibetan religion, hi•tory and an. His
hterary worka range from editions of Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese tuts to
impressive works on all aspects of lndo-Tibetan civilization. Amongst Indian
sc?olars one thinks of IUjendra Mitra (182!-91) from the last century , and from
this present one Benoytosb Bhanacharyya who has made easily available a useful
number of Buddhist tannic works, or Shuhi Bhusan Dasgupta, who has ranged .
more widely over similar religious materials, or again Nalinabha Dutt, who has
worked panicuJarJy on the relationship of the Mahaylna to tbe earlier Buddhist
period. Without the work of these and of many other scholars, whose names
appear in ~be bibliography. it would have been an even more exacting task to
attempt this general survey of Indian Buddhism. Special attention must also be
made?! Edward Conze, who devoted so many years of his life to translating large
quanttttes of the "Perfection of Wisdom" literature, which provides the
Sakyamuni: Buddha of the Present World-Age 5
1.2
phil060phical basis for the whole Mahayana period both in India and in
Tibet. .
Especially relevant to any &tudyof lndo-Tibetan Buddhmn are the remarkable
discoveries of earlier Buddhist civilizations brought to light mainly by the
labon of British, French and German expeditions at tbe beginning of the
present century. Thus not only has the significance of Khotan and other city·
~~ states on the ancient Silk Road linking India as well as western Asia with Ch ina
r Moome known, but also much of the pre -Buddhist history of Tibet itself,
previously unknown to the Tibetans themselves, has been revealed through
1
'!'·
J remarkable diKovcries of remaina of Tibetan manuscripts throughout the area
·/ going back to the time when Tibet was a major power in Central Asia (seventh to
t ninrh centuries). Here Sir Harold Bailey, the guide and teacher of my
:j Cambridge years, bas achieved renown not only for his vast linguistic scholarship
but eapecially for the pain&talr.ingwork that he bas done over many yea11
·,.
l specifically on Khotanese materials. Those to whom we are primarily indebted
for their work on the earliest known Tibetan literary remains (and this include1
the early atone inacriptions in Tibet iuelt) are Jacques Bacot, Paul Pelliot, F. W.
Thomas and Hugh Richardson , who was the last British repmientative in Tibet ,
remaining there umil 1949. Much of this early Tibetan material is influenced by
Buddhism simply because the development of local scripu scenu to have
occurred simultaneously with the more·gcneral introduction ofBuddhi.at culture
into Tibet as well as into Central Asia. Although we shaD be concerned primarily
with Buddhiam in India and it1 eventual tranafer to Tibet, one muat remember
that Indian civilization, whether in its Hindu or Buddhist fonn, was at the same
time penetrating the whole of Southeast Asia, not to mention the Far East
whither it was tranamitted mainly acroaa Central Asia. The great Indian gods,
Vi~u and Siva, had their followers in some countries of Southeast Asia , but it
wu the person of Sakyamuni Buddha whose tc-achings have had by far the mo&t
extensive influence throughout all Asian lands. It is interesting to note that the
eclipse of Buddhism in India coincided more or lesswith the gradial weakening
of its hold on the rest of Asia, so that nowadays i.t survives only in Ceylon,
Burma , Thailand and Cambodia in a form deriving from one of the early
Buddhist schools (the Theravldins) and in Himalayan regions and in Japan in its
• Mahayana form. Thanks to the many Tibetan exiles now settled there, it is even
now reestablishing itself in the land of its origin.
2. SAK\'AMUNI: BUDDHA OF THE PllES£NT WOllLD-AGE
The group of followers who gathered around their teacher and leader. referred
· ,:f. to as Gautama by others, but revered by them as "Lord" (Bhagavan ).
represented one of many such ascetic groups who appeared on the Indian ~ne
round about 500 B.C . The accounta of their wanderings and of their Lord's
teachings, as committed to writing very much later, represent probably the
6 I. ORJGINS JN INDIA
earliest Indian historical material of a liteury kind, and thus they provide their
own historical and geographical context. It is difficult to test their authenticity, ·
except perhaps by bringmg them into archaeological relationship with certain
sacred places, which were known to be famous in subsequent centuries.
No attempt at a coherent "biography'' of Cautama, the Sage of the Sakya
Clan (&Uyamum) was made until some five centuries after his decea~. The
much earlier canonical writings, mO&t of which would seem to have been
accumulated within the rather vague period of one to two centuries after his
decease, relate incidentally certain essential stories about him, especially his
miraculous birth in the Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu, the chief town of the
Sikyas, bis realization of Enlightenment ( 6odhi) under the famoua tree of
enlightenment at Bodhgaya (in modem Bihar), hi11preaching of the First
Sermon in the Deer Park just outside Vtrinasi, and the Great Decease
(parininof'.IQ) at Kasia(close to the nortbweatern boundary of Bihar, sec pls. I
and 2). The circumsuncea that led up to these four main events were alto ·
described in aome detail, but there was never any consecutive account of events
between the preaching of the Fint Sermon and the Final Decease, a period of
forty-five years, if this la&t tradition is accepted. At the same time the canonical
texts contained numerous stories of teachings given, of hoapitality received, of
visits made to persons of note and so on, and it was by ananging such as these in
aome coherent, but by no means necessarily correct historical order, that a form
of overall biographical account was eventually produced. It may be imponant to
note that the eadiest attempts at a form of "biography" weTe as much concerned
with Sakyamuni's previous lives, which no modern scholar and few "modern"
Buddhists would regard as in any way historical. 4
It is possible to draw interesting analogies between the "life" of Jesus Christ as
presented in the Four Gospels and the life of Sikyamuni Buddha, as presented in
this later Buddhist tudition. In both cues cenain essential e~nts xeceived at an
early stage a more or les&fixed traditional form, in the one case the events of the
miraculoua birth, the baptwn 1eene and the temptation in the wilderne11, then
the crucifixion and resurrection narrativu, while in the other case we have the
four main events of miraculous birth, the renunciation of a worldly life and the
scene of the enlightenment, followed by the first sermon and with a very long
gap indeed finally the events leading up to the Great Decease. Apart from theae
main events, nothing elae was n:corded in a conaecutive historical manner, and
in order to produce a coherent story, later Buddhist writen, in an analogoU6 way
to thr autbon of the Four Gospels, drew upon the large anilable atock of
isola~d stories, which were associated with collections of sayings and teachings,
arranging them in the order which suited their overall purpose.
Yet a further important analogy can be drawn, for in neither cue was the
• Two i1.1Chearly produchOIII 1hat have nrvived in Sanarit are the LIJ/Mo.w,o.,. ("Exiended
Ve.niQa of hi, Dilplaf') and 1he McsMIOSfu("The Great Mauer") . The fim colwrau ~lives" in any
truly biographial - Acta of the Buddha"), ooe oorepoted by s..tJhA·
are lhl! Bvdllfioatrila CW
~ and anothtt-. ~te, known. by .Ahagho!•·See eh£ Blbliograpby.
1.2 $i11iyamu,11:
Buddha of the P'TesentWorld-Age 7
overall purpose the producing of an historically acceptable biography. just as
the main interest in t.he Gospels is their christological trend, so the overall
purpose in producing a "life" of Sakyamuni was doctrinal and buddhalogical. In
both cases mythological concepts precede and condition the form chat the story
shall take. The Gospel story is told as it i8, beca~ those who told it already
conceived of this Jesus in terms of the concepts of •·suffering servant.'' "son of
man" and ''son of God." Similarly the story ofSakyamuni's life is cast in the form
of the ideal last life of a ''would-be Buddha" (Bodhisauva) who after an
innumerable succession of previous lives eventually achieves his goal. It i, for this
reason that the earliest formulations of a consecutive kind are concerned as
much, if not more, with tales of previous lives, leading up co the final grear event
of the Enlightenment under the famous tree at Bodbgaya. Thus the final story
assume& certain fundamental doctrinal concepts, which are expressed mytho·
logically. and apart from these the story itself has no particular significance. It is
the story of a wealthy young man, a prince of the Stkya Clan, who tira of the
meaningfea luxury of the royal court, and abandoning secretly at night his wife
and young son, goes to seek out a religious teacher, who can restore his peace of
mind, disturbed as it is by thoughts of disease, old age and death, the inevitable
afflictions of all living creature£. He finds teachers, but surpas.,es them in
wisdom, proclaims himself enlightened and gathers followers, who become
undt'f his direction a recognized order of mendicant ascetics. He directs his
monks for a period of fony-five years, during which time a considerable amount
of teaching is given, which being fint preserved orally, becomes the basis for the
later scriptures, comprising monastic rules, doctrinal utterances and philo-
sophical disquisition. Except foT his remarkable sue<:easas a religious teacher,
there is nothing extraordinary or personally biographical about such a story.s
The same theme reoccurs in Indian religious literature, and indeed the story was
regarded, once it was formulated. as representing the set coun;c that any
Buddha should follow in his last life in this world. It was defined as the Twelve
Acis of a Buddha, listed tbiu:
l. The Bodhisattva raidea in the joyful (T~ita) Heaven.
2. He decides to descend into the world to save it from false teachings.
3. He enters the womb of Q.ueen Mahamaya, chief wife of King Suddhodana
of the Sikya Clan, while she dreams that a white elephant is descending
within her. ··
4. He is born from his mother's side while she aupporu henelf against a tree
in the Lumbini Gardens outside Kapilavastu. A, soon as he is born, he
takes seven firm steps to the nonh, and surveying the four directions, he
proclaims: "I am the chief in the world. 1 am the best in the wor·ld. I am
• F.uctly cbe same story but with a variant setting it 1old of one uf Sakyamuni's own disciple,.
n~mdy Yasa. The son of a wealthygildma..ccr in Vilrinasi , he waket up one 11igh1wirh feelinp or
disg,m for t~e life of li<-cnlious luxury d1a1 wrrwnds him. He cetapcs f1um t~ housc and the city
ga1e:sopcumiraculously for him. HoW1:Vt:r.iPStead ofhavirig tooearch for a rc:li3iou,1c:ac:her,he goes
s1ra'.gh1 m Sakyamuni who is ie11cbing in rhc ~ Parll. For the whole: #IOIJ in iu various early
ven,on,, aeeAndrl, Barr.au. R•ck,rclies I, pp. 199ff.
8 I. ORIGINS lN If\l"DIA
the first in the world. This is rny last birth. There is now no existence
again."
5. His prowes, in arts and ,pons leadi~g to his marriage_.
6. His life in the palace and the resultmg senae of revulsion.
7. He flees from the palace with the help of his groom Chandaka and his
horse Kantab and practices meditation under two different teachers.
8. He practises severe asceticism, but finally accepts food from the village·
girl Sujata.
9. He goes to the Tree of Enlightenment and taking his ·seat beneath it,
engages upon his succeaful battle with the forces of the Evil One (Mara).
JO. He wins through to Supreme Enlightenment.
11. He preaches. or to U:aethe technical term, "turns the wheel" of the
doctrine.
12. He passes into total nirvAi;ia.
Apart from the contents of item 11, which waaever more extended in teachln~
scope in order to accommodate the later developments of the doctrine, all the
rest is compoaed of traditional materials going back to the earliest known phue
of Buddhism, including the extraordinary claim to preeminence in item 4. Thus
it is important to empbuize that the idea of an agn01tic teacher of ethics of
entirely human proportions who was later divinized by the enthu&iasm of his
followers, remainl a liberal nineteenth-century European creation, correspond·
ing to the similar efforts that were made to find a purely human ethical ~acher
behind the JewsChrist of the Gospel accounu. In both cases the "mythological"
interests are primary, and since they dictate, as it were apontaneoualy, ~edfonnb
in which the story is told, not only does the story become trite when depnv y conteXts, geographical and archaeological, by which they can be judged. and in
critical scholarship of its religious significance, but al10 a gap begins to yawn
between the "founder" himself and his believing followers. According to the
traditional accounts only superhuman intervention can ~plain the extra·
ordinary early success of the teaching, and of this liberal-minded scholarship will
know nothing. Thus, the ,ubsequent development of the: religion has to be
explained away as mainly the work of overc:redulous followers, who chOOAeto
conceive: of their teacher within the categories of preconceived concep<s. To
what extent such a thesis is theoretically possible is really beside the main point.
For the main point ia the fact that there is nothing substantial in the earliest
traditional accounts to 1upport any such thesis. The notion of "the Buddha, .. aa
though there were only one, just as there .is traditionally only one Christ, is
entirely a modem nineteenth-~ntury Western idea. Whether the previous
Buddhas who are named in the early scriptures can be shown to be historical or
not, ia oll(:e again beside the point, aince the followers of Slkyamuni Buddha
throughout the whole history of Buddhism ha Asia have never doubted that he
was one of many. He-waa certainly regarded aa the mol5l recent and in this sense
the moat important during the early Buddhist phaee, 1ubsequently referred to u
the Hlnayana by thole who had faith in later diapensatiom, but it wa, never
forgotten that he was one in a lttiea. The concept of the world u part of a
beginninglesaseriel of time-cycles wu fundamental to Buddhism, and thus it
u Sa.tyamuni·: Buddha of tlu Present WOTld·Age 9
was taken for granted that there were other Buddhas in other world -ages.
.Fundamental too is the concept of continual rebinh, which Desideri found 50
"pestiferous,•-&and thus it wu auumed that any living being who achieved final
enlightenment and proclaimed himself as "Buddha," must have progressed
through a very long ,cries of previous live1. Since the earliest form of Buddhism
that we know of makes these basic .wumptions, it is a not unreasonable
assumption that they were already taken for granted by Saltyamuni Buddha
himself . Thus his views on the problems of life can hardly coincide with those
ascribed to him by cenain nineteenth· and twentieth-century interpreters. Nor
can they powbly coincide, except for a bare statement of ethical principles, with
thoae of Jesua Chrut as portrayed in the Cospe.t..Thus while one can draw
interesting analogies between the ways in which their very different life stories
were conditioned by the cosmological. mythological and religious ideas, which
they apparently and quite understandably accepted as the buia for their
teachings, these very ideas that were fundamental to the subsequent
development of thei r very different religions, being totally diverse. limit con·
,iderably the scope for doctrinal similarity.
However, one further analogy relating to what was already said earlier may be
mentioned, as it is particula:rly relevant to any study made of tl.~ life of Sakya-
muni . It wa5 observed that the accounu of cenain events in hill life, in so far as
they may be treated as historical, represent some of the earliest known Indian
°J;.; '"hiltory," and since there are no other literary 900rces against which to check
::~>:.,_:_:_:
them, they provide their own historical context. There are, however, two other
:j theae respecu they survive very well the testS that can be applied. Thua, all the
_i.~,i' place- names associated with the main events of his life and his various journey·
ings are to be found within the limits of the middle Ganges Valley, corres ·
:t, ~:
ponding more or less to modem Bihar. Much later "apocryphal" traditions
envinge him uaveling as far a1 Sri Lanka in the South and even to the city of
Khotan in Central Asia, but no such extravagances occur in the early materials. 7
Thus. the geographical extent of hi& activitiea would seem to be hlstorically
ccnain. More than this, several of the actual sites associated with some of the
} ' main events in his life were cenainly well known as major places of pilgrimage
1 _: before the third century B.C .• when they were visited by the great Emperor AAoka
[: who had inscriptions made in stone to mark the occasions. 1nus, in the tenth
year of hia reign (259-8 B.C.)lle visited the Tree of Enlightenment at Bodhgayi,
:, 6 For his account of '"the abominable belief in metempsychosis"' ,ee An Accotml of Tilnt, llu
:; tnwb of Ippolito Dcsid,ri SJ .• p. 216 ff.; but for hi,i overall more b1lanced -.iewof Tibetan religion,
J Ke p. 500: ~although I believe cht arucla of Faith to be ablolutely wroog and pesdfero,is, ~t the
rulai and dirtttio1111 impoeed on the will are not alien to the principlet of aound realOn; 1hey lttin to
~ woi-thy of admiration u they not only prroai~ hau~d o( wit.~, inculcu,, battling aga.inat
.':. panlrni.., but, what Is mor• remartable, lead man t-a.-- aubllme and heroic J"'rff!-=tion,"
~
7 Similarly, t~ placc-na~s associated with the life of Jesus Christ as give,; in the New Testament
limit convincingly the range ol hi, personal acU11ity.The apocryphal storl<!t, however. bring him into
,,
t
personal cootaet whh TI~rius in Rome and 'lfith King Abgana of Ede.a .
TlteApt,cryplud N,w Tmomen.l , p.158andpp.476-7 .
* e.g .• M. R. Jamai,
10 I. ORIGINS JN INDIA
and in the twenty-fint year he visited Slkyamuni's birthplace in the Lumbini
Gardena .' ) birthplace, and Kuia, the site of the Great Decease, have also become once
Eight such great places of pilgrimagt! remained famous so long as Buddhlam
endured in northern India, that is, up to about 1200 A.D., and meticuloWJ j •
descriptions of the sites have been preserved thanks to the travelogues of certain {
Chinese pilgrim-scholars , especia11y Hsuan-tsang , who made a tour of Buddhist ) '.
India toward the middle of the seventh century A.D. Finally. a Tibetan monk-
pilgrim, Chos-rje-dpal, the translator from Chag, visited .Bodhgayl, the most
important of the holy place&,in the early thirteenth century , when it was already .{ :-
practically abandoned following upon the latest Mo,lem incursions. As already I :
noted above, four main sites, Lumbini , Boohgaya, Samath (the Deer Park near :Ji;
VArtnasi) and Kaaia, represented the places of Sakyamuni 's birth, enlighten· ;; i_
ment, fint preaching and fmal deceaae. Four secondary sites represented the r 1
places where certain miracles were believed to have occu1Ted, namely Srlvasti, ~ ·
where Sakyamuni had defeated six heretical teachers by means of an extra-
ordinary magical display, Rljagrha, where he had quelled the wild elephant set
upon him by his jealous cousin ~vadatta, VaiiAli, where a monkey had offered _'f, ;
him a dish of honey, and Sankaiya. where he dcteended by a heavenly flight of iJ::
st~ from the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods after delivering a sermon to his :} :
mother, who having died only seven days after his birth, had been happily :J,,.
reborn there. All these eight places were graced with stl)pas (memorial mounds), '; .
temples and monastic enclaws in the past, but with the disappearance of }: ;
Buddhism from India, they soon sank into neglect and ruin. Jn the nineteenth ;) ·
century the Archaeological Depanment of the Government of India began to
take an interest in these as well as other ancient Indian sites, aome of which have :;:
•.,
been so well reconstituted that pilgrims from countries beyond India have begun ..
to come again. Bodhgayl, the place of the Enlightenment and thu a the center of (
the Buddhi" world. has been most succt'&1fully restored. Already in the
thirteenth to fourteenth centuries the Burmese were responsible for aub&tantial
repairs. and yet again toward the end of the nineteenth century. This led to the ;;
active int('rellt of the Archaeological Survey, which restored some of the ancient .i
railings, a large number of small votary stflpas, several images and even the {
Diamond Seat (wfrllsona) itself. This is a sandstone slab, placed once more
beneath the pipul tree, which one may not unreasonably suppose to be the lineal \~ ;
descendant of the original Tree of Enlightenment, under which Sakyamuni sat
twenty -five hundred ~an ago. In recent years 9C'Veralreligious communities, \; 1
mainly Tibetan monks who have been exiles from their own country for the last 1
twenty years and more, have built new mona1teries, and thus it has become once '.r;
more a major centcr for enthusiastic followers of Buddhist teachings. Sarnath i
haa aJso benefited from the attentions of the Archaeological Survey of India and
tlk Declaie of the-Mauryas. pp. 37-8and 19-SO. For the actual
a Stt Jtomila Tbapar, Asolta:t111d
inacripcions ooe may ,um to A. Sen. Aioka's Edicts, pp. 84 and 122. One' may also note tbat ·ooe of
Awla, other inscriptioos(wc Seu. pp . 124-5) coorums the existence oflhe cult of pl'Cvioo& Buddhas.
Ii~'"'" are info.-med that he enb.rgwthe already existing ltiipa of the Bu.ddba Kanakamuoi, next
but o~ ~fore Slltyamuni .
I.II.a 11
·t
·4; more recently from the presence of Tibetan exile communities. Lumbini, the
J. more favourite places of pilgrimage . The four other aecondary place. of
pilgrimage in the past have not been neglected by the Archaeological Survey,
but they do not appear to stir the imagination of modern Buddhists in any way
comparable to the four major sites, for which the historical justifications are so
J ·. much stronger . It ii indeed significant that the main evencs of Sikyamuni's life
J' story, which is so permeated with mythological concepts, should be so firmly
anchored to thete particular place., which thus bestowupon it a sense of reality,
combining aatisfactorily history and mythology. One may note too that one of the
beat accounu of the life of Sakyamuni produced during this century is that of the
famous French archaeologiat, AJfred Foucher, who tel11 the story in direct
relationship with the ancient let of places of pilgrimage. 9 He also enunciates the
interesting theory that many of the legend, that found their way into the early
traditional cycles of tales may have derived from the actual storytelling of the
ciceroni who showed pilgrims so many centuriea ago around the aacred places. It
should be emphasized that since we are primarily concerned with the develop-
ment of B11ddhi111D in India and beyond prior to iu promulgation in Tibet,
nothing ia achieved by reducing Sttyamuni'a proportions to those that auit
modern rationalizing views. The problem of the origins of Buddhist faith and
religious practice would me-rely be trampoaed to a later ~od, which on firm
evidence has to be pre-A&olr.an, and in effect nothing whatsoever would be
achieved. Crucial to the dcwlopment of Buddhlsm from its earliest 'known
fi • beginnings u what Slkyamuni's followers believed him to be and what they
believed him to have taught, and not the speculatiom of th01e, who seem
determined to separate hlm from the whole cultural and religious background in
which he most certainly lived and taught. Thus our familiarity with the main
t. places of pilgrimage, which were clolely a•ociated with him before A&oka's
r. time, help to keep us on a far aurer historical basis, relating cosmological ,
mythological and religiow concepts with the period to which they properly
belong, and thus not attributing to the central figure aoc:ialand political ideas
which would have been totally foreign to him. 10
J'
S. THE CONCEPTS OF SAil.fM.RA AND NIRY.i}!A.
a . The Nature of .$aiyamuni's Enlightenment
Taking the four major places of pilgrimage as points of reference, we can now
make a wrvey of fundamental Buddhist belie&, which have remained
practically unchanged during the spread of this great religion throughout _Aaia.
.t Some of these belie& have been developed in various ways, sometimes quite
-,~ 9 See A. Fou<:bct-, La -vi,d,,,Bou.Uhc d'a,,-.S la t,.r,n d In mo11u,,1,nt1 d6 l'lruJ, .
} 18 Two tt.11Mple1 may be gi-.en of books which 1t1empt to Offf•bumanbe SD:yan,uQibut with
'.j
..u:b different inlfflliona tht they may be aald 10 confute 011eanother. Thew are Mn. Rhys O.rids.
t ~ (tr Bvddhisl Oripu, alld Trel/Or Ling. Th, Bud.alvl.
::;
12 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
logically. sometim~ rather curiously. Also new belie& have been added from the
enormOU1store of Indian religious experience. How~er, despite such develop·
menta and changes, which we shall describe in due counc:. certain baaic beliefs
have remained. They may be listed thus:
Relative to the birth ofSakyamuni at Lumbini, we may note that:
(i) A Buddha ia not a unique being and hia birth at a suitable time and place
is in a certain sense predestined.
(ii) The final life during which he realiin Supreme Enlightenment u; the
result of heroic striving throughout a long aeries of previous lives. As such
a heroic .striver he is known as a Bodhisattva ("Enlightenment· Being")
and this quality of .heroic concern for all living beings is not necessarily
loat when he realizes the atate of nirvai;ia in this life. The early believers
were aware of the possibility of achieving enlightenment for one.self alone,
and a "Buddha" of such a kind was referred to as a Pratyekabuddha
("Lone Buddha").
Relative to his realization of Supreme Enlightenment at &dhgaya. we
may note:
(iii) Enlightenment was won by his own efforts understood as conditioned by
bis heroic strivings in previous Jives and by his acts in this his last life.
These inevitably include the progress made under two teachers, A.Iara
K'1ma and Uddaka Rimaputta, as well as the subsequent practitt of the
severest austerities, although he is represented as turning deliberately
away from them before entering upon the final stages of trance.
(iv) Enlightenment is characterized by a threefold knowledge: knowledge of
his own previow births, knowledge of the births and deaths of all living
being,. and knowledge of his release from the whole proceu. The proctt1
of birth and death and rebirth continuing endlessly. unless stopped in the
way which S'akyamuni now knew he had stopped it, ia described as a
twelvefold cauaal nexus, which he rum backward and forward in his
thoughts.
Since this threefold knowledge, in terms of which a Buddha 's Enlightenment
is described, is the very basis on which the whole superstructure of Buddhut
d~lopments through the cen.turie. has been raised, it certainly requires mott
detailed elucidation. Moreover it was the acquisition of this knowledge that won
for Sakyamuni preeminence over god, and men. It was this that earned him the
title of "Lord" (Bhagavan) and the faith and devotion of his followers. This
certainty of knowledge is aaid to have 10 transformed his phyaical appearance,
bestowing upon it such radiance and majesty that the five fellow-sttkers after
truth, who had turned away from him when he abandoned the practice of
extreme austerity, now .suddenly found his presence ines.istible, and accepting
his daml$ without question, became his first group of disciples. It is made
abundantly clear from the early canonical accounts that Snyamuni was
believed, and believed himself to have solved, the mystery of human existence, .
and ind~ of all fonm of phenomenal existence. What he saw with bis divine
lS
l.5.a
eye was the interminable meaningless succession of life and death in all its
various forms and he knew that he wu now released from the whole wretched
process, His earlier expcrienc-e, when still 5urrounded by the luxuries of his
father'• court, was that kind of aversion to the meaninglessness of such human
pleasureswhfll seen within the context of the inevitable process of old age and
death. which afflicts all living beings. This expe~ience lies at the root of much
religious effort, not only among the followen of Sakyamuni. The worthlessness
of riches. indeed the spiritual dangen of riches were certainly preached by Jesus
Christ, and some of his follOWlc'ra also throughout the centuries have drawn the
full logical implications of such teachings, abandoning the world as ttt0lutely u
did the early Buddhist monks. It may be tempting to make comparisons between
one such as Saint Benedict, who drew up his Rule according to a kind of "middle
way" avoiding self-indulgence on the one side and eitccssive a.sceticimi on the
other. But here we anticipate our story, for what we are concerned with now is
the fundamental mystical experience, which is the raison d'~tre of all later
Buddhist developmenca. The difference between Stkyamuni's earlier feeling of
revulsion for the world. which is by no means an uncommon human experience,
and the certainty of knowledge that be had now acquu-ed i1 u fundamental as
the difference betwttn sorrow and joy, between darkness and light. Thus,
writeTSwho treat Buddhism a, a religion of pesaimiam are eeeing only one half of
the picture. The earliest form in which Buddhist philosophy came to ~
expressed (we go into more detail below) is a form of dualism familiar to the
early Christian Fathers, and resolutely attacked by them u the Gnostic heresy.
Thus, with their fundamental view of existence, Buddhism and Christianity
never join cornpany, whatrver similarities may be noted in fonm of religious
practice. At the moment of the Enlightenment Sakyamuni was aware of two
planes of existence, absolutely distinct t.he one from the other. There was the
continual circling of phenomenal existence, known as sarpslra ( continuaJ
revolving) and as something quite other the stair of nirva~a (the extinction of
the continual process), which despite the negative terminology td'ers to t.hat
state of serenity that is the eNential attribute of a Buddha. Some Western critics
of Buddhism fail to take seriously enough the positive qualities of the state of a
Buddha, which are listed in much detail in the earliest known texts. Moreover,
there i1 a tendency to compare the aversion to the world with that form of
pes.,imism that can lead a human" being to the destruction of bis own life. Such
peuimism is quite unknown in Buddhism and in any case the taking of one's own
life could only lead to rebirth in a more wretched condition than one suffen at
present, for it mutt never be forgotten that the doctrine. or rather the dogma, of
inevitable rebirth (transmigration) is fundamental to Buddhism in all its forms.
There is certainly an early tradition of an arbat (literally meaning wwonhy" but
med as a title of Stkyamuni's early disciples who won through to nirv~a}
disappearing in an act of self-conflagration, but this was no act of despair, but a
sign that once all that bound w personality to the world had been dispersed,
continuing existence in it could be pointless . Only a Buddha remains by a
14 I. ORIGINS IN lNDIA u .a Sarpdra and Nirvlr)a 15

deliberate act of will in order to lead Other living beings along the path of the animal world, the world of tormented spirits and the realm of the hells. ~uch
deliverance. component parts clearly derive from the ~ncral world view of the early
The twelvefold causal nexus (P,at1tyasamucpada) announced at the time of Buddhitt centuries, of which it ia a considerable simplification arranged u a
Enlightenment as the formal expres.1ion of a Buddha's intuitive insight into the symbolic design. 12 At the ccnter of the wheel are depicted a cock, a snake and a
whole procea,iof sa,p.stra i1 by ita very nature a kind of dogmatic Jtatement, pig, rcpreaentin~ paasion, wrath au~ dcl~sion, the _three fundamental evila that
which requires no proof for believers. Thus it ia a form of re\'Clation, and etforu .·, 1 result in the conunual process of rebirth& ID the vanoua reahm. The realm of the
by Buddhiat commentators as well u non-Buddhist &eholarsto discover a logical ! gods comes as a reward for virtuous acts, but these alone are not sufficient to
relationship between the various renm of the nexus are probably miadire<:ted. ·-_:;':,;_,_·.
~, secure one release, and when one's &tore of merit is exhausted, one falls on
The list is best understood just as it is presented , namely as a sponuneous rebinh into a lower realm . The realm of the titan& is uaociated with quarrel·
searching back into the origins of death and rebirth, and apan from the Jf , 50me-nesa and jealousy, while the world of men otters the only real hope for
stimulation of desire which maintains the process and the transitory exiscencc of '•· salvation , depending upon one 's condition of birth in it. 19 Rebinh in the animal
the mental and physical components of which a personality is formed, no origin } world results from atupidity, amongat tormented spirits from avarice, and in the
exists except for tbe absence of knowledge (avidy4), which is precisely the various hells from anger and cruelty.
negation of the threefold knowledge achined at the momen, of Enlightenment. The twelve interrelated cauacs, which repre1ent, as it were, the mechanism of
Such knowledge and such ignorance have a kind of absolute existence in early' this wheel of existence, together with their symbolic representation, are:
BuddbiJt philoeophy. just like the pain of light and darknea, sorrow and bli•.
l. ignorance (avidJd) a blind old woman
As they an: the primary data of experience, they simply relate to one another a1
2. elemental impulses (sa'f&Shara) pots being made by a potter
opposites and no further explanation is neceaary. Sakyamuni insttucted his 5. consciousness ( vijtUna) a monkey pluclting fruit
monks on occasiom concerning the nature of nirvl~a and the clo,est one comes 4. personality{n4marupa) aboatonthejoumey
to logical deduction is the famous saying : 5. the Ax scn&e-organa (,sa{l4yatana) a house with many windows
There ia, monb, an unborn , an unbecome, an unmade, an uocom- 6. contact (sparJa) the act ofkia,ing
pounded; if, monks, there were not this unborn, unbecome, unmade, uncom, 7. feeling (vedana) a man with an arrow in h~ eye
8. detire(t.r;m.a) adrinking&eene
pounded, there would not here be an escape from the born, the become, the
9. appropriation (upad.tna) plucking fruit from a tree
made, the compounded. But becau.e there ia an unborn, an unbecome, an
unmade, an uncompounded, therefore there is an escape from the born, the 10. the process ofbccoming(bhaf.MJ) a pregnant woman
11. birth (i!Ui) a birth 1e:cne
become , the made, thecompounded. 11
12. old age and death (janlman~am) a corpec being carried to its place of
Here it i$ assumed that the phenomenal world (as born, become . made and disposal
compounded) is an object of personal experience, and it ia from this 8CU8e of
The interpretation of the relationship between the various tenns is assisted by
objectivity, experienced as fundamentally tragic, that release is eought. Salr.ya· the little symbolic illuatrationa, as lilted above, which arc act around the rim of
muni's analysis of the whole process of becoming as expresaed in the twelvefold the wheel. Logical interpretation may appear to be difficult because of the way
causal nesus has been used throughout the hi!tory of Buddhism as a means of in which the relationship fluctuata between the general and the particular or
evoking avcraion to the world and turning the thought toward those aspirations between rather more phil01ophical concepts than pychological ones.
that lead to release. The term sa,psira (continual revolving) suggest.aat once the Interpreted however u a process of actua l experience as one reflects upon the
idea of a wheel, and thus it is as the "wheel of existence" (bhavacalcra) tha t the inevitably unhappy lot of all living beings as they passs form the prenatal state
whole phenomenal process has been envisaged. This wheel-like design, duped into life and thence on to decay and death, where they fall once more into the
by Mara, the Evil One , is regularly portrayed in the porch of every Tibetan prenatal state of ignorance leading again u, unhappy rebirth, interpreted thm,
Buddhist temple (ace Pl. J) and the survival of a similar painting in Cave XVII no great difficulty need be found. 14 The list is presented as a statement of
at Ajan~ iuggem that such a practice was well established in Indian Buddhist ,:::s
monasteries . 11
For a &uctinctde8Crlptionof the Buddhist cosmologicalsystem.,$ee H. Kttn, M,ui114lof Indian
The wheel is divided into six segment,, representing six possible spheres of {; Bud.dlt1:rm,pp. 57-60.
rebirth; the realm of the gods, that of the titans or nongods, the human world, :ii " Allsu,;h condiliom w~ 1-tcr carefully lilted. Stt m1Fouf' La- of Dolpo. vol l, pp. 18-19.
.·,,1 14
A ayrnparhetk and quite helpful discut1ionof the whole matter is found In Waddell. Lamauns,
11 From tbe Udmto (Klu,.ddda-niY.)JCl). For the whole con1tiu - E. J. Thomas,&l-rly Butldltist } pp. 105,12!, if only one trmpers his emphasis on hthe in-.em-ate peasimisrDof Buddha's tthid' by
Scripttue.J,pp.109,111. tt!Ulndiog onndf that this i&but one side of the coin.
16 I. ORIGINS lN INDIA
Sakyamuni' s vision of the continual eye~ of rebirth., couched in term1 that soon
acquired, if indeed they did not already possess them, quite precise meanings.
Since it is fundamental to an understanding of the Buddhi&t world view, it
certainly merits serious treatment.
Ignorance refen in thia context to the absence of the savjng knowledge of the
Buddhist docrrine, which alone can bring the endless cycle to a stop. It is the
fumbling ignorance typkal of the intermedia1t state between death and rebirth,
known in later Tibetan tradition as the Bardo. Indeed efforts were made by later
spiritual guides to lead the befuddled depaned from such a state of ignor~nce to
at least aome glimmerings of recognition. •~The elemental impubea (sa~ara) or
perhaps more literally "coefficients," are conceived of as the basic factors,
e"ternal aa well as internal to the living being, which make poesible the appear ·
ance of his existence. Thus, without thr external ''visible" factors, his sense of
sight would be inoperative. We shall meet this term again , uaed in a more
restricted sense, in the set of five aggregrates (skandha) of which a living being
(sattva) is composed. Here it is used in a wider sense to include all factors,
physical and mental, which operate under the controlling influence of "con-
sciousness" (v,jifdna), the next on the list. The result is the apparent "per· -~ , .·
sonality," literally "name and form." Such a complete "personality" by means ofh _:.~,_~'-.•;'.'.
the six sense organs (eye, nose, ear, tongue, body, mind) makes "contact" wit
their respec t ive spheres of activity, thus producing "feeling," which results in "J, .
··desire."Dmrc leads to graspingor the act of appropriation,"which is the root ''i
0 reborn, low and high, of good and bad colour , in happy or miaerable
cause of the whole "p rocess of becoming," involving "old age and death."
Interpreted in this straightforward whaily, items 2 to 9 may adppear t?
refer _toany
apparent individual living being, w · e items 10 to 12 an re 1inking to item 1
refe r to the concomitant general nature of existence. Howevn, from a Buddhist
point of view there is nothing essentially illogical about this, since the individual
living being is alttady a false conception enmeshed in the general procetS of
becoming.
Illogicality, if any , exiau at another more fundamental level. and this prevents
any clear definition of the "living being" (sattva), who becomes manifest in the
"seriee" (santona) of rebirths . On the one hand Sikyamuni is represented as
viewing the process of existence as a continuing flux in which there is no abiding
entity, and yet on the other hand he taught quite clearly the doctrine of karma,
namely the inevitable effect of one', actions in thia and especially ln. succttding
lives. Moral responsibility for one's actions is a cardinal Buddhist teaching and it
is driven home in a wealth of "rebirth storiea," which relate the person of one
binh with the peraon of the next. Thil doctrine is clearly atated in an incontro·
vertible way:
Bejngs, student , have their own .karma, they are heirs of karma, their origin is
karma, they have karma as their kinsman, as their resource. Karma distributes
beings, that is, according to lowness and greatness.
I~ t'OI' furdlu ~tailuee thuectlo11 V.2.c.
1.3.a Sa'fllira and Nirviqa 17
Asked for a fuller explanation , Stkyamuni continues:
There is the case of the penon, a woman or a man, who takes life, cruel with
blood·stained hands, given to striking and killing, and without mercy to living
things. When that kanna is worked out and completed, with the dissolution of
the body after death, he ii reborn in a state of misery, in an unhappy destiny,
in a sta te of punishment, or in bell; or if he is not thus reborn, but attains the
state of man, wherever he is reborn he is short-lived .. .
There is the case of a per.on, a woman or a man, who has put aside and
refrains from taking life, who has laid aside the use of a stick or a knife and
dwells modest, full of kindliness, and compassionate for the welfare of all
living beinga. When that karma is worked out and compl eted, with the dis·
solution of the body after death, he is reborn in a state of happiness or the
world of heaven, or if he is not reborn in heaven but attains the s&ateof man,
wherever he is reborn he is long lived."
It is precisely a vision of this whole process on a cosmic scale which ia vouchsafed
co Slkyamuni at the moment of his enlightenment. Having recalled u the fint
aspect of his special knowledge all his own previous existences reaching back
endleS&lythrough many cycln of the dissolution of the universe , he is able to
_:_:
;·: recall the rela ted fates of all other living brings.
:..
With divine, purified, superhuman vision J saw beings passing away and being
jf. exi11tence1according to their karma. Thoee beings who lead evil lives in deed,
t.
r word or thought, who speak evil of the noble ones, of false vicwa, who acquire
karma through their false views, at the duaolution of the body after death are
reborn in a atate of misery and suffering in hell. But those bei~ who lead
good lives in deed, word and thought, who speak no evil of the noble o~s etc.
etc . are reborn in a happy state in the world of heaven . . . Thu was the second
knowled~ that I gained in the second watch of the night. 17
The third knowled~. namely Slkyamuni'a realization of his releaae from the
whole process, is associated with the dearuction of the three so-called pollutions
(tisra&1a) of semual desire, of desire for existence and of ignorance.
There arose in me emancipated the knowledge of my emancipation. I rcali1.ed
that dcstro~d is rebirth, the religious life has been led, done ia what was to be
done, there is nought (for me) beyond this world. Thia wa• the third bow·
ledge that I gained. in the laat watch of the night, Ignorance was dispelled,
knowlt!dge arose. Darkness was dispelled, light arose. So it is with him who
abides vigilant, strenuoua and resolute.
It is scarcely just to label such an exprenedrea lization of "truth" aa paaimistic
except from the viewpoint of a hedonistic man who regards all higher religious
striving, whether Christian or Buddhist, aa a total wa1te of human effort .
i. Stt £. J. Thomat. &?ly BuddAut Scrip,MffJ, pp. 127 ff. (., Majjlliraa-NiJ,iiyaIll, 202).
11
Stt E. J. Thonu.$ , Life of.Bllddha, pp . 6'1-8; also AndR Bareau, R«heTCnu I, pp. 75-91.
18 I. ORIGINS IN lNDIA
Although one may question the foundations of Sakyamuni's apparent belief in ~
the interminable nature of the cycles of rebirth and of the strict karmic con - ~--
nection within the varioua ,cries of the rebir th procea, the vanity of all hum.an :;.
atriving in the affairs of this world hu been taught by many other religious ·:l'l
teacheri , and if one allows for the often considerable differen ces in the cosmo- ~-
logical and philosophical background to their experiences, the positi"e , indeed :
optimi1tic, anawer given is that one should direct one 's striving toward those -~
things , hC>We\lffdifferendy conceived, that a~ beyond this world . Nor c.an thi9 ·~
involve neglect of concern fOl' other living beings who find themselves in the --~'.
same world. Even the monk who abandon, the world at Sakyamuni's behest is
dependent upon an accumulation of prcviow beneficial action• in this and in ..'
previoua Uva for reaching the time and place , when such iUl ac t of abandon- ['
mcnt be comes the next inevitable step. The emphaaia on high standards of ·
morality wu fundamental to Buddhiam from its origins, but here again Slkya· :~ '
mun i ha s not been the only great religious teacher who aea the limitations of the :·:
practice of good action• for their own sak.e.
Abo a11ociatedwith the gaining of Enlightenment ;, the contf!lt with the Evil ·f
One , Mm , signifying both Death aod Desire , in that Desire holds on e prisoner ·1'
in the endlm round of death and rebinh. The dcacription of this contest under ·
went very colorfw development, and the scene as depicted in later Buddhist art ?.
and the poaeof Sikyamuni , tcated cro.legged , and touching the eanh with the ?
tips of the ftngera of bis right hand in order to summon the earth-goddess u -::
witness againat the aSlertions of Mara, became in due cou rae the primary ·\
symbolic representation of the Enlightenment acene . In the earlier period the
Tree of Enlightenmnn itself wu conudered an adequate symbol . However. E . J. :
Thomas baa drawn attention to a teltl in the Plli canon -referring to the Mira \ ·.
incident, and thw it is clearly pan of an early tradition . Thu, , Mlra approaches ~ '.
Siir.yamuni , when be is nening himKlf in meditation , and aaya:
Lean art thou and iJl-favoured. near to thee iJ death, Death bath a thousand ·s,.
parts , only one part of d1ee is life . Live, good sir; life ia better . Living thou '?
&halt do good woru. 1f thou livett the religiOU1life, if thou sacrificeat the fire• ::
sacrifice, much good is stored up. What hut thou to do with arriving?
Su.yamuni replies: Friend of the sl0tbful , evil one , for thi~ own sake hut ::!i
thou come hither . No need for even the lea5t work of merit is found in ~ . :>
Them that have need of DM!rits let Mlra deign to addres, . Faith ia found in me .i1
and heroism and wisdom . Why d oest thou ask about life from me. who am ~l, :.
thue intent .18
Mira thus appean aa a aubtle tempter urging conventional "good works" as ~
more profitable than the rlgors of the ascetic life. and his full rok is represented i
by the illuatrationa of the "Wheel of Exinence ," mentioned juat above . which he {'
is ttgularly shownas holding in bis grasp. He is of the very eaence of sa~ra,
typified by the three evils of ignorance, desire and an~r. and he stands opposite ~:
11 fo, this cnract and its widtt coDtent see £. J. Thoniu , uf• ef Bu,idlui , pp . ?! ff . As, admir · 1·
abk S111d
y of Mara', slpific:ance is provided by T . 0 . Ling• .B~ • 1"' tl1.e M'jl/lo/cD of Erit. (
,.,.b Saspslra01!4Nlrvir,a 19
Slkya.muni , wboK title of '·Victor of Mara" aignifiea hi.a victory over the whole
phenomenal world by the ach ieving of nirv~ (/>ls. ltl , -'b) . One may note that
a• the dichotomy of 1aqisara and nirvli:ta disappears in the Mahayana teachings
of "relativity" and "universal sameness" , so the aignificance of Mlra u the chief
embodiment of evil tcnd.5 to l01e its doctrinal wcfuloe.s . Hia significance- 6 in
fact greatly weakened by his subdivision into four Mlras, and in Tibetan
Buddhism he becomes little more than one of many malignant demons (mDud ) .
However , he continues to aurvive in his earlier robust form u holder of the
'J "Wheel of Existence," which decorates the porch of evety Tibetan temple.
b. The Doctrine of "Ntm.ulf' and the Oharma - Theory
Continuing our aurvey of fundamental Buddhist belie& with the four major
places of pilgrimage as points of reference, we now come to the preillching of the
Fint Sermon io the Deer Park near Varaoasi , in n:spect of which we may note;
·J (v) The baaic teachings u given to the five fim converts consist of the
assertion that the B~ddha rec~mmends a middle way, a\loiding la:idty on the
ooe hand and ex.ceas,vehardshlp on the other , combined with certain mrco-
.1 typed acts of teachings known aa the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path. 19
The foUTmay be simply listed as (1) the existence of misery u defining the
normal conditions of ~a. (2) the cause of miaery which ia desire as funher
elaborated in the twelvefold causal nexw, (.5) the end of misery, which i. the
:i uprooting of this desire , and (4) the way of uproorin« misery u represented by
the Eightf old Path . This Path conaists of right views, right intention, right
apecch, ri~ht action, right li't'elihood, right cffon, right mindfulneiS, right
concentrauon.
:
-~r. ,: (\Ii) Sil:yamuni is said to have then immediately taught the five monks
concerning the nature of the apparent personality in tcnna of "nonsclf . ·~
Thi. basic teaching may be aecn as the foundation of "right views," the fir1t ·
··i1 member of the Eightfold Path, on which the wcceta of ~ religiou.s prac~
depends. It thus forms the buis, as a kind of dogmatic assenion, on which the
whole later edifice of Buddhist phil010phical invettigation baa been raised. Now
the "penonality' : o~ living beings (~uman beings come firat to mind) is amlyied
~ fivefold, co1111anngof body (rup,a). feeling, (wdanb}, perceptiona (sa~).
1, impulses (sa,,askdra) a~d consciousoea (t.#it411a). These arc the Five Aggregates
(s4ancllta)
. of penonaJ_tty. and they play an important part in Buddhist physio·
~logical theory nght through all Buddhist developments into the Vajraylna
(tntnc) pha11ewhere they become crucial to the elaboration of the mandala .
a,{ In giving the five first converts this primary les.,on in "right ,iews" Sny~~uni
declares that none of the five aggregates may be identified aa the Self (ciCman),
0
: Scd! ..J. Thomas. uf,. pp. 87-9 aod Andrf Bu ea.11
, R,rcAerchu J, pp. 1'12-8!.
., SecAnd.rt Barcau , R• clu-rchu I , pp. 192-B,
.\
)
20 1. ORIGINS IN INDIA
and we touch immediately upon the fundamental Buddhi$t teaching of "non.
self' (an4tman), which differentiated it from the very start from the more }t
onhodox forms of Hindu teaching.
The term Hindu is an exceedingly general one embracing all aspecu of Indian
culture prior to the Moalem invasion&, which resulted in the disappearance of
organized Buddhism from the land of its origin and gradually reaulted in the ;i
more restricted use of the term Hinduism as referring to Brahmanical religion
distinct from other religious developments which have remai~d active in ·ff.:
India.n However, it is important to emphasize the earlier connotation of the
term, observing that Buddhiun developed throughout the whole of iu hi.Rory on
Indian soil (approximately the fifth century B.C. to the twelfth century A.O.)
within a more general Hindu context. Once this ill realized, both Buddhist j{
origins a.s well as the whole later complicated development of the doctrine 1,.
become much more comprehensible. Buddhist thinker& were often provoked :li
into opposition to the teachings of other acbool.sand precisely for this reason it is
within the context of the teachings o~other sc~ools that Buddhillt teac~ings must
be understood. The "nooself' doctrme. also mtttpreted as the doctrine of "no · !l 1
soul", bas been understood all too often in terms of neo-Platonic or Christian
medieval philosophy, and while tbia may well be one legitimate kind of } .
comparison, it should not be taken as the only one or even as the main one. ? ;.-
In an interesting atudy published more than thirty yean ago 12 Herbert } :_·.
Guenther draws attention to the various meanings of dtman in Sakyamuni's time :~ ::·
and in the following centuriet. None of these need come as a surprise to anyone .'.f/.::
who is familiar with forms of local ttligious beliefs which have not been ,uper· f{ ·
seded by the special teachings of some "higher religion." In Europe in earlier
times, as much as in Asia, Africa and the Americas, people have believed in an-¥i.
kinds o{ "souls" in trees, in stones, in animals a& well as in various parts of the '5/,
body. While some of the Uparu,adl were already teaching a doctrine of a };
superior form of "soul" (4tman), which should realize its ultimate potential in
unity with a kind of"univenal soul" (brahman), such ideas were scarcely current ft- ':
amongst the wandering ascrtics who formed the first groupa of Stkyamuni's l,~ '·
cl
disciples. Although the "great god Brahma" is mocked in early Buddhist texu _' if ':
for imagining fabely that he is eternal, I believe I am correct in saying that no J ;:·
mch early text hu yet been found where the term brahman is used in the ;}~
" O~ might draw imeresong analogies between HiDduum before ~ Moslem conque.t and ·}
jewi$.breligion bdore the deattucdoo of the Jewish $Ute in A.O. 70. Wbettas before this tline J-ith ;._·;"
religion Included a variety of groupa and KCIII.tome ofwbom, ,uch as those of. Q.u:mran, cut them- } ·,
sel~ off entirely from the 1emple cult of Jerusalem, thus exhibiting a kind or religiO\L\fttedom :i~;:
which only became inaufferable when the wholeJewish way of life was under threat, "' Hinduism {f·'.
bqan to manifat i*lfin similarly hanher Conm, when all ii• mosc fKred tradition. were liable to~;/\ ;:
be Ollfflhrown by Moslem ndcn and when iuch formal direction of Hind11life aa was siill posaible.\1
became tht, reapolllibility of leading Brahllli111inmad of the fa& more liberal ·minded Hindu rulen .;~
who bad p~QU&lJ aood ac the bud of Hindll llOCW<y . J1111 as Chrinianity bad iie orip,, in this fz«r ·:t
form ofjeviah religion. 10 Budd.hiSll'Ihad not only ita origins but aleo und-nt an ia la~r Jnclian '}
developmerua within thr contest of a {rttr fonn of Hinduism.
n D.u Seelfflp,-ol>lemim dlt~r-ni Bvddhismus.
I.S.b 21
sense of a tranquil absolute in which the individual atman ia absorbed . It is thus
likely that the early Buddhists were understanding the term atman in an equally
J p0pular se1\St!and scarcely in the seneewhich we ha¥1elearned to aaaociate with it
f from reading modem works about the higher forms of Hindu teachings. Slkya·
J muni's sermon to the five first converu is quite suggestive in this respect; ·
The Body, monks, is not the cttman. If the Body, monks, were the atman, this
J~ body would not be subject to sic:kneas, and it would be pO!lSiblein the case of
the body to say; 'Let my body be thus! Let my body be thust>n
J
ji The pme argument is used of the other four aggregates, Feelings, Perceptions,
~t Impulses and Consciousness. Similarly elsewhere he teaches:
The eye, 0 monks, is not the 4tman. That which is not the 4tman is not mine;
that belongs not to me; what I am not, that is not my atman. Thwi should one
who posseues right knowledge, regard his own being. The noe. O monb, is
1 not th<-4tman, etc.
~i The same argument continues for the ear, the tongue, the body and the mind.t•
In roany such teachings the meaning of 4tman comes close to "life force" (jim),
:t which is yet another of the contemporary terms for "soul" rigorously rejected by
Sakyamuni's followers.
Quotations such as thote juat cited have bttn wed in an effort to prove that
Sikyamuni did not himself deny a higher principle in man and that the Buddhuc
doctrine of "no self' as developed in the early canonical scriptures is the creation
of scholastic minded followers who could not understand the subtleties of his
J teaching. 2~ But for this the texts are being pressed too hard. Before commenting
further, we may allow ourselves one more quotation, which has been often cited,
where Sakyamuni is asked directly whether the atman e:xis11or not.
Then the wandering monk Vacchagotta came to where the Ble11ed One was
N; staying, and when .be had come, he greeted the Blessed One. After exchanging
friendly words of greeting, he sat down by his side. Seated thus at his side the
wandering monk Vacchagotta asked the Bleaeed One: '
"How is it, noble Gotama, is there an4tman?"
When he spoke thus, the B)essed One remained silent.
"How is it, noble Gouma, ii there then no 4tman ?"
:,)
i Again the Blessed One remainrd silent, so the wandering monk Vaccha·
gotta rose from his seat and wenfaway.
'.
Not long after he had gone away the worthy Ananda asked the BleSled One:
''How come's it, Lord, that the Blessed One failed to reply to the question
_- asked by the wandering monk Vacchagotta?"
"If I had replied to him, Ananda, when he atked the qurltion: 'Is there an
dtman ?' by saying that there is, then I would ha~ been supponing the
teachings of those aKetics and brahmans, who speak of permanence. If I had
n .
pp. 88-9 and comp,re(»uelltbrr, op. ~il., p. 20.
See £.j. Thoma5. Lif« of B11.dJ.Ju,,,
~ Guen1ber, op. cit., PP-SO-~l (Sa7!'y1,tt•·Nwi:,aJV.!): -. alao £. J. Thomas. &wl1 Budd/list
t Smp,urt$. pp. 192·9.
j/; zs For example- C. A. F. RhysDavids, S.ltyaorBllddhist ~ . pp.1951f.
~

22 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
replied 00 him , when he asked the question : 'b ~ere no atma~ ?' by sayingl ,
that there is not , that would have been supporung the teaching,; of thoSC,ir .
ascetics and brahmans, who speak of annihilation. If I had replied. to him, l , ...
when he asked the question: 'ls there an ~tm~n?'. by saying t.hat.tbere u, would j ;>
that have served the purpme of awakenmg 111 him the realizauon that all thc,i ·:.·
elements(dharmas) are non-self?" f ··
"It would not, Lord: ' .',~. :·
"If I, Ananda, had replied to him , when he asked: 'Is there no atman? ' by\•
saying that there is not , that would have re.ultcd in his falling from_ one {i ,,
delusion into a still greater one: 'Alas, the dtman that I once had , that I.S no ,_~. ,..
more.' '' 16 ·.J: .
There ia nothing agn06tic about this argument , which ia perhaps best understood _f ' .
by considering the third powbility given, namely if an atmari is auerted, this is·:t
liable to he understood as somehow existing in or adhering to the elements t
(dharmas) , a view, which hkyamuni was at paim to refute , when he said thu l
the Body and the oth er four aggregates, the eye and the other five organs of} ..
sense were not the 4tman. )~
The whole of samsara is conceived as fluctuating conglomerations of};
"elemenrA.. known u dharmas, which manifest themselves momentarily so~·'1
thing like the dots of which the images on a television scrttn are composed.fl ·};
The dots are conceived of as "impulses" (saflUktlni) and the resulling image isl'
impetmanent and so "self-less" (andtmata). The five aggregaus (sk4ndha)
which the transienl personality is composed, are either themselves elements, a&} ' ·
ofr ...
in the case of "consciousness ," or conglomerations of element s, a, in the case of~f
"body ." Body, for example , consistsofeanh(= hair, flesh, nails, teeth , bones, ~;;· .•
etc., in £act whatever is hard), water (gall, pus, blood, sweat , etc ., whatever isI
fluid), fire ("that by which a man heats himself, consumes himself, worri.esJ,
him.elf and digcats his food") and wind ("in the stomach, in the lower body, that J ,
which passes through the limbs and that which is breached in and out")' ,J :
Moreover the "body,'' referring to form of any kind, posseaes sense-data, visuaJ,j . ;_
auditory, olfactory, Oavorous and tactile, all of which are concei ved of aa: jt
"elements ." A silent bell will comprise visual and tactile elements . If it is struck .J
lhe action causes auditory -type elem~ts to become manifest, and the bell then ;t
appears to be heard as well as to be touched and to be seen. Accordingly an eyei ,
pos11essesvisual-sense elements and an ear auditory-scme elements necessary for ;f
the apparent seeing and hearing of the bell. Thus bodily form can comprise a:;;
to San;i)IVlf4 •Ni4'iyo 1V.400ff. Compare Guenther , op. ,it ., pp . 25-6. J '.i.
It is very diff'te:uk to find a 111.itabletraa&lation for the term ,,.___
!'I bu t ,ome aurmpt is}
nece,sary in ord er oo udst readers wbo att unfamili a r with it. 111interpretation a, winething like\
" firm reality" will cover both its eh~{ Buddhist meanings of Saam Law or ltdigion u well u dw of '1
"exincntial demem ." Thn:e lut are the "ukimate realities" of all existence. Kenneth K . loada 1nbia )
work on N4giitjuna protcsta against the tnnsl.Ation"elemems of existence " because Oili1aaMO<.-ution
wuh die cadier Western materialis«ic conceptiom of &heultimate dcme11ts of exlttence (pp. 7-9)-1
Tbuf Iv ptt&rs a tramluion "futon of cxpaiencr ." Hcnrever. since the rather more recent p~
in pbysio h a1 diapened thee matei-ialilli c cancepti-. I retain the ttanslation "ekme11u. •• Perhapl ;).i
"manifating ckmenia" might be mo re pl'«iac, but it ia too ai m beno'IJIC'.
u .c Satpalra and Nirv~a
total of four gr°" elements, eanh, water, fire and air, and ten subtle elemenra ,
five sense-elements and five aensadon ,elements, which create the relatioriahip
between &ubjcct and object .
Mental elemenu are far more numerom and are lilted in more or less
arbitrary groups . The principle followed sugge&tStha t whatever quality can be
named, may be accepted u an "elem ent. " There are ten general elemenu,
headed by feeling and perception (two of the five aggregates) and continuing
with will, sensation, undenlanding, memory , etc . There ar e ten good elements,
belief, courage, attentiveness, etc., six obscuring elements, ignorance , careless·
nCIS, indolenc e, etc .. ten vicious elements, anger , hypocrisy, deceit, etc ., and 10
on. No difference is suggested between what we would call physical and mental
elements. If a name can be given, the name suggeacs a thing. and it is of such
things or "realities" (dharmas) that the whole of phenomenal exittence is
momentarily composed in a continuous Nccession of moments .
c. The Relatittity of Philosophical&plmUJticns
Neither Sik.yamuni nor even hia followers invenled such a &)'Itempurely out of
ideas of their own. They were accepting the philosophical conceptions of their
times, when everything wu conceived of materialistically . Indeed variant forms
of .such materialistic pluralism arc foo.nd not only in other Indian schools but
also in the pre-Socratic philoeophy of Greece . No suggestion of influence eitlwr
way need be implied, for we are simply concerned with the same kind of early
efforts to explain phenomenal existence , whether in India or in Greece . The
early BuddhistS certainly strove to be carefully arutlytical in their philoeophical
reasoning, but while sa~sira (phenomenal existence) could be analysed within
the terms of current ways of tho ught , nirvl~a u it wu experienced could not be,
as it came abou t prttisely when the whole analyzabk s~lra was brought to a
stop. Thus at best it could be conceived phil010pbically as a blank like apace or
as the nonmanifestion of something that was previously manifest (e.g .• a light
which is extinguished) . Since nirv~a is known aa a state of which nothing can be
pttdicated, nothing is gained by attempting a definition. It was known by
experience to be attainable and that in itself is all that matters. Some early
Buddhist schools listed nirv~a. space and "nonmani.featation " as elements
(dharmas) for the only reason that they were thut name able, but they were
defmed as "unconditioned " (11S4f1Ukr'4)as opposed to all the condi tioned
(sa7"Skrta) elements of which the s~lra was fleetingly composed . These two
terms, the conditioned and the uncond itioned, were often used later as
synonyms for sa~ura and nirvtJ:ia.
Any religion that posits a kind of "supernatu ral'' state as distinct from the
"natural" phenomenal state confronts philosophical problems at one point or
another when its exponents attempt to establish a possible relationship between
·+,
the two. The early Buddhists avoided certain problems by admitting no
J analytical relationship between sa1'lsara and nirva\}a. Any conception of a "self '
or a "peraon" existing as a permanen t or even as a quas ipermarw.nt element
.·.,
24 I. ORIGINS JN INDIA
would have introduced a conU'adiction into theif whole elaborate scheme of
conditioned and nonconditioned elemenu. 29 However, the contradiction, or at
least an apparent contradiction, is thereby removed to the level of practicalities
and of general religious belief. Expreacd rather more dramatically, tbe
apparent contradiction exisu between Sikyamuni'a revelation at the time of the
Enlightenment and the Doctrine as formulated in consequence of his first
pTCaching. According to his revelation:
t. Phenomenal existence (sa)l\slra) is a continual pTOc:e8'of birth, death and
rebinh. Whatever joys there may be in life att inevitably transitory. Suffer.
ing predominates even here, and it certainly predominates overall as a
reault of the continuing circle of ticlmeea, old age and death .
2. A human being can escape from this wretched process by following the
path that Slkyamuni has shown. Sa1vation of this kind may require several
or even many rebirthe but throughout, the person ii responsible for hia own
destiny and real progress can thus be made from one life to the next.
5. Unhappily most human beings as well as all other living things remain in
ignorance of the true state of affllirs, and al the time of his enlightenment
Sakyamuni could 5Cethem passing from one life to another in the wretched
round of existences .
4. Sa.kyamuni also had a vision of his own previous lives going back into a
limitless past. Throughout his own series of lives ju&t as throughout the
series of livesof others, be was aware of a personal connection between one
life and the next . In his teaching& Sakyamuni often refers to the previous
lives of his interlocutors, connecting them with events in their present lives.
Moreover the early Buddhist scriptum1 contain whole coJlections of linked
stories. illuatrating the principles on which the process of rebinh can be
~en to operate. Western scholars and some modern Buddhiats tend to
dismiss these stories as mere legends. Even though they are legends, they
cannot be so lightly dismieaed,since they are employed in all seriousnesa to
illustrate cenain fundamental teaching& which relate essentially to SAkya-
muni's enlightenment.
According to the Doctrine formulated as a result of bis preaching:
1. Phenomenal existence is a continual process of birth, death and rebirth,
quite as wretched in its effecta as he proclaimed it to be .
2. Phenomenal existence is analyzed as a fluctuating totality of traru.ient
elements (dhannas) . These elements are the only "realities" in this trans-
ient world, and persons and t,hinga apparently complete in tbemaelves (a
favorite example is a cart) are nothing more than temporary conglomera-
rions of certain basic elements. There is thus no "being" (sattva), "self'
(4tmaii), "life-force" {jfva) or "person" (pudgala) who can provide a link
from one life to the next.
u One Buddhist school known as 1he Vauiputriyu did inde,,d i-it"' penon (P,.~a/a) as neithl!r
e1ernal, nor nonetemal, a, ~ither id<mtical with the floe aggnogau,1 of personality. DOI'diffel'ffll
from them, but such an Idea was easily shown to be n~ by their opponems and thua the
pudfolc remained a scc:tarian notion. For rd'Ct'encesStt Nalinabba Dutt, Buddhist See~ in India.
pp.197-m .
J.!l.c Sa~sara and Nirvi~
s. The effective link is provided by karma (action) understood as the.sum
total of a person's acti.ons, good or bad, in his present and all preceding
Jives of the series. The effects of.such karma result in separate aeriesof
lives, which give the false impression of a person actually being reborn
from one life to another. It is interesting to nore therefore that the word for
aeries (Sanakrit santcina; Tibetan rgyud-pa) comes to have the actual
meaning of "transmigrating soul" or something very similar. There is no
other strictly orthodox term available.
4. Since a human being inherii:s karma and is thus endowed u a result of his
Mrma with moral responsibility, he can change the direction that his "life.
series" would otherwise have taken if only he will act in a suitable manner.
Here external influences can be all important, such as preeminently being
born in a place and at a time that a Buddha is preaching his doctrine, bur
even thia happy circumstance is the result of previously accumulated
Mrma .
Christian thinkers have wratled with the problem of God's foreknowledge of
events inevitably suggesting a doctrine of predestination as agaiD4tthe apparent
factor of human fr~ will. Buddhist thinkers on the other hand seem to accept
placidly the anomaly of karma as an all-controlling force and the everyday
experience of a man's seeming ability to make a free decision to do righr or
wrong. Moral responsibility is thus accepted as one of the given data of experi•
ence, as represented by such "elements" in the human being's transient make-up
as belid', courage and attentivencu. It may safely be assumed that no greater
proportion of practicing Buddhists than of practicing Christians have concerned
themselves with abarure doctrinal problema, and that is why those that write
about Buddhism as though it were nothing more than a severely rational system
of doctrine and practice can be very misleading, if their views are taken as
anything more than a particularized interpretation. The rationalizers were
always in a minority in previoU$centuries, a.nd it is only in this modem rational-
iting age in which we now ftnd ourselves that their argumerua have been given a
,ignificance that they did not previously have in earlier times when the
rationalizers them,elves were usually men of religion. Such conaiderations have
considerable bearing upon the devotional aspects of the Buddhi\l religion.
which surely had their beginninga during Sttyamuni'a lifetime, when he was
already honored by his followers with the titles of Bodlauattva and Buddha.
The elaborated theory of rJ'harma:s a• impenonal fluctuating elements,
although representing the earliest known Buddhist philosophical 1ystem, is
nonethe~s a later compilation, and its attribution to Sakyamuni himself
remained a matter of dispute among the early schools. From the start there was
not only a majority of Buddhists unconcerned with abstruse analytical notions,
but also a vocal minority who refused to accept such doctrinal formulation as
"canonical." The earliest collections of the Buddhist scriptures consisted of
boob on monastic ordet' (Vlna,a), although theae contained much ebe beside•
in illusttation of how the various ru.les came to be formulated, and boob
containing anecdotes and teachings of Sikyamuni and of his disciples and
26 l. ORIGINS IN INDIA
followers. These last, known as Sutras or "Threads ( of Discourse)," contained
much doctrinal matter of a spontaneow kind. Gradually a third collection was
compiled, known as A bhidha't'T114 ("Further Dhanna"). in which attempts were
made to codify the doctrine in a more scholastic form. This last collection was
rejected by some groups as noncanonkal. Thus in the earliest times it must have
call8Cdconaiderable controveny, although it was not until three or four ceru:uries
later that other collections of texts began to make their appearance, claiming to
be the "Buddha Word" and deliberately refuting the whok theory of "real
dharmas" with all ita pluralist and materialist implications. This new literature,
known as the "Perfection of Wisdom" (Prajiiaparamit4) provided the doctrinal
basis for the great religious movement which was self-named the "Great Way''
(Mah4yd714) as opposed to the "Inferior Way" (Htna:,(lna), which ics followttS
now claimed to surpass.
Although many of the aspecu of the Mahtyhta will be covered in the next,
chapter, we cannot delay reference co it now, aince mo5t of its roots must be held
to lie in the earlier period that we are now considering. Hlnaytma and Mahlyana
are all too often described as tho~ they were two quite distinct forms of \ ·
Buddhism, and this separate treatment has been assisted by the accidental Jf-
survival due entirely to historical circumstances of one Hinayana school, namely
that of the TheravWins. in Sri Lanka and other countries of Southeast Asia.
However, there were many other early Buddhist sects, traditionally numbering
eighteen, and some of these were responsible for the gradual tranaition of their
Master's teachings from the early stage, where they were directed primarily to a
group of personal followers, to the latter stage when they were reinterpreted and
made available to a very much larger number of adhettnts of very different
cultural background. in lands where the first few group of disciplea had never
traveled. Such an eirpansion of any religious teaching that is on its way to
becoming a world religion is inevitable, for if the expansion and consequent
development of the!original doctrine had n0t taken place, it would simply have
run its own course on its own limited territory and probably have bttn heard of
no more_ Those who have the faireat claims to represent a form of the original
teachings arc usually those who for accidental reasom have been cut off from the
main historical streams of the religion in question. n Their claims may be on
many scores genuine. but they have lost much by clinging to them.
Probably the most poignant description of the differences between Hfnaytna
and MahAylna is that given by the great Russian scholar Th. Stcherbatsky and it
deacrves to be quoted at this point, despite its calculated exaggeration, as
presenting a problem that requires solution.
29 So far as the bi&1oryof Cbrinian deYclopmenl5is r.onttmed, lhis might be said 10 apply w those
l".uly groups of Chmtian adherc:nia of exduwvdy Jewish background who 5Urviving the faJl of
jcnaaalem in A .O. 70 continued 10 rrm.iin cut off from w ..Grrat Church" of tbe Mrdite-tTanean
world. The Tha.-.adina of Sri l.anka wett cu1 off in a similar way from late.- Budi.ibisr devdopmenu
on 1he Indian mainland. but they mjoycd • far more glociou• future 1banb to their coniacu with
other Sou1hca&tAlian coun1riff, notably Burma, whrre Buddhist influenus tontinuNI 10 be very
111·ong,
I,S.c S3Jlllara a.nd Nirvii,a 27
It has never been reali.r.ed what a radical revolution hu transformed the
Buddhist church when the new spirit, which however for a long time was
lurking in it, arrived at full eclosion in the first centuries A.O. When we see an
atheistic, soul-denying philosophic teaching of a path to personal Final
Deliverance consisting in an absolute extinction of life, and a .simple worship
of the memory of iu human founder. when we see it superseded by a magni·
ficent High Church with a Supreme God, sunounded by a numeroua pan·
rheon, and a host of Saints, a religion highly devotional, highly ceremonial
and clerical, with an ideal of Universal Salvation of all living creatures, a
Salvation not in annihilation, but in eternal life, we are fully justified in
maintaining that the hiatory of religions has scarcely wi~sed such a break
between new and old within the pale of what nevcrthelea continued to claim
common descent from the same religious founder.' 0
It is noteworthy that this RUJ1ianscholar's invaluable books on Buddhism are
concerned almost exclusively with philosophical disquisition and that he was
writing this particular book as a vigorous rebuttal of the argumenu publmied by
that great French schoJar, Louis de la Valltt Poussin, in his hook entitled Nirvd-
na, where far greater consideration is given to those aspects of early Buddhism
~hicb are no« strictly doctrinal. It may be observed that cxdusivrly doctrinal
_ ·.~_
:_-:;:::
·:, _::,:i,:,'.
_:,
considerations become all the more misleading when they are interpreted in
~; Western terms. Thw while euch termt as "atheilltic" and ~soul-denying" may he
in some respects applicable to certain early Buddhist teachings. they are totally
misleading when applied to early Buddhist beliefs u a whole. We have noted
above how Slltyamuni himself was careful not to deny or assert the existence of a
- "soul" (atman), and he! can scarcely be called atheistic in any way compre-
hensible to a Westerner, when be seemingly claimed to be, and was certainly
acclaimed by his early followers as, the superior of gods and men.
N0t only was the central doctrine of rebirth t~ther with that of pcraonal
~~
?t moral responsibility for one's acts clearly stated, but a belief in personal survival
:'t
J throughout one's future rebirths wu alao firmly inculcated. The whole coune of
i;; a Bodhisattva (would-be Buddha) leading through many lives up to the final life
i( where buddhahood i1 achieved, aseumed just such a form of penonal continuity,
l and this was precisely the course that Sakyamuni had run, and which others
could and would run after him. Scholutic teachings of real but ever vanishing
.,
·.>;1.
i elcmcnu, which are supposed to explain the whole cosmological process, leave
untouched the central religious convictions. and it was inevitable that such
philoeophical view, should be challenged as untenable. This was done by turning
against them one of their central arguments, namely their contention that if the
whole being or the person ie not real, then the elements of which it is composed
.':.t 1GThe Co,u,ptioN of BuddAQI Nir1181)1',p. !16. The n••rawl
bet-m Hinayana and Mahayana may have 1IOffle 11Ubltantt if-
diltinaion, 1hat he draw,
coni:ruu tlw modem prat'lice of
J 8uddhlsm in Sri -Lank.a and its praco~ io Tibetan communities today (1,_,_ now in exile, la it be
undeu,ood). Foe my own toul rtjcction of any idn of such a dichotomy Hilting even in se,,entb
c~ntury India, Cen1ral Asia or nen during rhe early periodof Tibet's convcnlon 10 B11ddhiffll. s~
·,,·
below 11«tion IV. I.a, Such difference, are un1hinbbl~ in tbc "first centuries .~.n.. " wba1c~r dwe
J
t sttaage word "~closion" may mean.

28 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
must be real. The answer to um is •imply why? Jf the Atman has no self-exi.uent ·; :
nature, then why should the dharmas (elements) ~ssess one? They are even} ~ <
more transitory and unreal in their manifestation. Sakyamuni had rejected au.:_.;, :.
questions concerning the eternity or none<ernity of the univen;e, of the existence: } ·; .
or nonexistence after death of one who has achieved nirvAiµ. u meaninglea. lf (~ ;.
indeed he had taught the noncxistencc of a self, how could he have dung to ,'fa: , /·
belief in the existenl:1! of real elemental particles? Such a belief was held in ;~ ·.·
particular by the adherents of the sec~ known as the Sarv~tivtdins and ill waa
presumably in reaction against so extreme a view that the reality of the
elemental particles (dharmas) came to be so fervently denied. Such a denial.S~
inevitably came after web an affirmation, but those who denied the validity of.} (i
these materialist principles could claim with good reason that they were in effect
re~rting to a fairer expression of Sakyamuni's teachings. The way to rectify such :l? '..·
wrong views wu to produce suitable teachings and promulgate them as the wo~
of the Buddha just as their opponents had done earlier on. Thu&, later in time a&
it certainly is, the Perfection of Wisdom literature can make u good a claim .u {
the Abhidharma texts to represent genuine Buddhist cracbings. The pheno- :'!j,
mcnal world had been dacribed from the earliest period as misery (dul_ikha), ;u}
rransicnt (anitya) and as "self-lCIS" (anatman). Another term came into use,
namely "void" (.funya). Applied by the Sarvastivadins to entities; which were if
diagnosed as "empty" conglomerations of real t!lemental particles, this term J
came to be used by their opponents to describe the particles themselves. Thus
was developed the use of the all-important word H.nyatd ("voidnesa"), which wu ·iE,.·.
said to characteme everything that could be named whether relating to saqisara {f' ·
or to nirv~J].a. Here we touch on developments which must be considered in the ?{ i,,
next chapter, but it is important to remember that such later de~lopments have ;;,.: '
direct references to beliefs held in I.be earlier period. There is no clear break
between the two. ;;,.
The later descriptions of Sakyamuni's first preaching, as preserved for us in
Tibetan histories of Indian Buddhism, which can only draw on Indian
traditions, many of them lost, tell how Sakyamuni turned the "Wheel of the JJ ,.
Doctrine'' three times. First he taught according to the terminology that wu
suitable for the early disciples as represented by his five fint converts. Next he :} ;·
taught the doctrine of universal "voidness~ as represented by the Perfection off •
Wisdom literature and finally he taught the doctrine concerning Pure Con· ~1 .'
ac:iomneea, which waa a combination of tlw. previous two. More will be told of ) '
these doctrines later on, but it is important to realize that while the main teneu .}
of his religion have remained unchanged over the centuries, there has been " :j 1
considerable shift in their philosophical exposition." \,
31 Thil la.n muA be ~pnled as normal and hcallhy in the caae of any great 1eligion. Christianity I.
likewisew0111dbe in .- aorry pas if it comimied to exprea iuelf solielyin the cc»mological and philo· {
aophical thcwiea of the fint three a:m\lriea, OT o:ven if it were bound 10 tbe doctrine,, of mediev.-1:l
pbilotoopben.
·:::.
:<.:
.~ J,4 .a Pretnninenceof Budd.ho.hoot!
}1·,
;;.:
·: .::.-,,.
.r;
4. THE PllEEMINENCE or BUDDBAHOOD
a. Saliyamuni as Buddha and Man
Turning now to the last of the four major events of Sakyamuni 's life, namely
hi& passing into final niIVin;ia at Kuiinagra (identified with the pre1ent-day
village of Kasia thirty·fi~ miles due east ofGorakhpur), we may note that
(vii) The tomblike mounds (stupa) erected over his remains became the
1J' primary symbol of his passage into a supramundane state, thus coming
t to be accepted aa the supreme symbol of otherworldly aspiration.
(viii) Slkyamuni himself, as Bodhisattva and Perfected Buddha, was the
inspiration for the formulation of Buddhist doctrines concerning the
l .. nature of a Buddha. Complex buddhalogical theories were developed
and these gradually assumed generally accepted formulation over the
J,:. next seven centuries.
J According to unduputed early Buddhiat tradition Sakyamuni's physical remains,
having been cremated, were divided between ten townships. who each built a
stupa over their share. There were said to be eight shares of the actual relics, but
the brahman who shared them out claimed for his village of Droi;ia the vessel
!; which had contained them, and a brahman boy who had assisted at the
ceremony claumd the burning ashe. for his village of PippalAyana. It is
altogether a rather curious story and perhaps results from a firm tradition that
J prior to the Emperor Aioka's interest in Buddhism in the third century B.C. thc:rc
had been originally just ten st\'\pas reputed to contain the relics of Sakyamuni
himi;elf.st There were, however, probably many more in existence by that time,
containing the relics of some of the leaders of the community who succeeded
him . It i.i certain that from the time of Aioka onward, such stupas were being
i .: built all over the Indian subcontinent, wherever the doctrine spread and
established itself. The relics in their casket seem to have been placed not under
·t ; the commemorative mound but in a square shrine oa the summit, which was in
r: turn surmounted by an umbrella fashioned out of wood in order co emphasize
the augwu nature of the relic&. The mound itself was surrounded by a wooden
J; •· palisade with entrances to the four directions in order to mark the separation of
the sacred and the profane. Stonework modelled upon the earlier work in wood
llllIVivcsat several sites from the second century B.C. onward. t'amous exampl~
of such eady stoneworked stupas'are found at Saiici (near Bhopal in Madhya·
pradcsh), one of the beat pre.eIVed Buddhist sites in India thanks to the
ttconstruction carried out by the Archaeological Survey (Pls. 2, ,. 6); the
remains of the famous 1tt1pa of Bharhut (near the small town of Satna nearly I 00
miles SW of Allahabad) were taken in the old British days to the Indian Museum
J~ ' in Calcutta, which now contains a remarbble collection of Buddhist sculptun:.11
representing the change.s that took place during the seventeen hundred years
• A n.wnber of meful bibliographical refereoa,1 to !he -n.u will be found in I Jbort artlde of
inln.e. "Sikyamuni'sFin.al Nirvi9a." Bulkli11 of w
XXXVl (197S), pp.S99-411.
Scltool of Orlffllal fl Africa• Studies, vol.
.:}
30 1. ORIGINS IN INDIA
and more that Buddhism continued to thrive on Indian soil. The stone railing.,
replacing the earlier wooden palisad~, and especially the oma~e stone gateways
are of primary importance for ~e h~ory of early buddhalogscal c?ncepts, for
their sculptures fix with a certainty which no early texts can do, subp:t as these
are to a continual process of reformulation, the beliefs which were already held
concerning the nature of a Buddha by the second century B.C. Two features of
these early stone carvings are especially aignificant: firstly Sakyamuni himself is
never represented in human form and secondly the inset scenes, when ~t
concerned with the great events of his lalt life, are largely concerned wnh
illustrating the more famoua of his pl'CYiouslives. Where Sakyamuni would be
expected to appear either u Bodhisattva or Buddha there ii simply a blank.
Thw the scene iJlustrating his winning of enlightenment shows an empty throne
with the Tree of Enlightenment behind it and that illustrating the preaching of
the tint aermon shows an empty throne with a Wheel of the Doctrine. These two
symbols, the tree and the wheel, as well as carvings of the stllpa itself, corne to
repre1ent a Buddha according to his main activitie•, winning cnlighte~nt,
preaching and passing into nirvtr;ia. Thus not only Stkyamuni, but also preYJoua
Buddbaa, malting up a .et of seven in thcee early times , are represented by a row
of seven trees or a row of seven stl\pas. Other beings. wbethe~ men or local gods ':,: . ·
and goddesses (yok,fa and ~mi). whether the gods of Brahma's heaven or :t :
denizens of the animal world, all these are shown in realistic detail, but a ;:::
Buddha cannot be shown because he consists of pure invisible d/aarma.sand even .::· .
when operating in the pre,ent world he tranacenda it in his true being. The '~ :
preoccupation with stories of his earlier lives can clearly be related to the J:
fo_rm
which the earliett "biographies" received, a&referred to above. Thua the earliest j f
archaeological remains seem to suppon the early tc:ats in bearing witness to a ·~1• >
mythological rather than a historical interest in Sakyamuni's activities.
Many modem accounts of Buddhist developments (of which the quotat1?n '.%;.: '
above is an Clltr~ example) give the impreseion that in the early Buddhist .:~:
period, ofteri referred to inadequately as "Theravadin Buddhism," Sakyamuni :[;,::
wu regarded as a mere man, while in the later period known as the Mahayina,
he became divinized as the focal point of an ever more elaborate cult. Such a ft
suggestion falsifie&the true state of affairs not only by its gross o,,ersimplification
(the Theravldins we:recertainly an important early sect, but only one of many), .1t ·
but also in that it interprets Buddhist beliefs in terms of a largely Christian
conception of God and Man a6 distinct spheres of being. There can never be any ft
question in a real sense of "drifying" Slltyamuni. According to the earliest J
attested beliefs he was already superior to all god5, including the great god {j
Brahml, the fint and higheat being to .reappear in every succeeding world age, ·¥:
in that he bad already attained the summit of existence. The least that can be ·~~
claimed of a Buddha may be quoted from a passage which occun eeveral times
in the Theravadin canon, thu.s:
The Lord is an Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened, perfect in bis knowledge and his ·
doings, tbc Ble•ed One, supreme knower of the univene, a competent }t
Pre6111inence
of Budahahood 31
charioteer who controls men, a teacher of god&and men, Buddha, the Lord.
He knows this universe with its gods, with Brahma, with Mara, the world with
iu ascetics and brahmans, with its men and iu gods, and realizing it [for what
it ia],he declares it to others.
It is difficult to understand bow, having quoted such a passage as this, an
eminent .cholar can comment that "a description like dus docs not auggest that
Buddha was originally more than a man, a monal." and that thereby "the Hrna-
yaniSts do not attribute any transcendental or theistic element" to him.i~
Surely it is clear that aa a man Sakyamuni was mortal, but that he wu a!Jo more
than man, for he was a Buddha, who transct'nds the whole universe. As noted
already, the reference to 1heiatic elements is irrelevant and obscures the real
significance of a Buddha.
It would be an easy matter to accumulate cxtracu from the Theravadin
canon, of which in any case so much is available in English translation already,
which assert without any reaaonablc doubt the supramundane narure of Sakya·
f.; .·. muni. It is equally easy to find puuges where he appean as a mere mortal, and
J '.. ~rhapa one of the most touching of these relates to his last journey on the way to
t .. Kuiinagara. At a place called Plvl he and his foll~ra accept a meal in the
house of a smith, practically an outcute in Hindu society then as now. He alone
partakes of a certain dish and afterwarda he is ill. "He bore with fortitude the
pain, the sharp pain even unto dca1h." However, they continue on their way
until "the Blessed One went aside from the path to the foot of a certain tree; and
when he had come there he addressed the venerable Ananda and said: 'Fold the
robe, I pray you Ananda, and 1pread it out for me. I am weary, Ananda, and
must rest awhile' ...,.. Extracted from its context no pasnge suggem more fora"bly
the fragile humanity of Sakyamuni. But when writing about Buddhism, we have
,t,:, . no mandate to extract such texu and draw conclusions from them, based on the
mere a11&umptionthat the more human the representation, the earlier the te:st
must be. All one can fairly do is tO accept the whole tradition as presented in any
particular sect of Buddhism at its face value, and when this is done the humanity
Ji of Snyamuni is clearly subtumed within his supramundane nature.
Apan from the tides of Lord (Bhagavan) and Blessed One (Sugota) and
J :· Conqueror {/ina) there is one title that be is repreaented, maybe quite histori•
cally, as using when speaking or.himself. This is the title Tatlt4gata, which
J
n ~ Nalinak.sha o.iu, Aspects of M•hityiola Bllddltism arut its Rclatio?Uhip to Hirw.yi,'14.
pp.97 -9 , Dapice my micture1 at thia point , thit book Tq>reeenll a fflOlt llldl.ll tuady of the develop-
o( Buddhist docuineo, and then: will be occuioll to refer to k belcnw
111<':Dt . His translation or 1be
pa•F unMr difflJNion here irncla co wuun iu folu. In dm mpect one may refer helpfully u, T.
0. l.ing. op. ell .. pp. 96-7. Nali""1isha Dutt repeats tbe whole pa•age unchanged in tbe reviled
fdilioo of hi4work en1i1kd Mahli,....,Budd4ism. pp. 142,!.
J M for tbe 1tory as rccountM io the Pali auoo, tee T. W. Rhys Davids, ButJdJ,istSuttas, pp. 70·
7!1. ft also oocun in the same form in dte Sanslri1 version of the Miila-Sarriltividw . as awo
J,y reproduced in dx Tibtan caDM, See Emit Waldschmidt , DasJ,f4ftapa~vt111, pp . !S2ff. It ia
l not impowbk wt e¥en this 1tory, which appears to be 10 realilcically historical , may be a lacer
r.uionaliaatioo of a mythological coru,ept cor-.ming a Buddba', apeaal food. Se~ A. Beruu, "La
traNfocmalioo miraculei.w de la oourriuirr" and uo hit R"4n"c-lt-, II, wl . l, pp, rl-81.
32 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
cannot be trambtcd satisfactorily into any European language unless we
translate literally as did the Tibetana (Thw-Gone) or the Chineae (Thvs -Come),
The Saoakrit could mean eithrr of these two translations (as indeed the Tibetan
might also), implying either the meaning of "Predestined " or m.ore likely ..'The
One who bas won through" to Perfect Enlightenment. s&This ride bttomet in any
cue a mere synonym for Buddha and ,o it comes to be applied to any other
Buddha, wherever he may appear. Thm it is regularly wed of the eet of Five
Cosmic Buddhu (j,anc11-tath4pta) to whom we shall refer in section IU.11 and
who QD in no way be treated II human oonga.
Tradition hat always iNiated that Sakyamuni's birth was immaculate in a
physical seme . Thua he wu bom not from the womb of hi&mother but from her
right aide. Later tradition went even further, envisaging him u enshrined in a
precious casket while inside her body. TheTe a no 1pecific doctrine of a "virgin
birth ," but this is implied when his mother dreams that he enters her body from
the heavem in the gu• of a white elephant. Hil claim to prcemioence in the '
world, made as .soon as he i, born, seems to belong to the earliear known
tradition. He wu certainly believed to have from binh the marks of a "great
man " (mah4pu~). thirty-two major ones and eighty minor ones. Thete too
came to be a cliche u a description of any Buddha, whether human or celestial, ;:, .
for all are described u "p<aeUedof the marb of perfection." Some of the more
1ignificaat of thae marks influenced the repreJentation of a Buddha in Jrone,
when such imagea began to be produced. One may note eapeciaDy the long ear
lobe$ and the "wisdom bump " (",S!i~) .116The nonrcprcsentation of Slkyamuni
during the fint three to four centuries, when mythological concepts concerning
him seem to have predominated, is moet significant for the high regard in which
he wa1 held as penainiog to a tupramundane state . Goda and men might be
represented sculpturally. but not a Buddha. In this respect it ii intett1ting to
note that the creation of the firat Buddha images corresponds more or less in
time with W productioo of the fint biographies which attempt to be oooais-
tently hiatorical. Yet both these developments belong to the period when the
Perfection ol Wudom teztl , thoee basic worka of the Mahlylna, were alto
becoming known, On no re<:koningcan one convincingly treat Hlnay,na and
Mahlylna u two distinct phases. They may be regarded, however, as two
fluctuating tendencies, usually mingling t~r. and only kept atrictly apart in
cenain philoaophical texta.
Despite the considerable differentta betwttn Buddhi1t and Christian cosmo·
logical UIUJ'Dptiom, certain interesting analogies can be usefully drawn betwee.n
the ways in which buddhalogical and chriltological doctrines gmerally
n Searching {or • puublc EnJllah
ttamladoo I ha¥e thought of "Prize-Winn«" detpite the
ralhff - concme implication. Tk M.Predatuaed One " u uwd e.g . by Alfmf Fouchc-r (aa "le
Prfde1dnt" ) in hil lifo of 1he Buddha , aouodi -.11, but it i, doubtful if thu n:prc9eDQ tM c»igina l
meaniq . Suc:_ban lmerpm.uion alifht appeal to ihcJNwho look £or Buddhilt and Cb~ian
pan~ls . for It would then cOffelf)ODdwerycloaely w 1~ wrm Ao nc/to1114no,(the one who 11to
cx,me) • \Rd in Lllk VUUO . It ii. howe,er , -.thy that JeNtii repmtrned in t.he Golpri, 11
rduring to hamclt as " SOCI of M:m, " ytt another ratbtt JnYltenouamytbolnfljcal ri~.
U One may n:fer to a,y OOlier"ationIn Tlutl""'ft ojth, BM!Mllut,pp. 48-!'>4p.mm, and 75-6.
1.4.a&
developed and in panicular in one buic common featw-e . OnhodoxChriatiilD.ity
over the centuries bas inaiaced thatjeawi Cbrilt wa, both Man and God. and thus
t.eXtS that clearly a•ert his manhood, of which there are many in the New
Testament , are not allowed to contradict the equally dur tnching in other
pu1agu of his divinity. A ,jmilar situation must be allowed to exist in the early
Buddhist teripturea, not to mention the later ones. No Budd.hi.at in any period
doubts that Buddhu appear in the world a.amen and that Sikyamuni was thwi
far a man and ao mortal. 57 But it cannot fairly be lhown that he was eveT
regarded by his foUowers u a mere man, that is to say no more than a man . Thr
whole Buddhist doctrine woald disintegrate iqto the moralizing and philo-
sophizing of a handful of intellectuals, just as Chriatianity , once Jesus Christ is
reduced to a mere human teacher, becomea a rather unusual aMOrtmcnt of
ethical teachings often of quite impractical implication, . Thu, to the aame
extent that Jesus Christ can be regarded as both Man and God on the basis of the
writings of the New Testa.ment , ao Stky~uni can be regarded. indeed must he
regarded if the success of the Buddha is to be explained at all, u both Man and
B11ddha. Furthermore ju,t as many of Chriafa contemporaries and indeed some
of his actual followers never gave credit to ideas of hil di\<inity, so many ofSMtya-
muni's contemporaries, c:apeciallyhis adversarin, continued to aee him as no
more than a mortal man, as well u mistaken in his tcachinga. There is, however,
no indication that any of lua followers regarded him u anything lea than a
Buddha together with all the attributes a11SOCiated with this title. Within such a
context a1 tlua one may note the al»urdity of applying to him such epithets as
"atheistic " or evt"n "agno1tk. " On the contrary his followera believed him to be
omniscient, far from agn011tic.Abo to refer to his teachinp as "pessimistic" is
no true judgement of his teachings. but rather an indication that the person who
UICS this term concerning him sees nothing but phenomenal nistence and the
extinction of phenomenal existence in the aeme that death may be said to
extinguish it. H he enma,ges ninh).a as a goal to be stri~n for. to be earned, he
would realiie that optimistic might be a more appropriate description of a
Bttddha's striving toward., enlightenment . But all such value-judgements
bcc01ne irrelevant when one writes of Buddhism in the temu in wmch it pre.ent.s
it1elf, not attempting to force it into alien thought-forms. On the other hand,
analogiet can be helpful, and it will become clear in the next chapter how
Budd.hut doctrinea were deW!loped and formulated <>W!r a long period of ,e.-eral
centuriCI in much the same way that Christian doctrine was gradually
e1tabJished. M
'7 In cbi$ re,p«i onr may o«.e lhat !ilyamuni clain» to be <1bl.eto c011tin11clhing for a whole
world_asc and thus hil death ar the age ol ashtyiJ voluntary. One may cntainly arg<1c that $UC:h
,· te.ching m- be a IU't'r development, bu, it • fimlly ,cated in the Pali canon of die Tht'ravadin,
·~l~ · (Mw,-rmibbinM-nu'4) , fll .O·5li . See 1lloAndtt Bareau , R.•cA.rclNs II . YOI. I , pp . 1S1-6.
~ : ,. S~ch ao.,logies do not dimialoi, at all the-lial differ,,nces ~een 11,f.w rwo pat l'l'lig\om.
J/ ; Ana~ are n0t to be undentoOd as simllaritil!I. One might juiu:Jyclaim that they are Dl'Wr in
_-"l' . conOoct f~ die reason that they DC'-'!r really come into contact , u cq,t in w human world. which (or
b«_}i reHgions~11 -: ttamlmt lb~ , w!"chmust e9elltu a1Jybe tra~ . The goal of
cnligbtenmcm mqbt conc:crvably be equared wuh the m,-tical union with 1~ Godheadu da cri ~d
34 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
Just as the much la~r Christian formulations could be shown to be fore -
shadowed or even envisaged in the earlier belie&, which were subsequently
judged orthodox, so likewise the followers of the Mahayana can without
difficulty be shown as consistent in their formulations with views that were
known to be held in the earlier period. Again, just as the subtle distinctions
made by the supponers of opposing schools of thought were often quite
irrelevant to the faith and practice of the majority of Christian belicven, ao the
arguments between the variou.s Buddhist schools deal mainly with abstruse
points of doctrine, which would acem to leave the central beliefs untouched. A
major group that split off perbapa aome hundred years after Sakyamuni's
decease , known aa the Mahislrpghikaa (members of the Great Assembly) as
opposed to Sthaviravidins (Pali : Theravidins, members of the Group of Elders),
is usually credited by Western scholars with inventing the idea of "a trans·
cendent Buddha. a supernatural being who has nothing in common with the
world and whole terrc11Criallife is a mere fiction.•• However, as can be easily
verified, the Theravidins themselves prcse~ many ~arJy canonical scriptures in
Pili where the transcendent nature of a perfected Buddha, referring specifically
to Sakyamuni, is clearly uaened. It would seem that none of the early schools
known to us denied such an assumption, although their more scholarly members
were ~nainly preoccupied with the nature of Sakyamuni', physical form here in
this world. However, this could never be a dispute bctw~n some followers who
believed that he had really Jived as man and those who believed that his life on
earth was mere appea rance. To preacnt the dispute in such a way is to transfer to
the caae of Sakyamuni the argumenu of orthodox Christian believers in the real
human nature of Jesus Christ as against those who held view,, uaually defined as
"docetic," which taught that his suffering and dying were not those of a real
human being but just semblance."
Such a comparison between the two religions is not doctrinally possible , for
the fundamental reason that there can be no real "penon" at all according to
Buddhist theory, whether of Stkyamuni or of any other living being. As has been
noted above, all such apparent entities ate dissolved into elemental panides
(dharmas) and thus the argument about the nature of Sikyamuni's physical
presence in this world is bound up with the theory of the nature, either real or
unrnl. of the dkarmas. Some thinkers. wch as che SarvAstivAdins, held that all
in Lhr wriLings oi cenain Cbristi1.n comemplatlvcs, but such an cq11'6tion ~ violc,a« lO the
teachings of both ~ligions in diffuc,m wa-p, Perhapt !he Chriauan d.«1rine or 1hc '6bwiutc dis-
tinction between creatc,d and uncrca11edbeing cal*S the main difficulty in rhit rup,,c:t.
,~ Co1npare trier.or La111om,,H1Jtoire th, B,n,ddliisfflf l'lld"1n, pp. 71~ -4: "les MahiliJ!lghiku
ont lnvenri un Buddha rr.imttndant, me sumaturel n·ayant plus rirn dt commun aVtt le rnonde a
don! la v~ tcrresue n 'est qae fiction. " Howt"VCr,the foll-ing etttion (up top. 759) pcovid.csa ffl09l
useful discu•ion of the <WVefopmcnl of die "Buddha legend.~
FOia detailffl diKwsion of Mahasarpghika ,-icwson the naum~ ora Buddha see N, Ducr, Buddltisl
Sects in lttdio, pp. 7!'>-105.Hue again it is significant that Duu bcgit111 this chapter by quoc:ing a
Thcravadin text as leading in the same "traoaomdmtal" direction : "I am the Lord 0£ AU, the
Omnifcicnr. I am 1u:1taintcdby all dh(zmuu , I am Lhe Worthy O~ in the- world, die Teachl'J
S11p- . I alone am the Perfect Buddha.tranquil in the natt' of nirvii,a .. (Ariyaf,tl~ll1)(1-swla
from d~ Majjltima Nilll)'Q) . ·
1.4,b Pree·minence of Buddhahood
dharmas, the conditioned(aa~slra) u well as the unconditioned (nirviu,a), w«e
e.sentially real. For them a Buddha logically consisted of real dharmas, albeit
only purified ones. Other beings, no more or leu real as apparent conglomera·
tioN of dha""'", conaistcd of combinations of pure and imputt dhaNMJ.
However, some thinkers were already contesting the "reality" of dharmas that at
best only manifested themselves mommtarily, and those belonging to the secc
known as Lokottaravadins (followers of the Supramundane) urged the euential
unreality of conditioned dltarmas and treated the unconditioned ones (which
means nirviJ?a) as real. Thw; the dharmas composing Sakyamuru's physical body
would be regarded as unreal like those compoaing all other apparent comhina,
tions of dhanna.s in the phenomenal world. There could never be a question of
Sikyamuni's appearance in this world being regarded a,
unreal while thole of all
his contemporaries were regarded as real, and cbis is precisely what the use of the
term "docetic" implin according to Christian usage. 40 This provides one more
example of the inadvisability of applying Western terminology uncircumspcctly
to any exegesis of Buddhism .
b. The Cult of Relics
The Buddhist cult of human relics, which cut, it off !IO markedly from more
orthodox forms of Hindu religion , certainly suggests that the body of a Buddha,
or at lea5t the cremated remain., were regarded as real enough for practical
purposes as well as exceedingly valuable. It is related that the other seven
contcndcn for a share of Suyamuni's relics were prepared to fight the Mallas of
Kulinagara for their part of the aacred spoils, if tbeae townsfolk near whose town
he has happened to expire were not willing to share them . In an interesting
article 41 Jean Przyluaki refers to the account of the sharing of the bodily relics of
Sakyamuni's favorite dmciple Ananda. According to the Vinaya of the Mula·
Sarvutivldim, when he was about to enter nirvlr_l.a,Ananda reflected:
If I enter into nirvAI],&here, King Ajltabtru (of Magadha) will quarrel for a
long time with the town of Vai&ali. He will cenainly not share my relics with
them. But if I enter nirv~ in the town of V aiiali, King Ajataiatru will in that
case not get a share. Thus I must obtain nirvlr_l.ain the middle of the Ganges."
By means of his miraculous powers Ananda created an island in the middle
of the river, when: he entered nirv~a. Having thus expired on neutral
territory the two contrstants each re<.-eiveda share of his relics.
Such relics must have been in considerable demand in order to ''activate " the
numerous stupaa which from the third century B.C. onward were being built all
over India. Some of them have even survived to our times. Thus the great stupa
~f Sana (mentioned above) was found to contain a casket holding the relics of
Slriputra and Maudgalyayana, two of the most famous of Sakyamuni's
iO $toee.g . A.Joys
GrillmeieT, Cla.-it.t in ClrTinian Tradition, pp . 9S·4 aCKIl l5ff ., abo c(JD()et'ning
Clement of Alexandria and hit curious auggtstlonia. pp. l6l •S.
41 "Le parta~ des rctiqucs du Buddha," Mll4ngeJ chiMis cl bovridltii!Ul 4 (1~6). pp. ~l -67.
Forth~ supposed aaual citing of th.i$story Stt below pp. Sl l -12,
S6 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA I.4 .b Preemmence of Buddhahood 37

disciples. +i From the time that Slficl was being restored in the lut century the dharma refers not to transient elemental particles, whether comidered real or
casket with iu relics was kept in the British Museum. In 1956 on the occasion of unreaJ, but to the absolute Buddha nature, which is the alpha and the omega,
the great Buddhist festival in India, celebrating twenty-five hundred yean of the source and the goal, of the whole sacred Law (D/aamaa) as tllught by Sakya -
Buddhist expamion, these relics were solemnly returned and rcenshrined at muni. The stupa is conceived of as the symbol of this absolute Buddha-nature
Siiici. Aleo, in 1898 an ancient mound at Piprawa (some fourteen miles SE of the (dhanna -lt4ya), activated, as it were, by the sacred relics of Saltyamuni's "Body
Lumbini s.ite) was excavated and found still to contain relics in a casket inscribed of Appearance" (rupa-kdya). Thus a "real presence" is suggested in a sacra-
with an Aioka-style inscription translatable as: "Thie. dcp<isit of relia of the mental sense with the result that stupas were wonhipped with offerings of flowen
blessed Buddha of the Saltyasis of Sukiti and his brothers with their sisters, their and g-<1.rlands.of lamps and of incense. One may refer to this, if one will. as a
sons and their wives. "4.i Uncertain a5 the meaning may be , there was certainly at Mahlyana tendency in pre-Mahayana Buddhimi. but this is merely a circuitous
this place a deposit of relics going back at leaat to the third century B.C .• which way of admitting that there is no early phase of Buddhism known when there was
the founders of the stapa presumably believed to be those of Slkyamuni himself. no cult of a Buddha as a supramundane being.
We are not concerned with the problem of to what extent such relics may have It is interesting to note that it is precisely the followers of the Mahayana, if
been genuine or whether the oft repeated story is true of how the Emperor Arolta only perhaps the more thoughtful ones , who realize the essential ''emptiness" of
had the earlier stupaa opened so that the relics could be ahared out in the the whole cult of relics. In an early Mahayana sutra Slltyamuni says: 44
innumerable stllpas that he himself is said to have founded. That such stories
were current is more than evidence enough , eapecially when combined with that The Buddha-sphere is inconceivable.
The Budd has are incomparable.
of archaeological finds, to suggest that relics were needed at a very early period All Buddhas are always at peace.
to "activate," as it were, any newly erected stupa. This practice has continued to All Buddhaa emerge in perfection.
tbi, present day, for at least in Tibetan-speaking regions st8pas (Tibetan All Buddhas are alike in hue.
mChod-rten, pronounced ch&en) are activated with religious texts, representing Such is the D/aarma-nature of Buddhas.
the Buddha Word. Often however they contain the relics of deceased lamas, The Lord is no created being.
tbua continuing a tradition going back to the earliest times. The Prize. Winner is never born.
The cult of relica, as evinced in so remarkably similar a manner in Buddhism He reveals his "Body of Appearance."
and ChriMianity, represents a kind of spontaneous devotion to the holy person A body as hard as adamant .
decea5ed and in both religions miraculou, powers are anributed to them. It may The relics of this Great Sage
seem strange that the cult was so widespread in early Buddhism, for not only
would human remaim be regarded as impure in themselves in contemporary
.
Cannot be uaessed even to the size of a sesame seed.
If such a Body has neither bones nor blood
Hindu society. but also in acc:ordance with philosophical notions of the dlaa'Tff!4 How can relics be found?
theory, they are simply composed of elemental particles, which are supposedly But in order to benefit living beings
eaentially impure. We surely have here a particularly cogent example of the He leaves relics as a mere device.
irrelevance of such scholastic disquisition where the actual practice of Buddhist l'he D/aanna-bodyof a Perfeet Buddha
religion was concerned. A Buddha is of supramundane dimensions, and once he ls the Dhanno-Sphere of the Prue-Winning Buddhas .
has left this world. ,he most fitting representation of his presence is this hemi- As one in the act of teaching the Dharma.
spherical mound, for othtt& conceived of as a tomb, but in his case rhe symbol of F.ven such is the Body of the Lord.
the ineffable state, transcfflding life and death, into which he has withdrawn. Reading this one should bear io mind that those who promulgated such
A c.-orresponding theory was developed of two k.inds of Buddha-manifestation, teachings insisted that all appearancell in the phenomenal world, all living
known as "Bodies"(/t4yo). where this term is used in a restricted buddhalogical beings as much as a Buddha, were mere appearance since the elements of which
sense rather as the term "Pen;on" is used in a special sense for the Christian they are here said to be composed were "void" (.iunya) of euential content. Relics
Trinity. A later development resulted in a trinity of "Buddha-Bodies." but in the are therefore left as a device or "method" (uptJ.,a) of instilling faith so that men
earlier phase of the Doctrine only two were formulated, those of the "Body of shall hold to the religious life and eventuaJly find a way out of the maze of false
~ppearance" (rupo.·lttl)'tJ) and the "Body of the Dharma" (dharma -~_ya), where views in which they would otherwise be lost. The CMential need for committed
religious practice is certainly not denied, but is identified as "relative truth," as it
i! Stt Debala Mitra. Budd.hist Mom1,rienu, pp. 97·8.
~3 See E. J . Thoina i. l..ife of B11,ddlia
, pp. 160-163 and l .. de la Valk-c .l'ouain, l. 'lndt1awc temps 44 Elllraacd from the Suws,iapral,lail.wuama-•iura, vol. I. Tibc:ran Tc:ina, edited by Johannca
di"$Maurya.r.pp. 144-S. Esp<"cially D . Miira, op. cit. pp . 79-82 . Nobc:I, pp. 16,l 7.
38 1. ORIGINS IN INDIA
is relative to the state in which the world appearsto be.
No traditional Buddhist of any School appears to have discounted the
importance of relics, and the doubt sugguted concerning them in the Perfection
of Wisdom literature is by no means special to thmi, for it applies to all material
things and intellectual concepts. Relic, may even be reguded u the mo.1tprued
things after the Perfection of Wisdom itself. Thus the Lord asks Indra, Chief of
the Gods:
"If on the one hand, someone were to pre1ent you with this world filled to the
top with relics of the Buddha and if on the other band you were pre1ented
with a copy of the Perfection of Wisdom, which of the two would you take?"
Indra repliet: "The Perfection of Wisdom, and why? It is not, 0 Lord, that
I lack in respect for these relics of the Buddha, and it ii not that I am unwilling
to honour, revere and worship them. But I am fully aware, 0 Lord, that the
relics of the Buddha have come forth from the Perfection of Wisdom and that
therefore they arc honoured, revered and worshipped. I am aware that they
are saturated with the Perfection of Wiadom. and therefore they become an
object of worship. "4 s
Wisdom ( prajii4) comes to play a very important part in buddhalogical
concepts. In the earlier teachings it is linked with morality (.flla) and mental
concentration (samadhi) as repre5enting a threefold formulation of well-ordered
religious life. Wisdom, however, is both the beginning and end, for without
"right viewa" w start with, efforts in morality and mental concentration will be
wasted. But wisdom is also the result of religious practice in that it culminates in
the threefold knowledge of a Buddha. From a phil050phlcal viewpoint the
dhanna theory wu wisdom according to thoiie who accepted it a, ttpresenting
"right views" and as an accurate analysis of a Buddha's insight into saqislra. But
for thoce who rejected the materialiatic realism of the d.hanna theory, regarding
all concepts as "void" (sfm)'ll), wisdom, named now the Perfection of Wisdom.4 6
signified the ultimate state where all apparent contradictiom are raolved in the
state of buddhahood. As a Sanskrit term "Perfection of Wisdom" (.PmjM·
p4Tamita) is feminine and thus its identification as the "Mother of all Buddhu"
will logically follow. However, here we anticipate doctrinal deveJopmenu which
will come within the purview of the following chapter.
4!l Extracted from Edward Come, Th~ u11e Suire on Peifect Wudom, chapi« 51 {p. !49). Mou
or lea the aame wording is found in the earlie.t of chit~perfection of Wiedom" Sutru, that in 8,OOO
verses, -which may be generally dated in ii. oricina to the tec:ond or flnt century a.c. S« Edwud
Coau • .f,lasiihcsrikc Prajililpi,llfflM. p. 55. A mhei- diffi:ttnt venion of the aamc tea~hinJ. which
mayor 1J1ayno1 b<eewmearlicr. occunio thevene•fomnenionolthcaamce"Pcm~ia.i ofWiadom."
For thia tee Edward Come. Th. .fecu111ulation~ Pncious Q.toalilia. publwbecl in Jndo,banian
Studin, Part I, pp. 162·278.
., It ia oi.interest to note lhat w~n the Tibetans traDSlatedthe SaNkrit 1erm pil,11111it4, meaning
supremiayo.r f)fffection , they undentood it as a derivative of p,nam ita, meuung "gone beyond" and
thttefore they invented the tedmical term pha-rol-tu playm-!Jo. whic:hii a literal traN!ation.
The Bvddhul Cmnmunily 39
J,5
5. THE BUDDHIST COMMUNITY
From early times a Buddhist convert signified his adherence to the religion by
the threefold refuge-taking formula: "I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge
in the Oharma. I take refuge in the Community." Of the nature of the Buddha
and the Dhanna some account has been given, and we must now consider the
Community. The same problem of historical origins arises, as in the cue of the
other two, because the community appears in Aioka's time (third century B.C.)
already with its main features fixed. There is in existence a well-established
order of monks, living in settled communities, bound by a recognized code of
rules, known in Sanskrit as the pratimo~. which is the essential text for
monastic discipline in the Vinaya, the first part of the three-pan Buddhist
·canon:" By this time too the Communicy had begun to split into different sects,
partly as a result ofinternal di&putes concerning precisely which teachings wue
strictly canonical. but also as a result of the vast distanca that now acparated the
various communities. By the end of A4oka's reign such communities were
established in Gandhara in the far northwest of the Indian subcontinent
(~presenting in modem times Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan), in Sri Lanka
in the far south, and over large parts of the rest of India, where the comparative
peace of the later yean of Awka's rule had opened routes of trade and the whole
country to greater prosperity. The Buddhist communities w«:re usually
ntablished near enough to towns to ensun:- lay interest and suppon, but not so
close that distraction to the religious life might result. It is significant that
merchants proved the most generous benefactors whose suppon could be
generally relied upon. Kings and local rulers could outdo them in their bene·
factions, if they choae to support the Buddhist order, and it is in fact the support
of certain great monarchs, of whom Mok.a wa1 the fim, that enabled Buddhism
to become first a great pan-Indian religion and later the greatest pan-Asian one.
The Prtitimo/c.µ,, which consists of a list of approximately two hundred and
fifty rules, arranged in groups. according to the severity of the punishment
which their breach entaila, survive. as part of the Vinaya of 1everal different
Buddhist sects, and thus it clearly goes back to that very early period when
Buddhism had not yet spread beyond the region of the central Ganges, where
Slkyamuni had lived and taught. 48 Since he is said fairly reliably to have
watched over his growing community for the space of forty-five years. it is
scarcely <.-onceiv.ablethat he himself did not draw up the fint list of rule.a,
probably compiled gradually a$ occasion demanded. The list is headed by the
four major sins which demand expulsion from the order, namely unnatural
• 7 Pritimo~ ii a later Saoelr.ritization of 1be early terlD which occun in Pili aa pitim,,Uha,
inmprcted u "thaal which ahould be ma,u, binding" (Jlh,- Davida and Sim.,, P&lf.E,tglisli. Di<:tiOt&·
a-i:,, p. f50), Undentandi113 the prefix f>riti-in a differen1..,.__ &hieTlbecan tnnalation of the tenn
comes to miean "individual relNSe" (so-Jor tlttn•/'(I}.
411
Thr early Vinaya eollectiom that are known are: the Theravadin (in Pali). the Miala-Sarriari-
wa~n
(in Sanskrit and Tibttan}. the Sarriarivadin, Dhannaguptaka. Mahua,pghika, Mahiiaaaka (in
Chinese transladon).

40 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA
sexual intercounc, theft, murder and a false claim to miraculous powers. S!na
demanding temporary iM.Wpension from t~ o~r include sexual i~tercoune with
a woman, self-abuse, acting as intennedtary m the sexual relanona of_ o'!'-m
, ,till meets in India today, while o«hen were organiled under a recognized
building a ahelter for onaelf without having u formally o1pproved,_build~ a
monastic compound without havi ng the site formally approved, accusing
another fabdy of wrong conduct, cawing dilscnsion, causing local aca~dal,
contra.dieting hanhly a juat ttbuke . Lesaeruna, such for example as aaking a
nun who is not related to wash or iron one's robe, or begging for a new robe from
unrelated Iayfolk , cx.cept when this ia junified (as when one's robe is loat or
destroyed), result in the forfeiture of the artl~e co~. Another tet lesser ?'
siN. ,uch u trivial lying or al&ndering or goesip, pn:achmg to a woman m more
than five or aill words when no other witness ii prnent, uaing an article t~at
belongs to the community without replacing it afterwards, etc., al1 theae requ1n: \
apiation. All theae and the many other minor rules whidl make up a total of.\
two hundred and twenty -scvm in dlc Ther;avadin collection and two hundred ~ .
and fifty-eight in that of the M'llla-Sarvlstividina, were clearly drawn up over ·'(
quite a number of years, but there need be no reason to doubt that the originill :i ·
core. although no longer ascertainab~ . goes back to Slkyamuni binuelf ,it Thete
rules were recited monthly in the different communities , and the presumed
adherence to them constituted formal adherence to the community of monk,.
This is atill so today when the Theravldin coUecrion is recited by religious com -
munities in Sri Lanka, while the Mula-Sanutivadin collection i, even now
recited in pracnt -day Tibetan monasteries. DH~ite the later tantric devcl~p·
meni:a there ,till remain cl01e historical connections beiwcen early Buddh11m
and c~ain aspecm of Tibetan Buddhism today. To these attention will be
drawn induecounc.
lt ie from the general situation of the varioWIBuddhist communitic.1 in A&oka'a
time that ooe has to try and trace back. to the still earlier period, simply inter ·
pteting the a«ounta as given in a reu_onab~ man~ . It would appea~ t~t the ,.,
first communities were indeed established m the time of ~lkyamuni himself . ·,i
Thett ii no good rcaec>nto doubt the tradition that King Bimbisara of M~gadha -'~.
wu wdl disposed to the new order and that he hlmself donated ~ of hu parks
(the Veluvana) to Silyamuni. APO<h« park , alto on the ouukiru of dlc rayat · { . ·
city of Rtjap, known as the Udambariklrl , was made available to wandcn~ -'.°
ff, .
ascetics ge
. nerally . 0th . er. pa .rks, famous in ea~ly times as ~nations to .Slkya~~I\I .
bim8elf, were the Jlvik.lrtma, also oear IUJ&grha and given by the pby11oan ·?· ·
Jivab, the Jeta vana near Srlvuti , given by the rich merchant Anathapindab, _:,.;~
tt Suk,unar Dun u, hi& exoellent book s,.,J,l/wt MolfAs tUtd tlu Mon&Slcm., of ladia dn~
auentlon (~. 66-7 ) to an e.a.rlier uw of thr u:nn potmoll.lic, wruch ~s a.i1"illed In ~he ~&Jui-
f1isJ- Satttallt&(Dig/us N;,-,. ), S.!8, whct-e it is attributed to ~~Buddha V1puyi~ - It
probably hdonp io n:ligia1u lore of wandering asceucs, mduding the fim Bll<idhil1.1,
the gaicraJ
but h can Karcely depriveSakyamusdol the honor of bcinJ the fitst formulator of deialled rule&Cot
thecond11Ctofhilmonka(via . abe tr{lfmw,/yll90me,wbataail ii now known), asSukwnar Dun would
-Ill> .......
1.s 41
and the Ambapalivana near VaiUli, given by the courtesan Ambapali .soSlkya·
mun i's follower-awere but oM of 1cveral groupe of mendicant ascf!!ics, 90meof
whom can have been little ~ucr than wandering vagabonds of the kind that one
teacher in much the same way as were "the aons of the Stkya." The only other
,uch community to ha~ survived to this day is reprcaented by the Jain11,whose
traditions go back to the Teacher Vardhamma, known by hu followers u the
"Conqueror '' Uina, whence the termjama ii derived) and u "Hero " (mah4virc) .
Both titlee were applied to Slkyamuni by bis particular followus. and the two
movements had mucb in common, including the same c01mological and philo-
sophical ideas. belief in the procea of ttbinb and in a succesaion of world·
teachers, as well u the cult of ltllpa.$. To an out:5ider, and such in a rnl eeme
were matt benefactors, whether local rulers, wealthy merchants or ordinary
hOUJCholders,there might very well appear r.o be little diffcn:nce in the actual
beliefs of the various wandering tHc .hen , but what would presum-.bly be noted
would be the standards of behaviour of their followera. 51 Here one gains the
improsion that not only were Sakyamuni'• followert well ordered and con-
trolled, but also they had an air of socW respectability, which other groupi
teemed to lack. Not only did Sakyamuni hilD5Clf come from an aristocratic
family, but 10 too did many of his ear ly followen according to canonical
accounts, and even if such &tOJ"ies are suspected of being legendary, they nonc-
theleu indicate the manner in which the new movement pYeSCnted itself to
others. Moreover in his first aennon Stt:,amani is Aid to have taught thilt his
doctrine wu a "middle way," avoiding excessive laxity on the one hand and
excessive hardship on the other .&1 The comparatively easy life of the Buddhist
monk made him a butt for the followers of other teetl , but it probably COD·
tributed largely to the 1utte1S oft .be doct~ in a worldly sense. It seems to have
succeeded in preaening a fair balance between genuine religioua practice and
lay respectability, 1hu1 attracting to ita ranks men of good family and talent a,
well as of religious aspiration . The establishing of a new order that wu dewned
to aucceed in such a way ccrrainly requires a wise and tactful founder, and it is
i "· precisely in this respect that one might draw a limited comparison between
Siltyamuni and St. Benedict , for jwt aa St. Benedict fixed a Ruic for his mow ,
ao too m tat su~ly have Sttyamuni.
~
Ii.
51 Tlv a:nntiritno(Tibetan~n·li,a '·T&•{lo)au .g .. injfw"4•.,..,.,., me.am apleuure park, and
kCll- of tbe I.lie 10 wbich such plaeu were -~ put, it came 10 have tho! 1nean.ing of
"monMoc Wfflpound. • F08 more on tbr w.bject. - Sallumar Dutt, op. cit , , pp . S8~!1.
SI Coottnung odltt seemingly wdl -conati(uted grou?, 'Olbowere opponenu aCSkyamuo i. one
may metto A. L. Buha.m , Hiu.11ryt11Vl D~triM of th, lljivo}uu.
·.~· ' n It should be ob&ervcd di.at there wu always a tendency in Buddhilm (jun III in early Chriatlan,
ity) to a highly st~I aocmc way of life . l11deed argumenaaconceming rbe e1ttent 10 which thls wa,
·.'~ ; ~-ry prochiccd ~ of r.bec.a..- of lpli1> in cbe order thus l'ftlllt.ingin different -1, . Therr b
••· re~ co a rule ill't'Clhint
dr~ only in rag,, U.ing only in the opm air . tleq,ing in a 1ittlng
po.ture, cte. 5ft e.lJ.. T . W . Rhya Duida. Tit, Qv.e~fo,,u of Kitlf Mi'liada, Pan 11, p. !68. 5tt alllo
ihe inceresclng article by J. Prtylu.i.i, "V~~mencs de tttigieu. et v~Clllcnts de rois. n Jouffll!J.l
AsiatU/tu, YOI . XIII. pp. S(ISff.&we~r . it 3"ems .scareelylikely tha, Siky.unu.ni himr.lf urged auch
pl'Utices upon his followen .
42 I. ORIGINS IN INDIA 1-~ TM Buddhist Community 43

It wu the practice of wandl!ring aKeti cs to stay pu t in one place during the unchanged in euen tiala to this day." Earl y Buddhist belief in a plurali ty of
monsoon period (mid-June to mid-Septmibcr) when travel was unusually Buddhas who appear in succeeding world-ages makes it impossible to concei~ of
difficult, and thus the fuat senlemenu were needed only during the resulting Slkyamuni in any traditional rcligiou.5 sense as the founder of his religion in the
three-month period. At some stage these settlements came to be used for way in which Jesus Christ is certainly the founder of Christianity and
extended period a and th1111regular monastic communities came into being. How ... Mohammed of Islam , but he may certainly be regarded as the founder of an
soon this occurred it is impossible to know, bu t it is not' at all unlikely that the ·if order of monks and later of nuns, and on the future wellbeing of hu monks all
process ha d alrea d y begun d urmg . .:,..,.yamum
"""'· .,s lifettme.
. I t IS
' certarn
' t h at lv., ,«i.
..,7 .)t~. the subsequent success of hi&religion has depended .
A§oka's time many such communities were well established, that they were aoon }@·
being rendered permanent by the constructions of buildings in brick and stone,
and that organiu:d Buddhism had already usumed those outward forms of the
religious life that have persisted right through to the twentieth century . In India
building continued on many of these ancient sites ao Jong u Buddhism survived
in the land of its origin , and in re<:t!ntyears much archaeological work has bttn ..., .
don e on the ruim, often only foundation, of buildings, thus providing reliable /~ ,
material substantiation of the very early traditional accounts of such foun- 'JI: _
darions and of the later descriptions of visiting pilgrim-scholars . Fortunately /~ : :
however some early communities constructed their monasteries by cutting them \:g!' ::
out of solid roc.k.. This was only possible where the type of rock-formation \! " .
permitted the elaborate hollowing-out of temples and cave-dwellings, notably in ) ;:;..'
the prnen t-day state of Maharashtra. Three such sites, at Bhaja, Bedsa , and :.~ '.
Karla, in close proximity to one another, are to be found about halfway between f :;
Bombay and Poona (Pu. 7, 8) . Another important site of Kanheri is about }~ '.
twency milea north of Bombay. Rather furtheT afield are Nasilt and especialJy }"<
Ajant~ and Ellora , which nowadays figure on aU toumt programmes. These { ' .
cave-monasteries , like th011e elsewhere comilting of free-standing buildings , :~, ·
underwent long periods of development , at least from the second century B.C. J:;
until the eighth century A.D. , changing their styles and 1heir iconography in an }~ ;
exactly similar way. Thus the carJy rock -cut temples have no Buddha image and )j '.
the central object of worship is the domed srupa, cut out of the solid rock just as '.;;; .
the reat of the building bas been. The Karla pillars have a kind of pot -base and >"'
are surmounted by elaborate capitals in the form of elephants with noble couples :,},'l: ~
on them and hones with their riden . Hone, and.rider1 are a favorite motif and \1,\\:
the massive pil!ars at the entrance to the Bcdsa caves are likewise adorned. · t·'
Worthy of note too ar e the deep -cut bas -reliefs that covc:r th e waJls on either side ·.•:"St
:}f.
of one of the Bhaja caw.-cells. The sun-god in his chariot appears on the left and i .:
Indra as the god of war riding hu elephant on the right. T he earJy carvin8'$are } ~· :· Nigarjv.na(ffe pp . 81 ff.)
largely decorative , as are many of the subsidiary carvings at the ancient site of .:j ~- "Salutation to Nilgvjuna . proclaimed as the second wondroUJ teacher
Saiici, already mentioned above . We shall deal in the next chapter with the later\ ·, of the doctrinr of the incomparable Sakya-Lion.
iconographical developments, and all we need emphasize hen is that just as,
Buddhism emerges into history with the ideal of a s,upramundane Buddha and
r.,.
>•·:
For he transmits reliable and profOUDd ioterpretation5 ."

with a Doctrine which teaches of sa~s llra and nirval}a usociatcd with a com- \ '
plicated theory of flu ctuating "real elements," so it also emerges with a fully ']!i'.
conatitu ted monastic order , al re ady .split into various ICCts, but all dearly -/;. .· ~, For typical plam of euly Buddbi~ ltemples and monastcrks one may cooveniendy ref~ ro
following the same pattern of religious life. a pattern that has remained },, -',. ~bala Mitra. &ddhist Monumenls . pp. Z1-56.

II
LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
1. BUDDHISM BECOMESA PAN-ASIAN RE.LIGION
During the fint five hundred years, that is to say up to approximately ~be
beginning of the Cbristian era, Buddhism apread over the whole of the Indian
subcontinent. Well within the next one thousand years it established itJClf as the
main religion throughout Asia. From the fint century A.O. onward it spread
across Central Asia to China , moving on to Korea and Japan in the fourth
1
century. Perhaps aa early as the founh century it became established in Nepal,
and in the seventh ~ntury the long work of the conversion of Tibet was begun.
All this work of conversion was a slow process, as vut areas were being covered
over long and difficult trade routes and through different countries where a
great variety of different languages were spoken. Thus an cnormow amount of
translation work wu involved over these centuries.
From the third century A.D. onward Buddhiam, together with Hinduism.
found ics way acroas the Indian ocean to all the countries of Southeast Asia as
represented nowadays by Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and
Indonesia. By marked contrast with the conversions that followed long land
routes, there was fur le. need for translation work. Thus, just as Buddhiml had
been preached in Sri Lank.a in the Indian dialect (Pali) in which the scriptuttS
were being recited (and eventually written down) 110 now the main medium for
instruction remained the Indian language then in use, by this time mainly
Samkrit.
Thc one country. later to become Buddhist, that was not penetrated during
tbete thousand yean is Mongolia, when: not until the tbineenth century did the
Tibetans begin this new work of conversion. It may be of interest to note that this
last work of foreign convenion coincided cwsely in time with the destruction of
Buddhism in India itself, and although the ancient links with the center of their
faith were never entirely forgotten, the various Buddhist or now partly Buddhist
countries of Asia tended to develop their own particular traditions in an ever
more exclusive manner. However , up to this time and in so far as it was humanly
I Modrm wotb on die hisrory of Buddhisn often state that Suyamuni was boru in Nepal and this
iathcr anac:broniatic -rion may ca\lSCa mi.-undentanding. Lu1nbini, his binhplace. has aincuM
mid-nine\eellth century, rbaulis to a British donation, fallen a fewmiles inside the £r011tierof N~
with I Delia.H-. modnn Nepal is a creation oft~ Gorkha Rijas, dating bad only to the end of
thl,eignlttftth century. See below, s«tioo JV.S.a.
ll.l 45
possible most of the countries of Asia, where Buddhism was now an established
religion. maintained some kind of contact whether through individual monk-
pilgrims or state-sponsored missions with the ancient places of pilgrimage in the
central Gan~s valley, as well as with the many other sites, especially in
Gandhara, which had since become important in Buddhist tradition . Up to the
end of the .eventh century intrepid Chincte acbolar-pllgrims visited the "Holy
Land" at various times. From the tenth century until the tbincenth century the
Tiberana were maintaining the clotest possible scholarly contacts in India. The
great Indian scholar DtpankarakijnAna, nicknamed Atwa, who came to Tibet in
1042 after acudying and teaching at the great Indian monasteries of Vikrama-
fila, Bodhgayl\ and Odantapuri, had also studied earlier under a certain
Dbarrnakirti of Suvan,iadvipa ( = Sumatra) , thus suggesting far-flung relation-
ships across the Buddhist lands of Asia. The Tibetan monk-pilgrim Chos-rjc-
dpal, who visited Bodhgaya in the thincenth century not long before its final
abandonment, met with a .strong community of monks from Sri Lanka who were
still there. and up to the end of the same century repairs were being carried out
on the main temple at the imtigation of the king of Burma. Sueh interesting
information tends to be scanty as no one in any one country ha& had an interest
in producing any general account, but judging by the suggestive material
already availab~ as weU as by the vasenumbers of pilgrims from all over Asia
who have been returning to the ancient Indian Buddhist sites since they were
reconstituted in the late nineteenth century. there must have been very many
more visitors in those earlier centuries of whom nothing is recorded. Throughout
these centuries too, a truly vast amount of translating was done mainly from
Sanskrit into Chinese from the second century onward and from Sanskrit into
Tibetan from the seventh century t>nward. Much of our knowledge of the later
Indian Buddhism as described in this chapter is in fact derived from Tibetan
ma~crials originating from lost Indian sources.
While we sbaU be concerned in this chapter with the later Buddhist develop-
ments in India itself, one should bear in mind that they continued to provide the
materials for the progress of the religion in all the other countries of Asia so long
as cootaet could fruitfully be maintained . Just as there can be no "original
Buddhism'' promulgated once and for all in the land of its origin, as some
sectarians have tried to insi.at, so there ha. not been one fonn of Buddhism
transponed to any othf!r country· at any one particular time. Attempts were
made at various times to resolve doctrinal differences , and thcre are traditional
accounts of various "councils" that were held in order to establish a recognized
onhodo.xy. t The first is supposed to have been held at Rajagrha immediately
after Sakyamuni's decease, the sec:ond at VaiUli perhaps some hundred yean
later, and a third one at P~taliputra under Moka (according to Theravadin
2 For• •uc1.inct account of 11:lek-c-ouncilsOllC!may 1um to H. Kem, Manu11.lof Indian BudtiAiJffl.
PP· !0l-lJ2 and 121-2. Although 1bi~ wH written mo~ than eighty y~..trsago. thi:re is little or
"?'h1t1g to add to Kero'A c:ondusions. Pora far matt rttenl account where up-to·date reference an,
g•ffn, -,e I!.. Lamotte. nuu,;,,, du .&uddltisnu iRdiera.. pp. U6ff and pp. 296ff .. 110ling that his
history doe, not re-.ich to ltushina time&.
46 JI. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN lNDIA
accounu) or at Jllandara in Kashmir under Kanip.a (according to Suvaeti-
vadin accounu). Just as A&oka must have played an effective part in the
propagation of Buddhism throughout the Indian 1ubcontinent , ao K.tnitka of
the Kushlna Dymmy, reigning in Gandhlra in the second ~ntury A.D. , played at
least indirectly as effective part in the further 1prc;ad of Buddhism from north-
west India through Central Asia and beyond. However, both the TheravMin
account of a general council held under the awpices of Aioh in the third
century B.C. and the Sarvutivldin accounts of the much later council under
Kani,ka remain equally tendentious. In this reapect it may be interctting to
quote the very open view of t he first great Tibetan hiltorian, namely Bu-atOl:l
(1290-1564), who repl'elenting the Indian Buddhist tradition as eunent in
Kashmir, knows nothing of any third council at Pltaliputr;a.
The Mt'l.la-Sarvutivldins say that up to the time of the Second Council there
was only one schoo l, viz., the M\l.la-Sarv»tivldin . Thettafter, owing to the fact
that the Scriptures wee recited in different dialecu, there aroae die aevcntem
other eecu, whlch do not represent the Buddha's teaching .....
We refute tbi5 statement of the SarvutivWhu thus: The texts of the other
te~nttto aecu are the Buddha-Word. They are to be found in the Vinaya
since they teach moral diacipline. They are contained in the Sutru in that
these teach m1mtal discipline. Abo they arc not in conflict with the true
e11ence of the Doctrine, lince they accord with the teaching concerning
nirv~ and contain the treatises relating to Wudom. s
According to Bu -ston there WM a general recitation of scripture. at the Third
Council (meaning the one held under Ka~ka in Kashmir) and it was settled
that all the texts acknowledged by all the eighteen ICCtl reprClented the Buddha· ,.
Word . While such a happy conchaion to the gathering may $oCC1'D to be }; · ·
h.istorically unlikely. the fact that Bu •tton thUI recorda it indicate• the wide ·{~
catholicity of the later convcns to Buddhism. On one of his edicts Mok.a had ·.:J J ,
announ~ : "WhateVtt hu been spoken by the Lord Buddha, all is well .·-~ ··
spoken."• By the time of Ka~ some three centuries later there ,ru an even · :_-:
greater accumulation of 1cripture1 claimed as Buddha-Word by thoee who ';
subscribed to them, and the openness &hown, u deacribcd by Bu-ston , was the }1}
only rea,onable approach to the religion on the pan of those who came from ~
outside India. Thus the secta as they had developed in Indi a and aa they con· ..~.
tinued to develop over the ttmaining centuries so long aa the religion flourishM \ .. {
the.re, remained peculiar to lndia. 5
s For ,_ wbok COllttllt of mis atnct , uanalabOD by !.
.cc Bu-aoc . Hislo? o/ BIMUhim&
Obumiller , ¥01. II. pp . 97-8.
• See A. Sm, A Jou', Edieu. p. '54 .
~ The be$t anilabl e account$ of thoe sceccaare: And~ l.an,au. I.AJ ~ctu bouddll19i,., iiw p«d
w luctdr, N . Dutt. B...dd/tin Sects in hldict.
11.l?.a 47
2. THE BUDDHA IMAGE
a . The Earliest Representati<msin Human F<>Tm
The Emperor Kampa of the Kuahana Dynany, famow in local tradition as a
great supporter of Buddhism, ruled over an empire that stretched from what is
now ea1tern Afghanistan, acroaa Pakistan and including the upper Gan~&
Valley with the important city of Mathurl (thirty •flve miles NW of modern
Agra}. The far northwcst bas alwaysbeen the main approach route toward India
and thus its population baa been continually ablorbing frcah waves of non-
Indian stock.. Interesting arrivals in the late fourth century B.C. were the Greeks
(or Macedoniana)led there by Alexander the Great . During the reign of >Joka
when India became for a short while as great an ~pire ~ in the very much later
Moghut daya, the Grt-ek·spea.king rulers of the far nonhwest bad been forced to
withdraw west of the Hindu KUJh into what is now western Afghaniatan . Here
" was the ancient kingdom of Bactria , Greek in culture and language at ka.t 10
far as the ruling cla11e1 were concerned. On the bttakup of Atoka's empire,
which aoon followed his death, these Greeb again advaRced, taking over the
land of GandbAra (modem east.cm AfghAniatan and Pakistan ). However, they ·
were soon overrun by a barbarian people from che north known as the Scyth ians,
who in tum found themac-lvesin constant warfare with the Parthiam to their
west. Finally , around about the beginning of the Christian era all these various
peoples, the earlier inhabitanta (whom one may dCICribe u generally "Indian " in
fO far as they bad been included earlier in Atoka's empire), the Greeb, Scythian s
and Parthians, succumbed. befo re the advance of yet another barbarian race,
known by the Chinese as the Ylleh-chih (they had al.ready caused trouble on
Cbina"s wntcrn borden) and by the Indiana as the Tuahkaru . These people
rapidly established a large cmpitt that included an extraordinary variety of
rdigiona -Zoro utrian, Greek, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu, and became in the
process hlghly civilized themselves, pra.cti.cing and encouraging the variou,
cult ures with which they found themscl~ surrounded. The greatest of their
kings wu K.arufkaI, who probably ruled in the fint half of the aecond century
A.O., and it iaquite possibk that he himself showed a predilection for Buddhism,
u Buddhist tradition 10 firmly aaeru.
It is certain that Buddhimi achi~ed considerable success in Gandblra and
throughout the outlying regions of.t he Kushan a domains , espec ially acr011athe
Pamirs to the eut, where it was gradually propagated in the series of city-.sta~,s
that linked West Asia with China the whole length of the ancient "Sillr.Route " to
C~ina (eec acction IV .2.a). Westward, it prested into Peraian territory, however
wuh rather less &ucccsa,as here it wa, confronted with the well-est.ablish(.-d and
;i ofte_natate·p~ected Zoroastrian religion . Owin.g to Persian military advance,
· du~ing the third century A.O. under its new SilSSanid dynaity . the Ku5h1ruu lOlt
·-~
-~,
thc1r hold nonb of the Hindu Ku.h and thua their empire was ratricted to
l GandhAra itself with twin capitals, Kapi&a and Taxila , on the two sides of the
,• Khyber Pua , the mountain gateway that nowadays connects Afghaniatan with
..
::., ;;.
~ ·:-;.-::
.
·:~.. ,\_":,_.·
·:ti' I"'·:·.·
48 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
Pakistan.' However, toward the end of the fifch cent'W}' a fresh wave of
barbarian people, the Ephthalite Huns. ovenan the whole area ~nd from this
on&laught Buddhiam never fully recovered. Then from the early eighth century
Moslem pressures made themselve1 felt ever mo~ strongly .and .throug~out t~
far northweat of the Indian subcontinent Buddhism and Hindumn rapidly d1s-
ap~ared. Only in the fastnetllCSof Kashmir did they hol~ their ov:nunt~ the
mid-fourteenth century. Vast quantities of archaeological remains, ru,ned
stilpas, the foundation• of monasteries and broken Buddha,image~: contin~e to
bear witness to the earlier extraordinary success of Stkyamun1 s teachings.
However before Buddhiam disappeared from Gandhara, 10me of its special
features ~ere ab,orbed into the mainstream of later Buddhist developments in
the central Cangea Valley and throughout the rest oflndia, and although it may
not always be easyto iaolate these features altogether, their effects can be quite
clearly noted.
It wu noted in the prev:ioua chapter that early interest in Salyamuni's person
was largely mythological. Thus, he was envisaged as the latest ~~ddha of a
whole series, while his own final life in thia world had been condltloned by a
whole succession of previous lives. during which he gradually progressed toward
buddhabood . The earliat attempts at bit biography, therefore , showed more
interest in his supposed previous lives, leading up to the high points of hia
enlightenment at Bodhgaya and his first preaching at Sarnath. No apparent
interest was shown in producing a biography in the modem aenac of the word.
This attitude is confirmed by the archaeological remain,. Sakyamuni is
represented by aymbob and the stone ca.rvingaillustrate mainly mythological
concepts and legendary scenes from previous lives. !hus ~t marnot be without
significance that the fint biographiesof Salr.yamuna,teJ~mg hi1 story f~m t~
evenu leading up to his birth right through to the final rurv~, were wntten an
Gandhira presumably for a more reali&tically minded people who wanted to
know more about Sakyamuni as a person. This more rea&ric interest alao
bccoma manifeet in the 1udden appearance of Buddha-images 1howing Sakya-
muni for the first time in human form. This event took. place in northweat India
during the Kuahana period, and it is very likely that the initial inspi~~on ca~e
from converts to Buddhism whose cultural background wa1 Hellenunc. Whale
1tating this , one has to bear in mind the strange fact that two very different kinds
of Buddha-image seem to have been produced at more or lea the same time (Pls.
9, JO) . One kind is undoubtedly HeReni.stic in origin, for Snyamu~ a~pears as
Apollo in Buddhiat guise, clad in a Roman toga. l~gea of th1~ kind were
produced in vast numbers.of which so many have been d1acov~ since the last
antury. The other kind ii thoroughly Indian in ayle , for the sculpton have
taken as their model, not Apollo, but earlier images of the local divinities known
as yak,a . Undentandably, image,of this kind wctt produced at Mathura in the
6 For our praent purpolCI 1be IDOi\ relnan1 study of the Kushana f.mpire i$ that of J.
RORuf,.,Jd. Tiu Dyn,&stic Ans of tll~ Kwhans , w which funber refcrmce wiU be made
ChapceflV.
U.2.a The Buddha.lmlJlle 49
e,ttreme ,outhem limits of the Kulhina empire where Helleniltic influence was
at iu weakrst. Few of such images are known, but famous as Mathud cenainly
was for its creations, the output was inevitably far lea than thrOllghout the rest
of the KusMna empire where the Hellenistic-style Buddha certainly pr"ailcd.
Archaeologists, both Indian and European, have disputed for many decades
conceming which of these two kinds of Buddha-image, the Gandhlran Buddha
or the Mathura Buddha. came fint . If the original inspiration of creating an
image of a Buddha in human form was non-Indian, as would seem to be almost
certain. then the Hellenistic B11ddba mUit surely come fim .7 Its creation,
however, inspired other craftsmen ·of Indian background to produce at once a
Buddha-image in the style in which they were accustomed to carve. This is surely
the most likely eolut.ion of the problem. In any cue the fact remains undisputed
that it was in nonhwest India at the rime of Kusbina rule that the first Buddha-
iamgea in human form were produced.' It is also evident that their creation
relates to no doctrinal position of any particular school. It is quite incidental
that the beginnings of the Mahayana have been attributed by mQlt Weecrrn
scholars to more or less the same period.
Q.uite apart from the human representation of Sakyamuoi there are other
clear proofs that the earlier mythological interest in the ~non of a Buddha wu
now being replaced by a realistic interest .in his more recent life-story on eanh.
In the Gandhlra sculptures scenes from his historical biography are appreciably
more common than scenes from the previous legendary lives. These include
many scenes a110Ciated with hil birth, with his youthful prowess and marriage,
with his abandonm~nt of life in the palace. his flight and bis religious practice,
7 More on tb.it lntermii>g subject togethrr wilh wdul references will be found in Tiu lf'N.lg, of
1Jud4ilus,pp. 59ff. I may prrhai- cjuotc once more the few lines lrorn A. Foucher, L'art grico-
boutldlti'IUI!du Candluua. vol. 2, p. 28'. which ( quoced previouJly:
ls h n« as thotlgb the HetJ.,nizing IDU(et-crafuman, whoee 1kilful cbilel·cuit produ.ced thil
Bucldha image from a block of blue ec:hill1.had left hio own thoughl9 unprln~ on the •tor>e?
Standing before hia 6nilhed wort., we think we undrrstand how ~ ~cel.ed it and why he
execu~ it in auch a way. Por one mauer had ht, not something of us In blm, .,.ith the r .. u.1,!hat
it i1 ruier fol' u~ to ~ad hit thoughcal For another 111aun,do we not know ln adnnce what t'-
who ordeffli the im&gu would ha~ lllft"ated to him? When they encountrred the figure of the
Buddha, he wa1 noi just fading in the mist, of the pur:: he Wa& ra~r beginning to l<11ehis dear
outlines in the douda of ince- !hat evffYWherc aroae toward. hl:9di, ine nature now bring
reamed. So a~r all. what one needed to ~pt'CM!nt was someone like a ,oung printt. a dNCl!ndant
()( the -,Jar dynaty and more gloriOUJthan 1he day, who In fo1"merdmes, filled wltll loathini for
rho!world and compaaion for living crearurn, ti.d U1Umed the garb of a monk and had brcornc
hy the powa of hb lnwllea a kind of oviour god •...
Apollo. Saviour God. Cod of mysteriesso lnmed,
Cod of Ii(<' aud God of all Hlutary plan 11,
Dwine Conqueror of Python, Cod triumphant and youthful . ..
Remembering theee fine ancient ve..- of And,(, C~nier (Dvcoliqu n , VJ), no one wwld be
sw-pri,ed 1bat ow- artiat 1hould haw thou,ht at Ol'lceof using u his model in aucb circumNances
1bema.t intellectual of hif own youthful Olympian god&.
• The latttt addition ID w long continuing argument OYtt the plact of oclgin (Ma1hura M
~- Candhara)of the .8uddha'.image i.1a compelling anicw by J. E. van Lohuizen·de Ltt11w. "New
in
Evidencewith Regard to the Origin of the Buddha Image," in Stmth A"°" A~chuol<>RJ1979,
of the a~ciatimrl of ~vth Auanarchaeologists m We.$1trnEurop, .
l'opns from the fifth e<>'!{fft11,i;t1
Berlin, 1981, pp. !177-400. Tbiurticluu pporb the priority oft.he M athuri type of image.
50 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN JNOIA
the onslaught of Mara, hia enlightenment and fint preaching, his many miracles
and conversion-scenes leading up to his final decease and the distribution of
relics (Pls. 4b, lJa e, b).Scenes like these dearly predominate, ~!though a few
still hark back to his previous lives. Of the latter the most popular 1sperhaps that
of the future Stkyamuni, then the Brahman youth named Mqba (or Sumegha),
making a vow before the previous Buddha Dtpank.ara that eventually he will
himlelf become a Buddha. Thia previout Buddha Dipalikara (literally "Light-
Maker") is not one of the earlier set of six previous Buddhas, but appears in later
extended sets. Hil name suggests a connection with a possible Gandharan origin
in that light is a very primary attribute of the divine nature in Peman religion 9
(Pls. JJ, 1'). Also very popular in Gandbara, in so far as one may judge by
archaeological remains, is the future Buddha Maiueya (Pl. 12), who while not
unknown in the earlieT canonical tradition, 10 embarks now upon bis glorious
future as prophesied by Sllc.yamuni.These three Buddha&, Dfparikara,Sakya - earlier traditions and those who followed the Mahlyina could live happily
muni, Maitreya, later become a stylized set representing the so-called "Buddhas
of the Thrtt Ti.mea," past, pre1ent and future. Maitreya is logically Buddha io a
future aense, and apart from this particular context, he is normally represented
as a Bodhisattva, and it ii u such that he appears in many Gandhiran images.
The full development of the classical Buddha image wu achieved during the
period of tbe third great empire to be establiahed· in the Indian subcontinent,
namely that of the Guptas who reigned from the fourth to the seventh centuries
in an earlier period from A§oka's old capital of Pataliputra (Patna) and in the
later period from KAnyakubja (modern Kanauj) in the upper Gange• valley. The
two period$ are separated by the devastating invasions of the Rphthalite Huns.
referred to above, and although the two Gupta dynuties ,eem to be scarcely
related, it is sufficient for our purposes to treat as one this new ~pire which
embraced the whole Ganp valley and most of Central India . It was during
these centuries that Buddhism auained a kind of maturity on Indian 10il,
lndia becoming the "holy land" for foreign pilgrims and traveling scholars from
all tbe other Asian countries, listed at the beginning of thill chapter, where the
Buddhist religion had by now spread . The various traditions associated with this
"cla•ical" period, namely the established use of Sanskrit for a great scholarly
literature, the founding of monuceries as centers of learning and religious
practice, the embellishment of atupaaand temples, the fixing of the c:anona of
Buddhist art, all these traditions continued to develop and flourish from the .:if: ·
eighth century on, eapecially in eutern India, Kashmir and Nepal, where they \: ·.
~isted side by side with the tantrk de\-elopments which we shall be considering . }1~:
in the next chapter . .·'i. ·
We tend to associate with the Mahayana a plurality of Buddha-fomu with the ·;j :·
}~
, Thi& connecdon ia emphui&edby the Rama d1ai are lhown -•ging from •ume 81.1ddha) ": :·
Images.~ e.g .. Tlttt Im,:age~f!'"ddltd, 1"·1~·7. For thme w~o read ll~!an an a~_cle on "N~ ./ · i.
on the iconographyol - manifNUuom of Buddhu by Maurwo Taddei II a,allable an i· : ·.
lu1111110111
Gunsniluimaljtm'u: Sludi mono,,~di Giu.oeppeTiu:d. 2. pp. 45&-49. · '~ "
10 E.g. in tbc~llaNiiaya, 111.76.
11.2.a The Buddha Image &I
sugge;stion that Slltyamuni has already lost his central position as the one and
only Buddha of our present world-age, However , neither the literature, as
represented by the great Mahlyana atitras, nor the iconography, as represented
by the images retrieved from ruined sites all over India, bear this out, We are
alao fortunate in having a detailed description of religious practices in Indian
monasteries provided by one of I.he Chinese pilgrim-scholan who came to India
at the end of the IIICVenth century.' 1 Such a description confutea altogether the
views that tend to be promulgated nowadays of "early Buddhism" and the
Mahayana as two irreconcilable factions. Such views may be derived from the
con&iderable differences that separate now the Tberavldin Buddhism of Sri
Lanka from the Buddhism of Tibet, but here the gulf comes about becau,e of
the total diffettnce of language and the considerable difference of the general
cultural background. In medieval India, on the other hand, monks following the
together in the same monastic settlement, and the difference between one
temple and another was not so much "Hlnaylna" and "Mahlylna" aa simply a.
matter of period and date. The central object of worship was in the first instance
the suipa and then later as the anthropomorphic form of Sakyamuni wu
elaborated , the Buddha-image itself, either superimposed upon the stl)pa or
enthroned alone. In one form or another Sik.yamuni. the Buddha of the prftent
world-age, remains the center of Buddhist devotion. The images produced in
the Gupta period are nwsdy a syntbesi, of the earlier images for which Mathurl.
Gandhlra and thirdly the Andra region of the south were famous. Thus the
earliett images from Mathura represent Sakyamuni baldheaded, as befit1 a
monk, but with a kind of shell-like topknot, postibly suggesting the tuft of hair
that was left when he firsc cut off hia locks after fleeing from the palace (Pls. 10,
88). The Gandhlra images on the other hand, represent him with locks of hair,
drawn up into a bun on the top of the head, while images from the South show
the head covered with little curl,, with what can on)y be a witdom•lump, but of
more modest proportions than the one suggested by the shell-like protruberance
or the drawn up bun of hair. The suggeetion that the protruberance, whichever
of these various forma it may take. mould be connected with the cutting-off of
locks is an unneceasarily protaic one . It is known at the t.JP.I,~. a term that alao
means turban or headdrtta, and to be ~~·beaded, whatever this may mean
exactly. is one of the more prominent of the thirty -two main features of a
"superman" (moluip11ru.,a).12In any event, the curly hair and a curl-covered
wisdom-bump prnailed in northern India, paaing thence to Nepal and later to
Tibet u the i.conographically correct kind of head for a Buddha. A variant form
in the South was a flamelike headpiece and this can be seen on many images in
Sri Lanka today . Jn the matter of dreH a middle way wu found between the
heavy togalike drapery of the Gandhlra images and the light almost transparent
11
See J.11ing, ,f Ruord ofllu Bw1dhid Religion as Pttutised in India. and tlte MauryArc/ti-
p.logo. esp«-ially ('bapttt XXIII.
12
For fmther reference att The lnw,ge of Btulah4. pp. 54, 76.
 II. LATER DEVE.LOPMF.NTS IN INDIA
52
garment preferred at Mathur!. It was by such ~ -adual accommodation, that the
"classical" Buddha image of the later Gupta penod was evolved .
The most common hand-gesrure of the earlier imagea represents the right
hand raised as though in an act of bles.sing. This is known as the gesture of
"fearlessness" (abhoya) pre.umably in the sense that the Buddha beaows a state
of confidence. Other positions of the hand, which gain in popularity are those of
''meditation" (samadhi) with the hands placed together palms upward on the
lap, and that of preaching or "turning the wheel of the doctrine" ( dhormacaltra -
praf/0,rtana) with the hands in front of the chest, thumbs and forefingers
touching and the other fingers turned round thus suggesting a circular mocion
(Pls. 8 , Ha) . It was inevitabl e that the hut mentioned posture should become
associated in particular with Sarnlth, where according to traditional accounts
the fint sermon had been preached, although this type of image seems to appear
first in Gandh1ra. Yet another typical Buddha-image reprnents Sakyamuni at
the time of his enlightenment, touching the earth with the downward stretched
finge-rsof his right hand, as he calls the Earth-Godde• to witnCl5 against the
falae assertions of Mara, the Evil One (Pl. 16). Being so much more specific than
the other poetures so far mentioned, it seems to have been cultivated especially at
Bodhgay~ and it is certain th at numerou s examples of this panicular Buddha -
image have been found in eastern India. In the period with which we are now
deal ing, approximately up to the seventh century, such Buddha imagea
generally represent Sakyamuni himself. The exceptions ai:_ethe occ~sional rows
of previous Buddbas, while tht- special case of the future Sak.yamum before the
previous Buddha Dipankara has already bttn mentioned. In the later tantric
p«iod these various hand-gesturea become stereotyped aa indicative of t~e Five
Buddhas of the direct ions , but originally they are all aspects of S1kyamun1.
b. Can There Be More Than One Buddha at Ont and the Samt Time!
As the main object of devotion after the stupa , the anthropomorphic image
received honor and worship quite as much from those who were content with the
earlier ecriptures as from those who now wok pleasure in the recitation of Maha-
~na sutras. All were agreed on the supramundane nature of a Buddha as
realized in the penon of Sakyamun i, ahhough some might still refuse to accept
as canonical those sutras where the aupramondane nature wu described in so
extravagant a style. This extravagance is expressed both in time and in space.
There is nothing new in the time element a, auch , aince the earliest known
Buddhism takes for granted a series of Budd.has who have appeared in previou,
world -ages. However, time is now expreaaed as infinity . Thus Sakyamuni.
anxious to impress upon his listeners the vast number of yean ago that the
Buddha Mahibhijnajiianabhibhu (Great Lord of Knowledge of Magical Powers)
was living, explains the matter thus:
"Suppose aomeone ~ett were to re~uce _to powder ~he whole maas oft~ earth
element as much as is to be found m this whole universe; that after taking one
atom of dust from this world he might walk a thousand worlds farther in\an
j
/
,,,··
The &ddha Image
::.., easternly direction to deposit that ~ngl e atom; that after taking a second atom
)i
· ..:,• of dust and walking a thousand worlds farthe r he might deposit lhat second
}J atom . and proceeding thus . he might at last have the whole of the earth
element depoaited in the eastern quarter . Now monks, what do you think? Is it
J:
·''
}'
p05Sibleby calculation to find the end or limit of these worlds?"
They answered: "Cenainly not , Lord; certainly not, Blel56CdOne ."
The Lord said : "On the contrary, monks, some mathematician or master of
.'.} arithmetic might , indttd, be able by calculation to find the end or Jimit of the
}"' worlds, both those whtte the atoms have been deposited and where they have
<t nOt, but it is impo•ible by applying the rules of arithmetic to find the limit of
\;' those bund.nd thousands of myriads of aeons ; so long, so inconceivable, so
);~ ·· immense is the number of aeons which have elapsed since the expiration of
,i: that Lord, the Tathigata Mahabhijiiajiianabhibhu. Yet, monks, 1 perfectly
:f} · remember that Tathlgata who has bttn extinct for so long a time. as if he had
.;;<
reached extinction today or yesterday , becau&e of my possessing the mighty
knowledge and insight of the Tathagata. "
\;~ j
Although e.xpreAed in mott extravagant Janguage, this quotati on from the
Saddharmapu1_i<µ1.rlka ("The Lotus of the True Law ") asserts nothing with
regard to Slkyamuni's powers that waa not effectively claimed in the early
accounts of his thrttfold knowledge as described above. However, a later
chapter in this 1Utra marks a clear advance in buddhological theory. when
Sakyamuni explicitly identifies himself with all previous Buddhas :
l announc e to you, 0 som of good family, I declare to you. however numerous
may be thoee worlds where auch a man deposits the atoms of dust and where
he does not, there are not in aU those hundred thousand millions of myri ada of
worlds as many dust atoms as there are hundreds of thousands of millions
of myriads of aeons since I have attained supreme and perfect enlighten·
mt'Dt . . ..
Again . 0 sons of good family, the TatMgata takes accoun t of the variations
in the vigor and strength of living beings who are yet to be born , and in each
variety of case he revea.la his name, he reveals the State of hil final nirv~a.
lhus satisfying living beings with a variety of scriptures. So the Tathagata
tdb living beings of differing dispositions, those whose buic merits are
insignificant and who are greatly affectl?d by their emotion&: 'I am young,
0 monks, and having abandoned my paternity , I have recently achieved
supreme and perfect enl ightenme~t.' When however , the Tathagata, who has
remained fully enlightened for ao long a time, declarea that he is only recently
enlightened, such scriptures are taught in order to mature living beings and
bring them to a state of salvation. 0 sons of good family , all these scriptures
have been taugh t by the Tathlgata for the guidance of Jiving beings. What·
ever words the Tathlgata uses for the guidance of living beings, whether
speaking himself or under the appearance of another , whether on his own
initiative or on the initiative of another, all that the Tathigata saysand all
those scriptures taught by the Tathlgata are true and no false word pert ains
to him.IS
IS For the gencnl context of these enracu one may refer to the trmslauoo of H . .Kem, fint
54 ll. LATIR DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
Aware perhaps that be is advancing the doctrine, here the preacher a1Serts the.
truth of the scriptures , even though the Lord is speaking through another. He ia ·..
also addressing Bodhisattvas ("sons of good family") and not simple monks. '.'
However , such a doctrine may be seen as a logical developm ent of wha t was
already believed. In buddhahood there can be no diatinc:rions of person and th111·
all Buddhas are essentially identical. But although such internal logic may be :
unanswerable, there is no doubt that such teaching reprC$CDtsa considerable ·
advance on earlier views.
The infinity of space , as now applied to buddhahood , seems co represent an. ;./,
entirely new departure, coming into direct conflict with the earlier conviction }f: j1 .•
that only one perfectly enlightened Buddha could appear at one time. The }f './
problem is discuSlled in an early apologetic work entitled "The Q.ueations of' :~t \:
Milinda" (Mihndapanha ) which emphasizes very well indeed the extent to which ). ••.}:.j~ :·:
.
a foreign invader of the northwest (in this cue the Greek King Menander who :{\; \
ruled in the second century 8 .C. from his capital SAkala, now Sialkot) might take . = l .
in Buddhist teachings. This work consista of converaatiom between the k.ing and Ji( '
the Buddhist monk N!gasena concerning a wide range of Buddhist beliefs , and i£:i
although it is a dc:liberate liteTary production it would be surprising if it did not•'f{t ·
have its inspiration in real discuMions of just such a kind. As posed by the king, )f
the following question cenainly suggnu that belief in the simultaneous exiatence :.:~~
of other Buddhas was already current in the area. 14 :J
.··1·
King Milinda said: "The Lord has said, Nlgasena , that it is a tota l impoMibility ·.
for two perfectly enlightened Buddhas to appear at the same time within a :·
single world -1ystern. But, Nagasena, all Buddha• always teach the same thi rty·
seven points which are conducive to enlightenment, 1~ they explain the same· )
four noble truths , the same three phases of training , and as they teach , they
all inculcate zeal. If aU the Buddhas propound the same ~achi ngs, the same
doctrine and the same training, then why should two Buddhas not appear at
the same rime? The appearance of just one Buddha fills the world with light . .
H there were yet a second one, the world would be even more illuminated by ·
the two of t hem. Also two Buddhas could instruct with much more case, could ·.
admonish with more ease , Tell me therefore the reason for this saying of the ·..
Lord, ao that my doubts may be at rest ... ·:;.,
N1gasena replied: "This world-system of ten thousand worlt:ls can bear just ::
one single Buddha; it can bear the virtue of just one single Tathagata. If a ;'
aecond Buddha were to ariae, this world-system of ten tboosand worlds could ·,.
not bear him; it would shake and tremble . bend twist and disintegrate, }
become shattered , ruined and destroyed. It isjust aa with a boat that can carry ',
only one man .... Here ii another good reason why 1wo Buddhas could not ::
appear at the same time . If, 0 King, two Buddhas were to arise together, then }
published in Oxford, 1884, now available from Oo'V\'rPub lication&, pp . l S3-4 and pp . %99-3'02. I '·
haw retnnslated thdl'I from P . L . Vaidya'tSanllkrit editioa, p. 104, II. 5fT. and p . 190, II. Uf .
It For tbc cont~ oi the following excerpts, ere T. W. 'lUi,s D.awids. 1'Ae Quntions <1/Kin, :
Milinda. Part II, pp. 47.51,
n Thac are the thiny-.evc-n bodhi~ d,-.,.~. for a detailed dctocription of whkh ooe may -:.
~fer to Har Day.I, Th• &dllisathlll Doctrine. pp . 80-164. ··
11.2.b The Buddha Image 55
disputes would ar ilc between their follower,, and with the word: 'Your
Buddha. Our Buddha' they would divide into two parties just as would the
followers of rival ministers . . . . Hear a funher reason, 0 King, why two
Buddhas could not appear at the same time. If that were so, then the scripture
stating that the Buddha is tbe fottmoet would become false, that he takes
precedence of all and that he is the best of an
would be false. So all those
pauagea where the Buddha is said to be the most excellent , the most exalted ,
the highest of all. the peerless one, without an equal , the matchless one, who
ha:. neither counterpart nor rival , all would be proved false .. . . Bu t besides
that, 0 King, this is a natural charac~ri8tk of the Buddhu , the Bleued Ones,
tha t only ooe Buddha should arise in the world. And why? By reason of the
greatness of virtue of the omniscient Budd.bas. Of other things also whatever
is mighty in the world ia singul ar . The broad earth is great, 0 King, and it ia
only one . The ocean is mighty and it is only one. Sumeru , the king of
mountains is great and is only one. Space is mighty and is only one. S1kya
(King of the Gods) is grea t and is only one . Mara (the Evil One) is great and is
only one. Great Brahml is mighty and he is only one . A Tatb!gata, a perfect
and supreme Buddha is great and he is alone in the world. Wherever one such
ariaes, there is no room for a aecond. Therefo re , 0 King, only one Tathagata ,
one perfect and supreme Buddha can appear at one time in the world ."
It is made clear in this passage that tho~ who held to the doctrine of one
Buddha at a time in a single world-system were by no meam diminishing the
gttatncs., of any particular Buddha , specifically Sikyamuni in this presen t
world -age, and certainly not suggesting that as a "mere man" he was any the le5i
worthy of worship and honor. Thus the cult of the Buddha-image has no
immediate connection with Mahly1na developments and there is no good rea5<>D
for identifying any of the Buddha images produced in Mathu rl or Gandhira or
even during the Gupta period as ttprcsenting any Buddhas except mainly
Slkyamuni and less often previous Buddhas, especially recognizable when they
are arranged as sets. However, certain doobts may legitimately arise in one 's
mind when one contemplates a Gandharan Buddha -image, &eated in the posture
of mediration and with flames issuing forth behind. 16 Do we have here the
beginnings of the cult of the Buddha of Boundless Light (Amitabha), the Great
Buddha of the West? Docs he not originate in the inherited belieu of some of
those Greeks and Scythians and other peoples of the far northwcst who before
their conversion to Buddhism were already aware of another great religion
cen tering on Ahura Mazda, the Supreme God of Light of Zoroattrian religion? Is
it not possible that th e idea of there being two Budd.has at once in our world ba s
its origin in the eclecticism that was so typical of the Kushlna Empire? Thc$c arc
questions which cannot be answered with certainty, but so much is dear . By the
third century A.O. an already well-established cult ol this Buddha of the West
had spread from the nonhwcstern reaches of the Indian subcontinent acro&1
Central Asia to China. The fundamental text of this cult, a description of the
lti Rc!er-.-u to this panicular feilture of the Buddha -image will be found in Maurit.io Taddei's
Cot1tributionto TIie Jmo1c of t/1#Buddlao, esp«ially p. 184, with illustrations on pp. 186-7.
56 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS JN INDIA
Land of the Blcsscd, for such ia Amitabha '• paradise in the West, wa, tramlated /~,.
from Sanskrit into Chinese in the middle of the third century. It may fairly be
regarded a, a popular and unorthodox form of Buddhism in that its religious j'}_;
aspiration is directed primarily to rebirth in Amitlbha 's paradise and thus is i~i
largely unconcerned with the winning of nirva~a. the true goal of early Buddhiat ·
prac,itioners, or with cultivating the thought of enlightenment and leading the )~~ '.-_
sacrificing life of a Bodhiuuva a, taught by other Mah1ytna autras. Amitabha ·;.I :\
becomes well known in later Indian and certainly in Nepalese and Tibetan }t.f,;\
Buddhism, but such an exaggerated cult of him seems to be little known. Thus
here we have an extraneous influence upon buddhalogical theories in the far ··;J t ·.
northwest of the subcontinent , which were only partially absorbed into the main
stream of Indian Buddhist thought. 'i ; '.·
Whether or not these foreign contacts in the nonhwest were responsible for so jf • .•
greatly enlarging Buddhist notions of apace, it is dear that the earliest ) :,; '.
Mahayana sutras, which promulgate the Perfection of Wisdom teachings take as'
accepted the belief that there exist other Buddhaa who arc simultaneously J{ :
preaching in countless other world-systems. They remain, however, mainly &1•·
anonymous, except for the Imperturbable (Al<,obhya) Buddha of the East, who
is mentioned as becoming visible thanks to the special vision of him vouchsafed _ifil;. •·
by Sakyamuni .11 The name "Imperturbable" may be related directly with Sakya. :.;~ :'
muni's composure when confronted ac the lime of his enlightenment at ~: '.
Bodbgaya by the forces of Mara , the Evil One. It is precisely the image of Sakya-:;,!t, :
muni, touching the earth with the fingers of hia right hand aa he calls the Earth·
Goddess to witness against Mara, which is later identified iconographically as the
Buddha A~bhya (Pu. 16, 81 ). While no such image is known to have existed
with this particular posture at· the time that the earliest Perfection of Wisdom
texts were formulated, perhaps already in the fint century B.C., this special
Buddha name may ~ave been associated by pilgrims with Bodhgaya, and
regarded from the direction of Gandhara, Bodhgaya is certainly in the East. It ia
significant that these two B11ddha-names, Aktobhya of the East and Amit~ha
of the West should come so much to the fore in these quite different contexts, il ·
Akl}obhya in the Perfection of Wisdom literature aa the one clearly named -~, ·
!:V'!!!:aii°
cu~e:i::~l~~;;:~;o~"!heA:::::t:o ~~~:":~:.: ;:;~
rejected in India. The position of Amitibha (also known as Amitiyus , "Bound-
less Life") as the primary Buddha of the western region came to be firmly } }
alicccptcdin ~-ah:tyAnd Th~ if,heasis l~fiely, the_Per£ofect~~nbofh
.a trthaditionh. Wisd~
terature ongmate m e nort west, 8 t apeo c naming A""fo ya aa tu,;
1:~::.
!:!!1:r ~::;t:rt:::t:
c:v::~t::;:i;~:~~~;!:,r!:; _:~
,~
:_:
_;
'_-::
specialized cult, that it was deliberately not mentioned.
17 English tnnslation. pp. 192-5: also
See e.g ., Edward Come. A;µisiJh.osriltaprajrlapim,mitil,
The LargeSvtro of Pe,j11aWisdom, 464-5, 486-7.
18 On dri• prob~m lff. Edward Conze, The Prajni,piau11&ita
Litffotiu-,, pp. S-4.
11.2.b The But.tall.alma.ge 57
Names for no less than 1iltteen Buddhas of the direction& are given in the
\~j Saddharmapu,qarlka. 19 Here they are rather curio1.11ly~plained as all having
once been the 10ns of the previous Buddha Mahabhijiiajiilnabhibhli before he
took up the religiow life so many thousands of myriads of aeons ago. They are
:.f said to have since progreuc:d to the state of buddhahood and are teaching in the
various directions simultaneously with Slkyamuni, who when telling the story
liats him.elf as one of them. The only other two Buddha-names of later signi-
ficance are precisely ~bhya in the East and Amitlyua in the Wett . We are
{j·,:. thus still far from the time when sets of directional Buddhas become finally
conventionalized. The whole matter of the orthodoxy of believing in the
)ll ; simultaneous existence of such Buddhas in other world•systems is represented as
still being a matter of diapute between Sarva1tivldins and followers of the
Mahayana by the anonymous author (probably of the founh century A.O.) of a
voluminous treatile, attributed to Nagarjuna, which hu been gradually
.:i.' translated from a surviving Chinese version by !tiennc Lamotte. In this
particular cue of buddhalogical developments the arguments of the Mahayanist
are scarcely convincing when confronted by the clear dogmatic 1tatementAIof the
?Jij': earlier scriptures.
The Sarvbtivadin says: "The Buddha hu said: 'Two Buddhas do not appear
at the same time in the same world ju1t as two Universal Monarchs do not
appear at the same time in the same world .· Therefore it is not ttue that there
are now other Buddbaa besides Sakyamuni."
The Mahtylnist replies: "Doubtless the Buddha bas said this but you do not
understand the meaning of his words. The Buddha means that two Buddhas
do not appear at rhe aame time in a trimyriad world-aystem; he does not eay
that there are no< now Buddhas throughout the ten-directional universe. Thus
two Universal Monarchs do not appear at the same time within the nme four-
continent world, eince very powerful beings brook no rivaJs on their territory.
Thus in the one same four-continent world there is only one Universal
Monarch. Similarly two Buddbas would not appear at the same time in a tri-
myriad world -system. Here the sutra compares Buddhas and Univenal
Monarchs. If you believe dun there are other Universal Monarchs in other
four·continent worlds, why do you not believe that there are Buddbas in other
:_~
_;_;_it_:_~_(
trimyriad world -1yste1111?Funhermore a single Buddha cannot save all living
beings. If a single Buddha could save all living beings there would be no need
for other Buddhas and one arid the same Buddha would appear. Bue the
Buddha-dharma.s which save thoee beings capable of salvation disappear a,
soon as they arise like a flame which is extinguished ae soon as the torch is
:_{
,!_,
'_;';·
exhausted ; indeed conditioned dlaarmas att impermanent and void of self-
.__
nature . Therefore for the present there muat still be other Buddhas. FinaHy,
:,·_
:~
;::'_,'1_:,:,
.._::··-· .
living beings are innumerable and suffering is enormous. For this reason there
must be magnanimous Bodhisattvas and innumerable,Buddhas who appear in
the world in order to save living beings. to '
'It 1'
20
SttH . Kem, Tl,-1.otw oftli.1 T.,.., £.,ow.pp. 177-9.
t. Lamoctr, Le trait4 d,, la 1ra.nu wnu ;u ,age.ss•,vol. I {9!1b-c) pp. 502-4. (My mmalation .)
58 II. LATER. DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
.S. BODHISA TTV AS
a. Th,i, Funciion as Q.tuui-C,l6$tial Beneficent Beings
It ha$ been noted that some of the Buddha-images produced at Mathuri in
the early cenmriea A.O. are inscribed as Bodhiaauvas although they are in no way
different from Buddha-images which were being produced at the same pJace :
and time. I have suggested that perhaps the human fonn was felt to be more ;
suitab~ to Slkyamuni as Bodhiaattva, thus active on behalf of living beings, :;
rather than as a Buddha who had passed into nirv~a.l 1 The tide Bodhisattva ·,
would recall hia aelf-sacrificing exertions throughout many previous lives, while
the term Buddha would suggest an impersonal supramundane perfection. It is
c:ertain that 10me puriau quationed the value of offering worship to the Buddha
after his decease. This is one of the more difficult questions that King Milinda
puta to the monk Nagasena; "If he be entittly paaed away, unauached to the
world, eacaped from all ellistence, then honours would not be offered to him.· .
For he who ii entirely &et free accepts no honours, and any act done to one who -··
does not accept it becomes empty and vain. "U
Nagasena', reply i&a rather long and laborious one, but the gist of it is based ::
upon the argument that merit accrues to those who make such offerings even
though the offerings themselves are essentially empty of content. Perhaps the
m01t cogent argument is the o~ that comparell a Buddha with the earth, in
which seeds are planted without the earth accepting them and yet they bear
fruit: "~ the broad earth, 0 King, ia the Tathfagata, the Arhat, the Perfect
Buddha. Like it he accepts nothing. Like tilt seeds which attain their develop-
ment in it are the gods and men who by means of the treasures of thoee relics of
the Tatha.gata and of his wi,dom- though he has passed away and gives no
consent, being firmly rooted by the roou of their merits, become like trees
casting a pleasant shade with the trunk of contemplation, the sap of true
doctrine and the branches of righteousnea."
However, the great majority of Slkyamuni's followers, whether monh or
layfolk, in the earlier period as well as the later, continued to wonhip him
spontaneously and noc because such wonhip could be justified through
argument. For the followers of the MaMyana worshipping was nothing new.
:;==:~:.~!;~rs:~:~:~u::::;:~;~~!~:U::;
:i:;ythw~=
living being to whom ,omething is given. In every case it is the action that
counts. None the less the old dichotomy of Bodhisattva/Buddha, active and
pasaive, penilted in the minda of the wonhippcn and thus there came about the
spontaneous cult of Bodhisattvas who pair with Buddhas. The origin of this
development, which is special to the Mahayana, is impo15ible to trace with any
precision, as the new names suddenly make their appearancr in certain Mahl·
y/lma sutras. A clear poim of depanure was the already cxieting cult of the
YI
22
Scc,T4e Jm4geof Buddha, pp. !>2,5(;.7.
Sa:1'.W. khysDavicb, TI,• Qu«,tlionsof King Miiindo, -..-..1, pp . 144ft.
n.s.a Bodhisat.was 59
Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, but what was needed was a
Bodhisattva who was already perfect in wi.tdom and who could therefore act
fully on behalf of his presiding Buddha. Maitreya on the other hand was still
progressing toward Buddha hood just as the Brahman boy Meghahad in the put
progressed coward ~coming the Buddha of the Present, Sakyamuni. A noble
princely figure was required, just u Sttyamuni had been a princely Bodhisattva
in his last life on earth up to the time of his enlightenment. Thus we find SAkya·
rnuni repttaentcd in certain early Mahtylna autras by a Bodhisattva known as
"Gentle Sound'' (Mafijugho1a) "in the form of a prince" (kumarabhuta). He is
more usually known as Manjulri ("Gentle Glory") and another early alternative
name Pai!.ctJsilcha would sttm clearly to relate him to Brahml, who is abo closely
a1110Ciated with divine sound. He is thus an adaptation, either spontaneom or
deliberate, of the god Brahma in the same manner that many other such
"conversions" were later arranged (Pls. 17, JOb. 8J), Subsequendy he loses his
dependence upon Sikyamuni, and enjoying a glorious advance, becomes in the
later tantric period a fonn of the Supreme Being. u
. While the Bodhisattva Maiiju!ri appears already well established as Sakya·
muni'• chief spokesman fairly early in the Mahayana tradition, cenainly well by
· the second century A.D.. the few other Bodhisattvas who are later to become
famous come rather more slowly to the fore. We have already emphasized above
. that the Mahayana haa its roota in a much earlier period, and this may be
'. illustrated by reference to the A~{asdhasrik4 Pra.jfl.4P4ramit4 "Perfection of
Wisdom Treatiae in Eight Thousand Vcraes," which marks the Ionnal beginning
. of the new movement both with ils teaching of the "voidneu" of aH elemental
. panicles and its praise of the career of the Bodhisattva. It is significant that here
Sakyamuni is surrounded by his Early Disciples (.fnivala), that no Bodhisattva is
specifically named in the earlier part of the treatise, and that the speakcr5 apart
from the Lord himself arc the disciples Subhuti and S1riputra. Very occasional
appeal is later made to Maitreya. 24 Later in the work certain Bodhisauvas are
named in association with the Buddha A~bbya, whose special mention in the
Perfection of Wisdom literature has already been noted, but no later great name
l~ · is included. 25 It is interesting to observe that the greatest name, mentioned only
'))ti . in passing in this early Mah!ytna treatise, is that of VajrapaJ,li ("Thunderbolt·
in-hand"), who is later to become one of the leading Bodhisattvas, if not indeed
the chief one, in tantric Buddhism;· but who here still occupies the lowly position
, .,
_:_ ·::_::
·,~:~:
_;:,~:
;: !::::,N:.'.::'_,:.,.'::'.:_,_
.·_
1, Already in the $1ffltrigo,.,41amodllirutl'II, c:ompoeed at the latt'll by 1.he tN:Ond cent,iry ....D .•
curiOIUIJ,,~nds conttming his put activities att in ~iarcnce. According to one at·cow,t hr. had been
a Pt-atyekabuddha in a previous world age: ac:cOftfutg lo anOther he had bffn a fully t'Dlightened
·.f\. . Buddha named Napvarpiagra. See£. Lamotte, La. COJ1t:enlral1im de la marchehu~ue. pp. 24lM,
.} and pp. 260-4. See abo his arr.icle, ~Manjum," T'<1UllfPa11. vol. 48, pp. l-96.
·.;\ u See E. Cunx, Af,0,,.hturileii PrajiiipilTamita . pp. 104. 1$7-8.
·_:_:_
r., i_i\_;,;,_:
_ ·_.
t! S« E. CoTizc.t>p. t:11•• pp. 184 and 197. A certain Bodhisattva !ilcbin is niendoncd, thus
auggesting an anociation with Mall.julri. one oC whose name1 • PaAc:a!ikha ( ~ Fi""·cm.ted}.
Anoth~.r Bodhisanva named RaO'.lalr.etuappears in lata lisu; he Is rued w the rank of a ~ffl<llng
.i~ Buddha in 1be early tantril' work. rhe Moifjuflfmtilakalpa. and in the tantra entitled "Elimination of
.£viiR<'birth$"he K named as one of di<:Fiw.C<>Ani<: Buddhas.
60 JI. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA :·::z..
~-,
·.tt
of a protecting divinity, qualified u a :,a~a~ (P/J. 4b, 47a). It iilin this capacity if\-;'
that he often appears on early sculptures from Gandhlra as the per&0nal:~ :i
protector of Slkyamuni and thus it is no aurpriae to find him protecting ~ '.;·
Bodhi&atcvas who have reached the advanced stage of irreversibility: "Further~ >~J·:':·
more Vajrapai,i, the great :,a~a. constantly follows the irreveraible Bodhiaattva, ·:, ·.;
who is unassailable and cannot be defeated by men or ghostly beings." .A: :~l \'
Mathura Buddha image of the second century A.D . is flanked by two attendant J\ · ;:
divinities, one holding a VO,fra(thunderbolt) and the other a lotwi.17 One ia{j1 -•··
tempted to identify these as the Bodhisattvas Vajrap~i and PadmapiJ}i, but \~}
although they may certainly anticipate later developments, a safer identification !,~t :
for this early period might be lndra and Brahma, the two gods who in the }!I
earliest Buddhut literature as well as in the earliest scriptures appear lll :'!j ,:
attendants on the Lord. Iodra , the great Indian god of Vedic times, wields a.Ii!~ :·
thunderbolt, as does Vajrapa~i. and u Indra's star goe&into eclipee in Hinduism \it i
as well as in later Buddhism, so Vajrapl~'s star begins to rise. However, further ~:· \
consideration of him is best left until we come to the taotric period. J~ 1_:.
The earlier Mahlyllna literature, while largely concerned with the cult of,11 \1.,
various Buddhas , conceived of as residing throughout an endic:ss univcne in)j ·:
different "pure lands," already take, for granted the exiatcnc:e of preaidmg·;; ti :
Bodhisattvas, who preach and convert in accordance with the Buddha-Word. }j.:
Thus the "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Venea" ends with the atory J~ .
of the student-Bodhisattva Sadaprarudita ("Always Weeping"), who finally ?\! ··
achieves his aspiration• at the feet of the fully-endowed Bodhiiattva Dharmod- .'1f ;,
gata, whose happy land is in the eastern direction. To my knowledge this 'J;·
panicular great Bodhisattva disappears from later tndition, but clearly the ~2.
tradition of great Bodhisattvaa, who preach. convett and save with all the po~rs ':K f:
of a Buddha, is already established as one of the main distingujahing marks of ;I :
Mahayana Buddhian. Three of tlw later chapters of "The Lotus of the True ·1f i:
Law" are concerned with the great activities of the Bodhisattva& Bhai,ajyaraja, .I
Gadgaduvara and Avalokiteivara. In the later period the fint of tbe9C becomes -§f .
famous as the "Teacher of Medicine" (Bhai4ajyaguru) with full Buddha rank. 'f1 .
The aec:ond enjoya no 111ch later cult, for despite hia accomplilhmcnta, he {f •
appears in the chapter devoted to him u primarily concerned to show honor to {~ ·
Sakyamuni and Maiijuirl . However, the third named, Avalokitdvara, becomes Jt .·
the moet popular of all the great Bodhi&attvas of the Mahly!na period, and j\ ·
apart from this one chapter in praise of h.isfantutic &avingpowers, a whole autta ,tl ·
(the Ktira~r..,uha) is devoted to him. Since this work was translated into {;,
Chinese toward the end of the third century A.D., his cult was by t.hen very well .1l
established. It ex.tended acroas Central Asia and he became the popular Bodhi- ~· i supreme enlightenment. then we mould have gone fonh in these dharmaa. •'!8
sattva in Tibet, where his cult began to spread from the seventh century onward . /~: :
The reason for his extraordinary PoPularity ii obscure, but it may derive mainly Jt ·
from the meaning of tus name, the "Lord who looks down" (in compassion); as fir1
2• Conze, op. cit., p. li6 andallohi a/.cirre Sillrao11Pwif"" Wr.idom, p. !198. ,,·~.
17 See Tlt.elmag~ of tltt .Butulha. p. 67, illuatration oo. SO,
JU.b Bodhi.sattvas 61
the future Sakyamuni had looked down from the Tu,ita Heaven prior to his
miraculous binh. Also by its mere sound it suggests an 1WOci.ationwith the
Hindu god Siva's title of l,o.kesvara ("Lord of the World"), which later Buddhist
tradition also applies to Avalok:itdvara (Pls, 18a, JOc, '7). He comes to be linked
with the Buddha Amitabha in the same way that Maiijuiri ia linked to Suya-
muni. Once again this may have developed from the asaociation of names, as the
previous Buddha under whom the future Amitabha is said to have announced
his aspiration to buddhabood, when he waa the monk Dharmti:.ara, is named as
Lokdvararaja. So many Bodhisattvaa arc liared in the later Mahaylna anras and
the few who become preeminent seem to owe their popularity to meanings,
sometimes quire accidental, that came to be associated with their names. Apart
from these few great ones who become the center of a cult in their own right, the
main function of the many other celestial Bodhisattva.s who are listed is to serve
as the entourage of the presiding Buddha .
b. The Careerof a Bodhisattva as a H11,manAspiration
Thett are two aspects of the cult of Bodhiaattvas, a devotional one for the
generality of believers and a practical one for those who aspire to follow the
Bodhiaauva career themselvea. h is with the latter category that tile Perfection
of Wisdom te.xts are primarily concerned, for it is dearly taught in these that the
path toward eventual buddhahood is available to all gods and men who have
inherited sufficient merit from their previous series of lives, and that such a
career u infinitely superior to the aapiratiom of the Early Duiciplea (.frcivaka) of
the Lord. To tbeae he hu taught a conception ofnirv~a suitable to their merits
and abilities, but when he next turned the Wheel of the Doctrine he revealed hls
own career of a Bodhisattva as a far more exalted aJternativc.
Then the Venerable Slriputra, contented, elated, overjoyed, filled with zest
and gladnes&, stretched his joined hand& towards the Lord, and looking upon
the Lord, he said to the Lord: "I am astoniahed and amazed, 0 Lordi I nult
at hearing mch a call from the Lotd. For before I had heard this Dbarma
from the Lord, I used to see other Bodhisattva&, and heard that in a future
period they would bear the name of Buddhu. I then was exceedingly grieved
and ashamed to think that I had strayed away from this range of cognition of
the Tathagata, and from the vision of thu cognition .. . . I was COllStantly
preoccupied with the ever-recurring thought: 'The entrance into the Realm of
Dharma is surely the same for all. But we have bttn dismissed by the Lord
with an inferior vehicle.' At the same rime, however , it occurred to me that
this was our fault, and not the Lord's. For if we had heeded the Lord at the
time when he preached the lofty demonstration of Dharrna concerning this
This higher career is constantly contrasted with the "inferior vehicle" (Hina-
,ana) of the Early Diaciples (.fnlvaka) and Lone Buddha, ( protye/t.abuddha) who
18 The Saddhamuip.,'!'Jffllra. Ch. S . Stt H. Kem. Lotw of ,,u Tnt6 Lau,, pp. li0-1; allo £.
Cooz~. Buddhi'st Scriptwru, pp. l!Off. For the Sansluit 1tt P. L. Vaidya'aedition, p. 40.
62 ll. LATER DEVELOPME.1\JTS JN INDIA
have no concern with the salvation of others. Thus the 1.ord sa)'i:
"For a Bodhisattva should not train himaelf in the same way in which .persons
belonging to the vehicle of the Disciples or Pratye~buddhas are trained. H~
then are the Disciples and Pratyekabuddhas tramed? They make up their
minds that 'one single self we ahall pacify; one aingle 1elf we shall lead to final
nirvlna.' Thus they undertake exerc:uea which are inrended to bring about
who~me roots for the sake of taming themselves , pacifying themselves,
leading themselves to nirvir,a . A Bodhisattva should certainly not train
himself in such a way. On the contrary he should train himself thus: 'My own
self I will place in Suchness, and 110 that aU d,e world might be helped, I will
place all beings in Suchness, and I will lead to nirvlr,a the whole immeuur•
able world of living beings.' With that intention should a Bodhisattva under-
take all the exercises that bring about all the wholC80me roots, but he should
not bout about them. Imagine a man who unable to ace an elephant, would
try to determine his colour and shape. In the darkness he would touch and , ·:
examine the foot of the elephant, and decide that the colour and shape of the .•
elephant should be inferred from his foot. Would that be an intelli~nt thing
todo?"
ToSubhuti's reply in the negative, the Lord continues:
"The same is true of those peraons who belong to the vehicle of the Bodbi·
sattvas, who do not understand this Perfection of Wisdom and ask no
q11estione about it, but while deairom of full enlightenment, 1purn it and
prefer to look for the SQ.u-aswhich welcome the level of a Disciple or a Pratye·
kabuddba . Abo tru& has been done to them by Mara. Just as if a person who
desires jewels should not look for them in the great ocean, but in a puddle in a
cow's foot-print, and would thus in effect equate the great ocean with the
water in a cow's foot-print. Would he be a very intelligent penon?''
This last quotation from the "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand
Verses '"%'is one of the earlier texts, the fint century '8.C. and perhaps even
earlier, to commend the career of d,e Bodhisattva as a higher path, and it may
be of interest to note that in this passa~ as ebewhere in the work certain of thole
"who belong to the vehicle of the Bodhisattvas" are taken to task for their
continuing regard for the earlier texts whose ideal remaim that of the Arhat, the
worthy disciple who experiences that state of niMJ}& which is now regarded as
incomplete. The Mahayana continued to be a movement within the already
established Buddhist sects, especially the Sarvbtivldin& and the Mabls.l~ghikas
who predominated throughout the whole northwest of the Indian 1Ubcontincmt.
Thus for many centuries there was no division into separate communities and.
the only outward sign of difference of a monk who aspired to the career of a
Bodhisattva wu his predilection for Mahayana sutras. All monks were bound by
the same rules of monastic discipline. for those of Mahayanist tendencies never
disputed the validity of the Vinaya, the first pan of the early three-part canon .. It
is sometimes suggested that the MaMy!na represents a more popular form of
tt Set}'_ Come, A~~ilta Pr,ijiSilpiramiui. pp. 84-S, Sanskrit, ed. Vaid)-a, p. 116, IL !'>ff.
63
Buddhism in which the attitude.a and aspirations of the layf olk are acco_rded
greater scope, but such a suggestion, while partly true, can also be quite
misleading. There would seem to be no doubt that the real protagoni&ts of the
Mablylna were monh, and the new scriptures were compiled by monlcs, some of
whom were renowned as masters of philosophy. Alio the career of the Bodhi -
sattva, as described in the texts, assumes that the life of a monk and at least a life
of celibacy are essential conditions for hi5 progress . It is indeed taught that
uu-oughout bis long career through innumerable lives a Bodhisattva may well be
born in any of the spheres of existence, but his aspirations should be directed
roward joining the company of other Bodhisauvas in some Buddha -paradise.
However popular amonpt the layfolk. the cult of the great celestial Bodhisattvas
may be, there is no doubt that the teachings about the actual practice of the
Bodhisattva career are directed primarily toward monks. Thus it comes about
that wherever the Mahayana finally triumphed over the earlier a«ts, the
monasteries remained as important as e~r. and judging from what is known of
the great monastic communities that flourished in eastern India up to the
beginning of the thirteenth century as well as from the similar establishments
that flourbhed in Tibet up to the mid-twentieth century , it j5 dear that
Buddhiam in these land& at least never developed aa a popular lay movement. On
the contrary. once the monasteries are destroyed. it is hard for Buddhism to
survive. A more cogent question concerns the extent to which any monk who
adopted Mahayanist views. consciously strove to follow the exacting career of a
Bodhisattva . It is taught again and again that it is only because of the accumu-
lation of former merits that one meets with the Perfection of Wisdom teachings
and so engenders the aspiration toward remote buddhahood. Thu.a the Lord
says: "It is through the impetus of this former wholesome root that they will get
this Perfection of Wisdom , even if they do not now hunt and search for it. Abo
the sutras other t han this one, which welcome just this Perfection of Wisdom,
willcome to them spontaneously . For it is a rule, Sariputra, that if a Bodhisattvil
persistently bunta and aearches for thie Perfection of Wisdom, be will obtain it
after one or two binhs, and also the other si.ttra.sassociated with Perfect Wisdom
will also come to rum spontaneoualy."so Surely it i1 one thing to embark upon a
project that one may hope to finish within the course of one's present life, and
quite anoth« to consider embadting upon a project that one will not become fit
to begin eeriously until two or thrt!e more lives have been lived. One may well be
amazed at the vastnes&of the project, and the whole while it is insisted that it is a
project which essentially is no project at all. The philosophical aspect of the
Bodhisattva'• career will be considered below, and here it suffices for us to
consider it according to. its practical implications and ask how the daily life of a
monk of Mahaylna tendencies differed from that of one whose faith was fixed on
the teachings of the earlier autras. Outwardly it can have differed hardly at all,
and since both accepted the same monastic discipline, there need be no
difficulty in their living together in the same community. The Chinese pilgrim ·
30
cit., p. 81, ed. Vaidya, p. 114, II. 9ff .
Ste E. Conze, <1f>.
 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN !NOIA
64
scholar J-taing, summaming his experiences in Indian monaateries toward the
end of the seventh century , describes the actual situation clearly enough:
Those who wonhip the Bodhinttvas and read the Mahayana 1>i1tTas arc called
the Mahayanisa, while thoee who do not perform these are called the Hina-
yanisti (the Small) . There are but two kinds of the so-called Mahayl~.
Fint, the Madhyamika; &eeond, the Yoga. T~ former profes& th~t w?at u
commonly called ex.iatence, ~· in reality non-ex11tencc, ~nd every obJe<:t!•but
an empty show, like an illusion, whereas the latter affll11l that .there ~iust no
outward things in reality, but only inward thoughts, and all things exut only
in the mind. These two systems are perfectly in accordaru:e with th_e ~ble
doctrine. Can we then say which of the two (Mahlytna or Hinayina) 1s right?
Both equally conform to the truth and lead us to ~1;1a. N?r can ~ find
out which is true or false. Both aim at the deatn1ct1on of paa,on (lclesa) a~d
the salvation of all beings. We must not, in trying to settle t~ compara~ve
merits of these two , create great coofU$ion and fall further into perplexity.
For if we act conforma bly with any of these doctrine., we are enabled to atta!o
the Other Shore (nirva~a), and if we turn away from them, we rema~n
drowned, 11 h were, in the ocean of transmigration. The two syate':115 are, 1n
like manner, taught in India, fOI' in es1ential poinu they do not differ from
each other .51
It is interesting that l•tsing should inform us that both aim at the salvation of all
beings. for it is preciaely on this score that the followers of the Mahayana
attacked the others so vigorously for their exce,sive introversion. But do \te aec .
any differences nowadays between the attitude to his fe!low man of a Ti~ / thought1 and aspire toward enlightenment, ·and if they, when reborn, are
monk as a follower of the Mahaylna and a monk from Sn Lanka, a Theravi.din, :
to whom the disparaging term Hinayanist has been unfairly applied? It ia
possible that the M.ahlyanist philosopher& literally prttmpted their own moral
teachings with their doctrine of the "Void" (sunyata) and that the subsequent .
philoaophlcal school. referred to u "Yoga" in the above paaage, but perhaP5
better known as "Mind Only," reestablished the earlier emphasis on mental
training. This point we shall rake up below, for first we shoul~ a~tem_pt~~ clarify
the differencn which the early Mahly!Dists clearly saw a1 d1sungu11hlng them
from the followers of the earlier ,,mas . In this respect I quote from a Mahiylna
sutra entitled the $urangamasam'2.dhi("Concentration of Heroic Ptogre51'·),
where the Lord, ,~times amsted by Maiiju&ri, discounes on various stages of
perfection and powers achieved by a Bodhisattva who throughout his career is
intent on the salvation of all beings.Si
Sec 1-l•ing, A R'""d of the Buddhist Relip.,.. pp. 14-1!>.I ha.e added in bncketS Mab~
~1
01' Htnayina, aincc frocn the whole c:onu-xt extending beyond lbe act~l. pa1S~e quoted here, tt
_,, or
clear thal 1i-e are the two he-ii eqiaaliTig,and DOI just the two phtlosopb1cal school5 the
Mahayana. .
!It An invaluable 5tl.ldyof tl~ ldtra has ~ mai:k by tuenne Lamoue, l..a ro ll(:fflt raiwn d_• la
..,arclae ltffoi"qr,~ (MCS vol. Xlll). My quoted paaagt!COffesporwbtop. ll5S of this ~ork. See abo
R. E. Emmerick. The Khottmue $1'1'mtpmasamatlhisutra, p. 45: I am grateful to this w~ for the
ca~flll edition of the Tibetan veniOII(pp. 111·2) , which is~ basil for my ptc1rnt trall6lanon.
U.3.b Bodhisattvas 6S
Having heard this discourse , the gods were delighted and said: "Whoever
enten the rarified realm of a Disciple or a Pratyekabuddha gets caught up
and so fails in this Concentration of Heroic Progress. It is better to be one who
is guilty of the five greatest sins and hearkens to this Concentration of Heroic
Progres& than to be the purett of chose Worthy Ones (arhats) free of aU foul-
ness. If one challenges this, we reply that one who is guilty of the five greatest
sins may yet raise hia thoughts to perfect enlightenment, and although he may
(first) fall into the hells as a result of the evil he has done, yet he may still
embark upon this Concentration of Heroic Progress. But the wonhy Disciple,
so purified and learned, is not a suitable recipient, so bow ahould he ever be
able to perform this Concentration of Heroic Progreu?"
~-. It is made clear often enough that these teachings are primarily intended for
'·
.:·
gods and men, as far a5 possible excluding women, for the propounden of
MahAylna teachings remained quite as attached to monkhood aa the ideal life as
were the early disciples of S1kyamuni. Thus describing the fucure Buddha-field
of one of hia foremost follower&, the Lord Salr.yamuni detcribes it u flat as the
palm of the hand with wonderful buildings of the seven precious $tones and
peopled with gods and men, It will be free from all place• of woe and from
womenfolk, as all beings are born there by apparition.al binh, etc." The monk
Dharmakara, when making bis vow to become the Buddha Amitabha, makes
one vowconcerning women to the effect that they must become men:
0 Lord, if after obtaining enlightenment, those women in innumerable
Buddha-fields in all directions who hear my name, may they have pure
::· born again a1 women, then may I not obtain the highest enlightenment. 54
..
•. Thus it is refreshing to note that the $uran.g,unasamadhi Sutra la capable of
disposing of such a meaningless discrimination. Here the main spokesmen. the
Bodhisattva Dr4hamati asks one of the gods, named Gopaka, by what good
action had he become male, for on earth he had been the girl Gopaka. To this he
replies :
Those who are committed to the Mahayana do not aee any difference between
male and female. Why? Because omniscient thought has no application in the
threefold world and male and female are just imaginative creations."
Despite this clear assertion, the ..same sutra remains sceptical concerning the
witability of feminine converts and special means may be nec~ry. Thus a
certain Bodhisattva , suitably named Maragocan\nupalipta ( = Undefiled by
Mira's Sphere) receives Sa1tyamuni'1 consent to go to Mara's world in an effort to
convert him. His succesa might appear doubcful. because Mira eventually
produces the thought of enlightenment with a fabe intention of trickery, but
Slltyamuni prophesies that even this doubtful intention will cvt"ntually succeed,
" See H. Kem , The Lotus of the Tn,el.4,-,,,, p. 194 .
s. See the SullMutatfvyliha, p. !190(English transbuion), Sanskrir. p . .fOend Tibetan. p. 248.
:15 Stt t. Lamon<!. op ciJ., p. 174. Stt aha hi$ Th,: Tcuhi11g of J/imalllklrti, pp. 169-71.
66 II. LAT.ER DEVELOPMENTS JN INDIA
1ucb is the force of merely bearing of the Surangama.samtidhi. In the coune of
the proceedings
the Bodhisattva Maragocarinupalipta emitted ~ great radiance through _bis
magical power, ,bowing his moet wonderful boda~ form;_the palaces of Mara
were thus illuminated and Mlra him11elfwas ecbpaed like a mass of lamp-
black. Now there were in hia entourage two hundred divine maidens who we~
greatly attached to the pleasuree of sense, and seeing the perfection of beauty
of the Bodhisattva they fell in love witb him, saying: "lf only thil man would
dally and make love to U$, we would all be subservient to his or~~n. ·•1·hen ~
Bodhisattva, knowing that they fulfilled the neceaary precondst~ons for being
saved transformed himself into two hundred gods of a perfection of beauty
like his
own. He also created two hundred magnificent upper chambers
r.uperior to all the palace. of Mara. Seeing_thae magnificent upP_t:r~hambers,
each of the divine maidens thought that It was she who was fflJOytng herself
with the Bodhisattva. When their desires were satisfied, their passion dis- ,
appeared, and they made the great resolution and paid honor w the B~·
sattva. Then he preached to them in a suitable manner and all of them railed
their thoughts toward supreme enlightenment. 56
c. An Evaluation of a Bodhisattva 's Skill in Meom (upiyakauialya)
There is an apparent contradiction in the ccacrungs concerning a Bodhi-
sattva's carttr, which runs right through Mahayina literature. On the one hand
he is supposed to remain entirely pure from the world, and on the other he ia
supposed to make himself all things to all men. This contradiction is disposed of
by the notion of "skill in means." acco~ing to w~ch a Bodhisattva m~y indul~
in any form of wantonneu and even m great sm, such as murder, .af only his
ultimate intention remains pure and he does not separate himself from the
thought of enlightenment. The Bodhisattva Vimalaktrti, after whom a who~
sutra is named, is shown as acting in just such a way. He asks the Great Bodhi·
sattva Maiijuiri to explain the: situation in which he appears to operate, and he is
told that thO&Cwho truly belong to the Buddha's fold (gotra) are inevitably.
immersed in sa~sara .
MaiijuiTi replies: ..Most noble youth, the fold of the Buddh~ ia t~ ~old of
transient things, d1tefold of ignorance, the fold of tbOIICwho delight in life, the
fold of J)assionate attachment and of anger, the ~old of folly, t~ fold of the
four kinds of wrong opinion, the fold of the five kinds ~ o~rauon, the_fold
of the six spheres of con11dousneu and the seven operauve lunds of consaous·
ness. It is the fold of the dght wrong paths and of the nine kinds ~f annoyance .
and of the tenfold way of evil conduct. Most noble youth, A.tch 1s the fold of >1{
the Buddhaa. In short, the fold of the Buddhu is the fold of the sixty-two
kinds of falsehood."
. , .·
"But what do you really mean, Maiijuiri, hewhenbyolu
say athUthat?" di . _.., ,·,·;.~~:.::_'.:;:,·
:~-,.:·._
"Most noble youth. he who beholds t a so ute, e noncon uor:ia, :
( = nirvlip) and achieves fixity therein, becomes incapable of raising the ....
'6 See E. Lamou~ . lA «ncc,mt.,.tion de '4 mari:he hiroiqu~. pp. 196-202.
u.,.c Bodlwattvas 67
thought of the supreme and perfect enlightenment. But he who has notyet
seen the truth and remains in the phenomenal world of conditioned things
(saqa~ra), which is the place of afflictions (klesa), such a one is capable of
raiaing the thought of supreme and perfect enlightenment . . . , For example,
seed does not sprout in the sky; it sprouts on earth, In the same way the true
teachings of the Buddha do not manifest themaelves in th0&e who have
achieved a state of fixity in the nonconditioncd state ... . Most noble youth,
without diving into the great ocean you cannot bring up pricekss pearls. Llke-
wite without going down into the ocean of worldly turmoil you cannot raise
the thought of omniscient buddhahood. " 57
This theoretical involvement of the Bodhisattva in all spheres of existence
(•a~sara) is a logic.al corollary of the Mahlylna assertion of the essential identity
of nirva~ and saqasa.ra, which will be disc:ulled in more detail below. However,
it is justified in practical terms by the Bodhisattva's zeal on behalf of all living
beingsand his consequent n«d to assume forms and auitudes suitable to their
conversion in varying cireumaanc-es. This "sir.ill in means" (vpct,okau.falya) is
not one of the earlier set of Six Perfections, the practice of which is CS1entialto a
· BodhiNlttva'a progre,a, namely: geoeroeity, morality, patience, heroism,
contemplation and wisdom, but it is soon added as the seventh perfection in the
increaaed act of ten, namely skill in means, commitment, strength and
knowledge." We shall observe how in the tanlric phase the Perfection of
Wisdom and Sir.illin Mean.a come to the fore as the two coefficients of Enlighten ·
ment, and it is interesting to find this development foreshadowed in such an
early Mahayana sutra as the Yimala/dninirde.sa." Thus another Bodhisattva
who viaiu Vimalaklni ab him concerning the whereabouts of his father and
mother. his sons and his wife, etc. Vimalakirti interprets aU his relatives and
aseociates io ternu of Mahlytna teachings with his parents heading theli&t:
For pure Bodhisattvaa their mother is the Perfection of Wisdom and their
father is Skill in Means; of such parents as these are the Leaders born.
The ex.tent to which Bodhisauvas do in fact involve themeelves in worldly affairs,
let alone the sufferings of the hells, remains a rather subtle question. First one .
needs to identify these rrmarlr.able beings before one can investigate their actual
practice. ffThe Teaching of VimaJak:Jrti" would seem to make it quite clear that
all those who considered the~lves followen; of Sakyamuni were at least
potentially Bodhisatt.vu and it was only ne<.Uaary for them to respond to the caU
J t~
$
7
Sa.- 1. Lamoue, Tilt Td.cltmg of Yi"'4lolii1'ti: pp, 176-9, My tramlalion is taken direct f«>m
'ribe uan wnion ('IT -.ot !4, 91 ·!S-~lf.) and is abbrevla1ed. lnatead oft~ term 1ulrizgato. J have
.i '.
uacd Buddha as a synonym throughout the pU3ag,e. The ttrm got,tt has a loog history in Indian
ci..;Jization and Is oltca tran$laled as "clan" or "lirleage." Thus the Tibelans uandatr it as '"lineage·
or "cla1&,» It mnns originally a fold for animals, specifically cows, and it i, quite legitimate IO reuain
1bit sense in the pttsm1 context. One may compare 1he NT 11K' of she - ~rm in John, 10,
:.. •~. 7 and 16.
511
Con«rning the Perfcui011s ( par.miu) on< may rdtt to .Har Dayal. Th., .8odh4auva Doctrine
pp.16&ft' . '
,it
}f
" Stt t, Lamom,, The Teoclring of 'Vimalali/Tti, p. 180.
68 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS lN INDIA
to raise their thoughts to perfect enlightenment and they could then already
begin their higher career. The clear intention of those monks who read Mabi-
yina su.tru- with inirrest was to convert their religious brethren, often living as
we have noted in the same community, but who were still content with the
earlier rutras. Thus in theory all thoee who were .soconvened were at the same
time supposedly committed to the self-sacrificing career of a Bodhisattva, of
which the more harrowing aspects might always be postponed until a future life.
It ia interesting to note that while legendary tales of self-aacrificc were eagerly
recounted of the great Bodhisattva.&, as they progressed toward buddhahood,
especially of Sikyamuni himself in his former lives, it is difficult to locate acts of
,elf-sacrifice in any historical context which have been acclaimed as the great
acts of a Bodhisattva. In acrual practice it might almost seem that such self-
sacrifice is not expected and indeed scarcely understood when actually
performed in this world. 16 The Buddhilt religious ideal, as much for the Maha-
y1na as for the HJnay1na, remains in the firat instance the celibate monk who
withdraws from the world, achieving a state of im>er tranquillity, and who &ub-
scquendy guides othen along the same path. It is religious teacher& such aa these
who are acclaimed as Bodhisanva, in the biographin composed by their ·'
admiring disciples. 41 Thia is cenainly the cue in Tibetan tradition and one may
fairly ill$Ume that the ,ame was true in those Indian Buddhist communities
where Mahlylna teachings held sway. Similar conclu5iona may be drawn from
the writings of the Jndian monk Stntidcva, who lived in the seventh cenwry A.O.,
the author of a famous work in vene entitled the Bodhicaryavau,,ra("Entering
upon the Career toward Enlightenment"), which is studied and recited by
Tibetan monk1 to this day. It certainly contains the uaual admonitions toward
self-sacrifice, as in Chapter Ill (vv. 10-lS):
My body and my possnsiom, my meriu whenever acquired,
I aurttnder all with no regttrs for the welfare of living beings.
'Renouncing all, one gaina nirvl?].8: on nirva~ my mind is set.
Since everything must be surrendered, it's best surrendered to living beings.
To all mankind I give my body to u.aeas they pleue.
Let them strike me, insult me, begrime me as they please.
Let them make sport of me. mock me or laugh at me.
To them I havemrrendered my body, 10 tome it is all one and the same.
40 It ia difficult to can to miod any historical biography of great Buddhi,t teac.hcrl, identified by
tbeir follower, as Bodh.isattvas, who are renowned (or d~ .. m&a, af their llvtt. One may noce that
no Dalai l.ama or any «her reincarnating lama, although unquntlonably regardm u a Bodhi·
sattva. is expected co saaifit.~ his life foe b.ispeo... They are tM inott anxioua that he •bould escape
fua lo a place oi safecy. We have also noced that T!be~, with whom WI! h.a~ ~-~ Cbriaian
?'
parallels with Buddhi&t icachi0g5, find the self,5a<:r1ftee the Founder of Chri.\tl2n1ry on behalf of
his followers not only incomprehclllible, but acuully distasteful, even though w docuine or the
reaurrcccion para~ls in tome re1pect1 the glorified rebirth of a oelf-sacrifidng Bodhisattva in
Bucldhiatlegends.
o One may reftt to iny Four lAfflOI of Doi/HJ for such typical relip>111guides. ~ a form of
aelf-sacdficr la inYOlved, u in wbiographies of Na,opa(att H. ~ntlu!r in the Bibliography) or
Mi-la Ru-pa (s« Evans· Weo12) the m.oth-1!is the proving of ab.olute IA\th in OK's chaeen teaehtt,
11.3.c Bodhisattva.s 69
Yet the more general spirit that this work breathes is one of self-abnegation,
strict self-control and even a deliberate withdrawal from the world:
When he realizes thac his mind is disturbed by paasion
or intent on useless exertion,
The Bodhisattva controls it firmly, applying a suitable antidote.
When he speaks, he must speak clearly, profitably and pleasantly,
free of attachment and a~rsion,
in all gentleness as suits the occasion.
When he loob at other living beings, he looks with candidness and kindnesA,
"It is by relying on them," he thinks, "that I shall gain buddbahood."
He is skilful and energetic. always doing things by himself,
JnaU his affairs careful not to depend upon others. (Ch. V, vv. 54, 79-82)
One chapter deals in panicular with the merits of solitary meditation:
If one acu in the way of worldlinga, one certainly comei; to an evil state.
But one is not wanted if one fails to act in their way,
So what can be done in your dealings with them?
One moment. your friends, the next moment yow enemies,
Instead of being happy, they feel provoked.
The ordinary man is hard to please.
From keeping company with worldly folk sinfulness is bound to come
Praise of self, contempt for othen. the kind of talk in which the world delights.
Such company is detrimental to oneself and others.
So I go away alone, remaining happy with untroubled mind.
Keep away from foolish worldliogs.
If one must meet them, make them happy with pleasing words,
As though meaning well in a way detached,
Thus not getting involved in doae association.
When one acts freely withcut attachments, unbeholden to anyone,
Such is the joy and satisfaction one feels that even the cbjef of the god.t might
hardly attain it.
Considering the advantages of isolation from the examples that have
been given,
One should quieten all disturbing thoughts and develop the Thought of
Enlightenment.
First of all one must make oneself realize that othen are the same aa oneseif.
SiM-ewe are all the same in our joys and sorrows, we must do for others what
we do for owsclves.
Just as the whole body must be cared for although it consiau of hands and
other 1eparate pans,
E~n so the whole world, while different in its parts,
is all the same in joys and sorrows.
If the sufferer of pain cares alone for the sufferer,
then a pain in the foot docs not concern the band,
So why llhould the hand protect it?
70 11. LATF.R OEVE.LOPMEi"ITS IN INDIA
The bodhisauvaa who undentand such connections,
gladly accept the 1Ufferings of~~· . idea of a self, of a being, of a soul, of a person ... Acceptance of self," O
Plunging into the deepest hell (Avica) like 1wam mto
a lotua·c:OYeredlake.
(Ch. Vlll, vv. 9.10. 15-15, 88-91. 99, 107-S)U
In reading such teXt5 one senses that tho1e teachings which involve dissociating
oneself from the world are treated aa applicable here and now, while those that
recommend heroic self-saaifice are more easily applicable to the lives of other
Bodhisattvaa in totaDy different apheres of existence,
The Bodhisattva who plunges into the deepest hell is precmincndy the Great
Bodhisattva Avalokitdvara and so we are transported into an entirely mytho-
logical world. Thus the doubts ex.pressed on the subject by an otherwise
sympathetically disposed Christian scholar are aurely justified.
In the last resort is there any reality in the vow which the Bodhisattva makes to
be reborn in wretched conditions, even down to the great Avlci hell&<>that he
~y save sinners there? It is certainly an heroic vow, the more so_aince accord- '
ing to at least one of the Mahayana schoola ~ thought, the day will never come
when there will be no longer the great A vlet hell and no longer any ~ffe~era.
But so great ia the zeal which inspires such a vow, that the act of plunging into
the Avici hell becomet for the one who ia so committed like a walk in a
pleasure-park. It is ~se~ess to enquire ~be.ther the_ zea~ really r~oves the
suffering or whether rt 11mplyproduces JOYin suffermg; m truth, m absolute
truth, it is unlikely that our Bodhisattva will ever enter any auch terrible place.
For his resolve not to enter nirvana so long as thett remain sinners to be saved,
does not prevent him from having alwaygbeen in the scare of nirvU}a, precisely
that nirvana into which there is ultimately no entry, if only be ia one day aware
of all this .. Can one truly enter into this Avid hell, into which one ia auppoaed
to plunge, when one is all the time immersed in that state of nirvar_ll, into
which there ia ultimately no entry? 4'
The gentk mockery of the above quotation is in very much the same atyle as ..
some Mahayana texts. since all the elements of existence, those of nirv~ quite
as much u those of sarpsara a.re ultimately revealed as fictitious. Aa Suyamuni
explains:
What do you think? Subh'(ati. does it occur to the Buddha that he has saved
sentient beinp? Not so should one aee it, Subhiiti. But why? There is no being
who has been saved by the Buddha. If there had been any such .aved, then
42 The ba1 F.lll'ope~n tramlation of this whole wort remains that of Louis de la Vall&. Pou&llin,
.tafatvrs in,.ddhtu . 1-kre the imciyrctacion ~ helped b~ the ~ion
(,strodu,;tiQ" <i lo p,atiq1111 of
brief cot1UMnuriid phrua. Thei:c is II r«enl Engliah uaNlu1011 by Mattofl l.. Ma_ucs, _l!.•termg1h_11
P,u/1 of EnglightfflmRt, but it duet not attain_ to d,e ~tandard of _chcFr~h ven1on. Ille Sa~m
and Tibetan -.emOOlSfrom whkh iny tranolauon derive&an- avwble 111a URf\il volwne 1m1ply
en1idcd Bodhuarya,.,atiml, published by 1~ Aliatie Socjety.
~, See Henri de Lubac, As~as du&uddhisrru, Paris. 1951, p. !I!). His_referenc~ tot~ Ami bet!
becoming like a pleasure-park dniva from che fim cllap1« of the_ l{_atYU}t!at,iJla. Sutm ~hc,re
Avalokitrivara is described as piullging there to sa,e the suff-rs.
cigbthchapc-,r(Ven11107) ofche .Bodh~aryji,alaro. See immcdiatclyabove.
A $Ill.Illarreference occ.-ursm the
11.11.d 71
rhere would surely have been on the part of the Buddha an acceptance of the
Subhuti, has been taught u a nonacceptance by the Buddha, yet it is accept~
by foolish worldlinga. But "foolish wordlings" have been explained by the
Buddha as no people at all. Therefore they are called ''foolish worldlings .·-.~
d. Bodhisattvas in Paradise
Concerning nirval}I itself one may quote a short pasea~ from the Surangama•
sa.mddlli Sutra, where the Bodhisattva Drc,thamati is conversing with ~ of the
gocJ.s
:4S
Dr4hamali: The Buddha, , where do they go?
The god: The Buddhas, on account of their being "such a kind," do not go
anywhere.
DrtJ.hamati: Do l10l the Buddhas go to nirvil}I?
The god: All the elements are in a primordial state of nini~a. and so
Buddhas do not enter nirvaQa. And why? Becawe of the very nature of
nirvana, one docs not enter nirvana,
D'!t!ha~ti: AU the Buddbas of the' past, who att as numerous as the sands of
the River Ganges, did they not go to nirvarµ?
The god : All these Buddhaa, as numeroua as the Ganges, where were they
born?
Drdhamati: In fact the Buddha has said: "Buddhas as numero\1$ a5 the sands
·~rthe Ganges . having been born, have entered nirvaJ?,a."46
The god: Noble son, did he not also say: "A single person born in the world is
born for the benefit and happiness of many men, out of compassion for the
world, for the benefit of ordinary folk, for the advantage and happinesa of
gods and men. This is the Tathlgata, the Arhat, the Perfectly Enlightened
Buddha."" Now what do you think? Would the Buddha really be a person
who ia subject to birth and decease?
DrtJ.hamati:No, 0 heavenly being, for in truth the Buddha knows n~ther
birth nor decease.
The god: Noble son, understand thi1: although the Buddha speaks of "a
Buddha being born into the world," there i& no real birth for a Buddha.
Although the Buddha speaks of "a Buddha attaining nil'YaJ)a" there is no
real decease for a Buddha.
It may not be sw-priaing that tbe opponents of such teachings accused these
e.arly Mahaymisrs of nihilism. But as is pointed out by Naglrjuna. the chief
exponent of Madhyamaka teachings, it is the others who are at fault, for if
anyonebelieves that the Buddha really exists, then he must logically also beli':"'C
•• See F.dward Come, Va.jracclte,Ji/,i,~sjifapinentitil, pp. 55-6 (Sanskrit rein) , p. 88 (f'.nglish
Vfflio11).
4
s ~£.Lamotte, l,a ctmcnlration-d• lo marclu hirotque, pp. 186.ti.
•• <.:ornpattH. Kem, Lotwofth~ Tru~ u.111 . p. 49, vcn4! 70.
., ,I follow th, Tibetan translation clo&ely.The acuaal quotation i&from an eariy sc:ript11re 001-n:t: ·
lnding to ibe 1:heravidin \'effioo, lfrigMlttno -Nili,;yo I, p. 22, 1-4. For further n:fert:nt'fll ...,
, ot. al. , p. 186 fn.
• l..a111ot1c
72 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
that once he bas entered nirv~a a Buddha ceues to exist.• 8 It is preciaely
because a Buddha is free of birth and death that he transcend$ all such
definitions as being and nonbeing. On the positive 1ide, if indeed the word
positive can be applied, are the numerous descriptions of Buddha-paradises
whkb are to be found in incalculable numbers in all the dittctions of space. By
theiT miraculous powers Bodhisattvas pass from one to another, visiting varioua
Buddhas preaching to their separate asaemblies, all equally vast in number.
Again, the siie of these wonderful beings is often immense and so special thrones
have to be produced miraculously for them when they appear in asaemblies of
rather smaller dimensions, among which our own miserable world (sah4loka) is .·
included . Theae Buddha -paradises are defined as pure or impure. In the former
case the land is flat and all the buildings and even 1-rees are made of prttio111 ,
stones, while the inhabitants are either gods or men, so that unhappy binhs an
unknown. For the impure lands a deacription of our own world will suffice. Thia , •·
may be taken from the ninth chapter of the Vimalaklrtinirdda Sutra where a ·
story of a more unusual kind is also involved.
A vast gathering of Bodhisattvas has been discussing various points of doctrine
in VimalakJrti'1 hou1e in VaiAlli. As may be expected it ia altogether a magical
house thanks to Vimalakirti's extraordinary powers, accommodating as many •·
great beings as choose to viait him. Among them are the more renowned of
Sakyamuni's earlier diaciples, who can be relied upon to make rather naYtt
obrervations, as occasion demands. ThU$ ~ariputra hu the sudden thought: "It ··
is midday and these great Bodhuattvas are atill not getting up. So when are we
going to eat?"
Vimalakfrti knows of this thought without its even being e:xpre11edand so he
says: "Honorable Sariputra, the Buddha has expounded to the Disciples the
subject of the eight kinds ofsalvation. You should be attentive and not li&tento
the Dhanna with such preoccupation over material things. However, just wait a
moment and you wilJ enjoy such food as ha1 never been enjoyed before." Then
by means of his supernatural powers, Vimalak!rti revealed to the Bodhisattvas
and Disciples another univerre which can be reached in the direction of the ..
zenith by traversing other universes as many in number as the grains of sand of J .··
forty -two River Ganges. This remote Buddha-paradise is named "Well
Perfumed with All Perfumes" (Sarvagandlaruugandh/1). HeR there are only
Bodhisattvas, no Pratyekabuddhas or Disciples, and the tiered temples and
palaces, the wallts and the parks are all made of perfumes, and moreover the
perfume of the food eaten by the Bodhisattvas there pervad~ innumerable
universes. At the moment of the vision the presiding Buddha and all the resident
Bodhisanvas were enjoying a meal. Vimalakirti calli for a volunteer to go to this
universe in order to fetch some food. Since no one is capable of thil, he producra ~:. ,.
a spedally created Bodhisattva of magnificent appearance and sends him all the .~-
way beyond the vast number of intervening paradises to the Paradise ·•well
Perfumed with All Perfumes." Here he pays Vimalaktrti'a respects to the
,u lo F'ra.tofffls/)atio, p. 8&.
"' Sttj. W. de jong, Cinq d1.u1>ihes
Jl,3.d 73
presiding Buddha and begs for the remains of the meal. "With these remains,"
he explains, "Vimalaklrti will perform Buddha-works in the Saha-world. Th1U,
beings with lowly aspirations will be moved to noble aspirations." The Bodhi-
sattvas in this remote and delightful paradise have never heard of our wretched
world, and a large pany of them decide to accompany the specially created
Bodhisattva on his way bad with the bowl of remains from their meal. ·rheir
pre,iding Buddha lets them go with the following advice: "Since these beings will
certainly become deranged and intoxicated by you, go there without your
perfumes. Since the being, of this Saba -world will fell jealousy toward you,
conceal your beauty. Finally do not go around and arouse feelings of scom and
avenion. And why, noble son,? The real Buddha-paradise is a paradiae of space,
but in order to perfect living beings the Blessed Ones do not show them the
Buddha-domain in its finality." Despite such advice , tbe whole town of Vaisali is
pervaded with the wonderful perfume of the food and everyone ga thers at
Vimalakirti's house. Some of the Disciples have the thought: ''This food is very
· litde. How will it suffice for 10 great an aasem.bly?" They are 1100n put to shame
by the specially created Bodhisattva and by the actual event of the meal, for the
food in the bowl proves not only to be inexhauatible , but after all the various
grades of beings from the Bodhisattvas downward hatt partaken of it, their
bodic1 feel a happiness equal to that of the Bodhisattvas who live in another
paradise named "Encompused with Every Bliss" and the pores of their skin emir
a perfume like that of the trees in the Buddha-paradise "Well Perfumed with All
Perfumes." The conversation after the meal compares the form of instruction in
this universe with the form of instruction in ours . There no words are necessary,
for all spiritual advance is prompted by the peTfumes of the trees. On the other
hand in our wretched world where beings are so difficult to convert and where
thne are so many different locations of poaible rebirth, inatruction has to be
varied and precise. To begin with, all physical misconduct and spiritual failings
have to be dealt with in detail even before Su.yamuni can discourse on the
4• conditions and rules for the religious life. The visiting Bodhisattvas are suitably
'ii ::
edified. "The greatness of Sakyamuni ill ntablished," they say, "it is wonderful
how he converts the lowly, the wretched and the unruly. Moreover the Bodhi-
sauvas who are established in this mean Buddha-sphere must have inconceivahk
compassion." Vimalaklni ha..~tensto agrtt. "The Bodhisactvas bom here," he
says, "have a very stable compusion. In this world here in a single life they
benefit more living beings than you do in the n:alm of "Well Perfumed with All
Perfumes" during a hundred thousand world-agn." He then goes on to list ten
good dhanna.s found in our world, which cannot be found elsewhere:
1. Converting the poor through generosity.
2. Converting the immoral through morality.
3. Converting the ill-tempered through patience.
1: · f. Convening the lai.y through heroic aetivity.
1 ·· 5. Convening the distracted through meditation.
6. Converting the foolish through wisdom .
74 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS JN INDIA
7. Teaching tho.e who have been reborn in unfavorable conditions to over-
come these eight unfavorable conditions.
8. Teaching the Mahlylna to thoae who foll~w letaer wa~.
9. Converting through good roots (of ment) those ben1gs who have not
ettablished good roots.
10. Perfecting beings continually through the four means of conversion
(sa~grahava..slu). •~
The term which I have translated as Buddha-paradise is more literally
"Buddha-field (Buddha~•tra), but thoa- of them that are defined as "pure" can
only properly be described as paradises. The "impure Buddha-fields," of which
our world is the bat known example, cannot normally be so described, but even
in their case it is a matter of one's quality of vision. An ordinary penon or a
follower of the teachings of the Disciples will from ignorance continue to see the ···
world as impure, but to a Bodhisattva who had purified hia thought, any
Buddha-field becomes spontaneously pure. Suiputra, who is often taken to task.
in Mahiylna circles for hia naivety, thinks to himself: "If the thought of a Bodhi-
sattva must be pure in order for his Buddha·f~ld to be pure, then when the Lord
Slkyamuni followed the career of a Bodhisattva, bil thought mull have been
impure. because today his Buddha-field appears to be so impure." For tbia
thought he ia immediately rebuked by Sakyamuni himself: "If beings cannot see
the maas of good quali'lies of the Buddha-field of the Tathigata, the fault lies
with their ignorance; the fault is not the Tathagata's. Sariputra, my Buddha-
field is pure, but you yourself cannot aee it." The great god Brahma then joins in
the discussion against Sariputra, maintaining that the Buddha-field of the Lord
Slkyamuni is quite as splendid as one of the divine paradises. But Sariputra
persists in hls ignorance and replies: "For my part, 0 Brahma, I see this great
land with hilb and valleys, with thorns and predpicu, with peab and chasms,
and all filled with filth." Brahma. replies: "If you sec the Buddha-field as being
10 impure, it ia becau.e your mind goes uphill and downhill, 0 worthy Sariputra, ,.
and because you have not purified your intention in the Buddha-knowledge. On .'
the other hand, those who regard all beings with the sameness of mind and have
purified their intention in the Buddha -knowledge, can Stt this Buddha-field as
perfectly pure. " 50
The manifestations of Buddha-fields au generally conceived aa deriving from
the vows made by successful Bodhisauvas, but despite the earnestne55 of such
vows, the ~entual production is a mere mental creation . Tnus all the •plendid
details, which aroUK' the faith of the simpleminded, arc ultimately dissolved into
nothingness. So the Lord Slkyamuni, ~{erring a, u,ual to himself a» the Tatha·
gata, asks Subhfiti: "What do you think, Subhuti, is there any dharma which was
taken up by the Tathag-,lta when (as a Brahman youth) he was in the presence of
Dtpankara, the Tat~gata, the Arhat, the Perfectly Enlightened One?" Subhuti
49 For this whole Hory of "T~ Obtaining of Food by me Imaginary BodhiJatna." see
La1nocte, The Te4chmg ~f l'imalok'it-ti.pp. 204-218.
&oSee t. Lamotte, op. cit .• pp. 24·5.
11.3,d Bodhisattva. 75
rightly replies in the negative, and the Lord continuet: "If any Bodhis~ttva
should speak thus: 'I wiU establish a Buddha-field,' he would speak falsely. And
wby? The establishment of a Buddha-field, Subhiiti, as nonestablishments have
they been taught by the Tathagata. Therefore they are called "fidd·
establiabments. " 61
In a similar way the whole long career of a Bodhisattva from the time when he
first raises hi, thoughts toward Perfect Enlightenment up to the time when be
p~iides over his Buddha-field, is firmly negated as ultimate reality despite the
detailed descriptions of his envisaged progttSI. Thia is divided into various
stages. first six corresponding more or less to the six great perfections, and then
later extended to a set of ten .~! This was later extended to twelve and even to
thirteen. The fint six stages came to be regarded later as open to a Disciple
(iravaka) or a Pratyekabuddha, but thereafter their ways diverged, and having
enten!d his se\lenth stage a Bodhisattva could no longer fall back, becoming
what i.s frequently referred to in the texts as an "irreversible Bodhisattva." As
such he could travel over the imme111edistances of myriad. of univeBCSliscening
to the teachings of innumerable Buddhas. The Mahlylnists certainly ttaDS·
formt:d earlier ideas of the universe, which according to the earlic:1t teachings
was a comparatively simple arrangement of a central sacred mountain with ever
higher staga of divine reaidencC$ rising up above it and then four continents to
the four directions, of which ours named Jambudvipa it the soutbcm one. The
whole complex was surrounded by ring&of mountains and of oceans. Now there
were supposed to be myriad& of auch universes in all directions, and while their
number is never finally qualified as infinite (as this would in effect appear to
limit the omniscience of Buddhas since it could be argued that then was always
something ebe further beyond which they did pot yet know), they are so
exceedingly numcrou1 that the usoal way of suggesting their number is by
referring to grains of sand of the River Ganges multiplied many times over. Like
ao much else which becomes typical of Mahayana thinking, this increase in the
number of universes can be traced back into earlier scriptures, but the idea
served the new teachings well becau.e it could be used to justify the existence of
innumerable Buddhas all ex.i&tingat the same time. Not all universes need have
a Buddha at any one: time; those that are fortunate enough to have one become
in effect Buddha-fields. Of these the pure Buddha-fields, such as the famous
land of the Buddha Amitabha (ahasAmit~yus) in the West or of A~obhya in
the East, att clearly regarded by simple believers as paradises. They differ
fundamentally from the heavenly abodes of the gods, for these belong to the
"Wheel of Existence" as described above, section 1.5.a and thu, a fall, sooner or
later. into less happy states is inevitable. The pure Buddha-fields on the other
hand appear to offer unending bliss to those who are born there. One may quote
from the vow of the .Bodhisattva Dhanntk.ara, which fixes the conditions of his
Buddha-field when he becomes the Buddha Amitabha:
!,
~1Sec E. Come , llofracclmliltil Prajiiof,aromita, pp. 33 and 72.
" Stt Har llayal. Th~ &dlais.ollw Doctrine, pp. 2i0-91; N. Dlltt, Mahoyana 811.dahism,86·1'6.
76 II. l.ATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
0 Lord, if those beings who have been born in that Buddm,Jand of mine,
after I have won enlightenment. should not be all limited to one binh only
leading to perfect enlightenment, except for those great beings the Bodhi-
sattvas with their special vows who perform Bodhi1attva-acts in all worlds ...
then may I not obtain the highest and perfect enlightenment!
0 Lord, if after I have won enlightenment, thoae beings in inconceivable
numbers of worlds who arc brightened by my light should not be endowed
with happiness exceeding that of gods and men, then may l not obtain the
highest and perfect enlightenmentl~ 5 ·
c. All Buddhas and Bodhisattva.s Essentially One and the Same
Aspirations auch as these might suggest the C'ltistc:nce of two main daesCII of
beings, namely simple believers who by their faith and devotion merit rebirth in
such a paradise, where they are content to remain, and Bodhisattvas who
commit themselves to continual rebirths for the good of other living beings, ~en
~ugh they have won the right to final bliss themselves. To the latter group
certainly belong the great ~ltstial Bodhisattvas, such as Mai'ljutri, Avalokitr-
~ara, Samantabhadra and the rather exceptional human Bodhisattva Vimala-
klni, to whom we have already J'efetred. But who belongs to the first group if not
simple layfolk and monks and nuns who have faith in Mahayana teachings? The
earlier Mahaylna texts, such a11 the "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand
V crses," Sttm to expect little more of an "irreversible Bodhisattva" than was
expected of a monk. who remained content with the early canonical writings; he
should realize the ultimate sameness (or "thumess") of all hues of activity,
whether of the ordinary people, of the lesser religious ways (Disciples and Pratye·
kabuddhas) or of the career toward buddhahood. Once such an underatanding
is established, he does not imagine things or discriminate fabely.
He does not prattle away at whatever comes into bis head. He speaks only
when it is profitable and not when it profits nothing. He docs not look down
on what others have done or not done. Endowed with these auributes, tokens
and ,pgns, a &dhillattva should be known as irreversible from perfect
enlightenment. He does not pander to wandering religious (.frama~) and
brabmans in other schools, telling them what they know is wonb knowing and
what they see-is wonh seeing. He pays 110 homage to other gods, offers them
no flowers, incense and so on, and puts no crust in them. He is born no more
in places of evil rebirth and he is never born again as a woman. Furthermore,
an irreversible Bodhi&attva undertakes to observe the ten moral rule, of (1) not
taking life, (!) not stealing, (3) not committing unchastity, (4) not lying,
(5) not slandering, (6) not insulting, (7) not chattering, (8) not coveting,
(9) not giving way to anger, (10) not holding wrong views. It is cenain that an
irreversible Bodhisattva observes thc.e tffl moral rules, that he instigares
others to do so, incites and encourages them, and confirms others in them ...
Furthermore, when an irrevenibJc Bodhisattva masten a text of Dhanna, aod
offers it to otben, he has in mind the happineas an welfare of all beings ...
~3 s~ the Svlrliil.r.om,yi,ha.pp. 38i. S90 (Eiigliah), pp. 52, 38 (Sa111bi1) , pp. 242. 248 (Tibetan).
n.s.e Bod.hisattva.s 77
He only says what is beneficial; he speaks gently and in moderation. He has
but trifling idleness and torpor and be is free from evil tendencie,. When be
goes out and when he returoa, his mind does not wandtt, for his mindfulness
is well _established. . .. His robe is free from lice, his habits arc clean, he is
rarely di and rarely suffers. Moreover, the eighty thou,and daucs of worms
which flourish in the bodies of other beings, flourish in no way whatsoever in
his body. And why? The roots of his vinuous conduet spread over the whole
world .6~
Here we find an "irreversible Bodhisattva" depicted in rather more human
terma and we may surely recognize in him the ideal monk who could be met in
Mahay1na communities in India and who can still be met in Tibetan com·
munities living in foreign exile today .~6 Why then the need, one may ask, for the
astronomical exaggerations, whether in space OT time, in vinucs, accomplish·
menu and powers, which are continually met with in other Mahayana sutraa?
They derive perhaps partly from that populu delight in marvels, in which the
early scriptures also abound, but also, one must aaume , from the deliberate
intention of the more thoughtful compilers of these texts, to reduce the
phenomenal and cosmological aaerrions of the earlier ac:holaltic litel'ature
(Abhidharma) to total absurdity.
The conversations on duality that take place in Vimalakini's houac before the
specially produced Bodhiaauva ii sent to a remote Buddha-field in a quest for
food, make nonsense of any such belief in any other Buddha -field and indeed in
any definable nature of the one in which the discuasion takes place. They make
nonsense of the imagined paying of visits to other ~uddhas since all Buddhas are
essentially identical. In short they make non.eenae of all concepts whatsoevCJ'.As
the Bod~i~tt~ Nua~ai;ia say~: "To say 'this is worldly and this is supra-
mun~ane 1mpbes .duality. In t~11 world, empty by nature, there is absolutely no
Cl'1ll$tng,no entering, no mov10g, no stopping . Not crossing, not entering. not
~oving, not st~pping, thi.~is penetrating into nonduality." The finaJ nonduality
11 the nondualtty of the concepts of s~lra and nirvti,a, the wretchedness of
existence on any phenomenal level and the n-amcending of this wrctcbednesa.
Aa we shall observe below, a theory of two orden of truth, absolute (para-
m4Ttlaa) and .relative (sa,,.vrti) maka it possible to deny the validity of all
conc:cpta relating to buddhahood OJ' perfect enlightenment in one context and
then in another to assert the identity or uuniversal sameness" of all Buddhai:
Anand.I, all the Buddhas are the same in the perfection of their Buddha-
dha'!'aas·name}y their fonn, color, brilliance, body, characteriatic.s, manntt
of b1nh, mor~1ty, concentration, wisdom, salvation, insight into the know-
ledge of salvauon, powers, stances of confidence, deportment, practke, way,
s• ~ E. Co~t,, ASPP, pp. 121·2. Some minor changes ba,-e been made in thi, tranalarion;
Slllltl:nt. ed. Vaitt'ya, p. 161, JI. 10ft'.
~s One. may see also another siatra, Tiu : Quution <>JRGftrapolo, tratulated and aMocatcd by
J~obEnsink,lwolle (Netherlands). 19!>2,especially pp. l2•S7 ; tbi. whole abo,-t work i, c:omiemed
Wllh desc~bing the characieriatia of good and bad Boclhiaau. u, who ate cl~rly regardr.d as inonaa .
Bad Bodhisauvaaant alsodaa-ibfld in theASPP, pp. 85.ff .

78 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
length of life, teaching the Dharma, maturing living beings , saving living
beings and purification of the Buddha-field .s6
Thue Sll.yamuni's identity with any other named Buddha may be freely asserted
as occasion may require. In the s\':ltra named SurangaJMsamadhi the Bodhi-
sattva Drc,thamati ask.aSakyamuni how long his life will last .07 With a kind of ._
evasion the Lord replies : · actions and the saving efforts of Bodhisauvas. who having reached their final
"Leaving this universe in the eastern direction and crossing over thiny -two ·.
thousand Buddha-fields one finds a universe named "Well Adorn~ -" There :-
rcsidell there teaching the Dh a rma the Buddha named ''Resplendent One, ·
Adomed with Rays. Transformation-King ' ( Yairocana -ra.fmipra.timafJ4ita- ·
viluruitiartija) . . . . Hi&length of life is justthesame as mine ."
"How tong is the life of tlua Buddha?" the Bodhisattva a.au.
"Go and ask him. He will tell you, " the Buddha replies.
The Bodhisanva Dwhamati travels there to ask this question and he is told:
"My length of life is exactly the same as that of the Buddha Sakyamuni, and- ~
if you really want to know, the length of my life will be seven hundred .i
incalculable world-ages, while that of the Buddh a 5Akyamuni is exactly~ ·
same."
The Bodhisattva returns with this information, and Ananda , approaching
Slk.yamuni with the utmost respect, says:
''ln so far as I understand the words of the Lord, 1 would aay that it ia you, 0 :'
Lord , who are in the universe named 'Well Adorned,' where with another :_
name you work for the happiness and welfare of all living beings."
Then the Buddha congratulated Ananda and said to him: "Good indeed! It -:~ . _
is by the power of the Buddha that you have understood this. That Buddha ia } ;f ; _
myself with a different name , preaching the Dharma in that universe and )~ '.
saving living beings."
Th e supreme apotheosis of Slk.yamuni occun in chapter IS of the Saculharma- ·)JL~
pu:rµµirtkowhere he discourses to a va.5thost of Bodhlsattvas on the length of hit
life. Hia gaining of enlightenment at Bodhgayt wu a mere display for che :!-) j ::
benefit of living beings in our world. In fact he has achieved enlightenment so
many myriadsof world -ap ago that they are totally incalculable. He ends this )\ij ;
• ·:rf· · .
statemen t saying: ,::;
.. ,
So~f:~ 5:!t~~:.:=.
~~;~~:!~:;';~: ·i:.::!C:~~17;:::::~r
_:._;~
::'.::
__
,.,~.:_.'
_'.
__•_
:_
:;~
_. --
t demonstrate nirvl~ without being really in nirva,;,a.
What is the reason for this continual demomh'ation of mi~?
Lacking in faith, foolish and ignorant, intent on semual desires
See t.. umoRe, The T eachitlgof 1'im4laklrti, p. !27.
56
$1 Stt t . Lamoc~ . La comffttration th la -~h• "''~ifl" , PP· %67-?0.} ba\'e cholrn d~ .
panicular quotatioll becavee of t~ early mcrcoce t0 1h11Buddh• named Raplmdmt One .:-,,;·
(VaU"OCana)who become• Vt!l')' unp onanr at die ~ginning oftbe tanuic period.
U.4.a &dhisattr.ru 79
and out of their wits, because of their thoughdesmess they
fall into evil rebinha.
Knowing how this process goes on all the time , J tell living
beings that I am so-and-,o , so that I may iodine them toward
enlightenment and that they may be sharers in the Buddha -dharmas. i8
It may be ob~ that there is no ~ntial diffe~nce between such Buddha -
stage abort of actual buddhahood, choose to continue appearing among living
beings in order to assist and convert them . The identification of Buddha and
Bodhisattva as the more puaive and the more active aspects of enlightenment is
confused in the single person of Sikyamuni, who is named on some of the veiy
early Buddha-images, ill noted above , indi&eriminately as Bodhisattva or
Buddha. It would seem clear that the extravagant theories of manifold Buddha-
manifestatfons and the detailed elaborating of the Bodhisattva'a career all derive
-: from the earlier beliefs concerning Sttyamuni himself. Thus nothing essentially
exrraneoua has produced these major features of the Mahaylna.
Furthermore, in that the tenn Bodhisattva can be applied not only to the
Great Beings, who do the work of Buddhaa amongst living beinlJ1, but alao to
choeewho have only just embarked upon the long and arduous train ing toward
buddhahood, all these, the leaders and tl.~ practitioners, are the more easily
~ clallt'd together u belonging to the "Buddha-fold ." This leads directly to the
· further recognition that all beings and certainly those who belong to the
"Buddha-fold '' already po61C&11the "es.ence of buddhahood" (tathagatagarbha)
and thus in the fanaJ analysis all distinctions disappear not only between
Buddhas and the Great Bodhisattva&, but between Buddhu and all who merit
the name of Bodhilattva, however modest their acbicvemenu. It is with this
forth.er identification , which wiU be treated in rather more detail below, that the
Mahlyina diverges from the earlier teachings. It is, however, an inmtable
<~·· corollary of the aSleJ'tion thar between aqisara and nirvii}a there is no eS&ential
difference.
}j ,-:
%-
·:" 4. THE THREE TURNINGS OF THE WHEEL OF THE DOCT.RINE
We observed above that the early accounts of Sakyamuni 's life have rema ined
generally constant except for the contents of his doctrines , which were gradually
,...
extended in scope to a«ommodate the later teachings attributed to him. The
technical term for a Buddha's act of teaching i$ "turning the wheel" of the
doctrine. This expression was used in order to suggest that a Buddha is as mighty
:~~ ::· in the religious sphere as a Universal Monarch (caltrawrtm, literally a wheel-
-~- turner, interpreted as meaning "one whote chariot-wheels turn from one ocean ·
· JI:
_::.
i
);I~"' ,_ Compue H. Kem, l-olus oftke Tnu lAw, pp . 509-10, Samkri t text : Vaidya p. 195, II. !Sff.
•~ Kem. p. S~6, when ther e are s.eweraldoubifu1 rea<linp, which I ha¥e checked again.IIthe
_,;~ ·: Tibeu,n translation (1T vol. 50, p. 58-S-8). acccpcing the lll061 likely inmprcution .
.J~.i..
··it . ::
80 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDJA
shore to another") in w worldly sphere. Three mch "turnings of the wheel"
were recognized by the later followers of the Mah!yina, one relating to the
tuchings received by the Ear ly Disciples (,frciva/ca), which have already been
explainfll in some detail in the previous chapter.and the other two relating to
the two main phi10110phical 1chools of the Mahayana itaelf. The tantra. are
generally excluded. for only a f~ of them can have bttn in circulation when this
theory of the "three rumings" was first enunciated. The efforts of the later
exponents of the tantras to-establish some form of onhodoxy foT their teachings
will be explained in the next chaptCT. The doctrine of the "second turning" ia
represented primarily by the Perfection of Wisdom literature , to which many
references have already been made in the present chapter. h consists largely of
eulogies and descriptions of the career of a Bodhi&attva and of a series of
dogmatic ~rtions concerning the emptiness (.fun,at4) or vanity of all concepts
wha tsoever . The "third turning" is represented by such Mahayana sutru aa the
LanMvatdTa ("Entry into Lanka") and the Sandhininnocana ("Resolving
Enigmas") u well as by some Perfection of Wisdom sutru, to which rather
ruffereot interpretations were given. Little more needs to be written here about
the "fint turning" apan from explaining its relatioomip with the "second
turning." So far as the teachings concerning the career of a Bodhisattva an!
concerned , the "aecond turning" has already been panly dealt with and th\15 it
remains for us to explain the philosophical teachings of the Madhyam aka
school, which repre5ent its other important aspect. The "third turning of the
wheel" relates to the theories of the Mind Only (citta -m4tni) rchool, which
brings together in a rather complicated synthesis the teachings a550Ciated with
the previous two "turnings of the wheel."
For the expoundings of all these teachings two kinds of texts wae employed,
fint the sutTas, dogmatic teachings regarded as the Buddha-Word. and
scholastic treatises (.f4stTa) usually written by known authors for the pu~ of
elucidating meanings and for justifying their particular interpretations .
a. The First Turning
The followen of the Early Disciples (.fr4iu/ca), now castigated u followers of
an "inferior way'' (Hina,ana}, appealed to the early siltras ("threads of
diacoune") of Slkyamuni, some of which undoubtedly go back to the Master
himself. Some _of the early schools, notably the Theravtdins and the Sarvasti·
varum, developed scholastic worb known as Abhidharma ("Further Dharma"),
where the theory of elements (dharmas) as the ultimate "realities" is worked out
in great detail. Oth er early schools rejected the Abhidhanna literature aa
Buddha-Word and while they accepted the general theory of elements
(dl&armas) as the only form of reality underlying the phenomenal world, they
often modified considerably the theories conCt'ming the ir functioning. An ,{J'
interesc:ing school 50 far a 11later developments are concerned is one known as · §:,I
Sautrtntika, -meaning "Ending with the Sl'lt ra" in the sense that they do not -~1 ;,,:
accept the Abhidharma as canonical. Although none of their scriptures survives
U.4.b The 1"hree Turnings of the Wheel of the Doctrine 81
they are known of from the views that are attribu ted to them by their oppo_nen11.
Thus while the Sarvastividins believed that the elements of existence maintained.
a real existence in the put and the future u well aa the preacnt , the Sautrintikas
asserted that the elements only c:x.isted in any rea l sense as they manifeated
themselves momentarily in a continual tramient preaent time . They aho rejected
the theory of nirvlJ:la as being an elfflicnt in its own right, for Jike space. they
argued, it was physically nonexistent . Teachings such as this, which reduc:ed
.· physical existence to a bare minim.um while leaving nirvm,a free of any realistic
.., designation, would appear to be halfway between what was later regarded as
:.i typical Hfnayana and Mahaytna opinions. In the earlier period there cannot
have been such clear distinctions, as members of the same community and even
those of the same sect might hold various opinions , if they chose to argue about
these philosophical matters. When the Perfection of Wisdom teachings with
their unmitigated attack on the reality of any dhof'ma.swhataocver began to take
. shape, the first century B.C . at the latest perhaps , their main opponents were the
_· Sarvutivadins, who were particularly strong in the far northwest and wh01e
theory of dkannas was one of the most extrt'fflC. The Tberavidins. who survive
in Sri Lanka to this day, held lrimilar views, but already at this early period they
sttm to be scarcely involved in these philosophical battle,, u though their links
.. with the Indian mainland , cenainly with the north, were already very tenuous .
b, Tiu Second Turning
Howe~r . whether they ~re firmly asserted, hesita.tingly uaerted, denied
al~ther, or totally reinterpreted, the Buddhist doctrine of dhannas remaiN
fundamental to all these phil010phical schools. Thu. the Perfection of Wisdom
tcachinga of "emptiness" relate. primarily to the "emptiness'' of the whole
dk,mna -theory . So when ita protagonuts insiat that thrir teachings are not a
form of nihilism , as some of their opponents claimed. they certainly dC$erve
atten tion from other philosophers whoae views are not limited to any such
dharma-theory . The main protagon.iata arc NAglrjuna who probably lived some
time betwcc:n the mid-first century and mid-second century A .D, and his disciple
and successor Aryadeva. The fundamental work eluddating the Perfection of
Wisdom teachings i&Nigarjuna's Midamadh,amakakarilca ("Basic Verses on
the Middle Way") which acned u the basil for later commentarial works, of
which the beat known is that by·another famous Buddhist philosopher , Candra-
kirti, who lived aome five centuries later .¼9 The term "Middle" (Madhyama4a)
has come to be used in a restricted scn~ of the school represented by N agtrjuna,
but the whole of Budd hism claims to be a "Middle Way" deriving from Slkya·
muni 's first announcement that his teaching avoids two extremes, that of laxity
~9 This ls his "Clear C~tary on the Mean " (Prasannapada Madlt:,ant4k411ftll), which was
t, p11blisht-dby Louis de la Vallte Poussin at the beginning of this ttntury in Bih/iotheca 8"4d11KaIV.
The whok is now available in European translation . panly in Engfub (-« de Jong .-nd Stcberbatsky
:.1 in the Bibliography), panlyin Frmcb(seeJ . May) and panly inCerman(tttSchayC1') . Text referred
to ai MMK(Mwamach~"'d<in'io) .
.·~~·.
·:1~:;,.
. ·:l,,·
82 lt. LATER. DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
on the one band and that of exce11ive hardship on the other. But such an·::·
assertion could also be applied to philosophical theory and especially to Sikya- .'·
muni's resolute refutal to allow himself to be committed by argument to :·.
asserting in any absolute sense the existence or nonexisten« of a "self' (4tman) ::
of the eternity or nonete-mity of the universal flux or whether a Buddha existed -::
in the state of nirvAna or not. 60 All these noncommittal auirudes are funda- .<
mental to the Madh~ma.ka, but in one of Nagarjuna'1 "Basic Verses" a specia) -~
interpretation is given to the term after which his tchool is named.
It is the (twelvefold) causal nexus that we declare to be the Void.
It is a 1netaphorical name and it is thia that is the Middle Path. 61
Thus the twelvefold causal nexus remains a kind of dogmatic core for Buddhist '.
philosophical theory, and it is as its author that NAgujuna salutes Silyamuni in ·.-
his opening vencs: · (.funya) of all conceptual being. 64
I salute the Perfect Buddha, the most worthy of worthy ones,
who has proclaimed the peaceful Causal Nexu.awhere all deliberations cease,
where there is no extinction, no arwng , no cessation, no permanence ,
no individuality, no generality, no coming and no going.
However, the Madhyamaka introduced a fundamental change in the inter • ·.•
prctation of the Causal Nexus from one conceived of as a set of causal links in a ;,_
time•proce• to oru: that inaists upon the eaential causality of the Nppoted ~;
procca without reference to time. Since the elements (dharmas) of which the ;'._,
nexus is imagined to c.xist arc mutually dependent and 10 mutually conditioned >
and contingent, they can have no real nature as the Sarvutivldio.s and otbcn .:·,
claimed for them. Thus at Naglrjuna aa&ertsin hil fint vene:
Nowhere are there any realities ( bhawl}) that come into being,
either from themselves or from others, either from both or some other cause .
and again:
There is no truth in realities which have no true reality (ni~bhdui) ,
So it ia inapt to aay that one thing derives from another.
If an el.!ment (dharma) doa not appearas true (sat) or untrue (a.&at)
or as both true and untrue,
How in such a case can it be an effective cause? 62
Thus the Twelvefold Cauaal NCJiua, more literally translated aa "Dependent
Origination" (pratityasamutpdda), is revealed as essentially a "nonarising''
bccauae the elemenu of which the process supposedly exir.t are themaelves
,o Cooccrning s11ehl.lllMt.e-rminedquestions. one may refer 10 E. J. Thoma,, History of Bt<ddJiiJ1
Thought, pp. 124-S!. Also see abO'fe. pp. 20-l and 28.
61 MMK XXIV, 18. See J. May, C111UlrGllfr11: pp . 257.9 for funhn tt.fettn«9, aud N. Dutt,
Md.,....,. BittldAinn. pp. !64ff .
ft MMK I, w, 10 & 7. The whole chapter if traJUlated by Stcberbatsky, The Conceptimt of ·::
Buddhist Niroitt)a, pp. 79-18!.
U.4.b Tiu 1'hTe8 Turnings of the Wheel of t/ai Doct~ 85
;
mutually dependent, and whatever is dependent upon something for ita
esistcncc cannot be truly exi,tent. This basic lesson is repeated again and again.
There is no independent existence df anything anywhere at any time,
So there is nothing eternal anywhere at any time.
Nothing exists without a cause and that which has a cause is not eternal.
The wise man states that whatever iseffected without a cause
must be a noneffect. 0
By showing the emptincas of all the elements of e:a:istcnceas accepted in varying
degrees by other Buddhist philOIOphical schools, the Madhyamalcas establish
the eaential emptineta of all phenomenal existence . Thus one might logically
'
~pect them to amert the reality of whatever exists without a cause, prttminently
the ,tate of ninai_\a. However, Nagarjuna asserts that nirvlJ1a is equally empty
Grasping and mutually dependent, such is the state of coming and going
( = birth and death). That which iafree of grasping and mutual dependence
ia said to be nirv~.
The Teacher has taught the abandoning of being and nonbeing.
and so it is not right to say that nirvas,a is either real or unreal .
It cannot be said that the Lord exists after bis decease , or that
he does not exist, nor that be both exuta and does not exist,
nor that neither case applies .
It cannot be said that the Lord is actually existing or that be is not.
Nor c:an it be 11aidthat both etatement, arc true or that neither is true.
There is no difference at all between a~nra and nirv~a.
uo difference at all between nitva)1a and saq1sara.
The limit of nirvi,µi is the limit of 1&Jlllira.
Not even the m01t aubde difference ia found bcrween the two.
Opinions about an ultimate state after decease and so on, about
eternity and 10 on, thcae derive from nirva9a II a prioT and
anterior ultimate.
SiD(:eall dharmas are empty , why an infinite, why a finite?
why both, why neither?
Why just that? why something else? why eternal? why nonctemal?
why both noneternal and eternal? why neither?
Peaceful i1 the quiCICCnccof aU co,nceptions, the quiescence of deliberations,
No dkarma was taught by the Buddha to anyone anywhere.
The term dharma in the last venc may be undentood equally well as ''element of
existence" or as "religious doctrine ." The idea that Sakyamuni, having achieved
perfect enlightenment at Bodhgayl, never spoke another word, becomes quite a
65 Aryadeva, Cllli,{a.fataAo,IX.2-S. See ed. V. Bhllttacuya, pp. S!-4; ed. P. L. Vaidya. pp. 76-7
. and 154. Set! aJaonote 69 ~low .
" MMK XXV. The versa quoted att S, 10, 17-24. Stt K. I.. lnada. ~,jvn,,. pp. 154-9;
Nin>art4.pp. 193·21!.
S<cberbatsky.The Con"JlliMtof IJlAddAist
 II. LATER. DEVELOPMLl'ffS IN INDIA
frequent one in Mahayana literatuR'. 6~ Thus Candrakirti in his commentary on,' ·
this verse quotes from the Tath4gatoguhyaluufm-a:
The night on which the Tath~ata wu enlightened in the final and perfett:.·
enJigbtenment up w the night on which he enters final nirvaJ.J&,the Tathigata ·
has not pronounced a single word; he has not spoken; he does not speak; he,
will not speak. But all living beings with their different bumors and attitudes
conceive of him giving different kinds of discoul'KII in accordance with their ..
aspirations. So they separatdy think: "The Lord is teaching us this dharma; ·•
we are listening to the Tathlgata 's instruction in die dhanna ." But ~ _:-
Tathagata docs not compose and argue. The T athigata ia free from all.
deliberations which are the latent effects (vd.tan4) of a tangle of propositions ..
and arguments ." ._·;
.::)
Such ideas need come as no lllJ'prise since the state of perfect enlightenment is·:}Ji , .
just as clearly denied in the Perfection of Wisdom literature : ;[~ : \
WhoeYer would say, 0 Subhuti, that the Tathlgata, the Arhat, the P~ctly
Enlightened Buddha has reali~d supreme and pe_~«t enlightenment, such a ·@ ij ;:
one would apeak fabely and misrepresent me by semng upon ao unnuth. Why.-~ ~!-.t
is that? There is no dharma that the Tathlgata has realized as supreme and ·/~~; J
perfect enlightenment, and any dharma that the Tathigata has realized ot • '·
taught, ia neither true nor fabe. So the Tathi.gata saya: "AU dharmas are ·
Buddha -dhaTmas," and why? All dhamui s, 0 Subhllti, have been explained .
by the Tath~ata as non-dhar-m4$ , and therefore all dharmas are said to be·.
Buddha-dharma.s .67
Elsewhere Sariputra , representative of earlier views, but in that use having
learned his Iea,on, replies to a question of Subhtiti about where the Buddha takes.·;
his stand : "Nowehere did the Tathigata stand , because his mind sought no ;
support . He did not take hit stand either in the sphere of the conditioned nor of .·
the unconditioned, nor again did he emerge from them." Subburi commend, •·
this saying. adding the corollary : "Even 10 should a Bodhuiattva take hi&stand .
and train himself . Even thus should a Bodhisattva, a Grea t Being, be poised as
he trains, never parted from the reflection that he abides in the Perfection of .
Wisdom. ••0• The compilers of such texts were quite aware that they ~n: ,J.
composing conundrums, for we are informed that on this occasion ·:}- -;
The thought cam e to aome of the gods in that a88C1Dbly:"The )l(lk.,a-words of \' \.
ya~as (local divinitie!), their y~a-crie.s, their Jld,a.-syllablcs, their ya~a- 3. •..
spells, their .)IQ~o-unerances , these are comprehensible when muttered , but
that which ha, been 5pok.en, .announced and taught by the Elder Subhuti, Yt '.
cannot be comp rehended ." Then the Venerable SubMti, knowing by the :} ·
6$ Such a dwory had bffn expressed m.ucb ~artier by tM Tberavidins . in that $ikyamuni a&rr his 'J,,/
elllighreno.mit l'IIUSl ha~ bem compoted ooly of pure ~ lhus breaking con~cc wi1h impure _:"
worldly dh4rtll&. For~- Louis de la Vallft! POU!lln,Bovddltisnw, pp. 251-5.
M Stt MMK,ed , L, ck la Vallee Pou.sin, p. 539.
61 Stt £ . Contt, VtljN&cell.HillaProjfio,,... mitiJ, p. 48 (Sanskrit), p . II! (Engliah).
et See£, Conz,e, ASP . p. 17; P, L Valdya(Salllkrlt text) , p. 19, D. 12ff.
11.-t.b The Thf-ee Turning, of th e Wheel of tke Dodrill • 85
power of hit intellect the kind of doubcs that thoee gods were harboring ,
advised them thus : "This is not to be comprehended , not to be comprehended,
o gods. Here nothing is indicated and nothing is taught."
Despite their claim to tread a middle way, the Perfection of Wisdom
scriptures quite as much as their philosophical inteTptttel'I appear to take some
delight in bewildering or even scandalizing their opponents by the apparent
negativity of many of their sayings :
Where worldly teachings prevaU,there progressis extoHed .
Wbere absolute truth is the subject, there discontinuance is lauded.
"What shall we do if nothing exiles"you (worldly ones) say in your fear .
But if there were something to be done, this could not be reversed.
You are attached to your own circle; another circle is abhorrent to you .
ThUI you will not obtain nirv~; there ia no peace for the contentious.
Nirvana is for the nondoer; for the active there is continual rebirth.
f9
t: { · By fr~dom from thought nirva~a is easily gained; there is no othe r way .19
Aryadcva's Catuiliatalt.a ("Four Hundred Verses") is perhaps one of the most
negative of all Mahlylna worka, in that it commends continually total with ·
drawal from the world as though the goal were a kind of "individua l nirvti;ia"
without reference to the altruiatic atrivings of a Bodhisanva'1career . The author
presumably directs it toward those who are disposed to enter ~ c~oeed religious
life and its argumenu in favor of thia are s1uely of the lcaat heroic lund :
Born that they may die, having the nature of conditioned being,
i before them appears the nm ion of death, not that of life. (l.2)
Death is the common lot of all. as of a herd of cattle ready
to be slaughtered ,
So bow should you not fear death, even when it comes to others. (1.6)
If you act as though con,idering younelf eternal just because
the time of death is uncmain, at some certain time death
will come and afflict you. (I. 7)
Since moments and other calcu lated time -periods are just like
enemies (which gradually rob you of your life),
:.i, You should never be attached to thcae mal evolent ones. (1.21)
A man who fears to part with false opinions will never abandon
his worldly life. ..
What man of wisdom (he asks) willa.et ao as to fail in juat what
-t v,: he oughtto do. (1.22)
If you are thinking that having done such and such, you will really
enter the religious life,
·;'',
" Aryadn>a, Calu~aAo . vm, w. 8·1 l . See V. Bha tt acharya, pp. 8-ll : P. L. Vaidya. pp . 71-l!
/, :
T· : and U0 -1. Both t1-e edlrio1119 contain the cdil<!dS.mkrit and Tibetan ceau for chapters VUI -XVI
only. ·I'he Sanlkrit i, mlsaing for the earlier d1apcen and ror quotations from theR I refer dire ct io
·J · · TI' vol. 95, Ul-1-loaward (C41u~ld4 ve<"1esonly) and 1T\'OI. 98, 18S-4·' onward (Cano.raklrti ·,
,::';- commentary). Noie also the article which gives tt~ttn<:CS to Aryade9a•s odlu works, "Le ni"*
d'aptts &yade\lll'. by L . de la Vall~ Poonin in Milcnges cltin.oisd bouddltiqtus. I, pp. lt'1·1S5,
86 Jl. LATU DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
What is the virtue of having done it, if you must abandon whateYer
you have done. (1.23)
But he who is convinced that he must die, how should he fear
death: he will have abandoned all attachmenu. (1.24)'°
It comes as no aurprise that women are firmly rejected in such stereotyped verse5,
which might scarcely seem to breathe the noble spirit so often attached to
Mahayana teachinp:
However long the time. there is no reaching the limit of the world
of desire. (III.I)
It is like the wrong medicine for your body, like effort without reward.
Juatas one cannot desuoy the attachment of a man to a particular
place to which he is devoted,
Even ao it is with the expectation in the desires of men who are
anached to thinp . (111.2)
The commentary may be quoted here: "It is said: 'As fire by fuel and a river by
flood&, even so is men's expectation of desires increased by the enjoyment of
daires .· But you reply : 'Thii teaching may perhaps be able to turn men away
from ordinary women, but bow can I tum my mind away from thoaewho are ...
beautiful in form and inviting to the touch, who are delightful in all their parts,
pleuing to heart and eye, who give enticing glances and are of uncommon
mjoymcnt, captivating the hearts of those who are inflamed like butter when it
mttts with fire?" In order to overcome your desire, it ia said in the next verse:
Jn physical union with all women, there is not the slightest difference;
As this exterior form is also enjoyed by othera, what is the gain
to you from such a special woman. (IJI.S}
The man to whom any such one is pleuing, boaw of his good fortune
because of her.
But as it is all the same to dogs and others , why do you ding here
with your false ideas? (Ill.4) 71
Having thus inculcated in the earlier chapters a total aversion to the world,
Aryadeva proceeds to the demolishing of all thought constructions conceived of
as "elements of existence" ( dharmas), preaching the same doctrine of "universal
emptiness" as does his teacher Nigarjuna.
Jn Chapter XXIV of his "Verses" Nagarjuna anticipates the objectiont of his
opponents and in his reply confirms his adherence to conventional teachings
despite the 11eemingnegativity of his a&ICl'tions:
70 Cctu~a4c . I. vv. %. 6-7, 21 -4. The cocnn1Cntary(1« n. 69 abow) nplaine the rcfcn:nce in . .
2! "what Iv: ough1 to do .. thm: "Again you say. akbo11gh everything ahould Cet"tainlybe
ttl'M!
abandoned. nevttthelels I m111tprodu~ a 10n, and when be h• come of age. ~ him a wife arul
hand o~r the bouR 10 him , and whea r,,et')"tlungis flnilhed that bas to be done. I will RI forth." .
The typical Hilldu booaeholdn ;. iniended, delaying bis ,ecting forth r.o die ttllgious life until his
lattttyean.
1l !Ind. , Ill , vv. 1-4.
JU.b The Three Tumingi of the Whtel of the Doctrint: 87
If all thia ii void, there is no appearing and no disappearing,
and logically the Four Noble Truths must be unreal.
Became of the nonreality of the Four Noble Truth& there can be
no knowledge or self-discipline, no contemplative practice and
no realization (of any truth).
Since these are unreal, the four grades of achievement c.innot exist.
As thele are unreal there can be none who achieve them and none
who aspire to do so.
If the eight ea tegories of religious practitioners {those in the four
grades of achievement and the four corresponding grades of aapiration) 7a
do not exist, then there is no Order of Buddhists.
Because of the nonreality of the Four Noble Truths there is no
Buddhist Religion.
If there is no Religion (Dharma) and no Order (Sangha) how will
there he a Buddha?
Thus speaking as you do, you destroy the Three Jewell.
With your Void you destroy the actual reality of any attainment,
equally bad conduct and good conduct and all expressions relative
to our world .
Nagarjuna replies:
Hae we state that you do not uoderst.lnd the use of the Void
or the Void itself or the meaning of Void; thCTefore you
resist in this way.
Religion aa taught by the Buddhaa ia baaed on Two Truths,
the conventional truth of the world and the absolute truth.
Those who do not understand the distinction between the Two Truths
fail to understand the profound quiddity(tatti.c) in a Buddha's teaching .
0~ cannot indicate the Absolute without reliance on expressions relative
to our world.
Without such an approach to the Abtolute nirvaiµ. cannot be achieved .
Wrongly envisaged the Void destroys a penon of feeble ~tal powen.
It is hl:e misbandUng a snake or mismanaging a spell.
Thus the Sage was(at fim) adverse to teaching Im Religion, 79
considering the difficulty of the feeble-minded in penetrating.it.
Everything is applicable' where the Void is applicable.
Nothing is applicable of which the Void is not applicable.
Projecting your own faults upon us,
You are unmindful of the veryhorse on which you have mounted.
If you envisage a true reality of real thinga becau1e of their innate reality,
then that being so you conceive of them as uncaiued and independent.
Thus you reject the ef~ and the cause, the one who aces, the instrument
and the action, the coming into exiaten<:e, the extinction and any result.
It is this causal nexus that we (too) declare to be void.
It is a metaphorical name and it is this that is the Middle Path..1•
7l Literally ..the eight penon, of men" ( p,,.~pudplal}).
7S Concerning this wl!ll·known ttadltioo 11tt .£. J. Thoma. Life of BuddM. pp. 81-2.
7• MMK, XXIV. w. 1-18.
88 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
This quotation brings us again to our point of departure in the discussion of the
Madbyamikas, but here we draw auention to the theory of two aspects of tnith,
the acceptance of which exonerated them (at least in their own view) from the
accusation of being nihilists. However, in fairness to their opponents it may be
pointed out that the term sa,nvrti which we have tramlated as "relative" truth,
might more suitably be translated as "deceiving" for in reality it is no truth at all.
It is in this sense that it wu explained to the early Tibetan tranalators who
coined the Tibetan term /tun,rdzob ("ahogether spurious") for it. The Sanskrit
term means literally to wrap around and hence to obscure, aa Candrakini's
comme-ntary on this panicular verse asseru unequivocally:
Sa,rivrti meam "completely obscuring." It is called "completely obscuring"
because it refers to that abtence of knowledge which conceals completely the
"quiddity" (tottva) of things. It alto has the meaning of"mutually dependent"
in that the mutually dependent ( = the causal nexus) is completely obscuring.
It also melm "&ign" in the sense of thole designations in ordinary use. Thus it
characterizes the act of saying and what ii said, the act of k.nowing and what ii
known.'5
We have quoted above from Santideva's work Bodhicarydvat4'1a and thus one
may abo refer to hia interpretation, which opena the ninth and last chapter on
the Perfection of Wisdom itself.
The Sage ha.staught this collection (of perfections) with Wisdom in view.
So he who wants the elimination of miaery should arouse wooom.
Truth is accepted as twofold, as "relative" and u uabeolutc."
The range of the intellect does not encompass the "absolute."
The intellect is said to be "relative."
In this world there are two kinds of person, ahe yogin and the ordinary
man, and the ordinary world is rejected by the yogin's world.
Yogins too, according to their intellectual power, reject ( the views
beneath them) in ever higher gradations, without there being any
doubt concerning the final objective because of the (differing)
views to which both (the higher and the lower) adhere.
Worldly penom conceive ohisible things as real, and not a, illusion,
so the world and the yoginare in disagreement. (Ch. IX, 1-5)
I shall continue to uae the term "relative," although it must be emphasized
that relative truth is essentially no truth at all, even though it includes not only
the causal nexua, but also the whole doctrine and practice of Buddhism, the
stages toward arhatship of the early disciples, the stages toward enlightenment of
a Bodhisattva, and even buddhahood itself when expressed in conceptual
terms." The extent to which "absolute truth" might be tacitly acknowledged as
,& SttL. dela Vallfe Poumn, MMK, pp. •92·4;J. May, Candroarti, p. 452.
15 One may contrail die ZManing of this ttnn (S4~) which is usually translated as "relatin:,"
but is scarc:elyfflative at all. with another term ( pt:TOttVltra) as used by the Mind Only school. whkb
really does mean "relati¥e" (literally "d~t upon ano1hc,r'') in a genuillC' -e . See further
bdow.
(1.4.b TM Three Turnings of tlu Wheel of thll Doctrin~ 89
.real depended upon later interpretations, and here was a major source of
doctrinal disagreement between some Mildhyamikasand thole of the Mind Only
school of thought, which we shall be considering immediately. Deva&tating as
their teachings appeared to their opponents, Candrakirti and Santidcva both
belonged to the moderate Madhyamaka tradition, claiming that they
represented the true Buddha Word avoiding affirmation on the one: side and
negation on the other. Thus, commenting on Nlglrjuna'a vene:
Although a self is designated, a nonself is abo caught.
In fact neither self nor nonself has been taught by the Buddhas.
Candraklrti argues that Sakyamuni has used such terms u self and nOllSClf
depending upon the various wrong views held by those whom be was teaching.
but for those who already adhered to the true doctrine he taught neither relf nor
nonaelf. In aupport of thia view, he then quotes from the RotMltU,o ("Gem
Peak") Sidro:
0 Kaiyapa, it is one extreme view to assen a self; it is another extreme view to
asacrt a nonself . That which comes between these two extreme views, namely
that which is formless. undemonatrable, unsupported, nonmanifesting.
without designation and situation, that O Kaiyapa is the Middle Way, the
true understanding of the elements ( dh.armos). n
Despite their claim to truly represent the Middle Way, the Mldbyamikas tended
to exceed in their we of the vi4 negaJiva, and they were cenainly regarded by
their opponents, Buddhiat u well aa non -Buddhist, u all but nihiiiata. The
theory of two aspects of truth that they invoke in their defence scarcely preserves
them from such criticism, eince their relative ttuth is manifestly an altogether
spurious nonentity even in its loftiest ranges. Thus Nlglrjuna's venes continue:
When the range of thought is checked, then the conceit itself is checked.
The "nature of dbarmas" (dharmata) is like nirv~a, which never appeus
and never disappears.
Everything is so(tath.,am) or not so, and both so and not so at once,
and neither so or not so; this .isthe Buddha's teaching.
Independent of anything else, tranquil, never propounded with propo,itioN,
inconceivable, nondiversified, this is the character of quiddity. 111
Candraklrti's commentary on the last verse deserves to be quoted as he refers to
the &imileof defective vision, which is often used in MahAyana literature in order
to illustrate the nature of relative truth."'
"Independent of anything else" meana that one cannot understand by means
of othen' teaching, but one understands by oneself. It is like people suffering
from an eye-diaeue who see nonexistent thlnp ,uch as hain, midges or flies.
Although they may be told by people with normal .sight that one muat
'7 MMK.:XVJJI, v. 6 (pp. !!\~·8); de jong, Ci7Ui
Cli«pu-res,pp. 15-18. T~ Ramaltilfa quouiion
Is from~ KifJ-JapaJ1afflllltttz
Suli'a. ed. von Stail'l-Houtein, parll. !17(p. 87) .
11 MMk.. xvm, ....1.9,
19
MMk, ed. L de-la Vallee Powain, P- 57!1.See alsoMjong, Ciaq Clla/)itm, pp. 29,SO.
90 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
undencand the true nature oft~ hairs etc. simply by not seeing them, yet in : ·
their situation they cannot understand this. And why? They merely under.
atand a, false whatever the penom of normal vision tell them. But if they waah :
their eyeswith a medicament that removes the defect and their vision becomes •
normal, then they will understand the true nature of the hain, etc. simply in ·.
that they do not ace them. In the same way although eminent men may .:
explain quiddity by means of suggestive teachings, ordinary people do not :
understand the tnie meaning, but if they wash the eye of their mind with the ·.
defect-removing medicament of the true vision of the Void ao that the under- .
standing of quiddity arises, then they will undemand the true nature of things
in that they do not conceive of any quiddity at all.
For the Mldbyamikas everything that pertains to a human approach of '.·
whatever spiritual level falls within the fateful category of relative or spurious ;
truth. They therefore demolish any value that may be attached to the career of a ·.
Bodhisattva with his practice of the perlections of generosity, morality, patience, :'
heroism, contemplation and wisdom, ucept perhaps for the last two. The ideal · ;
of a would-be Buddha who strives throughout myriads of lives for the benefit of :
all other living beings may seem a fantastic ideal, but the earlier MabAyAna ·
eutras surely preach this ideal in all seriousness. Thus a Bodbisanva must expect :'.
to be immersed in the world and he should not neassarily seek refuge from it. ·:
The doctrine of the "void'· or "emptiness" of all the elements of existence :-"
(dhormas), which is inculcated at the same time, aims at destroying utterly the ·
very last element of self-seeking. However, the combination of these two .
teaching,, the Bodhisattva ideal and the emptimu of all concepts. has probably ·
come about in these texts quite fonuitously without any immediate awareness of
the effeet that so extreme a philosophical view might hatt upon what is probably .
the highest of moral aspiration to be found anywbett in this imperfect world.
Thus when Aryadeva nys
Nirvana is for the nondoer: for the active there is continual rebinh.
By fr~om from thought nirvt~a is easily gained; there is no other way,
he is drawing the logical conclusion from the pbiloaophical views to which he
adheres. His religious ideal may seem to resemble rather the Arhat or Early ..
Diaciple(iTavoka) than the Bodhisattva, whoee cause his fellow Mahiyaniata were
ao anxious to promote, and the fifth chapter on the Bodhisattva's career in bis
"'Four Hundred Verses" certainly lacks in enthusiasm. Thi, becomes inevitable
when the dif~rence between the two ickals is presented as one of theory rather
than of practice. The stagea of a Bodhisattva's career then become meditative
stages which take him from the very first stage quite out of this world, and it is in
such a context as this that che via negativa of the Madhyamikas is logically
applied. It ia not 10 much a philosophy as a therapeutic, or more aptly a strong
medicine, which while curing the strong, may be deadly to the wea.lt. Aryadeva is
quite explicit on this score:
GenerQ&ityia preached to the lowly; morality to those of medium strength;
Tranquillity ii taught to the foremoet ones, ao always do a, the foremost.
The Three Turnings of the Wheel of lhe Doctrine 91
In the first case unrighteousne,s is disposed of, and in the next
case the notion of a self.
Jn the last case all falae notion, are overcome. and he who know&
this is wise.
A viewer of one thing is a viewer of all things.
The void of one thing is the void of all things .
Attachment to the elements of existence ( dharma.s)
is taught by the Buddhas to those who seek heaven.
Preciaely this is detrimental to those who seek release,
and why commend the other way~
One who seeks righteousness should never pronounce on the Void.
Cannot medicine tum into poiaon when wrongly applied? 80
This is an argument which will be met with again in the tantras and it i1
interesting to find it u&ed so early in the Mahayana period. Already we find
generoaity, morality, patience and heroism, and eventually contemplation as
well, becoming in effect lesser perfections, while the sixth perfection, the
Perfection of Wisdom, becomes all in all as the final vanity of all conceptual
truth. One may well ult what is the difkrence between Madhyamalta teachinga
and those of the nihilists (ncistika) with whom their opponents identified them.
A$ Naglrjuna claims, it i, precieely in their allowing a form of relative truth and
hence a therapeutic value to the more practical aspects of a Bodhisattva's career.
Thus the twelvefold causal nexw as an explanation of the continual proceM of
rebirth, whether rebirth in wretched states as a result of unrighteous acts or
rebirth in relatively happy states as a reward for righteoua acts, all this i,
accepted as a kind of relative truth. however spurious it may be in terms of
absob1te truth. A nihilist on the other hand gives no such provisional adherence
to any of this and thus he falk from one evil rebinh to another until he is
touched, if ever, by some saving grace. 81 There may be a lack of logic in the
Madhyamab position, but as it i, claimed th1·oughout that any stance is
c55Cntiallya nonstancc. they can scarcely be judged by logical con.,iderations.
L. de la Vallee Poussin made some shrewd observations over fifty years ago:St
The Madhyamaka affirm, as relative truth the existence of the world and of
suffering, of the way and of salvation from suffering. This is the ancient
immortal cn:ed of Buddhisu. This creed the Madhyamaka denies as absolute
truth. He teaches that relative tl'.Uth or the truth of experience i, the truth of
an illusory and nonexiatent world. I suspect that the Madhyamaka does not
know himself very well. He affirma experience provisionally, namely the
pratityasamulj>4da, the cauaal production of ephemeral things, and the egreu
from snch experience, namely nirvA~a. This is what he names as relative
truth; in fact it is the real truth, for bis ab&olute truth is nothing but a
'° Ca1ul,auata.lro,VIII, vv. 14·18. Fortexi.-v. Bhacta<:arya,pp. 14-22.
•1 "£'hoar who MVff attain aalvation an: known u iech;illliu(~willful"). Stt e.g., Sutuki, l.4M.i·
llCllo,oSutr,i. pp. 58·9. Stt ~ction IU.e.
it See "R!flections aut le Madh,.-.. maka" in Mela11fa dimois et bcuddhif~s. JI (1955). pp. 1-59.
I haw:transbted two short exmicts from pp. 54 artd 58·9.
92 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
methodical truth; his negation of relative truth--negat.ion of the extremes of
·existence and nonexistence as well as of the middle position, viz. total non- ·_
existence- j5 a methodical negation.
Insisting that in real truth appearances do not exist even as mere appear. ·.
ance, a candidate for nirvar:ia must accept this forced proposition if he wanta .
to detach himaelf from appearances. The followen of the Leseer Vehicle, who .:
are certainly not fools, have given a name to such erroneous opinions, to the~ ·.
auto-suggestions which are produced by force of recollecticn with purification ~
u the intended result; these are the adhimuktimanaskaTa. ("upiring ;_
reflectiona''). Thus. it is all too true that there are such things as wome1l; the ·;,
ascetic applies himself to the reflection that women arc nothing but emaciated ..'
skeletons ; he makes of such a reflection a kind of real truth and thereby :
extinguishes aD desire. Nlgarjuna's method is quite similar: the a.acetic ·
penuades himself that in real truth mi.1eryand pleasure, the I and the you, ,:,
etc . are all void of misery and pleasure , of I and of you.
In the Perfection of Witdom sutr&S,that is to say in the canonical texts that
claim to be Buddha Word, the teachings about the emptiness of all concepcs are
to some extent balanced by recommendation given to the career of a Bodhi-
sattva, and as we have alttady noted above, these teachings are primarily
directed to ordinary monks and to some extent layfolk as well. There would
appear to be no intention of relegating for instance the perfection of generosity
to the status of a practice suitable for those of inferior capacity. Rather, this and
all the other perfections 1hould be performed within the spirit of th e perfection
of wisdom. Thus we are told:
A Bodhisattva should not give a gift with the fixation of anything given or of
anywhere {that it ia given). He is not to give a. gift with a fixation relating to ·
form or sound or smell or taste or touch. He must give gifts without being
fixed in any indicating concept. as
Genero&ity remains an C1&entialperfection for a Bodhisattva, and here he is
being told with the prolixity which is typical of these texts precisely what bu · ·
been said with a rather different figure of speech in another religious ttadition,
namely: "When you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right
hand is doing .....
However, as Subhuti realizes, the doctrine of the emptineas of all concepts
thttatens the validity of the practice of the perfections, and he asks the Lord a .
very cogent question: "Can there be increase or decrease of aomething that is -:~t'.. =
ineffable?" The Lord replies that there is not. and Subhiiti presses his next /I
question: ,f>
"If there can be no increase or decrea,e of something ineffable, there can be
no increase or decreaae in the perfection of generosity, nor of morality or of
patience, or of heroism, or of meditation or of wisdom. ICthat is so, Lord, how
by the force of the ever-increasing &ixperfections can a Bodhisattva realize
85 Voj,acc1"dika. ed. E. Conze, pp. %9and 67.
'* MimhewVJ, v.S.
11.4.b The Three Tw-ninfrs of the Wheel of the Doctrine 9S
final and perfect eoJightenment?"
The Lord replies: "Indeed there is no increase or decrease in the substance
of a perfection, 110 a Bodhisattva who is skilled in meam and who practices the
perfection of generosity does not reflect: 'This perfection of generoeity is on
the increa.e' or 'This perfection of generosity is on the decrease.' On the
contrary he reflecta that 'perfection of generosity' ia a mere form of word$. and
as he gives his gift be lets all reflections, all thoughts that arise find their own
maturation as roots of merit in supreme and perfect enlightenment, so that
supreme and perfect enJightenmem effects the maturation. It is the same
process for the other perfections of morality, patience, heroism, meditation
and wisdom. "8°3
In the noncanonical treatises, from which several quotatiom have been
drawn, the whole career of the Bodhisattva like everything elae is reduced to such
emptiness that it tends to lose all significance except perhaps as a rneditational
exerciae. Nagarjuna state5 that there ia not the m011t aubtle difference between
saqisira and ninar.,a, and Aryaden shocks his readers by saying that there ia
nothing to be done, for if there were anything to be done, s~silra could never
be stopped. On occasions the canonical texts themselves use similar language,
when to the bewilderment of the gods at his diKoune, Subhuti replies that
nothing at all has been explained. Tbia is by no means the same u saying that
there is indeed a great deal of religious practice of various kinda to be performed
but that aU must be done in a spirit of total self -abnegation. Such ia surely the
intention of much of the Perfection of Wisdom teaching, but it tends to be
subverted by another interpretation, which treats the realization of
enlightenment as a purely mental procCS$, with the result that Buddhist religious
practice remains what it appearsto have been from the start, a highly disciplined
training in thoughts, words and actions with the main emphasis placed on
meditational techniques backed by an interpretation of the physical world which
reduce it to a transient and illusory state. In terms of such practice the per·
fections of genero6ity, morality, patience and heroism have no more play than
the ten rules of good conduct prescribed for the Early Disciples. and concern for
others need amount to no more than the earlier practice of the so-called "pure
abodes" (bm.kmavan4ra) of love, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity.
In many respects the Perfection of Wi$dom literature presents itself a& much ado
about nothing that waa not realiiablr already. 86 It may be of interest to quote a
description of Madhyamaka practice as interpreted by a renowned Tibetan
acholar who lived over the tum of the nineteenth to twentieth century :
8&From che ASP, Sarultri< 1ex1ed. Vaidya , pp . 181-t, mudt abbreviated. Compare L Com.e,
ASP(tramlation), p. 155.
j5 Dlscu•ing che problems of the existen.cr Ot' nonexistence of a Buddha, Profeesor Lamo~
ob- that when ooe ~aminc5 t~ matt« detply, tbt Midhyamik.a ttmains vay close to early
Buddhism, but that he IJ'ansfrn to an ontological level aigumenu mat the earlier Khooh hive based
Oilw historical plane. See Co11Cewt70tion,u lo nunc1" ,WroiqiH, pp. 55-6. Similarly the doctrine ol
"no~lf' which it ba&edupon a theory af quuirul dcmenis in the urlier tchools is mmsf«ffd to the
maybe improwed b.lil (which is defined as no-basil) of quasiunrnl dcmmca. To the rdlgioll5
practition er die theoreticel N1if14:anmake little differ~cr.
94 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
The Path is, ordinarily, the practice of the six perfections, and, ultimately, ;
tbe meditation on the unity of radiant light and tramcendent awareness. The --~
method of the practice of concentration is to 1it cross-legged and first to take :;
refuge and to develop an enligh~ned_ attitude; the~, wi_th a mind utt~ · tt&t, their natural state of total nirv~, and he turned it in a wonderful way
relaxed to remain, without the fluctuattons of mentaoon, m a steady radiant·
brilliancy, in a realm into which no dichotomic thought enters as thett is no :.
thinking of and about anything wha~er, such activity having been cut off, ·:.·:
as it were, by the vision of reality; when thereby all referential perceptual :;
situations have faded away because there is neither affirmation .nor negation ·
in a mind engaged in meditation devoid of external objects and of the projecu . !:
before a mind and acts of projection, then perceptivene8S, internally freed :
from judgmental activity due to the cessation of the operation, of the pheno- :
menal mind and its mental events , becomes the contemplation of radiancy as
individual intrina.ic perception. In the post-concentrative stage one engages in
the accumula tion of the me-rita on behalf of the beinga who are like a11
apparition , without attachment or involvemen t."
The fantastic number of lives, albeit essentially unreal , through whkh a Bodhi-
sattva must progrcsa, need not be daunting to a would -be practitioner, for it may
be safely iwumcd that if be is conscious of so strong an aspiration toward the
religious life, this is precisely becau.c of the vast store, of merit , albeit esaentially
unreal stores of merit, that he bas accumulated already through numerous
previous lives, easc:ntialJyunreal as they may be.
c. Th, Third Turning
We now come to the third turning of the Wheel of the Doctrine , which
represents for those who subscribe to these particular teachings the indisputable
truth in ita final form . In hia account of the threefold event the T ibetan historian
Bu-scon (1290 -1564), who is able to draw on all the later Indian traditions,
quotes from the So.ndhmmnocana Sutm ("Resolving Enigmas") , which is an
especially favoured work of the Mind Only school.
The Lord first turned the Wheel of the Doctrine at Vlnlnaai in the Deer Park,
where 1ageahold forth, for the benefit of those who follow the Interior Way, ;
and teaching the Four Noble Truths he turned the Wheel in a wonderful way
such as no one, god or man, has ever turned it in this world in relation to the
Doctrine . But this teaching could be surpassed, as it befitted an occasion and
the meaning requires interpretation so that it becomes a baais for argument.
Then the Lord turned the Whee l of the Doctrine a ·second dme for those who
follow the Great Way, beginning with the nonsubttantial ity of the element.,
their nonariaing and nonceiution, their primordial state of rest, their natural
state of total ni.rva~a. and with this kind of teaching of the Void he turned the
Wheel in a most wonderful way. But this teaching too could be surp~ . u it
befitted an occasion and the meaning requires interpretation so that it
87 H. V. Guffltbcc. Budd~ Philosopli:, in Theory and ~dice, p. l!>S.Extracu from a worit of
the rNying·ma·p;i I.am.aMi-pham Jam-dbyangs mam-rgyalrgya-mtaho are pramted.
,,,.
...
U.4.c T~ Time T,mungs of the Wketl of tM Doctrine 95
becomes a basis for argument. Then the Lord turned the Wheel of the
Doctrine a third time for all Buddhists, beginning with the n~ubstantiality
of the elements, their nonarising and nonceaation, their primordial state of
with preciae definitions. Thus this turning of the Wheel .is unsurpassable, for
the meaning is sure , providing no basis for argument. 88
Aa Bu ·1ton observes in a subsequent comment the Madhyamikaa were by no
means willing to admit that their teachings, as represented by the second turning
of the Wheel, were not the ultima te truth , and thus argument did in fact
continue , since for them the theories of the Mind Only school pertained to
relative truth and thus required interpretation . The above translation obscures
for us the use of two important technical terms , namely "derivable meaning''
(ney<irtka), i.e . , requiring interpretation, and :·sure mea~ng " (nita-rtha), _i.e.,
intended literally. By applying thCR ~nn1. It was poa1ble to accept in a
provisional manner not only some of the statements of otherwise opposing
M:hools of thought but alto to reinterpret to one 's own satisfaction canonica]
statements, which all agreed were the Buddha Word. As a disinterested listener
to the varioua claim&to represent the moet valid interpretation of the sum total
of Buddhist doctrine, one is likely to favor those who subscribed to the teachings
of the third turning of the Wheel. Coming last in time they were able to produce
a remarkable synthesis of the two previous interpretations of the Doctrine, which
from their point of view were either excessivdy positive or misleadingly negative.
They agree with the Midhyamik.u in adopting the general Mahlylna thesis
concerning the e515Cntia11y unreal nature of the elements of existence (dharmas),
but at the same time they attribute to the whole dharma-thcory a psychological
importance based upon painstaking and preci~ analysis . Thus they elaborate a
form of relative truth of a higher order than merely spurioua truth. For them the
whole of existence, as conceived by the earlier schoob as the sum total of
conditioned and unconditioned elements , has three modes of manifesta tion:
an imagined one ( pari!alpita) referring to normal worldly e~rien~e
where persons and things have apparent separate nameable 1dent1ty;
a relative one ("depending one upon another ," paratantra) a.s
applied to the elementl when analyzed in tenna of the Causal Ne.xua
("mutually dependent origination ," pra.tu,asamutpdda );
a perfected one (parimjpannafwhich is the true nature of things
such as a Bodhisattva aspirea to and finally realir.es u the
Suchnea (tathatd.) of things .'f
It is thus not possible to assert unequivocally that sa~sAra is identical with
nirv~a, for the difference e~su u between an enlightened or an unenlightened
mind. As the Lord expla ins:
Set' Bu·stOII,Hutory of 8uddhu111,vol. I, pp. !>!·'I. L have talt~ the quoution cli?fft from the
1111
Sen.i~M Sut?G,ed.t. Lamotte, p. 8S (Tibetan text), with French m1ASladon on pp. 206· 7.
Siltnz, ed. t . Lamotte , pp. 59-6~ and 188-191.
119A, dnailed in the SG,adliiou,.,..,xana
96 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS lN INDIA
If the character of the elemental impulses (sa,ruhara) is not diffettnt from the
character of~ absolute (JHiramdrtha), then all ordinary simple people wi~
be beholden of she truth: they will have obtained the sucecs1 and the happ1·
neu of the high state of nirvl~ and they will have realized 1upreme an~
perfect enlightenment. But if she character of the elemental impubes 11
different from the character of the abiolute, then the beholden of the tru~h
will DO( be parted ftom the character of elemental impulses, and so they will
not be free from thole bollCDof such a character and thus not free from w nirviJ;ia , which is referred to unambiguow1y as the abtolutc ltate of JustSo or
bond,$ of potential evil. If they are not free from these two k.ind&of bonds then
they are not beholden of the truth, they have not obtained the AJccea and
happi~511 of the high state of nin,U,a and they have not realiz~ suprem~ and
pcriect enlightenment. . . . If the character of the elcmenal unpulses II no«
different from the character of the absolute , then jult u the character of the
elemental impulKs is identified with the character of the afflictions (/clda) so
the ablolute would be similarly identified. But if the character of the
elemental impulaes ia different from she character of the absolute , then the '
character of the absolute will not be the general character of the elemental
impulxs, . . . so it is unsuitable to say that the character of the el~ental
impulles i, not different from the character of the ablolutc , and it 11 alto
unsuitable to say that it is different from it.'°
Thus the term conditioned (sa'1lSkrta) as applied to saqisara and the term
unconditioned (asa,ruk?'ta) u applied to nirvl~ are mere appellations dcvited.
by those who know better in order to a111istothers . The c~e _stateof th~ cle1:'1entg
(clharmata) remaiN the ineffable Suchnca (tathatci) which 15 only reali~ lD the
state of perfect enlightenment . It is thi, Mtruestate" which is at the same time the
general character of all the demental impulaes and it is in this ~atte~ seme that
nirvtna cannot be taid to be different from 18.~lllra. The relattonship between
the t~o is illustrated by a simile that occurs again and again not only in Sanskri t
works but wu also continually uaed later by Tibetan seen :
o noble aon, it is as tbo\\gha magician or a clever magician's ditciplestat~oned
him.self at a croaroads and collected there IOllle gra• or leaves or twlgi or _.
pcbble1 or pouherd1, and then produced _a(magical) display of a group of-·:_f. f /
elephants or hones or chariots or foot-soldkn, and of gems ~r pearll or lapu .
la:iuli or conch shell or cryttal or coral. or of money or gram or treasure .or ~~- ·
deposited wealth . Tbcn ordjnary simple folk in I.heir ignorance and def~ve :,~
knowledge , knowing nothing of the graa and leaves and so on and ac':ording ,~
to what they saw and heard, would think: "This group of e_lephants is r~al. ·'.-.'~-
This group of bona is real," and IO on for all the other ~biogs.. Dc~n<l:i~
upon what they see and hear, they cleave to it and ho~ to tt, saying : 'Th11 IS
true. Anything else is false." They apply to evcrythmg an everyday name,
and ao afterwards they wiJI need to investigate carefully . .. . ln the same way
ordinary simple folk who have not atu.ined to that exalted supramundane
wisdom , fail to understand the ineffable elemental state (dharmatfl) of all the
/b id., pp. 4S. 44-5 and l?~-6. The ~e
90 hM to be much abbrniated becaUSt ol the usual
prolixity of M.ahiyanuillras . · tommema to thr DiJcow .. .,.. OOCffllliMlum 1,tt-,,. t lu Middk and htt-ttnes , pp. ~-7.
Il .4.c The Tm-,e Tvm1~ of llu Wlutt of CMDoarine 97
dharmas , and in accordana: with what they ~c or hear in the m2tte.r of
conditioned and unconditioned thmgs they think : ''This ~ally is conditioned
or thi1 really is unconditioned ju.at u we ,ee and hear it." Thus they cleave to
it and hold to it, saying : "This la true. Anything ebe is false." They apply to
everything an everyday 11.;une,and so afterwards they will need to invctt igate
carefully .91
The buia of exiatence, both conditioned and unconditioned , of sarp4tra and
SuchnCA (t4that4), is alao named by the Mind Only school as Mind (cilta) used
in the absolute sense of Mind Only (cittamatra)-ftte from the dichotomy of
,ubject and object. Their 1ehool is also known as ComciouaMa Only ( Vij,id11a-
mdtn:1), where comciousnea must be undentood in the same exaltt"d ICDIC. It it
abo known as Nomenclature Only ( Vift14ptimatra) in that all determining
facton are mere D.lUl'leS. Finally and perhaps more usually it is known aa Practice
of Yoga (Yogcic4ru), a name which, like the name Madbymak.a , u applied to the
other main Mahlytna acbool, is equally applicable to all Buddhists of whatever
pcrsuuion . A, used by tbe Mind Only 1chool (aliu Yogcic<ira) it suggew that
only by the pra ctice of suitable yoga can Mind which is impure in its conditioned
or worldly stat e be realized as eS1Cntiallypure in d1e final state of enlightenment.
It will ~ observed then that this tchool, -reprcrenting the third turning of the
Wheel , tends to posit an overall state of reality whereas the Madhyamikaa
continue to IJ>e&knoncommittaUy of the Void (J<tn_yota). At the same time
neither of thete main Mahiylna schools rep-.uents a 1ingle unified tradition with
the result that each of them embrace, a varying range of affirmation or denial. 91
Thw a later MMhyamik.a named Bhlvaviv eb, who also wrote a commentary on
Nigirjuna's "Basic Venc,," adopting an extreme negative interpre~tion of
reality , ca.atigates the followers of the Mlnd Only sc.hool as introducing she
heretical notion of a "self' (titman) under another name.
If you 1ay that tathal6 (Suchnea), although beyond wor<h, ii a real thing , then
thu is the citman of the heretics which you designate with the different name
of tathala. Your uithat4 is a real thing, and yet from the viewpoint of abtolute
;.f _'.: truth it doe1 not belong to the categories of being or nonbeing; but audt is the
dtman . The heretics also beli~ that the 4tm411, a ttal thing, is onuupresent,
eternal , acting, feeling , an4 yet beyond all categories and concepts (nirti ·
4alpa.). Bccaute it does not pertain to the sphere of words, because it presents
no object to the discursive intellect (fA'luzlpa.-bu.ddhi),it i5 said to be beyond
categories. The teaching of w
beretia uys : "Words do not reach ihere ;
thought ( manas ·CUta) does not present itself: this is why it is called dtman. "
Although such is the ch aracter of the dtman, you.,ay none the less: "Know·
led~ that relies on tathatll. (tathatalambana1na1UJ) produces 1alvario11, but
knowledgethat relic& OD the 4&man does not ." But what is the difterenct'
between your tathattl and the otman, since both of them are ineffable and yet
91So..d41nm11ocanus,;,,..,pp . .!16-
7 &Jld 170-1.
91
They
TUl¥n ~ vigorouslyoppooed 10 on~ aCIOU>8 . s« S.dw.-rbal3ky'• btief incroduct~
98 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN JNDIA 11.4.c The Thne Tum.ings of the Wluel of the D<iclriru 99

p0t1sessreal self-nature? It is only out of a partisan spirit that you speak as you
do: Therefore I cannot accept this tathat4, the same as the 4tman, real yet
nonexisting."
In fairM'SI to the Mind Only school it may be pointed out that such an
argwm:nt can only be pressed by taking dtman in a purified Ved~ui aeme and
diaociating it from all notion of a pcnonal sense. To their credit. at leut from
the orthodox Buddhist standpoint, this school does little effectively to solve the
perennial Buddhist problem of individual continuity from one birth to another.
This problem cannot be .really solved without incurring the inevitab~e charge ~f
heterodoxy, 10 firmly is the dogma of "no self' (anatman) rooted m Buddhist
doctrine. H~r. the Mind Only echool certainly elaborate• a complex theOT}'
of a Baaic Consciousness (tllaycnnj,lana), which represellts a vast stream of
elemenu (dharma.,) much as the early Khools envisaged them. The essential
difference from them consists in their denial of any esecntial difference between
such a 11treamof unpurified elements ( = saqtsira) and the same stream when
purified ("' niJVa11a).Since personality in any form is relegated to the order of
an imagined character (parikalpi,a) of the whole, the problem 0£differentiating
individual streams of consciousness from the universal stream need not ari.e. It is
sufficient for their purposes to analyzc the stream according to its relative
character ( paratantrtt) and in doing this, use is freely made or the earlier
dharma-theories.
This conJCiousnea is known aa; the "apprehending consciousness" in that it
grasps at and comprehends this bodily form. It is also called "basic conaciOU$·
ness in that it adhere5 and clings to this bodily form with a single sense of
aecurity. It is alao called "mind" in that it is an accumulation and aggregation
of appearance&, sounds, smells, tastes, sensations of touch and of thougbt11.st
Perhaps one of the best descriptions of thi• Buie Consciousne• given in any
European work is the one that occun in a footnote in Th. Stchcrbatsky's trans-
lation of the "Dwcourseon Discriminations between Middle and Exu-c:mes.''9o
The fundamental cban~ which Asanga has introduced into Buddhilm or,
what is the same, into the anatma = dharma theory, was, according to his
own confe11ion, the establishment of a "common foundation" for all the
Elements of Existence (the dharmas). It is called ctlayavij,i4na, which means
"all-consemng Mind" or a "Magazine of ideas," a "Mind-Store." lts implica-
tion is fint of all the denial of the external world which is replaced by ideas. It
is also a step towards the reintroduction of the dethroned Soul. Uddyotakara
,s Sec l .. de la Valltt Pouain. "Madhya1nak1," in Mtlanges dtinois d bouddlliques, vol. II
(19!15), pp. ll!i-6.
'4 So,ul/lmirmotana Sitha, pp. !IS aftd 184·5.
,~ Thil is the Mtulltyama-vt'bhlln8a,one of the works ascrilM:d to 11\eBodhisauva Maitrq.a. as
ini~-rpret<d by .A5:&ogaand ,11ppliedwith commentaries by Vasubandhu and S1hiram.ati. Su:hcrb:u-
sky's tnmlation wa,; fin1 published as vol. XXX of tl>eBibliodieca Buddhica, M05C°'."·Leningrad,
1,s6, reprint~ in Calcutta, 1971 in the ~m Jndian Studil.>sPast and Present, of which Stt p. 119
fOI' 1he ahem, quotation. This woriL is the bc:s1available "tex1bool<" in English conaTning cbe Mind
Only school. ~P abo D. L. Fricchrum in the Bibliognphy .
and Vlcaapatimilra reject it as a poor substitute for their substantial Soul.
... This sacrifice Buddhism could not make. The anatma-vada could not
become atma·vada. The whole ayatern of dharmas baa been retained, the
number even was enlarged from seventy-five to one hundred and the dla:,a
received a place in it. Buddhism continued to be a pluralistic dhanna-thcory,
but a monistic subway has been added to it. The theory of the a/aya is very
elaborate ... ; it is beginningle,s (anad,) and everlaating (dhrum, not nuya)
through all incarnations up to Nirva9a. It is the source of all ideas and the
n:ceptacle of all past experience, hence the .10urce of memory. It replaces both
the external (nimuta-bMga) and rhe internal (darsa114-bkt2ga) worlds. But it
is not a substance; it is a process; it runs underground of actual experience.
Since we have no word in European languages, no adequate term for a
running Soul, we must either leave the term ctlaya untranslated (like the terms
nirvir,a and Jeanna) or resort to the term Psyche which is not yet engaged in
Buddhist philosophy. We must of course keep in mind its difference not only
from the Greek psyche but also from the Vedic dlman (which wu likened to
the Greek psyche by Prof. H. Jacobi), from the Vedlntic jl'(l(J.,from the trans-
migrating liriga-iarlta of Sankhya, not to mention the atmon of Nyiya-
Vaiksik.a. But that it is a substirure for an individual's surviving Soul is clear
from the word$ of Uddyotakara and V lcaspati.
The eighteen sense-sphere, (dhatu) of the early schools are retained with
rather more emphasis on the r61e of consciousness throughout. The earlier
sche~ assumed the existence of elements (dharma.s} representing the power of
sense on the one hand, the object of the particular sense on the other and
consciousness as a mental element linking the two thus:
l. sight 7. appearances 15. visual consciousnes.t
2. hearing 8. sound$ 14. auditory consciousness
!I. aense of smell 9. smells 15. olfactory consdousnCIS
4. sense of taste 10. tastes 16. gustatory consciousness
5. seme oftouch 11. touchables 17. tactile consciousne.tS
6. power oftbought 12. thoughu 18. mental consciousness
When mentioning these sense-spheres (dluitu), the canonical texts may at the
same time refer to the sense-pairs (tlyatana) which include die first twelve items
as listed above conceived of simply as subject and object. These two sets of six are
abo intended in die writings of the Mind Only school by the terms "apptt·
bender" (grahaka) and "apprehended" (g,-ah,a) as produced by the c:orrea-
ponding forms of consciousness, which iA thus spilt into an imagined duality of
subject and object.
They also make use of the set of Five Aggregates (.skandha) int.o which
personality was dissolved by the earlier sc:hools, but the terminology may be
1lightly changed in order to ~move the suggestion of external form u implied by
the tenn "body" (rupa) and in order to free "consciousness" (vij>ulna) for its
more specialized use. Thus we have: touch (spar.sa), feelings (wdana), per·
cep~ns(sa'!lftld). mental activity(mana.skara) and will (cttand). 911
96 See Sylvain lbi, YijMf1tfmillrotilsidd./ti, pp. 19-!0 (rit .. verse 5 ol Vuubandhu'• Trir/1/ilti&).
100 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
Having listed these "clemenu'' which according to the Mind Only school
reprelCnt a relative truth usriul for analyzing the wholly imagined idea of a
"self," we may quote from another favorite •utra of thui school, using the
available English translation of Profeuor Suzuki:
What is meant by egoleune118of persons? .. . In the collection of Sltandhas,
Dhitus and A.yatanas there is no ego-•ubstance, nor anything belonging to it;
the Vijnana is originated by ignorance, deed and desire, and keeps up its
function by grasp ing objects by me~ of the sense-or~ans, Nch as ~he_eyeet~ ,
and by clinging to them as real; while a world of ob,>ects and bo ches ~sm_an1 -
fested owing io the discrimination that takes place in the world which is of
Mind itself, that is in the Alayavijiiana (Basic Conscioumeas). By reason of the
habit -energy (v4san4) stored up by false imagination since beginninglea rime,
this wodd (i,4aya) is subject to change and destruction from moment to
moment; it is like a river, a seed, a lamp. wind, a cloud ; [while the Vijnana
itself is] like a monkey who is always restleu, like~ fiy who is_everin eea_rc~~
unclean things and defiled places, like a fire that 1snever sausfied. Again it is
like a water-drawing wheel or a machine; it goes on rolling the wheel of trani.-
migration, carrying varieties of bodies and forms, resuacitating the dea~ ~e
the demon Vetala, causing the wooden figures to move about as a magician
MO\ICS them. t 7
A notion which is e1aential to the operation as thus described ia vasana, which
Suzuki translates as "habit-energy." The Sanskrit term is usually derived from
ui.sa in the senae of "perfume," so that illisana suggests a perfuming agent, for
which an aerosol spray might perhaps serve u a modem example. An accurate
interpretation may be: "the impression unconsciously left on the mind by past
good or bad actions, which therefore produces pleasure or pain ...,. The word
"seed" ( bija) , which has many other applications , is often used as a synonym. in
that good or bad actions are thought of as sowing attda in the Buie Conaciou1r
neS&,which inevitably bear fruit when other circumstances arc suitabk. The
early Tibetan translators who were very careful in fixing upon a suitable
translation for such technical terms, coined the word bag-chags, which they
invented by combining bag (probably in iu aense of "minute") and chags (in the
sense of "clinging"). There is dearly no word available in any European
language to give ,he full meaning of such a term ("latency'' is perhaps the.best
available), just as originally there was no w01'd available in Tibetan. It was
translated into Chinese by a term meaning "force of habit, " 99 which accounts for
Suzuki's rendering, although with bia term "habit-energy" he presumably meam
a kind of residual element that produces its effect on the analogy of what we may
understand as a habit. Clearly a habit is something that occurs again and again,
whereas a vasana may produce its effect in the stream of consciousn~ on~
fttOCh tralllllation available in idem, Maliriaiu, l'ourl'itutk durpinne fltj,u,ptimatra, p. 7i,
91 Stt 0.1 ·, Stmiki. Tlw Lallkar.alam SUlnl. p. 61; S8Jlli<rit1t,1t, ed P. L. Vaidya, p. 29, 11.l!l-li.
98 See V. S. Apte, Sans/tf'itDicti<>Mry, p. 968.
!19 See SootbiUand Hodoua. ,4 Dictiun11r:,of ChineS' Buddlwl T ~. p. 362 (last item).
)l.4 .c The "fhree 1'umings of the Wheel of the Doctn 'ne 101
only. J have discussed this term at some length, as it typifies perhaps to an
unusual degree the difficulty of finding a suitable word in any other languagefor
a technical term such as this. It is thus best to retain the original term, just as we
have come to accept the term karma in the special meaning of the moral effect
of one's acts . It will ~ noticed at once that uisal'l4 is similar in meaning to
Jcamw., but tl1e implications of karma are far wider in that it is used to explain
(in ,o far as it don expla in) the continual unfolding of the phenomenal world on
the one hand and the advance toward pnfection on the other. The seeds (bija)
whose pervasive effect (idsant.i) continue to produce ever more aeeda, pure or
impure as the case may be, seemingly exist since beginningless time. 1'bey
provide no solution for the origin of the whole phenomenal process and in effect
no solution is required since according to fundamental Buddhist teaching the
whole process is without beginning or end. Furthennore both the main Maha-
ytna schools, Madhyamaka as well u the Mind Only school, regard the
phenomenal process (sa111sara)as mere illusion, with the result that in absolute
truth no inuillectual problem of beginning or end can have any meaning.
Jn such a brief account as this one is bound to attempt to simplify, but the
scholars who attempted to 5Ystematize the varioua teachings that are given in
such canonical works as the SandhmiTmocana Sutra and w
Larilavatara had to
find room for 10 much earlier traditional mate.rial that conlinued to ~ incor·
porated with the later, often clearer, concepts, and all had to be worked into a
satisfactory framework, unless one were to follow an extreme Madhyamaka way,
reducing all teachings whatsoever to the status of "spurious truth." The Mind
Only school had a far more difficult taslt in elaborating an order of truth based
upon the mutually dependent (jHJIVllanlm) characteT of reality. Thus I quote
once more from one of the above sutras:
The beings which are born in whichever realm of the Wheel of Six Rcabns,
whether they are born from eggsor from wombs or from heat and moisture or
miraculously, appear in the manifestation of a bodily form. Now in the first
instance they are dependent upon two kinds of appropriation, the asruming of
eeme-organs and what they depend on t•tber with a body, and the auuming
of vdsanbs with their prolixity relating to the appellations of characteristics,
names and discriminatiom, and so mind with all these seeds (bija) matures
and progre9Ses,spreads and extends . Thus in the spheres where bodily form is
involved there are these two appropriations, but in the sphere of no bodily
fonn there are not two. 180
In this abort pa•age reference is made to the Wheel of Existence with its six
realms a& well as to the ancient notion of a threefold world, consisting of a
Sphere of Desire (kamadootu) where all six realms are placed, the Sphere of
Form (rupodh4tu), the abode: of lower ranking celestial beings, and the Sphere
of No Form (arupadhatu) where the higher celestial beings manifest themselves.
Theae last are the "radiant = gods" (Siu. abhasvara, PlH abliassara) who consist
!Oil Sandllinirmoc.,.. Sitra, pp. 55 and IU .
102 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
of thought, are 1eif-evidfflt and subaist on joy. According to the earlier con·
ccpion of nirvl9a a$ a tranquil state beyond the highC$t heaven, these exalted
1pheres corrctpond with the higher star.et o( trance !~ding to nirv~. All au.eh
earlier mythology has to be reinterpreted in accordance with later philosophical
theory and the talk wa1 no easy one.
Just as two greatly renowned scholars, N~trjuna and Aryadeva appear in the
second century A.O . u the main exponents of Madbyamaka ~ac:hinp , so two
othtt renowned scbolan , Asanga and Vasubandhu, appear in the fifth century
as the leading exponents of the Mind Only teaching.. Their literary output waa
truly enormous, especially if all that later tradition aurihuteS to them was really
their work . Asanga is represented as having a special n:latio.nship with the
Bodhisattva Maitreya , who is said to have ~aled to him the basic verses of
some of bis works and even to have appeared on earth in order to continue hia
diccariom. 181 Thil tradition ha, inevitably endowed these worb with con-
siderable prestige, although they do not qualify as canonical (vii. Buddha
Word). Reference was made abo~ to the distinction between autra, inspired
discourse accepted as canonical, and Jdjtt'tl, a learned treatise elucidating the
autraa. The origuu .of Jast,-a may be faxed with .ome eemblance of hia«orical
exactitude. although attributions of authorahip at a time when relationships
between religiou, master and pupil were 80 1troog may often be suspect to
modern acholarship , the rnore so when there is no fixed tradition available.
Nowadays , authors are often all too anxious to claim credit for their won,
however much they have benefited from the labon and ideas of their
?redecessors. By contraat, in any well established religious tradition one prefers
~o attribute one'• literary productions to a more famous teacher, boUl out of
respect for him and also to give greater prestige to the teachings one is
reproducing. For one muat allo bear in mind that much of the vaa literary
output of these Buddhist scholars was largely repetitive, and the TibctaN in
their 111rncontinued thia tradition of restatement and elaboration . The origin of
the sotrasas dedattd Buddha Word is far man! obacure. There need be no
doubt that aomc of the earliest l(ltras, as preserved for instance by the Thera·
vidins and the Sa.rdstivadins , derive originaUy from so~ of the actual
teachings of the Buddha Slkyamuni, but being for the fint few cenuuies an
entirely oral tradition, they underwent elaboration and extension a1 occasion
required. 10t
h is this c.endeocy to elaborate and even to restate earlier tcachins- by teachen
in the monastk compounds that led to the evolving of the Mahlyina siitru.
1,1 A sugll"nion lhat Mai1reya repr<,wnc,i,dan ac:"lual human 1eacbeTi, pn> c:11rrencyin E. J.
Thomas. HiSloryof B-11ddlli.llTMUf.M, p. 2!S8,but it lhoold ~ diamiaed. For a more recent 1vrwy
of thla maucr OllC rnv.r ~er to D. S. Jluegg. I.A thlorie du 1'ol"-golagMbllo , pp . 50-5. for w u the Madhyamakainsistence! on the essential nonreality of these supposed "real
b•T pn>biem of the actual authonh ip of WOTk, auritiu1ed to Asa\\gaaee alloiliad . . pp. 39ft.
w
iot ttcaden may~ re,ninded 1h~1-whet-ea, early IA11ruas accumulated. by the Thcraridins are
pre~rved in 1he Pill canon, those, of the Sarv.\aivadins and till' othtr early lleCIS that fiourilhed in
Jndia largely perlsoc-dwith 1hr dcstru.« ion of Indian Buddhism . Thtix-e:uent , howewr, is lr.nownby
b ttt refm:n« and quoucion .
11.4.c: Thi! 1·11,_.Tt.1mi11gsof tlle W}11•l of the Doctrine 105
Although the art of writing was already well established in India before the
Christian era , teaching and especially religiom teaching continued to be mainly
oral. Thus , teachings lear~ by rote with the inevitable repctitiom th..t this
required, paucd from religiou, master to pupil, acquiring the plfffige and
eventually formal recognition as Buddha Word. Most of the Mahayana Mitra, as
aubscquently recorded in writing, arc compilations of such teachiDgJ , which
rnott or lea fit together in composite wholes . Also a procca of continual enlarge-
ment by the incorporation of extra teachins- can be proved by the existence of
earlier and later translations of the same work into Chinese and Tibetan. In fact
the only means available for dating a particular 1utra in a certain state of
formation ii provided by it• Chinese tramlation. Thi.s remains a rather rot1gh
and ready guide, as can well be imagined, for every 1utra, u soon as it acquired
a manuscript form, wu not immediately translated into Chincie , and these
traNlations date only from the second century A.O. onward . Thia however covna
the Mahayana period fairly well; Tibetan trall$lations. although far more
acc11rate linguistically because of the remarkable care that wa.staken in fixing an
adequate teehnical vocabulary, are of far leH use for dating purpoaea, because
the sttioua work of translation into Tibetan did not begin until the eighth
century, while moo of it was done between the tenth and the thirteenth, by when
the sutru u well as the tantras had assumed a final fonn. 189 & an example of
the value of the Chinese darings , we may n<Ke that the three l(uru from which
we have quoced abcwc in dilcmaing Madhyamab teachings , namely the
"Perfection of Wisdom in Fight Thousand Venes," the VimaldirtiniTl'uJa and
the Surangama.samcidhi , wtte all translated into Chineae bdorc the end of the
eecond century A.D., whereas the two sutra, wed in discu.leion of Mind Only
teachings, namely the Sandhinmraoctma and the .uzfik4uz.14N, were not
translated into Chinne until the fifth century A.D. It may be- readily a.saumcd
that they already ex.ia(ed in India in manuacript form up to u much as a century
earlier, and a dating such as tbia is in conformity with what is t.nown of AsaJ\ga
and his brother Vasubandhu.
The three turning, of the Wheel of the Doctrine thus represent a perfectly
valid historical development of Buddhist teaching,, and the origins of all of
them are firmly rooted in what goeabefore. Hentt the date of formulation of the
various phues of teaching cannot ttpresent their actual origin as Buddha Word.
We obecrved above that even the earlieet known Buddha Word is closely related
to religious and philosophical beliefs which were current in India of the fifth
century B.C., ctpecially the belief in continual rebinb , the doctrine of no self
(all4tman), which only has meaning in 1trms of the then prevalent notions of a
self (dtman), as well a, the theory of real elemcnu of existentt. Thereaf~r . jutt
elements" can only be understood in terma of the earlier theoriel, 10 now the
1
°' A nou.ble example of the COlllidenable di.lhrenca that can exist bet- two l'ilxtan Irans-
l11icmoia t~t ofche S.mulv,ptipamodlt,o"4 Tot1tni (-T. Slr.orupakl in chit l\ibliography). which
WIUtantlated flm tDWUd(he encl(i( the eptb cen&uryand then again to d,e truneQlth .
:.·,
 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
104
Mind Only achool can only be understood as a thoughtful reverse move. which
bad the effect of restoring the whole dhaNna·theory, albeit in a modified fonn,
to its earlier plau&ibility. Thus although the two later turnings of the wheel come
one after another in time, each of them has a just claim in different wayi to
repl'Clent the true Buddha Word in that earlier exaggerated tendencies,
exccaive positivity in the first case, cxceaive negativity in the second , were being
corrected.
For the followers of the Mind Only school the state of enlightenment is
represented by the Basic Comciousneu (4/a,avi_jndna) in iu purified or perfected
form. This Basic Conacioumess operates as the total sphere of the elements of .
existcn« (dho:rmadhdtu), and u we have already obeerved above these: arc ·.:
analyied in accordance with the dhamaa-theories of the earlier schools. The ·
essential difference in interpretation dcrivea from the general Mahayana
conviction that there is no essential difference between nirvt.~a and ~wa,
aaalyzcd as they were by the earlier schooll into noncondirioned and conditioned
elemenu. The apparent difference between the two is now envisaged as a matter
of the impurity or purity, as the case may be, of ConsciOU$Dess( vijii4na) or Mind
(citta), both these terms being used aa synonymsin the absolute acme. The buit
for Conaci.OUIMIIin this absolute sense is the continuing stream of dhannas. of
which an imagined person with his body and organs of aense, and an imagined ·'
outer world with iu objecta of seme is the everyday experience. This so-called
Basic Consciousness (alayavajMna) thua corresponds u a later concept to the
earlier concept of the pcnon as a mere continuance (santana} of a stream of
dkormas from one birth to the next. UH The purp01e of ttligioua practice of those
Early Dirciples (snivaka) was to stop the dharma.s rnanifeating them.selves, so that
the "blank" of nirvl~ might become manifest. By contrast, the practice of tbote
who follow the Mahlyana schools aims at a fundamental change in the mind.
Thu• it can be said that eaentially there: is nothing to be done, for aa Aryade-.a
exclaims: "If there were anything to be done, this world could never be
stopped." There is eucntially nothing to be stopped, as the dharmas,which the
earlier schools endowed with varying degre11 of reality, arc cuentially non·
existent. The general difference beiween the two main Mahayba schools is to be
found in a certain willingness or a certain unwillingness, as the cue may be, to
interpret the absolute reality, as realiz.ed by a Bodhi$attva at the end of bis . ·
career, in p01itivc terms. We have aeen that by attempting to do so, the followers
of the Mind Only school lay themselves open to a possible charge of reintro·
ducing a sclf(4tman) under another name . However, if the attempt is not made,
how is the career of a Bodhisattva to be usefully and helpfully analyzed? The
analysu is charactcrited u "relative" (paro.to.ntra), for once the goal is reached
the whole apparatus disappears. Mind Only remains frtt of the duality of an
lot The contt,PI of tuch a BMlc Colllciousneea was not an invt'lnion of the Mind Only school6.
it can ~ traced back co some of .
Like to many cor,cepis chat rttei\le promine11tt in later 11eachiJlsa.
the ear~r sc:hoo!J.s~ L. de la Va~e Pouain. SiddAi, pp. 178ff. For myprevioul ref'ercncn to
santanasee the Index.
U.4.c The Three Tvrni11fs of the Wheel of the Doctrine 105
imagined subject and object, which have their basis in consciousness in. iu
condition as sixfold, listed just above as itema 13 to 18 of the eighteen dhatus. A,
coordinator of these six aspccu of consciousncss, a ,eventh known u Mentatioo
(manas) is also posited, although there is some discussion of its precise relation-
ship to "mental conaciouancss" (manovijrldna, item 18). This is but one of the
complications in a very complex syitematization . However, seventh mu
coordinating "contciouaneu" is identifiable as the basis of the false idea of a self.
lt is inevitably associated with four afflictions (k/e.fa)-the illusfon of selfhood,
the actual concept of a 11elf.the pride of self and the Jove of self- and it operate.
through the Five Aggregates (slcandha), now known as touch, feelings,
perceptions, mental activity and will. 105 One auapecta that theae are introduced
into the system, albeit in a modified form, as venerable concepts of the earlier
period, which cannot be lightly dismiued. Thus they may appear to introduce
complications that are unneCft&ary to the scheme of eight forms of conscious-
ne,s, which may be listed accordingly:
BasicConsciousness (alayavijnana) when impure gives riae to:
Agitated Mentation (~ta -manas) with its idea of a tclf and an exterior
world, as e.x~rienced through
Mental Consciouaness,
Tactile Conaciousncsa,
Gustatory Consciousness,
Olfactory Consciousness,
Auditive Con,ciou1DA1,
Visual Consciousness.
The Basic Conaciowne111in its impure state serves as the operative basis for all
the other types of consciousnes6 . Continuing lik.ea stream from a beginningless
pa,t it contains all the latent "aeeds"which mature when attendant conditions
are suitable. In some respects it may be compared with our idea of a sub·
conaciouaneaa accepted u the buis of our whole psychological life. But it is more
than this, because it contaim within itself Ml only our subjective life, but also
the whole objective world which we apprehend through our ,enaea, 106 Thus it
produces both the body with its seme-organs and the corresponding mani-
festations of the objects of seme . However, all ia a mere mental fabrication, The
Basic Consciousness itself • never stable, for it comists of a succession of
dhamaas which manifest themselves momentarily. Continuity is maintained by
the theory of wban4s, the latent after-effects that every manifestation of any
dharma leave, as it were, in store until conditiona for ita remanifntation produce
the inevitable effect. These "seeds'' can remain latfflt for indefinite periods and
there is no limit to their continuing accumulation. Concd•ed of as a penonal
ior,.Stt L. de la Vall& Powsin, Sldd/ti, pp. !~7ff., and for a full CWOCW1ion of the -nth
con.aoa,-. pp. ma.
IOfl 'I'hett a~ difkttnt tbieo,rit$
on the-escent to which the outer world may materialize. Stt 1•. de
la ~allee Poussin, "Note sur l'Alayavijnanak in Mila"f•s chinois et boudtl/riqiu, vol. Ill . pp . 145ft'.,
whichprecedes ao impona11111-anllla1ed ci.cerpt by t. LanK111e (1« Bibliography).
106 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
atream of consciousness. this store of la tent seeds will produce only th01e which
suit actual circumatances. Thu• one born as a human being will see a human
world, while in a aubsequent rebinh in the animal world only thole aeedt will
mature that are suited to the experience of a dog or a pig or whichever anim al it
may be . The theory takes for granted the earlier Buddhist teaching that the
interminable prooeu of n:births has gone on for so long that everyone hu been
born a t some time in relationship to everyoPC else in all the pouible lpheres of
rebirth. T he re6Ulting teaching is a curious mingling of mythology -and psycho·
logical insight, inevitably circunucribed by what wa.ataught in the autras aa
Buddha Word . The most precise statement of the whole theory ia given by
Vasubaodhu in a short work of thirty vel"le$(Tri1?'wM) with interspersed
com~ntary. It ii auffidt'llt for present pu.rpoeesto quote on«! verse (no. 15)
together with the following explanation and 1upportiog quotat ion :
In acoordancr with circumstances the five lcind1of co06Cioumess
Arise in the Basic Consciouaness , whether together OT not , like waves from
water .
Comm,mtary: "The five" are the conscious!le$5 of sight and so on together with
the consciousness of thought, which accompanies them . The conscious ness in
which they fuse together (/4,auj,ldna) is called the Basic Coo1eioumess
becaus e it is the bed for the seeds of the 6ve, the consciou.sness of the eye and
the rcet and became ther e is a grasping for (re)birth as the seed£ spring up
from it. The springing up occurs in all certainty of whatever is ordained by
attendant circumstances, and so the ide a of a self exisu. "T ogether or not "
meana aimultaneoualy or in auccession, that is to aay. like waves on water . It is
an illustration of the arising, whether aimultaocously or not , of the kinda of
con&ciousneS6proceeding from the Bask Coruciousnes.,. AJ i1 is said (in the
SandhiniTmocana Sutra) : "O Sthiramati, as in the case of a great flood of
water , if the: circumstances exist for the arising of a single wave, then jUlt a
single wave arm ; if the circumstances emt for two or three or more waves to
arile , then so many more waveJ arise . Nor is there interruption or cessation of
this moving flood of water . It is cw.n so. 0 Viiamati. If the circumstan~a exist
for the arising of a singl e state of consciousness, embedded in, depending
upon the Ba.sic Con&eiouanCS&, which is like the flood of wat er, then just the
consciousness of light (or any of the others singly) will arise. If circurmunces
exiat for the arising of two or th~ of five states of consciousness, then at once
up lO five such states will arise.
The Rc~iving Consciousnes-s is profound and 11t1btle . carrying all seeds
like a flood,
Simpl e folk in their delusion might conceive of it a, a Self.
so it is not taught to them. 101
1'his Basic Comciouanese (alto referred to in the above quotation aa fusing
conscioume55 and receiving consciousncu ) is neither the same nor different from
101 s~ Sylvain Levi. M4tiriaU11.pp. 105·4. and for 1hr San.Itri, 1ex1 his l'ij,taptim.itl,-,.til:siddlti,
pp . SS·• · 11lC'quotat ion IIICdin dir comrnen,ary ,.,ill be found in a $honer n:nri<lll in thf- Sand/Ii ·
nmo10<anoSillra. ed . Lamotu:. p . 18S.
U.4,c Tiu Three Tumm.,sof ihe Whulofth e D(X;trint 107
the perfect atate of enlightenment as known to the Buddha.a and realized by
Bodhisattvas ~ the final ~tage of their long caree r. In general the Mind Only
achool auhlcribea to the view that a vast aeries of lives iJ neceesary in order 10
atta~ to the truth , but it is doubtless assumed that those who adopt their
teachings are already well advanced on thil arduous path. The process of
enlightenment may be exprcsacd in the simplest of terms as freedom from the
duality of the lower ltatcs of conaciowoc., aa cxpreaed in subject (appnhcnder
"' graA~a ) a~ object (ap~~ended = grdhya), IC!ulting in the tranquiliring
the Buie Conac1ou1ncss which ,, then manifest as Mind Only or CoDKioasneas
Only. It b simply a matter of knowing.
There is no difference whauoever in any true~ between tranquility
and the procca of rebirth here.
Yet it ia 1tated that the achievement of tranquility by thole of virtuous
deeds derive, from the ce.adon of rebirth.
Commentary : Thia mean, that there ia no distinguishing at all in an abaolute
acme between saqtslra and nirvl!µ. Yet it is uid that the attainment of
salva~ion oomes from the cessation of rebi rth for those of virtuous decdi who
practtce on the way to salvation . Circumventing wro ng vic-wa, there are now
four wrses concerning knowledge in an absolute serue as a counteraction
agaiDSt them:
When a Bodhiaattva ha, a«umulated an unlimited stock of knowledge
and merit.
As the result of~ p~ of thought regarding the dharm4s, he
penetratea their mearung aa consequent upon verbalized reflection .
Having recognized that their meanings are mere verbafucd reflections ,
he is c,tabliahed, as it were, in Mind Only .
Realizing in hia wildom that there ii nothing but Mind, he the.n advances
to the nonexist ence of Mind .
Having realiied the ooncxiatcnce of duality (aubject and object) ,
the wise one ia established in the Dharma-Spberc . where there is no such.
By the force of his nondilcriminating knowledge, which is alw ays and
everywhere associ.ated with sameness, their support, that dense evil mua, i.s
e.xpelled by the w11e one. u poison by ita antidote.
Tbeae excerpta are taken from one of che main works wually attributed to
Asanga supported by Maitttya 's inspiration. Entitled Molur.yimasutrlllaml um,.
("Adornment of Mahayana Sutras"), it conaist1 of venes intenpenei with
co~mentary. auggating a relationship or master and pupil. A pious fiction
attn.butes the VCTICS to the Bodhisattva Maitreya and the commenury to
A•anga, bu t such a format may well be a literary devil% of a single author . A
short section of commentary follows the firat of the verses quoted aboVI!. Tlk:
nut four an: followed by funher c~tary , not quoted here, but drawn on
for the interpretation of the extremely succinct verses.'°' The theme of the whole
&!~~ Sanslirit edition ~y Syln!n Uvi , pp . %3-4 ( =- Ch . VI, vv. 6·9). Hi, Freiw;h 1ranslation (att
~apby) may~ difficult for any ttader who docs llO( fine familiaritt hillllC'lf wi•h die fou:d
lerllliDologyfor techni<:alterma URd strialy 1brwghaut .
 11. l.ATER DEVELOPMENTS IN lNDlA
108
work is the preparation for and the career of a Bodhi$attva as practiced in
accordance with Mind Only teachings. Allowing for the difference in scope
between the career of a Bodhisattva toward Buddbahood and that of an Early
Diaciple (.frciwka) toward Arhatship, one may note considerable similarity
between a Mahaylna work such as this and any guide to the religiOUI life blltcd
on the earlier B11ddhist teachings. 109 The Mind Only school was just as m11ch
preoccupied ~ith Abhidh3i:rna ~.' were the_r early aects'. and in~~~! an~he~ of
Asanga's attnbuted works 1s a Compendium of Abhidhann.a, · which IS a
considerable collection of well-ordered terminological definitions in the
traditional question and answer form.at. Discriminating knowledge certainly
plays a preponderate pan in their teachings, although the fmal aim is the
cessation of all discriminating thought.
For when consciousness is unaware of anything on which to dq,end,
Then one abides in Consciousness Only since there is no apprehender
(subject) in the absence of anything apprehended (object).
This is Non-Mind, Non-Dcpendance, Knowledge which is supramundanc,
The Rew:raal of the Basis now freed of its twofold evil.
It ia the ineffable sphere, unpolluted. firm and good,
Proclaimed by the Great Sage as blissful. a.aSalvation-Body, Dharma-Body.
These are the final verses of Vasubandbu's short work of thirty verses ( Tri'7'silta)
with interapcned commentary, from which we may perhaJJ$ usefully quote
concerning the "Reversal of rhe Buis, .. as this may help to explain the difference
(which is cs.scntially no difference) between sa~slra and nirva~.
The Basis is the Basic Consciowness (ala,avifoana) with all the seeds, and as
for its Reversal, there comes about a cessation becauac of the absence of those
evil maturing 114.sana of duality and thus a reversal because of the presence of
competence and the oondual knowledge of the Dharma-Body. But this
~venal of the Basis is obtained by the elimination of what? In reply he says:
"freed of its twofold evil," and the two are the evil of the "obatruction from the
emotions" (kle.sciwTa~) and the evil of the "obstruction ofknowables" (jneyb.·
tdf'OM). The evil rela~ to the abeence of competence in the Basis, and this
agai~ is the seed of the two obstructions of the emotions and knowablea. 111
This quotation introduces two or more tcehnical terms that arc constantly met
with in this literature and thus are equally common in related Tibetan works.
The two kinds of obstruction are in effect the reverse of the two ltimb of "stocks"
which a Bodhisattva must accumulate, namely stocks of merit and stocks of
knowkdgoe. His progress is clearly hindered by nonmeritorioua obsttuctiona,
desires, passions, annoyances , emotional disturbance of all kinda, as well as by
Ult An ou<atanding wort of thil kind is JluddhaghoA's Pbtlt of Purifit-ation ( Vi.svddhimagga).
availabll! in l.i:igliah translation by Bhik.thu N~amoli.
110 Available in French 1.1'3nslatlon u L~ Comp.ndium de lo Supn-Doctrin~ (A bkidluzrm•:
samucca,a) d'AJOtlga, by Walpola Rahola.
Ill S« Sylvain Livi, Yijiiaptimotrata<iddlii.pp. 15-4 ( : Tm,alilul wv.28-50 with extttpb frotn
the commentary). For tM l'Tcnc:btTanslatioo. see his Matiriaiu:, pp. 121-2.
U.4.d 'Tht: Three Tummgs of the Wheel of th1t Doctrine 109
ob5truction relating to matters that should be known and known accurately.
Difficulty in fixing suitable terms in English for these two kinds of obstruction is
caused by the word klesa, which means literally "anpish" or "diatrca," but
which in Buddhist usage comes to mean whatever is morally distttmul and thus
·' in effect "sinful emotions ." It is often translatea as "pauion" but this word tends
to be overused, as it provides a ready translation for other Sanskrit words.
Because of irs special difficulty the early Tibetan translators invented a special
term for it (as in the caac of idsana), namely nyon-mongs, which is presumably a
compound of a word meaning "crazed" (n_yon = smyo11)and another meaning
"obscured" or "stultified" (mongs = nnongs). This tenn simply corresponds in
meaning to klesa and has no other use in the Tibetan language. Although quite
sure that it comes close enough to the actual meaning of this difficult term, 1
have tried to avoid the tramlation "sin" out of deference to a new generation of
westcrniied Buddhists, who react very quickly against the introduction into
Buddhist texts of terms with a specialized Christian application. "Affliction"
may be regarded as a tolerable translation in that it can refer to anything that
11peet1the equanimity of the mind, although it misses the moral aspect of the
disturbance, which must be understood as also included. The tenn "sinful" (for
upasa1Pkl•ila)becomes C88entialin some contexts.
d. The Theory of Buddlt.ajolds
Despite their differences in the interpretation of the abaolute state of buddha-
hood, more or leas negative, more or less positive as the case might be, the two
main Mahayana schools, the Madhyamaka and the Mind Only agreed that theirs
was the superior "way" or "Vehicle" (ydna) as distinct from those of the earlier
schools, namely the "way of the Diaciplcs" (sravaka) and the "way of the Lone
Buddha" ( pmtyekabtuldha ). regularly classed together u an "inferior way"
(Hfnoytina). The Lone Buddha continues to figure in all lists of the various
accepted grades of practicing Buddhists, but he has little or no historical signifi-
cance for the development of the Doctrine. Unlike the Early Disciple who
achieve. nirvi~ (thwi receiving the title of Arhat or MWorthy'') with the help of
Slkyamuni's teaching as expounded at the first turning of the Wheel of the
Doctrine, a Lone Buddha achieves enlightenment independently and he is not
expected to preach the doctrine. 112 The concept was probably an early
concmion to the fact that enlisht.cned beinga could exist outside the Buddhist
fold, u constituted by Sikyamuni's early following, but once approved of, the
Lone Buddha continued to be referred to as belonging inside the fold. Like
earlier mythological concepts, referred to above. the later schools continue to
take for granted his existence as a special type of Buddhist practitioner, just as
they continued to operate within the a.me kind of mythology. Arnong ·the
followers of the Mah1yana, opinions varied concerning the situation of thoac
111
It is recounted ~rl'ing Mailjafrl that he appeared u a Pntyeltabuddha prttisrly in ordn
1~ conoen lhii:ig bringt in a prewious world age when the Good Law (saddlio.mt4) was ecli~d for a
ume. but this may be regarded as an eiiceptlona! occum·.nce.Stt £. Lamotte. LA co1"emmtion ,u la
flMlrcheMroiqw, p. !45,

110 11. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
who followed the lesseTvehicles. The Saddharmapu'},Janl«i insists that thue is in
reality only one "way" or "vehicle," namely the way leading to the perfect
nirvana of a Buddha. Thus there is only one final atage of nirv~a for all beings,
and Sakyamuni has only taught what appeared as "inferior ways" in order to lead
th08e of lc56Cra«omplishmenta more gradually into the one and only way of a
Bodhisauva. However, we have already noti«d in a quotation from the Vimal4-
kirfinirdeJasutra that a clear distinction is drawn between the "fold of the
Buddhu." which i.sfully involved in the world for the good of living beings, and
those "wbo have achieved a state of fi.xity in the nonconditioncd state," viz. the
Arhau. Following such an argument, these last cannot advance toward final
enlightcment from their inferior atate of nirvaQa, and thus must retrace thciT
steps and follow the one and only way of the Bodhisattva, if they are ever to
reach final enlightenment.
That there can be only one final 1tate of nirvl~ is aacrted unequivocally by
the Sandhimrmoca110sutra, but living being, arc graded into different "folds."
Having described the process toward final salvation. the Lord continues:
Even those beings who are of the fold of the SrawAay411aobtain supreme
nirvi.na with its achievements and happiness by means of this way and this
practice; likewise beings who are of the fold of tru: Pratyekabuddhayana and
those who arc of the fold of the Tathdgatas obtain supreme nirvi.~a with it1
achie¥cments and happiness by means of this way and this practice. So this is
the one pure way, the one purification of Disciples, Lone Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas, and there i., no other one. But while I teach with such an
intention that there is a single way (ymia), this does not mean that there do
not exist in the (various) realm1 of living being&, depending on their natun:s,
beings of dull faculties, of medium faculties and of acute faculties. Someone
belonging to the fold of tbe Disciples, who is intent on tranquility alone, even
if he possessedthe ieal of all Buddhaa, is incapable of taking bis place on the
throne of enlightenment and realiting mpreme and perfect enlightenment. If
you aak why, it is because he bel~gs to an infer~r fol~ on acc~nt of ~e
smallneas of bis compaasion and his fear of suf{enng. Hu compa•ton being
small, be is not at all diapoaedto further the welfare of living beings. His fear
of suffering being great, he is not at all disposed to involve himself in the phe-
nomenal world (literally: in all the contingent activiry of elemental impulses,
sa1?1Jkdf'a).1 have not taught that one who is not diapoaed to further the
welfare of living beings or to involve himself in the phenomenal world, can
take his place on the throne of enlightenment and realize supreme and perfect
enlightenment. But a Disciple who is receptive to enlightenment, him l
declare to be a Bodhisattva by integration, because once released from che
obstruction of the afflictions and if encouraged by the Buddha, his mind will
be freed from the obstruction& relating to all that should be known. m
The Lank4vataro.sutradescribes no less than five folds, thoae of Disciples, of
Lone Buddha,, of the Tathigata (i.e., for Bodhisattvas), of uncertain people,
and of those who never desire salvation. This last intere&ting group is said to
m See tbr: Sm1,U11ni,_,_ S..rns, pp. ?S--4and p. 198.
JI.4.e 1"ht Three Tumingsofthe Wheel of the Doctrine 111
comi&tof two kinds of living beings, thole who have given up all accumulating of
merit and are thus damned (except for the mercy of the Buddhaa) and those
Bodhisattva, who have vowed never to enter nirvi~ on the assumption that
there will always be living beings who require their administrations. This sO.tra
allows for the possibility of a Disciple transferring from bis fold to that of the
Tathlgata, 114 as aleo does the Sandhinirmoccma Sidf'a. These appear to be the
only two classes of living beings who can aspire to final enlightenment. It is likely
that we arc concerned here with the practical proposition of the actual
conversion of monks who followed the teachings of the earlier sutras, to the
Bodhisattva path, as proclaimed in the Mahayana siitraa, for as we noted above
Hinaylna and Mah!ylna monks often lived within the same monastic com·
pound . The third group may well Tefer to a large number of Buddhist monks
who we~ committed to neither vehicle. There is no clear teaching on such a
moot point a&this. m
e. The Theory of the Buddha-embryo
This term gotra, which we have translated as "fold" and which is more often
translated as "lineage" or "clan," undergoe5 a remarkable semantic change
which may be fairly limply explained. Only those born within the fold of the
Buddhas or who succeed in transferring to it, can aspire toward enlightenment
or to uae the traditional phrase "raue the thought of enlightenment." Thus gotra
comes to mean the inherent nature of buddhahood that needs to be developed
into maturity by the training which a Bodhisattva undergoea on hia long career.
It thus comes to be identified in another sutra as the essence of buddhahood
with the result that it can no longer represent categories of any kind: '
As for this gotra of the noble ones, there is no action (karma) there no
in~olvcm~t in action, nor is any action performed. there by body. spttch or
mind. Thi$ gotra cannoc be ordered as inferior, as medium or u inferior, and
why?It has no diatinction because of the tingle savour of all the dharmas. It is
void, in that it ii void of body and mind, and so it accords with nirvlna. It is 0
pure in t~~t it is free of the impurity of all afflictions (klesa). It is never "mine"
becauae at 1sfree from the 1ameneae of exietence and nonexiatence. It is true in
the senseof absolute truth. . .. 116
Several Mahlylna 8iltraa aS10Ciatedwith the third turning of the Wheel of the
Doctrine contain teaching, of a siriillar kind, according to which the essence of
~uddhahood exists in living being, in a driiled form like a fragment of gold or a
,ewel that has fallen into filth and which only needs to be cleaned and poJished
114
Stt thl! Latlkdual.in:i SUlnt. Valdya's text p. 29, U. I 91!., and Suzuki's ttansbtion. pp. 58-60.
m ~e matte-ri, truted in more <k<ail in die Rot114(l"Olnuib/uigtr.(see below). See Takuaki',
~ran~anon, pp. ~l :7 and ~gai~ pp. %21-4. TIM:tmn gOlN is not 1111ed in thiilwork in the meaning of
fold or~ of lineage, :" II asa11mcs die apc,c:ialmeaning !hat will be eaplained immediately .
Thus. tb«Mdiffe"'nt c:ateg«us of people arc no longer categorised u gorM.
111
1Translated from the Kiuyap,,p,,riM,taSutra. ed. voRStal!I-Hobtein, 10!-4 (p. lSlf.).
112 JI. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN JNDIA
for its pristine brightness to shine forth. 117 An authoritative 11ehola11tic
worlr.on:/
the aubjeet is a treatise consisting of verses and intcnperscd commentary}
attributed like several other work• already mentioned above, to the Bodhisattva '
Maitreya and bis devotee Asanga and entitled Ratnagotravibhllga ("A Study of
the Jewel Enclosure"), 111 It differ& from the other works attributed to this
illustrious pair in that it is not concerned with theoriea of a Basic Consciousnf!Sa
and the other derivative aspects of consciousness, which have been described
above. Whereas these are predominantly investigations into the nature of·'
phenomenal existence, this last ,tudy proclaims the nature of the very essence of·
buddhahood, which is the goal of this whole cb.91 of literature. In that the
essence of buddhahood is recognized aa Mind in its pure pristine state, there ·.
exists a fundamental connection between all thae worb, which are a110eiated ·.
with the third turning of the Wheel, however justified may be the doubts that
are expreaed concerning the aunl>ution of authorship to the varioua treatisea. .
Here we must content ourselves with a clarification of the main terms and a few •
quotations in illustration of the actual teaching.
The term gotm, translated earlier as "fold," is perhaps suitably tramlated in.
the cha~ context as "encl01Ure," since this English word baa the useful double /.
meaning of both that which encloses, as does a fold, and that which ia enc:loeed. ··
A aimilar shift in meaning may well explain the use of gotra as now synonymous :
with the essence of buddhahood. The Sanskrit term uaed for "eseence" in dw.
particular sense u garbha, which normally means "womb" or "embryo." Both
these words provide tolerable translatiom in auitable contexts, but "etKllce"
(Tibetan: snying-po) is a saaisfac:tory translation. For the equation of these
various terma we may now quote from the Ratnogotravibhdga:
With regard to Suchne• (tatlaaUt) in its def"ded state it baa been said
that "All beings are of the essence of buddhahood," but what can this
mean?
Because of the incluaion of the host of living beings in the Buddha• Knowledge,
Because of the nonduality of their ( defilement and) nondefilement
primordially,
Because of the identification of the fruit ( of their pl'actice) in the
Buddha-enclosure,
All embodied being&are said to be ofthe essence ofbuddhahood.
Because of the nondifferentiation of Sucbnes1 and the comequent
amplitude of the Buddha-body, also because-of the Buddha-enclosure,
All embodied beings are alway1 of the CIICDCe of buddhahood.
.,
117 Two major worb OP 1bit whole 11.1bjec1 have appeared in r«e«ll yean, bom by D . S. Ruegg: .·
La tlllori, du TOl/uigat~bha .i du Colnr, and Le traiti du Tctltii,al4prbh.a d., Bv-slllft .
/lffi,po,cll,. The inttodacdoa to thr laue, work (pp. 7-18) dilCUNISthe vllricMPMahayana autra, . ·•·
PU1inlyas known fron, quoubOIIII,ueed in jutificacion of tbne teachings.
m The Sa111luic tat waapublished by F.. H. ,JolmslOnein Pama, 19SO. An English m,nslatioo bf
Jikido Talt-lti, publis~d in the Rome OrienralS,:ries no. XXIU is also available. See alto E. Ober·
miller in the Bibliography . The Tibetan tide of d~ worit conapond& lO a San,krit title of Uttaroa·
tcmtn-iastra (wrn:aciK on Hi3ber Tanna"),
11,4.C The Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Doctrine 113
In short it i1said by the Lord by means of a threefold argument that .
'' All brings are of the es,encc of buddhahood ": becawc of the amplitude
of the Dharma-body of the Buddha in all living beings, because of the
nondifferentiation of Suchnas of the Buddha and because of existence
of the Buddha-enclosure. 11'
Eiscwhere it is shown how the Buddha-enclosure provides the basis for the
rdigiou• life, and we may note that the term Buddha-sphere (Buddha-dhatu) ia
used with identical meaning:
If there we~ no Buddha-sphere, there would be no aversion to the misery
(ofsaq:isara),
So there would be no wish, no desire, no upu:ation for nirvtu;ia.
So it is said: "If there were no Buddha-easence, 0 Lord, there would be
no aversion to suffering or wish for nirviQ& or any such desire or a&piration."
In short it is stated that e11enfor tboee beings who are committed to wrong
views the Buddha-sphere, the Pure Enclosure; is the basis for a twofold
neceaity; it produces avenion to saq:isilra based on inli.ght imo the evil
of ita misery and it arou.es the desire for nirv~ baaed on imigbt into
the giorioumeJS of bliss. 110
From the last passage it would Sttm clear that the Buddha-enclosure (gotra),
which ia 5Ynonymoui; with the Buddha-euence (or embryo = garblaa), abo
known as the Buddha-sphere (dltdtu), provides the essential basis for "raising the
thought toward enlightenment" and so embarking upon a Bodhisattva's career,
the .sole means of achieving buddhahood. If one prodaim1, aa some now
proclaim, that all living beings arc capable eventually of attaining buddhahood,
then logically the Buddha,eucnce mutt be preaent in aJJ living beings, however
much covered and obscured it may be.
Like the Buddha in a wretched lotus-Rower, or honey in its comb,
like grain in the husk, or gold in the dirt,
like treasure in the ground, or a green shoot (dormant) in a seed,
like the Buddha-nature in the ragged garment (of an ascetic),
like a king-to-be in a foul female womb.
lilr.ea precious image in its clay mould,
even so ii the Buddha-sphere to be found in living beings,
obscured with the dirt of accidental afflictions .m
Jn so far as aJl the terms just listed refer to th~ quiddity (tattva) of perfect
enlightenment, so often referred to ae Suchoeu (talh4t4) in order to avoid tnol'e
compromising terminology, it follows that Sucbness itself is not only pure but
also involved in impurity. This accorda entirely with the Mahayana view that
119
Rtttleafwm,t'bha,a.ed.Johnaton, p. 25, II. 18ff.. Takasaki, pp. 197-8.
120 Ibid., p. 55, U. 18ff., Tak.vaki. pp. ftl,2. My cranslatl011 diffen from hi1 eipecially io 1he
·
ttanilation of tienm prn-iOlllly aoalyzed.
iii lbta .. p. 59, D. l&ff.• Takuui. pp. !68-9. According to tbt, Commentary d" "Buddba-
nuune 111a ragged gannmt" r«,1trs co a Buddha-image wrapp,ed op in a filthy doth. It may cquAlly
lfell M the Buddha,narurc concealed within a rag-clad ascetic.
114 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
there is no e98elltialdifference between nirvA.Qaand Sal\lNR,
AsSuchncas may be polluted, so it is also pure, and as p1.1tt
it possessesthe Q.ualities of a Buddha, the Actions of a Conqueror.
Being the realm of the seers of absolute truth and the source
of the immaculate Three Jewela (Buddha, Doctrine and Cmnmunity).
What i6 clarified by this?
The Enclosure of theae Three Jewela is the realm of the seers of the absolute;
It is unimaginable from four poinu of view in accordance with four
kinds of reasoning.
Here polluted Sucbness refers to the En~losure unrelea~ from its c~cr of
afflictiona, being the Buddha-e11ence, while pure Suchne• 11 characterized by .,
the Reversal of the Buia in the Budd.ha-111.age,being the Dharma-body of the .•
Tathagata. Pure Buddha-qualities refer to the supramundane Buddha- ·
d/aa.rmas,the Ten Powers (of a Buddha) and so on, occurring in the Dharma -
body of a Tathlgata as characterized by the Reversal of the Basia.The Actions
of a Conqueror refer to that supreme s~ntaneo~ a~ivity of ~e Buddha-
d/aarmas, vii ., the Ten Powen etc., wh1eh corwata m the uninterrupted
recounting of announccmenu about Bodhisattvas, unchanging, unceasing,
unending. This is said to be the realm of the omniscient ones because once
again these four points, aa li&ted, arc unimaginable in accordance with four
kind&of reasoning. With which four?
B«ause of the pairing of purity and the sinfu) state,
Because of defilement of the totally sinlc• &Cate,
Because there is nowhere that (Buddha• )dha.rmas are not inherent,
Becauae of their 1pontaneou1 and undiscriminating charactcr . 122
A long commmtarial pasaage elucidates all theee reasonings, the gut of which is
to argue the immanence of the essence of Buddhahood in all realms of pheno-
menal existence. Thu& (1) aa~sara and nirvitµ. are effectively paired: (2) the
pure Buddha-asence i1 obscured in the afflicted ( = sinful) state of ordinary
living being1; (5) yet the Buddha -qualities are everywhere available: and (4) the
Actions of a Buddha despite their apparent multiplicity in accordance with the
needs of living beings transcend all notiom of discrimination. In 51>.onwhat is
fmally unimaginable ia the pairing of transcendence and immanence, and
Buddhiats are not the only ones who have wre5tled with what is, in effect. a
theological problem, even if one avoicb, u they do, the auenion of supreme
being.
The dichotomy of transcendence and immanence is expresaed in terms of
Mind as "pristine purity" ( pro.krtiwuddh,) and Mind pervaded by "accident
defilement" (4gantuM-mala) uaually defined aa the two kinds of obatructions,
th~ relating to the affiictions (k/da) and those relating to what should be
known (jn,,o). Defiled Mind thus correspond& to the Basic ComciousnCS& (ala,a·
vijfl4na) as described above, while pure translucent ~i~d correspond~ to.~
Reversalof the Basis in the stage ofbuddhahood. Thus lt JS by no means tllogu:al
1a Ibid .• p . 21, U. 5ff., Talataki. pp. 186-8. On theuae orsin" fod'1e.fa seep. 109 above.
Jl.4.f The Three T11mingsof the Wheel of the Doctrint 115
chat certain paasages in the Lo.nktivattmlSfltra should identify the Buddha-
essence (Tatlwgata-ga,bha) with Buie Consclou,nes, itself.1ts On the one hand
the Buddha-eescnce mmt be identified with Pure Mind, albeit involved in defile-
ment, and on the other hand it is Basic ConsciOU$DC8S in its reversal which is
identified with the aupreme enlightenment of buddhahood. Thus an overall
identification is inevitable, while the "unimaginable character" of the
identifying of purity and impurity, nirvlr_ua and aa~&lra, remains. Its un-
imaginable character corresponcb to the undecennined character of certain
basic questions in the earlier teachinga. m
f. The Tht1oryof Buddha-bodies
Before bringing to an end thi&survey of doctrine relating to the third turning
of the Whttl, there remains one other important formulation that may be
described rather briefly, although the development of these particular teaching1
was gradual and fairly complex. The early followers of Sakyamuni soon began to
formulate theoriea of two conceivable Buddha-bodies. There was the Body of
Form or Maturation ( ropollttyaor viJJ4kalc4'J'l ). referring to any kind of body
aaumed by a Buddha in the phenomenal world, and there wu the Dharma -
Body. representing from one point of view the sum total of the Buddha-Doctrine
and from another the absolute supramund.ane state into which a Buddha paased
on entering final ni"~a. According to early Buddhiat scholasticism this
comistcd of pure Buddha-dharmas (in the sense of "elements" or "impulses"),
and chia theory was retained in the Mind Only school since they retained, in a
rather changed form aa already noted, the whole theory of dharmas. Corres·
pondingly, our Jut quotation refers tO supramundane Buddha-dhaTffl4S, the
Ten Powers and so on. 1~
Early Perfection of Wildom teachinga and other early Mabiylna 11itru
require no development in the doctrine of Buddha-bodies, because hett
everything that is not demonsuab)e u absolute truth falls within the category of
relative or spurioua truth and it is here that all kinds of Buddha-manifestations
belong without the need for the drawing of distinctiom. At the same time there
·• WCN! already in exiatence even from the earliest times notions of other possible
.·) Buddha-bodies, even if scholastic definition was lacking. 126 Tbm according to
early legend, Stkyamuni visited his mother in the hcaveoa, uswning for this
. purpose a "mind-made" (mo.ncnMya) body. Also the various magical powers
·.O.. with which not only he himself but also any Early Disciple who had achieved
_:, nirva~a (thus becoming an Arhat) were credited included the ability to produce
·· replicas of one's bodily form at will. Furthermore, we have already noted that
some early Mablylna lHltr.as identified all the many Buddhas who taught in
111
Lanktm,t<iro.nilra. Suzukf&translalioo, pp. 190, 193, %0$4. etc.
1245tt··11~iemiioed roattcn" in the Index.
12~ For a brief account qi the Buddha·d..\ar11141,- Har Dayal, Bod/wottt,a DoctriM, pp. 19-!9.
1111On ibis subject, see L. de la Valltt Poualn, Siddhi, pp. 762ff. for appendixon hJ...es
corps du
.8oo.ddba."One may also refa to N. Dim. Mah<i:,,mcBuddltism , eh. V, pp. 14lff.
116 II. LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN lNDIA
myriads of Buddha-fields with a one and only Buddha, envilaged as Sakyamuuf·
himself. Thllll acholady speculation and eventual formulation of theae various :
ideaa became inevitable. In aome sutru, such as the Larlkavola1'a, ideas on the ;
subject seem to be very confmed, but in S\ICh cases we are dealing with,
compoaite works. where diffttmt popular traditiona exiat lide by side. 127 A fairly ·
precise formulation was finally evolved by scholars of the Mind Only school, a~ ·
since their most important treatiael are usually attributed to Asanga. the scheme .:.
of three main types of Buddha-body may be credited to him:
1. Dharma-body or Self-Existent (smbhai,ka) Body (kd,a)
2. Glorious Body (sa7!'bhoga-laya)
5. Transformation Body (niTm~o-ldya).
Briefly stated, the Dharma-Body is the Body of the Dharma-sphere (dhamza.t
dhatu) in the traditional seme of the totality of purified elements (dhannas) a · ·
the sum-total of the Buddha-Word. It is beyond divenity and is the same for a
Buddhas. The Glorious Body is manifold in manifestation and repn:senu
form in which Buddhu teach in pure Buddha-fields. The Tranaformation Bod •.
is the one assumed in any realm of phenomenal ex.istence for the purpose o ·
instructing and saving living beings. It also includes Buddha-image•as suppo~a
for faith in the Doctrine. 1lll One may note the existence of parallel sets of fou ·.
Buddha-Bodies, usually involving two types of "Glorious Body," a "ael{~
enjoyment-body" (svasa11lbhoga-Aaja)and an "enjoyment-body for othen''.
( pa,-asa11lbhoga-lulya). The term "enjoyment body," which is here interpreted ai
"Glorious Body," derives from the idea of enjoying the benefits of the practice of(
the Perfections on the way toward buddhahood. 12' Its acquisition is one of
fruits of such pt'actice, and this kind of Body is in fact usumed by Bodhisattna !
in their final stage. At a later stage the Self-Existent Body comes to
distinguished from the Dharma-body in that it ia regarded u absolutd
transcendent, thus resulting in a different set of four Buddha-bodies, which ·
oftm met with in tantric worb(aet"pp . !50 -1).
1t7 See the .LaiikawtunaSidra, Swuki's tranmoon. pp. ~1-:t. 118-9, 256.
ed. S,1-..in Uvi. pp. 44·6 (IX,:
IH For AQl\ga'J dffloition aee tbe M•lki)'Cino-S..trcila1J14cir11.
•v. S9-86), and the French ttanslation, pp. 86•8. See abo Takuaki, R11t114gotraitbhilg11,pp. 288·90;
l!9 E.g .• Stt the S,mdhinirmeccM Suh'a..ed. Lamotte, pp. 1'6 and 247. This sutra n,m . ·.
generally content wirh the older formulation of two 'Buddha-bodiea, ref..-.rred
tO a, Dharma-body
Transformation Body (itirm,b,lo-kaye). See pp. 16:t-5 and 268-9, where it Is taught that only
Buddha (nQCa sl'liw4oor p,raty,lobuddlta) can sendforth such "uansfonnation bodk5."
111
TANTR1C BUDDHISM
1. CONNECTIONS WITH THE OONVENTIONAL MAHAYANA
With the effective canonization of a vast variety of works of ritual and yoga-
practice, known as tantr-tu, we enter upon the final astounding phase in the
history of Buddhism . It is utounding for two rf!ll80J\5, doctrinal and moral, and
by explaining these we shall be able to show how extraordinary a tou,- de f<>rce
was involved in the convemon of tantric rituals to orthodox Buddhist use. That
they were 60 converted, there can be no doubt, for generations of serious Tibetan
scholars, translators and commentators, not to ~ntion devout men of religion,
bur witness to this fact. At the same time it must be fairly recognized that very
,,,, ·'·· .· few scholars outside the lndo-Tibetan tradition of interpretation have felt able
' · to accept thia last Buddhiat phase in its entirety. Ctttainly Chine11eand Japanese
Buddhists have found much canonical tantric material objectionable, and have
either employed evasive translations or have treated whole textt a, later
cortuptions. 1 More recently, Western and modern Indian scholars have freely
attributed to tantric developments the gradual decline of Buddhism in India
thef from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries A.O., as though it had allowed itself to
be submerged indistinguiahably into forms of popular Hinduism. There is
considerable evidence against such a view. While it ia true that Buddhism
remained throughout its whole history in the land of its origin dependent upon
other Indian religioua movements ( and in tracing the origins of tantri<:
Buddhism we shall deal with this point in more detail), it clearly remained self.
consciously distinct right up to it1 very Jut days. This i, proved by the existence
.,:, .., . of its great monasteriea and smaller religious centers that continued to flourish as
.
ff/?· specifically Buddhist e&tablishmenu until they were destroyed in one region after
) ( . another, as Moslem conquerors steadily advanced eastward. It is proved more
W}/ ,:·.than anything else by the vast Bu,ddhist literature that wu being produced in
({;~:\. . theae centen of learning up to the last days and of which 110 much has been
)_i}/' preserved in Tibetan translations. Whatever features they have in common,
,ri{J{.:
:. a._Tajm_ia ina~crhis b,.,k
1
;,;{\· .duc:edm_io T1~1
su, I•Mollrwcuro"no·Svtra, obRrves: vEaou:ric:u,achinp wnc intro-
their cstablilhmmt in China . ,u for their lillkt,
weha~ hiltOfical ptoo& that
\ i;'.·::,. pr1nc1p,,lly from Vikram•l• u thrir c:enter. On rho, o.n,, hallli ,_arch won doru, on
, ::·· thq ~ved
}i·;) . .··tlv: Tiber.o
\flaiona of rhf scriptures are valuable for till, texts tlu!IQlelvea; but on..-ooics that the
)/t.·:·:•traoge
-ric rrachingl of Lamailt religion are ill fac, rathtt far fxun ttw, Buddha's teaching&.
;;t/f :.Tb~ one •bould never loee sight of thr considerable dis&anceseparating C.hinae e,ot~rkism , from
,ifah.m~
{{??/. wh,c:bderiwis the who!~ of japan<!IC Sbingon, from that of Tll,rt" (p. 7). For a further quocatio11
T,~--Jllob>m..

118 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
Buddhis-t tantraa are quite di$tinct from Hindu tantrH, and there was never any ;
confusion in their transmission. lt is an extraoroinary fact that Buddhism has •
abtorbcd tantric theories and practices, however scandalous some of them may i
appear outwardly, strangely enriching iteelf thcTeby. This -was recogniied long ·:
ago by one of the greatest of Western Buddhist scholars, namely Louis de la.
Val~e Poussin. After summarizing the contradictions of earlier orthodox ·;
teachings that these texts seem to imply, he continues:
One point seems to me free of doubt: the virtue of the ceremonies is not •.
properly speakingthaumaturgical; it residea entirely in the spiritual state ·
which the faithful practitioner realizes ( utpddayati) under the influence of the ,
dogma that is meditated or by the exterior excitation of the ritual. The C
mystique of our tantras can easily be reduced to the fundamental principles'_:
of the Mind Only school or of the Madhyamakaa. The axil of religious thought :
ia no& displaced: tantrum has become Buddhist; without denying e11Se11tial · traditionally promulgated with the thRe turnings of the Wbecl. 4 Since Tibetan
dogma Buddhism has annexed a whole new province . We shall understand '.
one day the secret of the long elaboration which removed the original ,
antagonism of 10 many factors of the Tantra-y!na. The theologians, making .,
use of all the finds of doctrinal thought , have constituted a scholarly theory '.
of popular religion; wy were able to extcrioriie dw theory and render it full i
of life by miracles of the boldest symbolism, filling space with divine and,:
hallucinatory visions. 1 ·
The Tibetans, who were the full inheritors of the whole Indian Buddhist :
tradition in the various forms in whkh it existed in India up to the thirteenth ,
century, followed their Indian masters in treating the tantras, to which they were·:
introduced, as authoritative Buddhist works, canonically valid as Buddha Word-·.
just as much as were the Mahayana siltras . When they finalized the contents of.
their own canon in the thirteenth century, they 1trictly excluded from the '
Tantra section certain tantras for the existence of which no direct Indian
authority in the form of a Sanskrit original OJ' other acceptable lndian original
could be proved. h is likely that these canonical tantra• were quite u much,
studied in the great Indian Buddhist monasteries as were the siltras, and thus the-.;.
Tibetam took as granted what was then already an Indian Buddhiat allSUmption,
that there were in general two approacbe$ toward buddhahood, the slower buf ,
surer way as taught in the Mahayana sfltru, i.e., the way of th~ ~dhi5attva, -U·.'
deacribcd above, and the risky way ll$ taught in the tantras, wh,ch could result iri:
buddhahood in this very Hfe, but which employed methods which only those of
strong facultica should dare to use. So the Mahayana could be classified ai
twofold, as the System of Perfections (Paramitanaya) and the System o~
Formulas (Mantranaya), the latter seemingly being the primary name under ·.
which the tantras were grouped . Its followers claim that "It is superior because ~
of freedom from confusion due to singleness of meaning, because of its many:'.
methods, became it i, not difficult to do and because of its suitability for th
nu Connectiom with the Convmlional Malw.yllno. 119
with keen senses."' However, despite its general acceptance by later Buddhists,
Indian . Nepalese and Tibetan, and to quite a considerable extent by the Chinese
and Japanese as well as by many Buddhist groups throughout Southeaat Asia
the whole tantric system was not only a latecomer, but also hard to accom'.
modate formally with the rest of the teachings, traditionally attributed to Sakya-
rnuni Buddha.
It has ~een relate~ in some detail in the previous chapter how the scriptures of
la1er Indian ~uddhism were arranged as a seria of thrtt turnings of the Wheel
of the Doctrine by Sakyamuni himself, and it may be noteownhy that the
Tibet:u.-1 bi&torian Bu-ston (1290: 1564) who completed the great work of
comp•hng the contents of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon with its enormous
collection of tantras, all supposedly Buddha Word, neverthele11 limits his
account of Sl\kyamuni 's teaching, as given in his history, to the slltras that were
historians ~ould normally reproduce Indian historical and legffidary material,
~hen treatan~ of such ma~ten, this ~ggests that the tantras were never formally
mcoq~orated mto any Indian Buddhist canonical groupings, and it was left to the
compa~rs and promulgato~ of these worb to give some apparent proof of
authonty. Efforts were ccrta1nly made to arrangt: the vaat variety of tantru into
convenient categories, of which the four main ones came to be accepted as:
Action Tantras (kri,a-tantra)
Performance Tantras ( carya-tantni)
Yoga Tantras(,oga-tantra)
Supreme Yoga Tantras (anuttara,oga-tantm) .~
Tho.e of the first two categories. in so far as they are concerned with the correct
recitation of magical formulu for the warding off of various ills and for the
gai~ng of rnerit ~i~ly from the worship of relics and the building and repair
of atupas, are easdy attributed to Sakyamuni during the course of bis la" life on
e~rth, espec_iallyas this included his visit to the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods.
HIS own miraculous powers were an accepted part of the earliest traditions
~~ce~ing hia. teac~ing an~ th~ thett need be nothing incongruous in his
giving mstruct1ons m ~gical incantations of a beneficial kind co bis Jay
converts, although he might be expected to discourage the exhibition of such
: From Advayavajra's 1'attuan,tlliwall u publithed mrJ,c Ad....,..i.oj1'1.!0'N""ho, p. 21, u. J2·1S.
A more popQ)ar tradition as reflected in tM Padma Tlaa..g-:,ig (tee Towsalm's ttalllladon
. P~· 124-5) dearly tt(e,5 to th< th~ turning as the last 'kho,-lo tha-ma (f.6Sa' of Tibtta11 l>lod:
. P~!!: but then adds_a foun~ "!rnlng dewoted 10 "cxoteric tantr.11 a11d magical rites'' ( ph.yi-rovd
~' chos). In~ hn that~ g,11mof auch texts mainly iaught "in the Willow Grove md on the
N . ~bolt-~at. m M~aya , ihc Yoga Tamru are named eepnately as havius bttn taugM by the
~ ai':'.iana !,llffl'~nd in I~ Highcll Henen (th116 in asreemmt with an Indian tradition
"PI . uced unmc:d1a1ely below). As for the: "ooceric Npttme VaJ'n..,.n•" (..,,.. .... .... bla--•-'
?@•rye tlt,,g "") $air. .. id h ,- ·- ·-.. r- .._ ..
• . ·,- yamnru 1t u to a11eannounced fonnallr, "VajrapiQi, yt>U llC&Chl~ and dien to
hlnt not sa,d a word.
· 5 ~?"t~ con.emcn<,c ol ttadcrs wbo all' alttady acquainted with it It teCID$ best to. accept
· : P:~ 1onally this conventional fourfold arrangement , leaving i11 rathe; arbitrary narutt ro ~
' <: rifled later. Stc the lnde111mdrr Tantras, varioul c)a55ificarion5.
120 Ill. TANTRJC BUDDHISM
powers by monks who were supposed to be intent on a more serious objective. ·i
The distinction between mundane and supramundane achievements is a very old :.
one in Buddhism and both continue to be practiced throughout the whole ...
history of the doctrine at all stages of its development. . rnind-made body to the Highest Heaven, where they bestowed upon him the
In the case of the third category of tantra• there waa an apparent difficulty in ,:
attributing these to Sakyam uni unlesa it could be shown at the same time that he ·'.
bad himself realized at the time of his enlightenment the type of ritual yoga with •
which these works are primarily concerned. No one would dispute that he had·:
taught sutraa suitable to the Early Disciples (the firsi turning of the Wheel), and .:,
the foJlowers of the Mahayana, as represented by the Perfection of Wisdom _:
literature, could claim with justification that the Madhyamaka teachings (the··.·.
second turning) and the Mind Only teaehingii (the third turning) represented the,
essence of his teaching as realized by him throughout bis long career of a BodhJ•. :,
sattva and in his abaolute state of perfect buddhahood . However, the Yoga :.
Tantras taught that buddhahood could be achieved through a highly ritualized•
aeries of conaecrations, and there waa no traditional authority for this in the case .;.
of Sikyamuni's enlightenment. Thus it had to be deliberately supplied by what::.
can only be deacribed aa a tour de force. The main tantra of this daa, entitled .::,
Sarva.-tath4gata-tattva·sa,pgraha ("Symposium of Truth of AU the Buddhaa"), is· ,
supposedly promulgated by Sa.kyamuni, also referred. to as "Resplendent" .
(Vairocana), in the palace of the king of gods in the Highest Heaven under&tood
to be on the summit of Mount Meru. It opens with a description of Sakyamuni's
enlightenment achieved through consecrations (see section 111.lS.f below); it is ~-
reenacced at the end through the agency of Vajrap~i. of whom more will be ·
said below: then the text relates:
As soon u he was fully enlightened in the adamantine state (mjm) of Body,
Speech and Mind of all Buddhas, knowing himself as embodying all Buddhas,
he came from the summit of Mount Meru to the Place of Enlightenment and
in order to conform to the way of the world he took some dry gra.sa (and --:
seated himself) under the Tree of Enlightenment, saying:
Oho! the be,t of teachings for oneself and for the good of living beings
that they may remain finn from their conversion against false doctrine!
0 may one win the Buddha state for the sake of purifying with the light
of knowledge the world that cannot be converted else with ibl blindncsa
of false views.6
Snyamuni's situation is also elaborated by the commentaries. 1 His final progress
toward buddhahood is madcd in the traditional accounts by four ever higher
stages of "inner composure" (samadlu), but now to suit this later theory the ·.·.
process is interrupted at this point by the Buddhas of the Ten Directions, who
6 Yamada'• r.dilion oft~ Samirit teXI of thf: Wl'fl·lotllilg11to-'41tl,fl·Sll'l'froha, p. !>3). Bcouse
of 1hr.rather cumb- nature of tbiiltitle we shall refer to it hereaf~r in footnou,o as STIS and in
c~ main 1e•1 a& 1he ''Symposium ofTn11h.""
7 E.g.. see m.Khas-grub·r~ ·~ F1111damentolsof' tit,, Budtil&ist Ta1ttro.s,ed. l,essing and Wayman,
pp. u-,!;.
··,.
.,j
u1.1 Con.Mctionswi~ltthe Coni,entional MaJlizyima 121
arouse him from his composure by mapping their fingers and announcing: "You
cannot become a perfected Buddha just by this inner composure." Then leaving
his physical body on the banks of the Nairanjana River, they conducted his
preliminary consecrations, followed by the fi~ stages of Perfect Enlightenment
(abkisarribodlu) as marked by five formulas of self·comecration.• ThU$ he
became the perfected Buddha. the Great Vairocana, and having taught the
Yoga l'antras on the summit of Mount Meru, he descended to the everyday
world. took poa,teteion of his physical body, defeated Mira, the Evil One, and so
the earlier traditional account of his ministry follows.
If it was po1Sible by such a manipulation of the earlier tradition to fit the third
category of tantra• into Snyamuni'a curriculum, the fourth category of Supreme
Yoga Tantras (anu.ttarayoga-tantra) might appear at first sight to be altogether
unadaptable. These are the tantras where the four main comecrationa consist of
ritualized performance of the sexual act of union, and u for the place of their
promulgation, it ia usually announced in the opening verse: "Thus have l heard:
at one rime the Lord reposed in the vaginas of the J'ajra-maidena--the heart of
the Body, Speech and Mind of all Buddhaa:" It may be fair to obtn-ve that in
this fourth category the Lord is seldom named specifically as St1.kyamuni, but the
connection exists in 110 far as he embodies all Buddhaa, in this case through his
hypostasis as the Buddha Imperturbable (Aklobhya), with whom such great
tantric Lords as Heru.ka, Hcvajra and Ca~<Jamahar()fa,;ta are identified. But
while it need not be disputed that Slltyamuni had taught strict celibacy,
certainly in his first turning of the Wheel, it could be argued tpat his own
activities as a Bodhisattva, not least of all his life in the harem and hia marriage,
prepared him for the act of renunciation leading to final enlightenment. 10
Commentators on Supreme Yoga Tantras have devilled a modified venion of the
account of his enlightenment, as described in the Yoga Tantra "Symposium.of
Truth" and elsewhere, introducing a feminine partner on the 11Ccne in the form
of "the daughter of the gods Tilouaml," thus justifying in his name the use of
r.e.xualyoga. 11 But there appears to be no authority £01'this in the actual tantras
of that class, and. whereas the whole setting of the Yoga Tantras accords with
their story, the setting of Supreme Yoga Tantras scarcely accords at all.
Such haphazard attempts at bringing the tantras illlide the Buddhist
tradition, which had continued tocenter around Saltyamuni Buddha, however
many other Buddha· and Bodhi:u.ttva•namcs had been introducl!d during the
more conventional MahAylna period, tend to emphasize the extraneous nature
of much tantric teaching. However, in 10 far as this last Indian Buddhist phaaeii
8 For the physical body(~li)'a) and the mind-made body (manoma)'llM)'O) we p. 115.
~ Thu, begin both d~ Gvhyasamo.jaand the lfftJlljra Ta11tro.s, both llYllilablein thrir BuddhiM
Sanskrit edl1ions. In my tranalaU<lG of the H•w,j~ Tantf'C I have tended 10 glOlt ova- such ima~.
aa indttd so of~n do the Tibrra.».
10 S« L. de la Valltt Pousiin. &'/Uldhimu, iituleJ et m.o.tmawc, pp. H-5-~.
ii S« mKh•·BTVb·rje, op. ciJ. • pp. S6·9.
122 UJ. TANTlUC BUDDHISM
known as the System of Formulas (Mantronaya) and is envisaged together with·.
the System of Perfections (.P4ramitana,a) as an acceptable part of Mahayana
practice, there need be no bttak in the Buddhiat tradition, which as - have .
noted before, continued to develop agaimt a more general Indian (Hindu) ·
background of religious beliefs and practices. Aa protective formulaa or -:
talwnanic worda, mantras occur in the Theravadin canon, where their :
appearance bas probably been reduced to a minimum. It ia likely that the
Mahas~ghikas who 5Cparated from the TheravMiins at an early date, included ·
in their collection of scriptures a special section devoted to formulas of one kind .
or another. 12 There is no lack of them in MahAyma llltras, where they are •
usually bestowed upon the faithful by wc:ll•dispmed diviniriea as protective spell,. ·
The Xarur,i,IJpu'!,<µirtlta Stitra contains as its second chapter a whole coUection of
such formulas liated as "baaes £or confidel)ce" (adhimuktipada,ri) in the ·
acquisition of the various accomplishmenta demanded of a Bodhisattva, the four .::
applications of mindfuloet5, the four determined efforts, the four magical ;
powers, etc. 13 They are known in this text u dh~. which should properly -~
refer to a short mnemonic suing of words, holding (the term derives from a ·:
Sanskrit root meaning "to hold") the meaning succinctly of an intention which in \
normal speech would need to be much more prolix. Mantra is a more general )
term, comprising a vast range of ejaculations of a for.ed traditional form, ·::
achieving their powerful effect within the context of a strictly controlled ritual :
mage. 1• Tho.e easiest to explain are thole which a:re clearly translatable, such u :':
O>ti VAJJlATMAKO 'HAM = ''I am verily adamantine," but it must be conceded. ;:
that even when the words themaelvn arc normally intelligible, such a mantra '.{
can have no essential meaning outside the prescribed ritual. Thus normal ·
intelligibility ii of secondary concern. What is primary is the spontaneous '
significance of a particular mantra to those who have been initiated into iu ·
proper use. Thus not only can the various stages of a ritual be induced to occur :·',
actually by thoee taking part in accordance with the appropriate mantras, but / ;
one who knows the mantras can enact the same ritual mentally, usually to the ::'
accompaniment of traditionally fixed hand-geaturea ( mudrci). u
We have already mentioned the distinction that is drawn between mundane ·
and supramundane powers, viz. thoee concerned with protection or penonal ::
benefit of one kind or another in this world, and those concerned with thr ·•
progrete toward enlightenment. The use of mantru for bo<h purposes is very ,
ancient in India, going back to Vedic times, but while Sakyamuni and his early ;.
followers may well have accepted their use for the benefit of the faithful in this \
life, their use for a higher religious purpose would have been contrary to tbe ·~
II S.,,, l~ dr la Va~ Po<*ln, 0/J,cil .• pp. 58, 67.
1s ~ Yamad.a'sedition, London. 1968, pp. 14-~. and also lhe Ap~ndu to hill Vnlumr I.
I• o~ should refer to ,tic, excellent <"bap<tton "Mantras" in Agehananda Bbarati's 7'M 1'ontric.•
T~tiditi1n1,pp. 101-65.
JS Exampla of mamras and mudTil convmicndy arrangN in parallel llrill be found in Stephan· ·
Be)<er,Th• Cwll ofTiiril., pp. HSff., and altoinJeffrey Hopkin'&Th, Yoga ofTibd, pp. 77ff.
UJ.I Con-r1ections
with the Conventional Maho:yima 125
whole tenor of Buddhist doctrine, in ao far as its practice was baaed upon a strict
moral code (Jlla), mental composure (samadhi) and wisdom (/)TtlJ'if.4),involving
a kind of analytical knowledge of the whole nature of e.xi.tence according 10 the
theory of elements (dharmas). This rationalizing approach toward the solution
of the Plf'teries of exi,tence (sarpsira) was continued right through the Mahl·
ytna period by the followers of the Mind Only school, who elaborated, as we
have already seen, an even more complex theory of elements, while accepting
the rnain thems repeated interminably in the Perfection of Wisdom literatun
and elaborated by Nagarjuna and his school, that there is no essential difference
between sa~stra and nirvaa,a, in that both are void (ltlnya) in their self-nature,
which becomes therefore an absence of self-nature. We have already commented
upon the remarkable fact that this thesia, which reduces everything to a state of
universal relatlvicy, was accompanied by a doctrine that promoted the long
career of the aclf,sacrificing Bodhisattva, who striva over aeons of rime through
innumerable rebinh& toward the 5tatc of final buddhabood, which the be5t of his
aott never enter in so far as they continue to preocC\lpy themaelves with .helping
othCTStoward the objective, which is equally well dcacribed as a nonobjective.
The career of the Bodhilattva remains certainly one of the nobleat religious
aspiratiom of mankind. It was vociferously proclaimed as such, as well as taken
up in al111Crioumeasby dWK later followeri; of Saltyamuni in whom the Thought
of Enlightenment ( bod/aicitta) became active. At the same time it is easily under-
itandable that such a doctrine of universal relativity should open the way to le55
arduous methods of achieving enlightenment. The question may well be p01ed,
what is the essential difference betw~n achieving enlightenment in the present
life and that of achieving it after innumerable rebirths, all of which in their aeJf.
nature are essentially void? The whole notion of progress in the religious life is
entirely relative to any result achieved, and progresuve met~ may be quick or
slow, depending upon the aptitude of the practitioner. Moreo~r. since there is
no difference between saqisara and nirval'.la in any ultimate sense, between the
state of ignorance and the state of knowledge, where lies the difference except in
the conviction of enlightenment achieved by a kind of psychophysical switch
applied to one's whole being? It was never doubted that the training of the whole
person, envisaged under the traditional trilogy of body, speech and mind, was
necessary in order to achieve the desired state of enlightenment or "release" or
whatever term might be used in yogic circles, but the kind of training to be used
was by now an open question these thousand years and more after Sakyamuni
had firat preached bis doctrine. It was already agreed by the majority of those
who considered themselves his faithful followers that he had taught various
doctrine. to suit the aptitudes of potential converts by turning the Wheel orthe
D<_>arinethree times, and were there not other theories and practicet1 which
might with equal justification be acceptable, if they were only proved valid by
the results achieved? There was at the same time no need for Buddhists to invent
-: ~- theories and experiment with new pr.actices, as themewere already available
\ in the general Indian (Hindu) religious life, in which Sakyamuni's first teachings
124 111. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
had their origins and where the Buddhist Doctrine had continued to develop
and enrich itself. It sqarated itself from the rdigious life around only in so far aa
its followers might ho)d fast to certain essential teachings and practices, e.g., the
doctrine of "no self," of rebirth and of salvation from rebirth, the practice of
celibacy and a rqulated monastic discipline, and the continuance of a doctrinal
tradition that would clarify the ~eniial differences between Buddhism as a ~If.
contained religion and the many other forms of religion in India going under the
more or less general name of Hinduism.
All these distinctive featurn continue, and Buddhism in India clearly remaina
a separate religion right up to its last days in the land of its origin, but this does
not mean that it was not at the .ame time open all the time to influences from .
the more general Hindu religious world. The Mahlylna teachings concerning :·;
the career of the Bodhisattva continued to uphold the desirability of monastic ._;
life under the traditional forms of religious discipline (unaya), and it is signifi- ·
cant that it is precisely this traditional form of Buddhism that became the basis
of the new religion in Tibet and indeed of the whole of Tibetan society until the
mid-twentieth century. At the same time the Mah~yana clearly taught that
layfolk were no longer to be regarded at bctt as the meritorious supporters of the
monks, thereby merely gaining for themselves a better state of rebirth in another
life. It was rcc:ognited that they could be the equal of the monks in their religious
striving toward enlightenment, and it was largely a matter of pct10na1 decision.
baaed upon the circumatanc:e5 of life whether one might be layman or monk. ·
The practice of yoga was an essential part of Indian religious life, accepted as a
mauer of course by all Buddhists, and much of it could be practiced as well by
married laymen as by celibate monb. So much has been wriuen about yo~,
that a short quotation should be sufficient to assist any reader who rcmams
vague about what is meant by the term.
Yoga finds its classical expression in the Sl\tras of Patanjali, written aome· .
where between A.O. 300 and 500. The author wai a compiler, a systematizer, . ·
ra,ther than an original thinker. While the Sutras may be intere1ned in .
speculation as such, still, they arc based upon methods of act_ion,d~iplined .
actions, with their concomitant supernatural powers assooatcd WJth self- .'
hypno<ism and the like. The superior powen1 of the Yogi arc ~mply. those of :_ , this world.
attaining the highest goal, release; such powers as such being viewed as ..
unwonhy of tbe muggle.
The aims of Yoga, in Patai'ijaJi'1 sense, may be spoken of as controls of
various kinds, a graded series of disciplines, directed towards steadying the /
mind; gradually advancing stages of rigid control of body and ~~; the ·'
1toppage of all movement and all thought - that the soul be absorbed in 1~elf,
loosing the sense -of duality, of subject and object; immediate perception; ·
ultimately, prolonged, fi:itedattention to the point where the mental proceaecs
are stopped absolutely. . ··
But there is ancillary to the mental discipline, a long period of preparatory .•
action, organized according to a well-<kvcloped, progressive plan. In the ·
preliminary atagC$of the preparation for the fixing of the attention, there arc
ll(.I Connections with th, Convmtional Maha,ana 125
purifying processes to be carried out, fint with stress laid upon external
means, then, after thcse have been mastered, with recourse to the internal
controls."
It is not without 5ignificance that whereas the early Buddhiat literature refers to
serioua practitioners u b/t~w or arltats and the Mahlytna literature refers to
them as bodltisattvo.s,already in the later Mahtyana literature the tenn ,ogin
makes ita appearance, and from now on is used ever more frequently,
embracing. as it docs, monks as well as laymen. We find it already in the Ratna-
gotravibhaga, from which quotations have been taken in the previow chapter:
Without beginning, middle or end, indivisible, nondual,
Thrice liberated (from emotional disturbance, defective knowledge and
faulty meditation), pure and nondiscriminating,
Such is the 1elf•nature of the tlhanna-aphere as yogina &tt it,
who are self-collectedly intent upon it.
It is the pure sphere of the Buddhaa, replete with inconceivable and
peerle111 virtue,. more numerous than the 1ands of innumerable Ganges
Rivers, and where all pollution and evil are rcmoved. 1'
The alternative name "Yoga-Practice" (Yogdcara) used for the Mind Only
school emphasizes the £act that it wu only by the practice of suitable yoga that
the nceeasary "reversal" could be achieffd, and thus defiled mind be recognized
for what it essentially is, namely mind in iu pure ,tare. Also as we have already
noted, a necessary corollary of this is the assertion that all living beings are
essentially of Buddha-nature , if only chey know it. These perfectly orthodox
Buddhist teaching& provide the philoeophical buis for all tantric theory and
practice; on this point the Hevajra Tantra is quite explicit.
The six facultiea of sen1e, their 1ix spherea of operation, the five s/randhas and
the five elenttnts are pure in etecnce, but they are obstructed by ignorance
and emotional disturbance (kk.fa). Their purification consists in $Clf-
expcrien~, and by no other means of purification may one be released. Tbif
self-experiencing, this supreme bliu, ariaea from the pure condition of the
sense-spheres. Form and so on, and whatever other sense-spheres there arc, all
these appear to the yogin in their purified condition, for of Buddha-nature is
Such ia the basic theory as found -in Mind Only teachings and throughout the
tantras. But there is also agreement about the basic theory on which the actual
religious practice must be based. This too ia stated clearly in the H•V4jM Tantm:
Those thing& by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain
thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world is bound, by
'.6 O~ uf 1be bcal brirf cletcripti0111of yoga that I have cocne Up0ft ii to be fo..nd in G. W.
Bngp, Goraklnalll and //if KtmJ>ltata Yogis, pp. %58·74.The puage quoied bett ia talu!n fHllll
p.%65.
17
Sanskrit texr, ed. by£. H. Johnawn, p. 85, JI. mr. In his o-aoslacion(p. 5%5)Taltaakl
transl:a1es141inchaa ''Saints.·· For its~ by ~deva, aee p. 88 above.
126 JU. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhisu this practice of reveraals is
notknown. 18
It is seldom realized that precisely the same doctrine has already been aucrtcd in
Asanga'a Maha_)l(inasutrdlaf7ika"a ("Adornment of Mahayana Su.mu"), from
which quotations were drawn in the last chapter to illuatrate Mind Only
teachings.
Now come three verses concerning extrication from the emotions (llda)
by means of the emotions:
There is no element ( tlhamw) apart from the elemental ,phere ( dhamaa·
dhtltu),
So passion, etc. (viz., wrath and delusion) ser~ as their own extrication
in the opinion of the Buddha, .
Commentary: As the Lord has said: "I say that there is no extrication from
paslion other than by meaN of passion." lt ~ the s~ in the case of ~ath
and delusion. Here he reveals the actual meuung (obhua'7'dhi). As there JS no
element apan from the elemental sphere, so there is no essential truth (or
elemental essence, dharmatti) apan from the elemenu. Therefore the
essential truth of passion, etc. (which ia their purification) receives the
conn&tation of passion, etc., and it is this which serves as the extrication from
pa11ionetc.
There ii no element apart from the elemental sphere; such is the actual
meaning accepted by the wi~ conc:emingemotional disturbance (sa,p.lle.sa).
Commentary: As bas been taught: "Delusion and enlightenment are one and
the 1amc. So the actual meaning is the 1ame in the matter of emotional
disturbance on the uaumption that delusion is the euential ttuth of
enlightenment.
In that one has recourse to them, passion and the re-t, at the eourc:e(yo~~)
One is released by their means; thus they are their own extrication.
Commentary: Having recourse to them, paaion and the others, at the source,
they are tht".reby recognized and this is their release. Such i& the actual
meaning .19
ThiJ ~t. of which the verses are aupposedly dictated by the Bodhisauva
Maitreya and the prose commentary, which aeldom adds much to the meaning, ·
is the work of Aaanga, is by no means easy of interpretation. Thus one could ·1
debate the meanings to be given to the terms dlaanna, dfaa'lfflO•dhlitu (dlaarmo - :
sphere) and dharnaata (essential truth) in the present context, but even so the ~.
intended meaning would seem to remain quite cle.u-. The word translated as ;
"source" in the last of the three verses is prope,-ly the word for "vagina," which .:
may well be an intentional aecond meaning. The renowned Indian scholar, :
Benyotosh Bhattacharyya, to whom all of us who write about ta~tras must .:
remain indebted, a8$Crta in his introduction to the Gula,asamliJa Tantra ::
1s H.T. l.ix.2-Sand 11.ii.!>O-J.
19 Ch . Xlll, vv. 11·15 with ~ntary; Sanskrit iext p. 87; French uu,$1ation pp. 156-7.
m.1 Connections with the C<mV4ntionalMali"J(llla 127
(published at the Oriental Institute, Baroda in 1931) that its author is no less a
person than Asauga, whom he dates to the third century, thus making the
formal appearance of ta.ntric teachings much earlier than othen would accq,t.
. The attribution to Asanga of this pankular te:,n is rash, as is also hil auenion
·,, that it is the fir&t tantra to a~ar. but his intuition may not go far astray. It is by
no means improbable that already by the frfth century when Asanga was
writing, these techniques of sexual yoga were being used in reputable Buddhist
circles, and that Asanga himself accepted such a practice u valid. The natural
power of the breath, inhaling and exhaling, was certainly accepted aa an
essential force to be controlled in Buddhist as well as Hindu yoga. Why therefore
not the natural power of the sexual force? There need be nothing 1urpriaing
about thia at all. Sexual relationship had long since been ritualized (see the
Brhad•IJrat_iyalia Upa,nz",atl,Vl.4) as a form of yoga, and within the te11I11 of
Mahayana theories, there need be no objection to it by Buddhist yogim. That it
was unsuitable for celibate monks gOC1without saying, but Asanga was not
writing only for these . There happens to be a pusage in Aaataga'aMah4Y4na·
10trt1la'7'14ra,which refers specifically to copulation (mau/auna) in a list of
"reversals," and within this context it can scarcely refer otherwiee than to the
deliberate retension of seffl.ffl flin1e, for thi$ was certainly accepted Buddhist
tantric practice.to Since it may be miJleading to quote one verse out of context, I
give in translation the whole aet of verses dealing with the subject of reversal
(pa,mvrttt)." Once it is CJtablished that aexual yoga was already regarded by
Asanga as an acceptable yogic practice, it become. far easier to understand how
tantric treatises, despite their apparent contradiction of previous Buddhist
teaching,, were 80 readily canonized in the following centuries.
l'he self-control of the Early Di.liciplcasurpastc1 that of a worldly person,
but this disposition of an Early Disciple is surpaued by the Lone
Buddhas. [88]
However this does not approaC'.heven fractionally the self-control of a
Bodhisattva . h does not approach even fractionally the self-control
of the Tathagatas . [59]
i The self-control of the Buddhas is said to be immeaaurable and inconceivable
with regard to the person involved , the place, the manner and the
occaaion. {40]
Supreme aclf-control is achieved ,in the reversal of the five sense-organs
with regard to the univenal operation of all of them, associated with
the manifestation oftwelve hundred good qualitiet. (41]
Sup~e self-control is achieved in the reversal of mental activity
with the consequent self-control with regard to knowledge which ia
to ShuhibhUA_n Ougu~ta Men to thls ~ In his Obscur# Religiow Cults, pp. 17-18 and
%SI,accepdng It 1n i1:1ohvsoua RUIC, • J do. It i, arange that Bhatucharyya hiamlf in his "Notes
and the age of tile Tantras," lndilln Historical ~U411erly,vol. IX
on 1hr Guo\)111Sa111194-Ta11t1'd
(19"). pp, HO, attempts todmarnweat the true meaning. However, in tbisanide he rctreatl from
the rub viCMabout the authorship ol the Gu/iyasam4,il T<ffltni ~(erred to above,
tt Conc:cming ff"ttaal in a more general philOIOpbic:al-. -, secuon 11.4 .c and Index.
 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
128
free of discriminating thought and thus totally immaculate. (42]
Supreme self-control is achieved in the reversal of appcara_nces and .
their (imagined) significance in a (Buddba -)reahn that 1sthus punfied
forthe blissful vision just as de~red. {4S] . . .
Supreme self-control is achieved m the reversal of dilcrlminanng thought
resulting in the nonobstruction at all times of all knowledge and acu. {44}
Supreme self-control is obtained in the reversal of substra!a . Brahma, ~iva ( = Rudra) and V~l}U is equated with the triple Vajra of Body,
resulting in that imperturbable state of the Buddhas, mna17-aWl.thout
any substratum. {45] . evils-Delusion, Passion, Wrath .is
Supreme self-control is obtained in the reversal of aexu~l.mtercow;ae
in the blissful Buddha -poiiseand the untrammeled v111onof ones
spouse. [46] . .
Supume self-control is obtained in the z:eversalof apanal percep~ns
reaultingin the supc-rnatural production of thought-forms and 1n
material manifeatation in phenomenal 1pheres (gat,). [47)
(In the matter of self-control in the re~nal of spatial pcrc:eptions
the results are two: the supernatural production of thought-fonns
whereby one becomesof the very e811Cl1Ce of apace (gagonagarbho) and
material manifestations in phenomenal sphera because one moves as
one pletiCS and because of one's control over space.)
Thus with regard to this immcaturable and ~pn:me (power of) reveraal
this self-control is said to be immeasurable tn the immaculate state
of the Buddhu aince (great) acts are perfonned spontaneously (lit.
without mental reflection). (48] 12
There need be little doubt over the meaning of these verses. The return to the
phenomenal world (veISC 47) after experiencing the ~blissful Buddha-poiae"
(verse 46) corresponds with the arrangement of the tantnc itateS of Symbols and
Joys, which ii; explained on p. 266 below.
2. THE VAJRAYANA AS A NEW AND DISTINCT "WAY"
Buddhist tantric scholars arc aware o{ a seeming similarity between the goaf of
the Void (Junyata), recognii.ed as an "adamantine state" (vojra), and the goal of ..•
Hiodu yogins, which is the nonmanifest (a~kta) st~te °!'
Brahman: but ~or . ·.
them the et1ential difference would seem to eiwt prec1SClym the manifestation
of the Buddha-form.1, Whether many of the tantrk yogins who pursued their
practice within what they might claim as a Buddhist context were always aware
of such a distinction may perhaps be doubted. When they uaed non-Buddhist
vocabulary, many mull have operated in non-Buddhist thought-forms. In the
n For the Sanskrit reat Stt Sylvain Uvi'• edition of A.a6ga1 Ma/so:,lil1111.1titnil""'4cira
, IX, 58-48 ·.
(pp. 40-2) and (or bis French translation set: vol. II, pp. 80-S. 1 haw tran&lauodonly the an.ual ~ma :·.
eiccept (or vcne 47, wbtre the cornrMntary is also included. E'lolewbere~ conunecr'l' maely ;.
repeau the contests of tbt verws and scarcely aaisu with elucidating the ~a1nng.
n A ohort work entitled S.~ya (Ad1111:y,uoj,IIS01llgl'OM.pp. 28-31) <kals with !his mattC'I',
usingIII argutlM!DI aeveral quotations from noo -Buddhiat sourca. Al6oaec p. 200.
111.2 129
H,wfra Tantra. the state of enlightenment is acclaimed m Hindu as well a,
Buddhist terms: "Brahma bccaU&COM is quenched and enlightened, V~1.1u
because one ia all-pervading. Siva becawe one is alwaya propitiou,, Sarva
(Universal) because one abides in everything, Tattva (Q.uiddity) on account of
the real blilS, and Vibuddha (Fully Awake) because of the awareness of such
happiness ...,. In one passage in the Gukyaso.mJJja Tantra the Hindu trinity of
Spe!'ech and Mind and represented as the "purifiers" of the three basic
Then Vajrap~. Lord of all the Buddhaa, bTought forth the Pledge (samaya)
of Bnhml from bis own Vajra Body, Speech and Mind:
Whatever actions one performs, fearful and terrible , in the way of Delusion,
being conducive to the enlightenment of a Buddha, it iaeuentially
Vajra-Body.
Then he brought forth likewise the Pledge of Rudra:
One should make love to all women in their VaTiouamode, of existence,
regardeda.sthe triple Vajra, throughout the thredold world.
This is the most wonderful pledge(relative to Passion).
Then he brought forth likewile the Pledge of V~9u (relative to Wrath):
All thoae conceived as living beings, existing indistinguishably
in the Three Bodies,
And even the Vajra apace-sphere itself, one should slay with the
Vajra of meditation.
Then he brought forth likewisefrom bis own Vajra Body, Speech and Mind
this PJcdge of the Triple Vajra:
The Vajra of Body is Brahrnl. The Vajra of Speech is Mahcivara (Siva).
The Holder of the Vajra of Mind, the King, is V~l}Uof great magical power. 26 •
We have noticed above that the followers of the Mind Only school were
sometimes accmed of being Buddhiat Brahmina, and it might appear that this
process is carried even further in some tantric circles, despite the continuing
appeal to the notion of the Void ( iunyatd ).
However, it is with the adoption of the term VO.JTO (adaman~) for the
absolute state, as explained above, that tantric Buddhism becomes a separate
"Way " (ydna). as distinguishable from the Mahlyh1a as this is distinguishable
from the so-called Hinayana . Mantrayana, the earlier alternative name for
Vajraylna, continues to suggest doter links with traditional Mahlylna practice
than fits the cue, as the tcnn Vajrayana comes into use, for both the goal
(although some might dispute this)~ and certainly the means employed to reach
M H.T.1,U-14.
2.\ As will be noted below in section Ill. I I, thcv chn-e ··evils'"bek>ogto the developed 5et of five.
16 G. S. T . .Bhattacharyya·, ~ .. p. 1%9,II. Sff. On "pen-enc reechinp." ett 1hiuenn in dir lndn.
t7 Stt ·rsong-kha-pa, Tafltta it1 Til>~I. translated and edited by Jeffrey HopkiN. 1977. fM such a
. refutatio», ahbc>ugbit isconceded that: "In some scripwn-, Buddhahood and Vajradharabood &ttm
to be difforcnt . aQ()thus some have thought that the fruitJ of the two vehicles musr be diffettnt and
that Vajradhara hood ia higher than Buddhahood." This "unresolvtd matter .. could only be settkd
130 JU. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
it, are no longer the samt'. The followers of the Mahtylna had advanced from
the earlier goal of nirvaQa as achieved by an Arhat to the goal of enlightenment
as achieved by a Buddha. The followera of the Vajraytna in their turn direct
their energies toward a state of enlightenment (for this term is still used) which is
also referred to as Great Bliss (ma/aasukha) and as the sphere of Vajrasattva
(" Adamantine Being"), while those who achieve it are known as "gttat adepts"
(malaiiJiddha). Although it may be shown that many of the roots of the Vajra-
yana were already present in the MahlyAna, just as those of the Mahlylna were
in the Hlnayana, the differences between the VajrayAna and the earlier fonns of
Buddhism are extreme. The main difference derives from the Vajrayana use of
incantation and ritual as meana toward the ultimate goal, whereas in the earlier
phases of Buddhism their use was largely peripheral. By their means one gains
power over beings in other spheres of existence, either dominating them, so that
th~ may do one's will, or identifying oneself with them, so that one may enjoy
their higher states of existence. It is unfortunate that Sanskrit and Tibetan
terminology used of such practices often ha, no adequate equivalent in modern
European languages, thus making the task of writing about them especially
difficult. The word "adept" (from Latin ad.q,tus, "attained") translates fairly
well the Sanskrit term siddh4, which is the perfect participle of the root .sitlh,
meaning "to succeed" or "to be accompli5hed." However, it has $eVeral other
derivatives, which are not so easily equated in English. Thu.a the particular
succeu that is achieved is known as a siddhi, and in our present context this must
be understood as a supramundane or a magical power. "Succeu'' or "accom•
plishment," which might otherwise be legitimate translatiom. are quite
inadequate for us. Also connected with the root sidh is the term s4dhana,
meaning the act or the means of being successful, and this comes to mean in our
context the ritu·al of incantation or evocation, or whatever particular means may
be employed to win over the chosen divinity. Whatever form of translation is
used, one inevitably influences an unwary reader into a particular understanding
of she term that is only partially valid. and there is no solution to this problem.
The problem is made even more difficult because we now have with us a young
generation of Western Buddhiats, much attracted by the Tibetan ·form of this
great religion, who object to the most natural translations because they suggest
tru? kinds of superstitious and magical practkcs such as were prevalent in our
own "unenlightened" Middle Ages. Yet the resemblance between much of that
superstition and magic with tantric rites aiming at magical powers of a mundane
kind cannot be denied. Wherein then 'lies the difference? The difference is well
iJJuttrated by the formal pJQSCribing by the Christian Church of all such
practices as contrasted with the general Indian acceptance of them as means
rxperimf!Qtally by 011r who had athie,,ed enlightenmfflt by the ~tional method, of d~ ~ah•
y.lna (vii .. punuing thr careff of a llodhisa1111athrough aeons of umr) and as a aepua~ ~erCM. hy
tantrk methods la a single lifetime. and who is then available to accept t~ e~«? Onr
appn,ciatcs, however, that the identity of the two goals most~ a.,arrtl!d dogmaucally 1n ord«:1'10
maintain thr unity of the whole Mahayina tradition.
lH.2 The Vajro;yana 0.1 a New a,ld Dislim;J "'W"y" 131
~hat might be used. to a hi~~r purposc.' 8 However, the higher purpose still
~volv~ the same lund of rehgiou, and cenainly credulous (if not superstitious)
d11~u'.on o~ the part of the ~ractitioner. It would be useless to invoke any form
of d1V1n1ty,_
ht~her or lower, wJthout believing in such a being. The high point of
any_~uch rate 11 t~e de,cent of the actual divinity (known II! the "wisdom-being''
or .J1t4na.sattva)mt? the symbol of the divinity (the "sacramental being" or
Jllmaya.sattva), wh1ch baa been prepared for this mystical (or magical)
conjunction. The pra(.·titioner is certainly taught that the divine form&are also
emanatioll5 of his own mind, but they are not arbitrary imaginings and they are
far more real than his own cransitory personality, which is a mere flow, as we
h~ve seen, of nonsubsta~tial elements. In learning to produce mentally such
bigbe_r_fomu of emanation and eventually identifying himself with them, the
prac:nuon~r gradually ~ra~sforrn5. his evanescent penonality into that higher
state of bcmg. Thua behef m them IS NSential; otherwise the means by which one
would progress dissolve before the desired "success" (.fiddhi) is achieved.
The highC;'t state of all, in which all Buddha-emanations ultimately diuoJve
and yet contmually reemerge. is the Adamantine Being ( Yajrasatt1,l(J} and thus it
is ~fined as Vafra, meaning diamond or thunderbolt. Aa the weapon of tht-
Vecbc god, lndra. transferred to the yak,a (local divinity) who acts as CJCOrt to
Stkyam~i in the ear~ier Budd~ist period, "thunderbolt" might suggeat itself u
a convenient tramlauon. Precaaely as the wielder of this weapon this chief of
ya~as, known as Vajrapai,j (Thunderbolt-in-Hand), appears as chief of
Bodhisattvaa_ in several tantras, for he has become the holder of the supreme
5ymbol of thlS whole latter phase of Buddhism. Thus, as we shall see, he is also
referred to as Jlafradhara (Thunderbolt -Holder) and with this name becomes
the supreme Buddha of tantric traditions. He may also be acclaimed as Vafra·
sattva (~hunderbol~-Being), but this is more logically underatood as a gt!neral
appcl~auon of the _highest state of tantric being, a term formed on the analogy of
&dlusaU11a (Enlightenment Being). However, despite the a11110Ciation with
lndra's thu~derbolt, and the same instrument that Vajrapai;ii as chief ofyakµzs
does_not hesitate to use against the enemies of the doctrine, the term "diamond"
(dcnv~d from Greek adama.s, "unyielding," hence the adjective "adamantine"),
refernng ~ the hardest, ~ost preci~us and translucent of minerals. is probably
t~ most suitable tramlataon. The Tibetans translated uajra.as rDo-?je, meaning
hte~lly "lord of stones," a deliberately invented term, so that they used neither
their term for thunderbolt (gnam-lcags, literally "sky-iron") nor diamond
(pha-lam). It is by the use of such specially coined terms that the precise
Bu~hist meaning of the Sanskrit word is so accurately rendered in their tran.,,
lauons. The best alternative for w ii to use the Sanskrit term, in order to avoid
am_biguityo~ meaning. The vajra as an ill5U'Ument plays an e11ential part in all
VaJrayana ntual, where it is wed in conjunction with a bell, of which the handle
n l_ntcr.sling parallels c:an be drawn beuvec:: d~ mote tt"aditional Mahayana practice and ctttain
Chrl&t.t~nforms of dievodon. A particularly goo :I example of a "mantra" as a prayCT formula may b~
found in A Tr<1asuryoJRw.<iart. Spirituality, ed. by G . P. Fedo<ov(Loodon, 1952), pp. 280-!145.
 lll. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
152
in half-vajra (Pl. 20b). Treated thus as a form of duality, the vajra represen~ the
• prtnctp
• • J.a
acuve .. , th-" m.aam
... toward enlightenment and the means of converslon, .
thus the actual Buddha-manifestation, while the ~11 repr~ts the Perfecnon
of Wisdom, known as ihe Void (sun,ata). In the state of union. however, the
· h ds both these coeffidenta of enlightenment ( bodlu), the means
vaJra compre en . ·
and the wisdom. We have here the Buddhist version of the lnd1an concept~on:
manifest and unmani£C$t Brahman, as expreued in the Hindu tanttas m e
form• of Siva and Sakti , but a, is now generally realized, the male and f~a~e
roesI a re rcverscd.2' For the Buddhists wisdom, rather
th
like Sancta Sophia tn
, · · ·I·
Christian tradition, is regarded as feminine, and e acuve s~vmg pr~~cip e 11
male. Jn Hinduism the feminine Suri inherits the age-old Indian tradiuo~ of a
productive mother of all creatures, and thus the corresponding role of blitsful
quiescence devolves upon Siva aa the lord of yogins. Despite the_revenal of rol~
the use of sexual symbolism is developed in Buddhist tantra• qwte as much u 1n
Hindu ones. Thwi vajra refers allo to the mde organ, and bell (as well as lotus·
flower) to the female one. Continuing the analogy of the eexual act, the drop
( bindu) of s•men virile with which the disciple is consecrated i~ the Secret
Consecration (gulay4bhifelca) ttpretcnta the Though~ of Enbg~cenmcot.
Comecratiom will be descri~d in more detail below, but It may he of interest to
quo~ from the opening chapter of the tantra which if known precisely as the
"Secret Union" (Guhyasamafa). Such opening chapters regularly set the stage, as
it were, for the following discouna, with a deecription _oft~ entour~e of the
presiding Buddha and a demonstration by him of b11 untversal nuraculous
powers.
Then the Lord Buddha, Vajra Thought of Enlightenment, relapsed into that
state of composure known as Vajra Subjugation of All Buddha,, and
immediately the Lord, foremoat (adhipatt) of All Buddhas, was thus com·
posed, the whole realm of space became established in the Vajra nature of All
Buddhas, and all living beings throughout the whole realm of spa~e
experienced the bliss and t~e harpine~ of ~I Buddhas as a result of their
empowerment (adhifthdna) m Vava-Bemg (vaJ~ttw). . .
Then the Lord Buddha, Vajra Thought of Enlightenment, relaJ>llng mto
that atate of comp 01 ure known as Vajra Source of the Sacramental Pledge
(samaya) of the Vajra of Body, Speech and Mind of All the B~ddhas,
bestowed the divine favor of the mantra of All Buddhas, which embodia theae
persons of great miraculous power. As soon as he thus bestowed it, he himself,
the Lord Buddha, Vajra Thought of Enlightenment, was seen by all the
Budd.has as posseued of three faces, while the Buddha Imperturbable
(Akfobhya) and the ocher Buddhas (of the ma~la) _emer~d from the bean
of the Great Reepleudent One (Mahavairocana) mtomng th• verse.
r
211Followin lhe Hindu u:nnmologyfor t!M:feminine panner, aome wriU!rs.
B=t
'bk fo~ the idemifw:ation of Buddhist images in our. m~,
~·=
<:~unue to ~er 10 t_M
feminine pa.nner aa !4/eti. The normal Buddhist tmn is Jml,TM( : wisdom). but m F.ng&'h
"female partner'· is an adequate rendering.
lfl .2 The Vajrayi:maasaNewand Distinct "Way"
Ohol this emerging of the Thought of Enlightenment of All Buddhas,
This All Tathagata Secret, inexpressible and groundless.
Then all the Lord Buddhas united u one and, worshipping the Lord Thought
of Enlightenment with showers (literally: clouds) of gems, being the quiddity
(tatttG) of the out-spreading sacramental pledge (sam.aya) of All Buddha
f worship, they approached him and said:
; 0 Lordi Tell us of that quiddity comprised of the Vajra essence,
The AU TathAgata Secret, that Unity of secret origin. 50
Everysuch extract from these texts requires commentarial exegC$isin order to
be fully comprehensible, but in so far u our main purpoae at preeent is to
illustrate the term vafra as representing the Buddhist tantric absolute, we can
make do here with a minimum. The primary emanation of cosmic Buddhaa
(referred to in the requisite mantta as "pers,>ns of great miraculous power")"
takes the usual fivefold form, which will be deKribed lattt on, but they are all
subsumed in this Tantra by a single unity of buddhahood, referred to as Vajra-
Being (vafrasattva), as Great Resplendent One and as Vajra Thought of
Enlightenment. These are titles rather than names that can be applied icono-
graphically, but more will be said concerning the Resplendent One (Vairocana)
in due course,
The symbolic significance of the vajra as an instrument is described in a short
exegetic work of Advayavajra:~
The vajra is twelve finger -1pam in length became it eliminates the twelvefold
causal nexwi. The syllable HO?:fon rhe rounded middle-part indicates the .
unsurpassable essential truth (dharmatd): H repreaenring freedom from
cauality (h.tu), 0 representing freedom from argumentation (ilAa) and¥ the
groundlessness of all dharma.s.The five points that emerge (at each end of the
vajra) from the lotus-flower source of existence (its middle part) repre.ent the
Sages (mum) as fivefold since by emerging in bodily form they eliminate the
five aggregates of personality. Four of them face in toward the center one,
indicating that body and· the rest (viz., fttlings, perceptions and impula~)
depend upon conrciousnca. Furthermore, they all have four sides in order to
indicate their universality. Then men of wisdom who understand the Vajra-
dhanna, having attained to the fivefold form of salvation, spread out in a
form that causes the syllable HO¥ to resound. ss On all &idesthere are trifoliate
patterns indicating Voidness, Signleesness and Effonlc.snCM. That such is the
nature of the Five Wisdoms, namely Mirrorlike Wildom, the Wisdom of
" Guhyasllffl4jaTatllra, ~- B. Bbattacharyya, p. 5, U.15ff. I am graceful to J.'ranc~ F'remantk
for ~llowingIll~ to make we of hcTgrcady improved edition of chc:Sanskrit 1exi, iwoclua:clwicb an
edlaon of !he Tibetan tranllatioP and a provilional E11gliahvenion. The: acrual beginning o( cbis
tantta leading into dic p1a1n3chere quou:d will be fo1111d in accuoDIll. ll? below.
" The Sanskric term is maltiniidyapur,,qc, and lhett N!'ONIbe no doubt of iu application hen.
including 1'-
n Ad-,..i..jro.,a,1,pgraA.i, p. S7, D. lff. Thc: Tibetan 1ranslarion is in T.T. vol. 68. p. 280·l-7ff.
n Thc:· ~f~enoe is presumably 10 eig~t small looped protrusio111that spread our from the
r~nded middle of tbt: vajra toward the fn-e-pointed head -at each end. Some vajraa haw a nine-
pointed head. cbuacontinuing the eightfold pattern, still with a single point right .it rhe top, to lhe
head of the vajra.
1~4 Ill. TANTRJC BUDDHISM
Sameness, Discriminating Wisdom, Active Wisdom amd. the Wi~om. of the
Pure Abeolute, .all thia muat be learned from one's preceptor. lnd1caung the
indivisibility of wisdom we have this conci~ statement:
Firm, substantial and 50]id, of uncuttable and unbreakable character,
Unburnable, indestructible, the Void is said to be Vajra.
In the H,vajra Tafttra (I.1.4) the vajra is. :.aid to be. unb_reakable. The
bestowal of the Vajra Consecration gives, u at were, an mfUSlonof the seed
which grows into this unbreakable wisdom. 34
The preeminence of the vajra in the last phase of Indian Buddbi~, which
thus gives u, the tenn Vajroya.na, certainly indicates the great difference
between this and the earlier phases, which the term Mantroya.nadoes not, It has
no place in e.arly Buddhist symbolism beside the major symbols of the sacred
u-ee, the wheel and the lotus flower. and as already observed, it appears first in
Buddhist iconography as the we.apon of the chief of ya~a.s in ~ role of Stltya-
muni's personal protector. Jn Mahtyana texts the term ~~ occu~ ~· a
JJ)ODtaneous symbol of hardness without any specifically Buddh11t as&ociauon.
Thus the monk Dharmil.ara, when making his vow to become the Buddha
Amitabba. statei as one o! his self-imposed conditiom:
O Lord, if after obtaining enlightenment, th0&cBod~sattvas who are ~m in
that Buddha-field of mine. do not p<>NeU boddy strength as 1ohd as
N~rayiu;ia's vajra, then may 1 not obtain the highest enlightenment."
Here it is identified with the staff or ac.-eptreof Vit,;iu ( = Nlriyar:aa) and ita
connection with the yaqa Vajrapir,.i who appears quite fttquently in MabiyAna
s'lltras still in the role of personal guardian. ia apparently overlooked.
s. VAJRAPAJ~I (ALIAS VAJRADHAJlA) BECOMES PllEEMINENT
As for Vajrap~ himself, there arc so man! refer~nces to ~m as _amere
guardian that one or two may suffice as illustranon of h11extraordmaz:y rJSC_from
50 lowly a position to one of abllolute preeminence. I conf~ to findang ht~ by
far the most interesting divine being throughout the whole h!Story of B~dd~.
for he has a penonal history and considerable personal character. In his lowlier
stale he is mentioned incidentally in the sutra "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight
Thousand Venes": "Furthermore Vajrapagi, the great yakp, con,tandy folloW$
behind the irreversible Bodhisattva."'" In the "St'Jtra of Golden Light'' he it
referttd to as "great general of the yaqas," where he is one among several, or
S4 The tra1111btioz>follows rhe Tibcum .em.on, whcR'YCr.the Sanskrit is dd"~tivc. "Soli~"
translaia Sanakrit oU&ulh'ya, Iii. "without bola.'' whid, 1be Ttbecan renders 11shavtnf a nonvoid
lnteriM (.l.laonc·stong-nud).
M Sec ,he SulthiwatiVJuha,pp. m-9 (Engliah uandadon). S.,.111lr.rlt p. 56, already qunced ml.lff
fwly in$U:UOD11.S.b.
:Ii See £,dwarrd Coiue, ,f~~111till111nli, p. 126 and Tiu Lorge Siitm of J>#"fut Wisdom. p. S98.
Ul.3 U5
again as "lord of the ya~as," Together with the Four Kings of the Q.uarten OT
with Brahma, acclaimed in this particular coni:ext u lord of the heaven of the
thirty-three gods, he honors the Buddhist religion and protects its supportenY
He receives a rather higher position in Saddharmapu-,µ!.arlka, where he is listed
u one of rhe bodily forms that the Great Bodhisattva Avalokitdvara may adopt
in order to convert living bein81, such .as another Bodhisattva or a Lone Buddhil
(pratyekabudclha). u BrahmA or lndra or a Gandharva (a heavenly musician),
as Mahelvara ( ==Siva), as a univers.al monarch, a, god of we.alth (Kubera), as a
military chief, as a brahman or as Vajrapai;ti. Despite the rather mixed
company. his status is clearly improved." He succeeds in coming to the fore u
leader of one of the two families, those of the Lorus and the Vajra. which are
ranged on either side of Sakyamuni in the ma~4ala descn'bed in the second
chapter of an early tantra entitled "The Fundamental Ordinance of Mai\juirf.''
Hett he is described as "The Noble Vajrap~i. of dark hue like that of a blue
lotw flower, of gracious .appearance, adorned with all his jewelry, waving a
chowry in his right hand, while with his left hand he makes the wrathful gesture
of the Vajra-Fist. He hasasentourage(the godde111CS)
Vajra -Hook, Vajra-Chain,
Strong-Armed, Vajra-Anny and all the mighty ones of magical power, both
male and female, all with suitable dress, accoutennenr.s, postures and
thrones. " 59 Elsewhere in this voluminous text he is known both as Bodhisattva
and as chief of yak1as(or rather guk,akas, a similar class of local divinities ulCd
here 1ynonymouaJy), Another term ueed in that quotation nced1 mention in
passing and that ill vidyd, translated here as "magical power." Vidya me.ans
knowledge, sacred lore and hence power in the semeof magical power. Thus we
have the compound term "holders of magical power" (vr'dy4clhara) and "mighty
onet of magical power'' (vid_yciraja), as in the last quotation. These can he
human or supramundane beings, just as Bodhisattvas can he eithCT. Thus the
term can be a synonym for mahasidd.ha, "gre.at adept" in the sense of highly
perfect yogin. or it can refer to powerful divinities of the kind that one might
expecr to find in Vajrapal)rs foUowing.io In an earlier quotation from the
Guhyasamaja Tantra the five c01mic Buddhas are referred to as "persons of
great magical power" ( mahavid1t1Pu""1tl), being merely an extension of the term
"great person" or "great man" (mah4pvru~) aa applied to Slkyamuni hi~lf.
Having thus made his mark as le.ader of the Vajra Family. VajrapaQi
predominar.es entirely in the great tantra ''Symposium of Truth,'' where the
" Stt R. £. Emroericli, The Sutra ofColdm 1-ighl. pp. '3, 57. 66.
S8 SttH. Kern. Th.i.Ntusojthc Tr114/,au,, p. fll .
. so Stt Ariane Macdonald, u ~tja'4 du llfafljwtlmiuakalpo., p. 109. My translal-i<,odiffer&
•lightly from Mn, bur thui ill a diffkult tu.t. Vajn~i ap~rs m have an entourage of four
goddencs. The oamN are feminiM in Tibcran, as Mme Macdonald point& out, and threr are
feminlnr in Sarukrit, 5() one may assume the fourth should be N well. Corrupciom are rife in tbis
. le.tt. Stt bdow unde-rsection 111.ll for a larger quotation compriains the whole <:ocm,,ctin which
1hescdi,,inities appear .
.o SttJ. Pnyluaki, ~LeaVidywilja," in BEFEO 19". pp. 501-18.
156 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM 111.S
-VajraJ>Of!i
Becomes Preeminent 157

main ma~la consiu.s of the circle of divinities of the Vajra-spbere (mjrc1-
dluuu). More will be written below about Buddha-familm, but it may already
be obeerved that the great interes.t shown by tantric yogins in gaining magical
p~rs. whether aiming at the poneasion of "enlightenment " ( bodlu) or rather
more mundane 1uccesre, (siddlu), results in the predominance of the vajra
symbol, the naming of the whole tantric Buddhiat phateas Vajraylna, and the
creation of a large number of diviniti.es with Vajra names, of whom Vajrap~i
o.luisVajradhara (Vajra-in -Hand or Vajra -Holder , the meiamng is'tbe same) ia
inevitably regarded as chief (Pls. 19, 20(J). 41 Vajrap~i's personal triumph aa a
"mere :,a~a"who ia recognized u a Bodhis;attva, then as the most powerful of all
Bodhiaattvas in that he wields the vajra, and finally hia identity•• Vajra -Being
(mjra.sottm) when he becomes the expression of perfect enlightenment, u
conceived in tantric tradition, is pleuantly illwitrated in this panicubr tantra,
from which I quote a long passage. Part II opens with an invocation of the "Lord
of the Ma9t;lala," aa:laimed as Great Resplendent One (Maba-Vairocana),
Vajradhara, Vajrap~i. altogether one hundred and eight sacred names. But
Vajra.plni himlelf besitaces to subtcribe to it.
Placing his vajra on his hean, he said to aU the Buddha,: "O all you Lord -
Tathagatu , I do not comply ." They said : "O why?," and he replied : "O
Lords, there are evil being,, Mahdvara (Siva) and others, who have not been
converted by all of you Tathigata,. How am I to deal with them?" lo rctpome
the Rcaplendent One (Vairocana) relapsed into the State of comp01ure known
u Wrathful Pledge-Vajra , the gre;atcompusionate means of all the Tathl·
gatas , and enunciated the syllable~- At once there emerged from the vajra
at the heart of Vajrapat;tl the Loni Vajradhara who manifested a variety of
fearful Vajraplni-fonnt . J'C'C.itingthis verse:
Oho! I am the means of conversion, pO!SSCssed of all great means.
Spotless , they all\lme a wrathful appearance 50 that beings may be
converted by these means.
After a further fearful manifestation of Vajraplni. the Lord (Vairocana) un.er1
the spell HUJi1TAKXljJA.1;1,which has the effect of bringing Mahetvara and the
other gods of the threefold world to his pretence . There now follows an
in~ting altercation between Vajrapii,i and ~iva (Mahelvara). 41
Then Vajrapa.~i raised his vajra away from his heart and waving it, he
surveyed the whole circU! of the threefold world to its limits. He spoke: "~.
my friends , to the teaching of all the Tathlgatas. Obey my command!" They
replied : "How ahould we come?' ' Vajrap11µ said: "Havi ng sought proteetion
with the Buddha, the Dharma, the Community, approach, 0 friend•, ,o that
~l One ahowd IIO(ethat in ~,er ~nuic uaditioo as m:el'fted by the TiMta.nt Vajta~
(••
Bod.hiattTa ) and Vajradbua (a, ~preme Buddha) come- tD be deuly di$tinguia~ icono•
pphicaUy , but at thll earlier sca,e !here it oo tueb distmctioo and ,Vajr apal)i is frequendy rckrttd
to u a Tathigata (via., Buddu) .
tt Thr~oot the follo•ing pBAageSiv1 it ttferttd to u Mahdva.ra ( .. Gff•t Lord. vii. Ma/14,,
&illll'CI).aalevaraa~. used u Im name.and• Maudett ( "' o~, God).
you may gain the knowledge of the Omniscient One."
Then Mahideva (Siva). the Loni of the whole tlir~fold world in ·dus
worldly 1phere, proud of hia overlord.ship of the whole thrcdold world
appeared very wrathful and aaid: "Listen you ~. I am Jlvara, Loni of t~
thrttfold world, Creator. Destroyer, Lord of all Spirits, Cod of Cods, Mighty
God. So how ahou.ld I carry out the order of a yo~o?"
Then Vajra~ waved bi& njra once more and gave the command·
"Luten, you evil being, quickly enter the ma~cµla and hold to my pledge!'' ·
Then Mahadeva , the god, addre.ed the Lord (Vairocana): "Who is this
creature of such a kind who gives orders to me, Itvara?"
Then the ..L~rd laid to Mahdvara and the whole haat of gods of the three,.
fold wor_ld : Fi::-ends: enter upon the vow of the pied~ of the triple protection,
lest , ~•Jra~a , th:ia ao-caUed yoft/a, the Great Bodh.iaattva, wrathful
rrm.fying _and fearful, should destroy the- whole threefold world with ~
blazmg vaya ."
Theo ~hdvara by the power of his overlord.ship of the threefold world
and of 1!,isown knowledge , together with his whole comp,my, manifeated a
fearful and ·th
wrathful .and greatly terrifving
r
'"*'at fJame1 1 boo ting
form with o-- ·
fi b nd
o~ a , W1 a terra~le ~ugh for the purpoac of cawing feu to the Lord
VaJra~r;it. He then said: 1 am the Loni of the thnefold world and
would give me orders!" ' you
Then Vajraplt1i, waving hianjra and laughing, aaid : "Approach, you cater
ofCO!p<$et and human flesh, you who use the ashes of fune ral pyres a, your
food, as your couch, as your clothing, and obey my command! "
Then Ma~a.r~ lording it over the whole world which wu pervaded by hia
great wra~ : said :. You obey my command and take upon }'OUJ'l('Jfmy vow!"
!~ '\I aJrap.l,;u., the greatly wrathful king, •aid to the Loni: "Beca111C of
pride in the p~r of h.ia own knowledge and hecawe of his overlordship aa
Mahdvu a, thu G_rcatGod, 0 Lord , does not submit to the teaching of all the
Tathlgat.as. How 1s one to deaJ with him~"
Then the Lord recalled thc grea t vajra-pled~ which has its origin in the
heart of all ~he Ta~lgata.s; OtifNISUMBHA \'l\}RA HO¥ PHATf•!
Then VaJra~is).1 pronounced his own vajra-syllable: HUM! As soon u he
pronounced _thu, all th~ ~at ~ who belong to rile t~fold worJd, fell
down o~ their faces, emuun~ muerable cries. and they went to Vajl·apani for
:~t ~oon . The Great God himaelf remained motionJe. on the ground , quite
All except Mahdvara are raised·up and converted. Only thereafter at Vairo-
cana', bcheat d~ Vajrap~ bring Mahetvara baclt to life, for as Vairoc:ana
~arb: .. If be II not r•d up . his life will be waated to no puq,osc, while if he
15
brought back to life, he will becom e a good man." However, when he is
restored, Mabdvara Kill refute1 to submit. " I can bear death " he aaw "b t 1
~ ~ ' ,~ u
. not ~~: your command." There follows a further shon battle, in which
VaJrap~1 triumph, by means of his spells, and treads down Mahcivara with his
left foot , and Umi , Mahefvara 's consort, with his right.
45
For an inu. ' of "-·- • L .•
rpraauon "''"""'- and fil./tlliffe,
1ee ttttion • on "Magical f'onuub&" below.
 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
1S8
Then the Lord felt gTeat compassion for Mahldeva and pro1'l0unced this
spell, comprising the compassion of All Budd.has: . .
OM BUDDHA MAITRl VAJRA RA~A HU¥! ( = 0~ Buddha Kindness Vajl'a
Prot~ction HO¥)
As soon aa he said this, the suffering that Mahadcva experienced was a~lll;yed
and from the contact with the sole o{ Vajrapavi'a foot he became the rec~pient
of consecratiom, powers of meditation, sa_Ivation, mn~onia, ~aculues of
knowledge and magical powers, all of the htghest perfccuon, tendmg even to
buddhahood. So Mahadeva from contact with the Lord's foot experienced the
joys of salvation through the powers of meditation and the spell~ of al! the
Tathigatu, and his body having thus fallen at the feet of VaJrapl~t, he
became the Tathagata Bhumdvaranirghota (Soundless Lord of Ashes) in the
realm known as Bhasmacchatra (Umbrella of Ashes), which cxi1ta down
below, over and beyond worldly realms equal in ~umber to the at_oms ?f
worldly realms which are as pumeroua as the grains of sand. conta~ned in
thirty-two River Ganges. Then from the body of Mahldeva (Siva) th11 verse
gained utterance .
Oho! the peerless wisdom of all th~ Buddb:asl . .
Falling at the feet of a yak/a, one 1sestabbshed m rurvat}.al
Then Vajrapa,li, the Great Bodhisattva, said to t~ae odi~r lord~ of the
threefold world Narayal}.a and the others: "Enter. friends, into th11 great
Vajra-Pledge m'ar_:t~alaof all the Budd.has. and having entered, bold,,to the
pledge of all the Budd.bas." They replied: "We do u you command ut. T~n
calling them, he said: '"Once again, friends, accept this vow ~ the pledge wttb
its teaching of the triple taking of refuge, a1;1dbe ':°netanl m thJS p~ge of
mine." They replied: "Let it be so, we enter into this pledge of you1'1. Then
Vajrapar,:tiannounced the self-imposed vow:
Having raised the excellent Tbou~lu of ~nligh~emnent in due coune
Strive compmedly with all your might with enhghtenment your goall
Then Vajrap~i the Great Bodhisattva, making the gesture-bond of the :-,
great pledge of en~ for thoee gods, bound them with this quintessence of the }
great pledge-gesture:
Ol!f ulr.e the vajra-pledge, bind the pledge,
Bear in mind the pledge of All Buddhas.
You are the pledge of AU Buddhas.
Be firm in met Be stable in mel
Be all·pervasive of mel Be in.separable from me!
In all my actions make for felicity of thought!
HA HA HA HA Ht)¥
With the mere recitation of this the Teri#titi gesture of Vajra-Wrath was
formed in the two hands of each one of those who belonged to the threefold
world and he was made firm in the bond. . translation, but It follows tbr. 'J'ibetan version -11 eaougb.
Then bringing them in corttctly, VajrapAl)i showed t~ the great '
mandala in the regular way, and having consecrated them wtth the ~m- ..
co~ration and having given into their ~nds the vajra-~ccouterme~u, be·:
consecrated them with the name-consecration and established them m the',
IU.3 139
cause of rhe welfatt of living beings in the way of aU Buddbas. ff
Before commenting on this passage. 1 quote further from the beginning of a
later chapter in Pan II of this tantra, which goes back on the story juat told,
assuming that Siva is still under Vajrapt~'s foot:
Then all the_Lord T~thagatas came together as one and said to Vajra~i d~
Great Bodhisattva: Attend to the command of all the Buddhas ao as to
releue Mah~vara's body from under the sole of you foot. VajrapaJ)i replied:
"I have ~een comecrated by you Lords as the wrathful suppreSIQf of all evil
ODC$, This one has been defeated by me, so how should I releaee him?" Then
~11the Bud~has produced from their beans that "quintessence" which draws
1nthe conscJOusness of a dead person so as to restore the life in the corpse of
Mahdvara, lord of the threefold world: O'rf VAjltASATI'V.A HU¥ .IJAH. The
making of the hand-gesture is thia: ·
Making firmly the aecret hook-gesture one extends the end, equally. 11
One places this on the head of the dead man and he will again receive
bis life-force.
As soon a1 the spell was pronounced the Lord Buddha "Soundless Lord of
Ashes" of the realm "Umbrella of Ashes" entered the body of Maheivara and
be pronoun<:ed this verse:
Oho! the peerless wisdom of all the Buddbaa.
Even a body which is dead returns to the sphere of the livingl
Then VajrapAi:iithe Great Bodhisattva uttered thu "quintessence" named
"Coming fonh from the foot": 0~ Vi\JltA MUH. The making of the band-
gesture ia this: ·
Making in an upward din:ction the finger-gesture of Vajra. W ratb,
one puts the tips together.
Then turning these vajra(-gestures) round, one protrude5 them from below.
.. As soon a1 he pronounced the spell, MahAdeva was released and came to life
again .. Then _the B~ddhas co~ecrated Mahdvara's body as fully alive and
established him a vice-regent m that particular realm for the benefit of all
living beings and for the conve1'1ionof evil-doers.
Then from the sole of Vajra~i's foot there was produced tbil Symbol
(mudrd) of the Thought of Enlightenment of All Buddhaa, known as
"Moon-Foot."«
••. F!om ~r Sl'TS MS fo. 91, I. 7 onward, already trallSlated by mc in the introduction co our
facsimile ediuon, pp. S9ff., bot 1 ha~ contln~d th,, translation a Ihde further for the prrll!nt woit
in order to usclu~ the re.fettnce 10 contl!Cfations,
45
The dcscriplion, uf band-pures are aomc of the,_ difficult p~ in th- tantric int1.
~ were written in ~ciae form • _mffC guidance and it is clear &am the pn>blcma that the
1 ibc,~n trll!Ulaton had m undencand1n1 them, chat in - cues at lu11 they were not clear in
rncaD1ng even to the-n>and thus a1ao to the Indian pundiia who ..,..,ed them. Thil is a douhcful
. ~ _Mudro.(referto ~nckx) 13al50 used, ll$ will be s~n 1-:low. with mcrcn,.-e 10 the par111erof a
?tvtnity, us~lly ~m.lmne, but muculiM In this aise. The name ·MOQll·Foot'' has a femini~ ending
•n gra~atl(al ~mt'Dt with mudra, but the dk-inity is male, as will be apparent from the pauage
linmediawly followang.
140 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
OMMost Excellent Moon, Light-Ray of Samantabhadra, •1
· G~at Adamantine One HO¥
This is the hand-gesture:
Makingfirmly the vajra-binding, one places together the little fingers
and thumbs.
When they are extended together, this is known as "Moon Radiance."
As soon as the spell was pronounced, the Buddha Most Excellent Moon came
forth from his foot, and having settled in the form of a lunar crescent on t~e
head of Mahesvara, who was trodden on by Vajrapazp·s foot, he took up his
position on Vajrapa~·s left side. Then aJl the Buddhas gave a v~jra-mace into
the hand of Vajrapai;ti's frie~d. and he was consc_cr~.ted~th _the name-
coNecration. "Excellent Mag,cal Power of the VaJra (Va]Tavidyottama).
Then the Great Being, the Bodhisauva "Excellent Magical P~we~ of t_he
Vajra," waved his vajra-mace like a blazing firebrand, and worsh1ppmg with
dancing and oblations, he enunciated this verse:
Oho! the peerle11 wi,dom of all the Buddhu,
That one should gain buddhahood by the mere touch of this foot.
Then Vajrapal}i the Great Bodhisattva rose from his Vajra-Wrath composure,
and aaid this to the Lord: "I have been given in my hands the vajra by all the
Buddhas and I have been consecrated as "Vajra-in-Hand" (Vajrapl~). Now I
will fix a place in this Great Maajala of Victory over the Thsttfold World for
these gods who are outside the Vajra-Family, so that these beings should not
be back-sliders in the matter of 1upreme and perfect enlightenment. "18
Apart from the intere5ting characterization of VajrapiJ)i found in these
selected passages, I have choecn them also in illustration of_ the ro_u~a~ut
meana that were employed in order to incorporate non-Buddhist tradmona mto
their changed Buddhist setting. It was not just a matter of giving convened
Hindu divinities new names, but al10 of explaining their attributet within the
tenns of a Buddhist context. Thus the Great Lord (Mahdvara) Siva is ttvitalized
aa a Buddha named "SoundlCIS Lord of Ashes," a curious name it may 1eem,
unleu one recalls that Siva, as lord of yogins, frequents cemeteries as a naked
ascetic, covered in matted hair and besmeared with ashC$. Thus Vajrapaoi
mocks him as "you eater of corp,es and human flesh, you who u11ethe ashes of
funeral pyres as your food, as your couch . as your clothing." Also the curious rite
of extracting 1be lunar disk from Vajrapaoi'a foot and its aettling on the bead of
Siva was presumably suggested by the presence of jU$t such a lunar crescent
reaiing on Siva's head in already ~,dating Hindu tradition. The moon alllO
corresponds to the male clement in tantric sexual symbolism, representing the
Thought of Enlightenment . Complications such as these l'e$Wl in the inevitable
4' Samanubhadra (All Cood) is yet onr more name for WFemc buddhabood, also idcntilied with
Vajrapmi. Tbesc acdamarioos att all feminine vocativa (sec belowxctioa Ill . I I).
"8 MS fo. 145, II. 4ff., already panly tnnslated in che fac:aimile edition. p. 47. See Yamada"•
edldoo, pp. :i!SSff.
111.4 141
equations of names, making such a rext even more difficult to follow intelli~bly.
In this tantra sufficient Hindu divinities, male and female, are given names to
make up the Ma1.19alaof Victory over the Threefold World, which Vajrapizp ii
intent on producing. We thus have a deliberate incorporating of non-Buddhist
divinities into the Buddhist fold, and as well as being given new Vajra names.
they are al10 worked into an entirely Buddhi1t setting.
4. MAGICAL FORMULAS
The last quotation provides several examples of the use of magical fonnulu ,
often a.ssociaredwith the appropriate hand·gestUres (mudra), and here again we
meet with problems of terminology. We have already discu•ed the term mantra
as the most general word in use for such formulas, and we have alto taken note of
the term dls4ra~. which is mcd in much the same sense, although properly it
seems to refer to a kind of mnemonic. We now have yet anotheT term, the
Sanhrit word hrda,a. meaning "hean," used in these texca in such a variety of
ways that it become, yet one more alternative for mantra. lo their translation&
the Tibetam use for it the term snying-po. which may be rendCJ'ed in English as
"quintessence." It has often been translated as "attd-sylJable" referring to $ingle
syllable sound, conceiY1:d of as comprehending the eaence of a particular
divinity. For this, however, the correct tenn is blja (Tibetan sa-bon), which
means literally "seed." While hrda:,a may be used in· this ,erue, it is not at all
difficult to fmd example. where the more general term ffl4ntra is used in.stead. It
ls, however, certainly frequently used of the personal "spell" of a divinity even
when this consists of aeveral syllable!s, and examples of this can be given
immediately following upon the last quotation, when Vajrapavi introducn his
Ma>Xlala of Victory over the Threefold World. It will also be noted from this
shon further quotation that the term wd,a.which we have translated above as
"magical power ," is also used as an alternative . Thus we have at least four terms
all meaning very much the same, although one can doubdully argue for a
special application of them by carefully selecting eumplN . As the li1t of these
converted Hindu divinities haa been given elsewhere in full, it suffices to list j11&t
a few here .0 As may be expeaed, Vajrapal)i conn-ols the ma94Bla himself in a
fourfold manifeatation, involving a duplication of his own name. The reason for
this will be clear, when we discuss below the arrangement of families in a
maJXlala.
Then the Bodhisattva Vajrap~, the G~at Being, enunciated his own most
excellent vidy4: O?i(NlWMBHA VAJRAHC~ PHAT.
Then'again Vajrapal}i enunciated this "quintcaence" from his bean: Otif
TAKKJJJAJ;I.~
4
· • Sec the STTS , fac:llitnileedition, my lntrod11Ction,pp. 49 and ~0; Y11mada'sed., pp. 259ff,
so The twoapellsactributed hE-reroVajfapil)i~usedjUS< a~ by the praidingRucldha, wich
whom Vajrap;i9i comes 10 be identified. as already obsened. Nisvmb/ta and iumbha , which ._u,
juat below, are the.-narnn of two tuam ramous in Hindu tradition for their proJonged aulleri*• and
 uu 143
142 HI . TANTRIC BUDDHL'iM
..., the expreNion of the divinity . ref-er also to the feminine partner , which . the
'
Then the Bodhisattva VajragaTbha . the Gnat Bei ng, expre steel his moat divinity may be envisaged as embracing, and thus are freely u5cd for projila
excellent vidytl: Or,I VA,fRA-llATNOT'fAMAJVALAYA H0Ji( PHAT(0 blaze! Most
(wisdom) in this particular meaning.~ 1 So far as the verbal expression is
excellent vajra-gcm). - retied hi.I matt concerned , the m011tsuitable English word to be used for illl these Sanskrit renns
Then the Bodhisattva Vajranetra , the Great Seng , exp ·
,_ 'd'•.n• OM SVABHA V A~UDOHA VAJR.A-PADMA !ODHAYA SAR.VA!if ii undoubtedly "spell ." One attracu by a 1pell, one binds by a spell, o~ releases
exce I..::nt PI :r· . · lo U re supreme by a spell, exacdy as has been done in so many other ritual aeuinga quiu: apan
VIDYOTTAMA HO~ PHAT (0 purify all, Vaya · tua, natura y pu ,
from the Indian ones we are now considering. I am aware that pretent ·day
magical power!). . . B · Teasedhis most
Then the Bodhisattva VaJravsiva, the Great eing, exp . Western Buddbiata . specifically thoae who arc followers of the Tibetan tradition ,
excellent flidyd : OM VAJRA -KAltMOTTAMA VAJlt.ADHAllASAMAYAM ANUSMARA dislike this English word used for mantra and ~ rest becawe of iu a110Ciarion
SUMaHA N!SUMBHA -1.KA~YA PRAVE$AYA-.A\IESAYA BANDHAYA _sAMA~A)Jt with vulgar magic . One need only reply that whether one likes it or not, the
GAAHAYA SAltVAKARMA?lll ME JlUllU MAHASATTV~HO¥ PHAT (0 vaJra,-act:~ greater pan of the tantras are concerned prccuely with vulgar magic, becautt
m01t ucellent, bear in mind the pledge of VaJradhara . $umb~ nisvm this ii what mOlt people were intereued in then , just u they are interested chiefly
-coerce , induce, prevail , bind , hold to the pledge , affect all acttODI for me,
nowadays in scientific achievement. and technological inventions. Mott of us arc
0 VajruattVa) , B · b ht forth made thia way and only a minority •how a sincere interest in higher religious
Then d~ Bodhisattva Vajravidyottama, the Great ~mg, . roug
bis "quintessence " as fit for bonoring the Bodhisattva Va1rapl!}1: o~ SUMBHA exertion. When exacdy the aame tnms arc used throughout a particular
NlSUMBHA VNRAVIDYO'TTAMA HO~ PHAT (Most excellent magical power of religious tradition, by the majority who are interested in magic and by the
minority who are interested in higher statu of spiritu.alil:ed realization , it is very
the vajra),
Then the Vidyvlja Krodbarlja (the new name of the vanqu.an<:
!.L-d
1va
s· difficult to separate the two, especially when 10 many of the more famous
= King of Magical Power. Vajra Wrath), falling at the feet of the Lord , gave practitioners tttm to ha~ been interested in both mundane as well as supra-
his "quinieuence": ot,t VAjllASOLA(Vajra•macel). . mundane "successa " (siddlu). A apeJJis an enunciation of certain ayllabla,
Then the VidyArAja MlyAvajra (the MW name of the van~u~~ Nlrlya~ which should have a aponran~• (viz. , magical ) effect, when correctly
- Ki of Magical Power Illusion Vajra), pronounced his qumtelleftce - pronounced by someone who is initiated into its uec. In translating all the1e
.;M VA~·MAYAVIDAlt.SAY~SA.R.VAt,tHC/'r!fPHAT (0 vajra •illusion, ~estroy alll) .
many tantri c text, , the Tibetant did not normally tran,late the actual spells,
·Then the Vidylrlja Vajragha~Ja (the new name of t~e ..va~quiabed ~~nat ·
bcautc the change of enunciation might threaten their efficacy. st They merely
kumlra = King of Magical Power' Vajra Bell) gave his qumtesacnce . OM
VAJltA ·OH~ 'A ~A ~A H0¥ PHAT(0 vajra-bell, tinkle tinkl~I). transliteTated them into Tibetan 1cript. u I have done into English script with
Then the Vidyulja Maunavajra (the new name of the vanqwshed Brahml the more intraaable OMS . The early Tibetan commentaton usually understood
= King of Magical Power, Sagelike V~jra) gave his ','quintnamce ": 0¥ VAJllA · the Sanskrit terminology, but except for a minority of seriou1 practitioners who
MAUNA MAHAVRATAKO~ PHAT(0 Va1ra-Sage of mighty vows!). . have studied under competent teachcn, the recitation of these "spells" hu all
Then the Vidyvlja Vajrlyudha (the new name . °} ~ vanq~:a11cd too often become a form of gibberish , a term that has been applit!d rat~ more
Indra = King of Magical Power, Vajra _Weapon ) gave his qwnteaenee : OM unfairly to the u,e of spells by who~ver they arc recited under whatever
VAJRAYUDHADAMAKAHDt,tPHAT(0 Va.)1'a-weapon,,ubduel) . circumstances.
In the above example we have the words vid,ya(magical lore or po..ttr) and :-,. In. ttudying an y acience it is eaential to understand the precise meanings of the
l,rdaya (quintessence) used with the same meaning . Elaewhett in the same tantra ·; terminology employed by its practitioners, and in modem science an exact
(the beginning of Chapter IS) the term .samaya, ~hich we have translated terminology is demanded. The tantru ~rtainly represent a "1eience" of a kind .
· · nally as "pled- " is used with the same meaning u the othtt twO , Thue In ao far at the ritual 1hould be follr.wed exactly if the desired re1Uh1 are to be
pIOVWO D- • }a achieved, it may even be called an "exact science," but it can scarcely be said to
the divinitiC$, one after another, state the sama,a, aod we have ma~t~a ~~ust e
n the others . EJaewhere again (the beginning of Chapter 20) the d1v1n1uesstate ,1
Apln in paaing one m•y note: that to r.. the mcallUljp ,;,idly ul the Saoa rit U!:mU j iiima,
:he mvd7'ci, a tcnn which we have translated so far as "hand-gcstu~ ," but~ ~
knowle•
or wiodom, and
both
111eaningvarie s in
;,ajrM, witdom or insight o, ~ . i&in pn.cri« Dllpl*iblc . • the
~ depending upon the concnt in whkb tbi:w 1emi1 •"' vied . Onl' can
again it refers to their individual spells. All these terms refer to the ellprCNwn argue c:ndkaly about which suita ~ - The TibetaN "'1~ the problem ea.lly by 1-nting
of the divinity, verbal or 0theTWi.se ; and the reader is adviled _that this can mate <'Olllpound.baled on their word to know: -,.-P*."primordi.11 knowledge '· for jMM and slNJ-rab ,
~plenitllde ofkDOWJcdF" fot ~ . w.,caMOC ,olff the matter to aatillfa<.'tOrily. FOi' an attemp, at
translation of thete teJttl unusually ambiguous. TbUI, both wdyii and mvdf'il., 11 elucida1io11- A. Wayman, "Note• on 1be Sanaluic Tnm jM,no."
· I Tmu the application of such oames to ~in is quite aultablc . Nilinnbh4 ~ ~ans " 1'rlll'lllati0r» may 11001etlmesbe added in amall ler cerlng w,d,enwa1h 1ht main 1ei 1, uuu l.eavill(
mqu:a powers. . desmlcti•~ spell with !aMa: .-,aaaom ,
w.i~bter .. &od thua " may haw come lntO uae» • . . of a wi)d. w t~ Santlrit pr~omiND t. Mr. Lur y M~ kindly draws my at1ention to thil i11the cue of a
TGliltc ~ to hatt been applied IO cmain · ~
T•UJffel/J.
· ,bes= £iniug
die meaOlllC
would tbwi mean ",avqe- born." T•ltlt- a an ep,chet of 1va,
CakralaJ!lnra -sidhana 1ba1 he 1w been trantb.ring . Stt "transla tion rule1", pp. 441 ·3 below.
144 Ill. T ANTRIC BUDDHISM
pollCII a scientific vocabulary, and in writin~ about it •·s~entifically" a, on.c may
well be expected to do in a book auch as th15, one has either to forge one s own
vocabulary, or else continue to use Sanskrit terms, having lint analyzed the
ran~ of their pouible meanings. For the WT~terthe second ~ourse is cen_ainly the
easiest, for it p]aces the onus of understandmg the most sunable meit.mng upon
the reader, but this 1eem1 unfair unless he bas been initiated into the whole
context of the particular text or ritual. It is interesting to observe that Tibetan
lamu refu,e to belie-ve that someone who has not recei~ the initiation into a
particular text can poasi.biyunderstand its meaning. Thill meant originally an
initiation (Sanskrit agama) into the whole meaning of the tex.t by a comp~ent
teacher to a worthy disciple and in this 11enseit was absolutely necessary, smc:e
the Tibetan translations use stereotyped terms (hence their extraordinary
faitbfulnesa to the original Sanakrit) and the meaning of these terms varies
according to the context in the way we are describing. Nowadays the initiation
into a tat bas all too often become a kind of magical rite, in which at best the
text in question may be read through rapidly, but even thi, is seldom done. So
important is this now considered that a good lama will insist on performing such
a ceremony before going through the text in a more comprehensible manner.
By developing a fixed vocabulary as consistently as possible one can give what
appears to be a more intelligible version of_ the text than even t~ Sanskrit .
original can provide, for as we have observed m the matter of the vanous words
u$ed for Mspell," the subject-matter might be clearer if tenns were carefully
ciiltinguished io usage, but often they are not. Also the spells themselves are of ,
very uMqual concent, as though invented on the spur of the moment. lnd":d . '.
this is probably how they were formed on a particular occasion by a cena1n
tantric matter, then becoming more or Jessfixed according to the tradition of hil
teaching.
5. TIIE VOTAlllES OF THE TANTllAS
Many of the tantras, that is to say the main texts that were rep.rded as
canonical, tend to be haphazard in content and formation, and this state of
affairs provides a good clue to their origins. For d~rer expositions one can tum
to commentaries and exegetical works, which are often brilliantly written. But it
is dear from the disagreements that continued to e:ir.iatin the categorizing of
tantras, and the forced interpretations of unwelcome passages, that the material
was already found to be intractable long before Western echolars began to take
any interest in it. The inevitable uncertainties concerning the categories to
which tantras might be assigned is well illwtrated in mK.has-grub-rje's
Fundamentals of the Buddhist Tantras.s' The same work also provides us with
an example of the cue with which an unwelcome 8'atement in a tantra might be
disposed of. The matter in question conttms who may receive the benefits of
" LeMing and Wayn,an'1 edition. pp. 200-69.
111.5 1"he 'Votariesoftlu Tantras 145
entering the ma.r:i4ala, and the "Symposium of Truth" is quite explicit on this. .
Now t~e way~ which a Vajra-pupil enters du! Great Ma~ala of the Vajra-
sp~~ is explame~. In the first_place this entry is for saving the whole ,phere
of livi~ betngs. without excepu'?'1 and without reminder, for effecting their
well-being. thear supreme happmca and their success. So in the matter of
entering the Great M.u:i(lala one should make no dittinction between who is
a worthy recipient and who ii not. And why is this? It is because living beings
who have committed great evil, having Sttn the Great Ma1_1~alaof the Vajra-
sphere and entered_ it, will ~ saved from all evil rebirths. Those beings who
are greedyfor all kinds of things, food and drink and sensual pleasures, who
hate the ~ledge ~sama,a) and are not proficient in tbl preliminaries and so
on,_ even m t~1r cue ~hen they enter for the purp<llle of effecting their
desues, all their hopes will be fulfilled. There are living beings, who because
of their pleasure in -~ncing and song, in laughter and love-play and dallying
and becawe of their ignorance of the essential truth which i.s the Mahayana
Iott of _:Allthe !athigatas, enter the m~4alas of the families of other gods,
and being afraid of the bases of training do noc: enter the mandalas of the
family of _Allthe Tathagatas,.which areproductiveofsupremeple~;ure, happi-
neu and Joy: even tM)', finding themsel~1 facing the entry into mai:i<µlas of
woe, should enter the Great Ma~ala of the Vajra-Sphere for the sake of
experien~ng aU pleasure, joy, the highest succeas, happiness and blise and so
u to avoid the paths that lead to all evil destinies. Then there are those
righteous beings wh~ are .seeking t~ enlightenment of the Buddhas by means
of supreme success m the morality , mental compo1ure and wiadom of all
Buddhu, and in their striving, are exbamted with the various stages of
mC?itation and ~lvatlon, by the mere entry into the Great MaJ.:l4ala of du!
VaJTa·Sphere uruversal buddhahood will not be difficult for them to obtain
let alone other kinda of succeu ..,. '
s_urely_the ~nt of this ~usage, now _quoted complete, is that this panicular
ritual 1savadable to all without exceptron, and it must be assumed that they all
accept the necessary uaining . A1 will be clear as we proceed, tantric practice
offers success (sidd/ai) to all and sundry, if only their senses are keen enough and
they are prepared to submit to du! discipline imp<*d by their preceptor .
mKhas-grub-rje in his Fundamentals of the Buddhist Tantras quibbles about
this, argui~g that all may enter the ma9~ala, but that only the worthy ones
should receive conaecration.&&In a tell8e this is true, but the point being made is
that no one 5hould be refused in the first in&tance becauae of moral unworthi-
. nes. In fact the need of such a one is even greater, and the argument that
·: unwonhy ones may enter the ma1,1~ala, but not receive consecration, is surely a
;·
M STTS, Yamada'sedition, pp. 66-7. An almost identical pa,sageoccun1in tJieSarvadwgatipari-
·' Jhd~':4 Tan~ra (SDPS). $tt Sk?~up51d'~ translation, P: 100. He-re the meaning i. maclc even more
ekpl":11.viz., 1"bere ares~ hvmg bemgs who commn great sin., hilt they ilfC: (powntiaUy) worth:,
; Tiuhagatas. On scring and entering this mandala of Vajra-Hwpkara ( ~ Vajrapa,:u) they will
become fr« from cmy tvil de.tiny." '
, ~s See L-ingand Wayman'aedition. pp. H~··!i.

146 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHJSM
forced one. lf he ill unworthy at this stage, he will not even see the ma\)4a,la. Our
t'antra is quite explicit about this in another passage:
There are living beings of wrong views, of evil actions, lacking Coz:titude,
devoid of application, ignorant of the various act&. Because ~f theu poor
fortitude, they are not to enter the great ma"4alaa of the Fam1ly of All the
Tathigatas the ma\14ala of the Vajra-Spherc, and the others ....
never to b~ak. faith ~ith the 1ecret1 of the Pledge-Symbols of the Family of AU ·,;;i,
the TathAgauu, lest you are born in the helb, or the r~lms of_tormented .\¥;
spirits, or meet with misfortune and die an untimely death. So aaym~, !e (the
pTCCCptor)removes the fa~·cloth and reveals the mac,ujala to the pupd.
It should he noted that the pupil is led to the mat;i\iala blindfolded, and thU;5to
see the mandala in any constrUctive sense would be difficult when one takes into
account t~· secrecy which is continually enjoined in these tantras. One may
bserve at the same ti~ that such secrecy must have been limited to certain
0 h.
consecration rites, and that there were many othen that by t eu nat~ ~re
made public. Thus thia aame ritual of calling upon a particular set of div1mties
to take poacssion of their symbolic representation or "pledge" (sa~yaJ,
provides the main subject of much liturgy that is still performed pubbd! m
Tibetan monasteries today.s1 Having thus manifested themselves and rece1v~
their due praise and the conventional sets of offerin~. they bes_tow their
"empowerment" (adh4fh4na) in return. 5• Such cere~onses are ccna1~y no.ta
Tibetan invention. and the question of how soon therr use developed m Indian
monasteries is yet another one that affects any attempt to undentand the
beginnings of tannic Buddhism and its more ~neral acceptance. The
"Symposium of Truth" from which we have quoted )Ult above can scarcely be
taking account of yet another unquestionable fact, namely that the hes~al of :_.
co~crations upon all and sundry haa become a function expect~ , .even .•.
demanded, of any well-known Tibetan lama. This isjust as true of earher t~,
as biographies of such lamas show, !i9 as it i&of famous lamas who go on tour in
India or the Western world, or wherever else in these unhappier days: ~hen
Tibetan religion if driven into exile. Th~ e~ect of ~eh ge~ral ccre~~mes IS to
produce the 5011 of spiritual uplift, which tS cxpcnenced m all rehgioua corn·
munities, not only Buddhist, and it can induce some of th~ _present_to a more
serious practice o( their professed beliefs, although the maJOnty conunue after·
ward in their old waya, such being the hold of &af\lsara.
Although the tantras were capab~e of a popular ap~lic~tion and were peopled .,.,,;;
with higher beings of the cdestial kind already met with m the Mahlyfl~a sutru
as well as with Hindu divinities who presumably pouessed already a considerable ·\i ,·
&6 MSfo. SS. 11.S-8: Vamada'~e<lltion, PP· 144-~.
~, Concuning the ,crm J•m4,0 in this romext, sec,.w~-tion111.J!l.b and also refer 10_tbt- Index.
~, for su<:b pn~ •nd liata af offering& 5'.'e my Bv4dhist Uimlilay11.pp. 2!>4·6. and 111 far more
\SI.
"".:''s!"r!!':!":~~~~·:;;.!~::'.
JJI.6.a Yanow K.ind.Jof Tantras 147
popular following, they can acarcely be dacrihed as a pop-.ilariiing form_ of
Buddhist literature. They were clearly composed for the use of those who were
accepted (OTproperly prepared initiation into the rites that were believed to
produce special effects. and thus they can only have been composed by the
religious teacher, and yogina who conducted auch rites. In that the religious
master, any such religious master who bad been accepted in faith and devotion
You are by his pupils, represented for them the lord of the maJ.)c;lala,thus identified with
the supreme adamantine state, his words were inevitably Buddha-words. Once
codified and traNmitted through a succession of masters and pupils, such a
corpw of teaching, and imtructlom might easily gain acceptance as
"canonical." Canonization of religious literature, whether in the Buddhist or the
Chrutian ~. meam no more in the first instance than the gradualacceptance
by an ~ widening circle of believers of certain oral and textual tr.aditions u
valid doctrine relatable to earlier traditional teachings which have been already
accepted as true. The mere fact of this wider acceptance results in their
increased circulation, which assulS in 1tabilizing their contents, although at the
same time there is an increue in minOTtextual variants, wiually camed by errors
in copying, which may later be rectified slightly differently from the original.
However, the work becomee atablimed, and when collections are later made by
some recognized authority, it is judged as worthy of inclusion, while the works of
others may be rejected. It tbua becomes in effect "canonical" and is fairly certain
of finding a place in all later collections that are made. While there is no
evidence, of any vast canon of Mahayana sutraa and tantra, ever having been
produced in India itself, some works were certainly grouped together aa
particularly significant, and the accounts of Sikyamuni's three turnings of the
Wheel of the Doctrine represent a clear attempt to relate much of this later
_['.·_:_~-
~-~-~---· teaching with the one master whose authority must remain unquestioned by all
who call themselves Buddhitti. We have already drawn auention to the ~thoda
that were employed by their promoters to link the tantras as far as pouible with
the peraon ofSlkyamuni himaelf.
6. VARIOUS KINDS OF TANTRAS
a. Tanl1'asRelatable to Mah4~na Sidm.s
To give a date to a panicular tantra is a difficult, indeed an impoesible task,
uoleM one is content to date it from the time that it became sufficiently accepted
}I - in scholarly Buddhist circles fot commentaries to be wrinen upon it, The
problem is then transferred to finding approximate dates for the commematon.
The actual origins, for the reasons just explained above, mu&t go back several
generations earlier into reatricted religioua circlca, of whom nothing wu yet
;:i._:.i:
1_:_:
.~
.:-~-!.:_-~
l,:' :
ii: known. Whether they were deliberately secttt and eventually achieved their
renown u the result of the magical powen ,hey achieved may not have been true
:,;.• in every case, as the Tibetan hinorian Tlranatha (born 1S75) a•crta, but he is
 ·i •
...~.
148 Ill. TANTRJC BUDDHISM
surely correct in assuming that their origins were unknown, simply because no
one else outside a limited circle knew anything about them .
BecaWIC'in the early stages these men were very careful and guarded the
secret, no one knew that they wett pracricing the secret mantras, until they
actually became posacssedof magical powers ( uidylldhara ). But when they had
these powen, traveling in the sky or becoming invisible, then it was known
condutively that they were practitioners of mantras. On account of this there
is very little (traceable) handing down of traditional teachings from master to
pupil, and although there had been much study devoted to the Action
Tantras (lny1Mamra) and the Performance Tantra• (coryd-tantra) f~ the
time when the Mahlytna began to spread, as they were practked very much
in secret, oo one knew who was studying them except for those actually
engaged in these Rcret mantru. 60
Tiranitha suggests that the earliest tantras to take shape were those which
were subsequently classed as the two lower grades of tantras, in so far as they are
concerned with the acquiaition of certain magical powera, 101DC of which may
appear frivolous, while others were concerned with the curing of disease and
demonical aaault , the staving off of dHth, the avoidance of evil rebirth&, as well
as conattration of those considered fit to be potential Buddhas. We have already
noted the presence of similar materials in some of the Mahayana siitr.u , and
indeed some of tht- works that were subaequently cataloged by the Tibetans as
tantraS are referred to in their tides as siltras. Thus tht-re is a slight overlapping
between these two clutea of Buddhiat literature, although dear diltinctiona of
content can be drawn between them.
The kind of tantra where such overlapping takes place would appear to have
its origins in the same sort of religious circles as the later Mahayana sOtras,
namely in established• monastic centers, where traditions were already wholc-
heanedly Buddhist. This means that the Buddha and Bodhisattva
manifestations who people the ma\lc;lalas have names that are already clearly
acceptable in Buddhist Mahlylna tradition. Examples of this kind are the
"Sf&traof Golden Light ," classed subsequently as a tantra because of its pre·
eentation of buddhahood as fivefold (thus potentially aa a m~4ala) and the
many chapters devoted to protective divinities together with their spells, or again
the "Fundamental Ordinan«" of Manjuirt," of which the main mat)qala baa
bttn admirably described by Mme Macdonald, or again the "Symposium of
Truth ," a work in which I have had a special interest for many years . Listed
thus, these three works serve to illustrate that progressive tantric devdopment,
which eventually distinguisha 1utra1 from tantras . There is clearly nothing
secret or reurlckd about the "SOtra of Golden Light. "61 It contains BOmebasic
teaching on the Void, prayefS and confeaiom, e1pedally praises of the Buddhu ,
fG Tiruwha'1 Hutory of Buddhism , edited by Sclliefner , Tibetan tQt, p. 112, II. 15&. Thi1
paaage hM alttady been published by me with comqients in my edition of the HtlfldjN Tantnl,
vol. J, pp. 1H!.
61 OM. roay refer to R. l:. Emmerick',excdlent E.nglisbtranalation of thii Mra.
JI.6.a J'ariow Kt'nd.sof Tantms 149
vows befitting a Bodhisattva who follows a ttgular path toward enlightenment,
and chapters devoted to certain divinities, female a1 well as male, who have
offered to protect those who practice Buddhist teachings and especially those
who are devoted to the "Sutra of Golden Light." Even earlier aaociations are
suggested by the inclusion of fatala (earlier birth) stories of Slltyamuni. The
nearest this work comes to suggesting any form of consecration is the shower of
manifoid b1C111ings that the kings of the four quarters promise to bestow upon
any king who promotes the cause of this particular slitra . With the "Funda·
mental Ordinance of Maiijuiri" we find far more that is typical of tantric
Buddhism. spells and demonstrations of magical powers. a well ordered
mawala, which however has not yet assumed the typical fourfold manifestation
of the central divinity to the four quartt:rs, and a detailed description of
comecration rites according to a regal pattern. This is a m01t voluminou.,; work ,
certainly compiled Ovt'r eeveral centuriea, but many or its pronouncements,
especially those concerning Buddha-families and consecratiom, would seem to
place parts of it at least in the early formative period of tantric: development1 ."
More will be said about this below. The "Symposium of Truth" is referred to as a
autra in its Sanskrit MS colophon, but this may refer only to the last of the five
parts in which this tantra ia divided. The other parts are known as kalpa , a term
often used of tantric texts presumably with tht- mean ing of "that which lay,
down the ritual and prescribed rules for ceremonial and sacrificial acu" (Apte's
Sansfgit Diclirmary, p. 588). In this work, as in other related Yoga Tantras , the
pattern of the mai,~la with a central divinity manifested to the four directions,
is the norm , although there is still some hesitancy over the final number of
Buddha-familiea. They are five so far as the arrangement of the mar:u,ialu is
concerned , but only four when the sets of rituals are arranged according to
familiea, thus reaulting in just four kalpo.s. Selected aspect, of tht-1e and other
related tantras will be dealt with below, for now it may be interesting to consider
what these da11e1 of tantra have in common with Mahlylna sutraa .
They continue the proceS&,which goes right back into the earllest period, of
introducing Indian (Hindu) divinitie6 into the Buddhist fold, and they continue
to keep them entirely subservient to the Buddhas and great Bodbisauvas. The
Mahayana sutras bad already increased to infinity the number of Buddhas and
Bodhisauvaa, all provided with aca:ptable Buddhist names, and there is no
oven suggestion that they were convened to the doctrine from outside. Even the
exceptional Vajrapu;ii , w~ rise to greatneu we have traced, is never regarded
as a conven, but rather as belonging to the Buddhist fold by some kind of
natural right . The same applies to the other great Bodhiaattvu, Maiijuirf and
Avalokite!vara, whatever their non-Buddhist antecedents may have been. Other
Rodhisauvas appear in leading roles in certain sutras , but even those who appear
with some kind of character (e.g .. Vimalaklrti or even Padmlltara) &earcely
achieve the universal greatness which these thttt achieve, and most of the many
&2 For gffie'TalR'!fttmoesto this ta.nu-aatt Msiijvmmidaltalpa in the Bibliography . Stt. especially
-=ion Ill .11 bdow.
150 III . TANTRIC BUDDHISM
01her Bodhisauavs appear as mere names . The great gods of Hinduism were
expla ined as emanatiom or deliberate manifestations of cenain Bodhisattvas,
e$pedaUy of Avalokitdvara, but it was also satisfac tory to repttsent them as
converu to the doctrin e, who are forced into iis service . Our quotation (section
IIUI) from the "Symposium of Truth" well illuatrates such an act of conversion,
and in thil way all the classes of minor Indian divinities , both male and female, ·:..
were graduaUy brought into the Buddhist orbit . The related tantra entitled the ,h
•:!,~
Sarvadurgatipariiodhana ("Elimination of All Evil Rebirths '!) contains several :;~
subtidiary ma~~aJas- of the Four Kings of the Q.uanen, of the guardian
divinities of the ten directions (four quarters, intermediate quarters, zenith and '.,il{
nadir), of the eight great planets, of the eight great serpents (naga.s), of
Bhairava (The Terrible) with his eight subsidiary terrible manifestations, all
accompanied by equally terribl e female panncn .65 Bhairava is merely the fierce , .
manifestation of Siva, and we shall note in the next section how these same .):: •
divinities , who appear in Yoga Tantras in lowly scatus, gain acceptance in
Supreme- Yoga Tantras u the embodiment of eupreme buddhahood. It would )j .
appear that in the tantras classed as Action (kriy4), Performance (ea~) and j~.
Yoga, feminine spouses are regarded as 1uitable only for thoae divinitiea of non -
Buddhist origin who appear in a subsidiary role. Howe~r. it is not comidered
unsuitable to provide the great Buddhist divinities with what may best be ·.:Jf •
desc~i~ as handmai~ens. These_ are godd~ who ~ave ~ discrtttly
received mto the Buddbm fold , ao discreetly that 1t 11 often 1mpo5S1bleto guess at · };~
the ir origins. Thus in th e mar.tc_ialadescribed in Chapter Two of the Ma.if.jwri-
mi.dakalpa("Fundamental Cndina nce of Mai'ijum") Avalokitdvara has around
him several such goddesses, Pl.Qc_iaravMinl , Tirl and BhrukuJi, a.e well u )~
Prajiiaparamita, Locana and Up:1(faraja, while Vajrap al,li has four more,
provided with suitable Vajra namee(see aection lll .11). Both theae great B<Jdhj . :~; ·
sattvas remain celibate , and one may assume that it was considered suitable to
provide them with such a feminine entourage, becaUle it was the custom for
prinaly figures to appear thus in real life. There is no indication of any godde11
receiving high Buddhist status before the beginning of tbeae tantric develop- .i]
menu which we are now attempting to unra~l. Prajiitpa.ramiti. being the :'!. ~•
Perfection of Wisdom herself , was the m01t easily penonified , but there is as yet · ;,~ ':
no cult of her as a great goddeea in Mahlylna SCttras.The first goddess to find a /j
niche in Buddhist monasteries was Htritl, the goddesa of plenty, and her cult
together with that of the guardian god Mahlltla, certainly belonged to ·,J~ '.
traditional everyday Mahayana practia: 64 (Pls. 21a. II b. 86). Whereas these wctt
easentially non · Buddhist in origin like so many of the later tantric divinities. the
goddesses who surround Avalokitdvara and who later receive an honorabJe
place within the group of the Five Buddhaa, are probably imaginative Buddhist j] '.·.
creations . Pl.Qf,laravasinl simply means the "one with the white garment" and it
u See T. Skorupski. SOPS Tamra, pp. 49ff.
64 ThisJ:'la"~~r cult ii wdl attowd by chc Chinese pilgrim-acholar I ·&mJ . See Ilia if Record of ).~ ::
the Buddhist Rclip}n , pp . S7-8.
)ll ,6.a Various Kinds of Tantras 151
is thus that she is described in the present context. She bolds a lotus in her left
hand and with the right she ia making a gesture of aalutation in the direction of
SAkyamuni. Both she and Tua, wh08C name me ans the ''one who saves" may be
regarded in origin u hypoataaes of AvalokitC5vara himsel f, since the act of
holding a lotus flower and the will l'Usave all beings are his two chief attributes.
t The other names all relate to essential pans of a Buddha's head . Bhrukuti is thus
the goddeas of the eyebrowa, between which reposes the Un'_l(Ior circle of white
ha ir, one of the thirty-two marks of a Buddha . Light rays shoot forth from thia
-i~ spot in many Mahayana autras, and this may have suggested the idea of such a
goddess. Locana is the goddess of the all-seeing Buddha-eye. and the ~a or
jf wiedom -bump. which is the primary mark of a Buddha, provides a whole 11etof
Buddha-emanations apa rt from the "u,Ql~·queen" who appean in the preaent
context . The goddesses around Vajrapa9i have self-explanatory name&.
Of the six high ranking goddesaes around A valokitetvara three are later
'Ji~· attached to the set of Five Buddhas , namely Locana , PlQ(Jaravasini and Tara.
Since they are placed at the intermediate points of the compaaa, four such
goddeS5CSare needed, their number being made up with Mamakl, whose na~
/I; means "my own" and concerning whoe origin I have so far no auggestion to
/f . make. Of the others PrajiU1plramita remains a great goddess in her own right,
continuing to symboliu: the Perfection of Wisdom, but she attr acts no great cult
?!· in the tantric period. This privilege comes to Tara in relationship with the other
Buddha -goddeua of the intermediate points of the compiUli, and as a White
/i · Tar!, when she manifests herselfas a Great Goddea, indeed u the greatest of all
)! · Buddhist Goddesses . in her own right (Pls. 22a, Jlb) . In effect she assumes the
primacy which belon~d to P194&ravasini, "the white clad one, " in Avalok i·
\:t teivara 's entourage in the mandala to which we have just referred. She becomes
a feminine version of Avalokiteivan rather than bis partner in that both of them
)! · remain major celibate divinities. Tu-1 also tends to replace Prajii:ipuamitl in
Ji~· that ahe comes to be regarded as the Mother of all Buddhas . Her remarkable
{!. success appears to be an exclusively Buddhist dew.lopment for which no
convincing Hindu parallel can be found. t) Her cult and to some euent her
aignificance corrapond in a marked way to the Christian Orthodox veneration
of Mary aa Mother of God , and it n no't impoaible that the conception of such a
suprfflte feminine divinity should have taken place in Buddhist minds as a result
{!·. of cultural contacts through northwestem India . It is more likely however that
the cult developed of iu own accord in Indi a with the concept of the Perfection
:;;t. of Wisdom a& a goddess leading the way. The remaining one of the six listed
?~I-: above, Bhrukuti. bu no very brilliant future. Her nam e comes to suggest a
/j ,: wrinkled forehead and thus she finds hersdf regarded as an ill-humored
J;:,-_ , ~ lforeumplesortbe faith andconficknc e sbe inspimoi,r may rum toStep~n Beyer. TIie Cull
of Tani, pp. 229ff . The Hindu godde1IDurga al$o deli.ven bet' supplkant.s from dlstre65 , but she is
. \; ; .' conceived of as a terrible bloodthhay dillinil:,. Tari for all her~ rrm.ains ~ign and ;aalways
~ptaenced 1bus. COCICCt'ning the wonhip of Tara with examples of hymm inioned in her honor sec
; (,m•: ~1· . op. ~it., pp . ~Hf.
)ilt-1:

152 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
manifestation of the far more popular Tlrt.
The main point being made throughout eo much incidental clilcuaion ia that
the leading figures, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and high ranking feminine divinities
can make a fair claim to a Bllddhiat pedigree in thoec classes of tantras that we
have been considering.
b. Tantras with Non.Buddhist Associations
In cenain other tantra$, espedaUy tboeewhich were later placed in a Supreme
Yoga clasa, the chief divinities have no affinity with thoae other Gttat Beings. the
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of the Mah1y1na smras and most tantras of the other
three claaes, of which we have comidered some examples . Also the whole
setting, the background to the play as it were, is entirely different.&& Thus we
find ounelves in cirC\l.nlltances much changed from the convencional Buddhiat
world with its glorious palaces and paradises. Such scene are normally set in the
opening chapter . Thus the Lord Sikyamuni/Vairocana preaches the
wsymposiumof Truth" in the palace of the king of gods in the Highest Heaven.
He teaches the Sarvadurgatiparisodhana Tantra in a heavenly park adorned
with flowers and trees of all kind.a, resounding with the warbling of birds, etc:. He
teaches the Manjummulakalpa in the high heaven known as the Pure Abode. He
teaches the MaM· Va,"rocana Tantra (a.lao referred to as a 11ltra) in the magn.ifi•
cent palace of the Vajra Dharma-sphere. By violent contrast these other tantras,
to which we now refer in aome detail, open with the words: "Thus I have heard:
at one tilm the Lord reposed in the vagina of the Lady of the Vajra-11phere- the
hean of the Body. Speech and Mind of all Buddhas" or some wry similar phrase
and we arc given no immediate description of the actual physical conditions
under which the tantra is proclaimed. Even without the help of the com-
mentaries we would be very narve indeed if we took such an opening statement
literally, and it ia probably superfluoU$ to explain to any informed reader that
what ii here suggested is the union of the practicing yogin with the abaolute state
of buddhahood ." Thu, is is claimed that the tantra in question should be
66 It.. Tajima in his bi.iu JVr I• ..W.Mellm>CIIM•Sufradra• a diltinction between chaoetantru
which -~ "a development of Mahayanist thought," tb1n "an otthodoa e.oteriam founded on the
Viaaya" with Nilanda as theiJ centtt. and ri- "Conned in• rather popular mould toward the end
of the eigbch ceouuy and declining into the -rum ol 1be left." n- he Cfflt-en at Viknmallrla. I
would~ doubtful about so dear a division aod ceriainly tbout the ptteite place of origin. but 1J0111e
rath« - ~octal distinctions can probably be drawn. Sec ahio first foomotc in sec:tion 111.I .
., It may be of inlf.ftA to quote a ,hon catraa from Jndrabbuti', jMrMtsiddhi,Chapter Fifteen
(a« Bhattacharyya. 7·..,., 1/ajra)'ina WorlJ, p. 81). where he commenu briefly oo thie opening
gambit , bringing ii izuo direct rclauon.blp with du, opening )*llage in the sn·s. which dacribe1
!he l_)l'OCUI or fina.1mlishtt!nem111of a perfected Bllddha (aill with Sikyam11w In mind) accwdinJ to
!he tanuic nor.Ionof spontane0111ru1i2&i:i011.
At one tum Bhagavan (the Loni or Blessed One) so called becau~ he is po,anaed of good qualine•
such as lordship and so on , waueposing in the "heart," viz...wildom , which is rcferftd to at "vajra·
miulkn" became it has the n,U\lre of llnbrealable know~ (l"aftia) , and again as l>h4ia
('"vagina,·· aldiough the 54..._ru word is here deliberately eq1aa~d with ll"4t1p. ··breaking'" or
"dettroying'.) beauae il destroy, all lhe afflictiol'II (#tleio). Sou ii in lbae bJu.p ol the vajn,•
ma.idffls,•• the bean of the .Body.Speech and Mind of aH lhe Buddl1a11hat he rq)OIC'&.his iaught
UJ.6.b Variow Kinds of TantmJ 155
regarded as a statement of absolute truth, .albeit in relative. viz.• symbolic or
5uggestive ten'DI. Moreover the Lord (Bhagavan) is no longer Sll.yamuni in any
of his recognizable bypoatasea. but a fearful being with the II.limeof ~ambara.
Vajra4tka. Heruka, Hevajra or Ca\)~abil'Of,l~a ("Fierce and Greatly Wrath-
ful ..). The tenns 4t)ka (male) and #Aini (female) refer to the fiendish flesh-
eating followers of Durgl, often simply ltnown :u Devi ("the Goddeaa"), ,pouse of
Siva. By aS50Ciation they also refer to the yogins and yoginls who follow Saivite
rites. The names of Heruka, C~cµmahAl'Of,11;1a.as well as Bhairava ("the
Terrible One"), already mentioned above. are all associated with Siva. These
names alone would be enough to ,uggt-at that those tantra, where such a being is
the Lord, originated amongst groups of yogios, whose practices brought them
into dOIC relationship with Saivite communities. A description of one such Lord
may be helpful.
Since a description of Hevajra ia aheady available in English translation, 68 I
choose one of Sambara, al$o known aa Cakrasa~vara, whose cycle of tantric
texts became very popular in Tibet (Pl.s. 24. 26). $ambara and .SO,rlt.ll'lra
represent the same name in Sanskrit with slightly variant spellings, but the
second spelling happens to be indentical with the word meaning a vow or a
bond. Thu, the Tibetans translated them diffettntly: Sambara u bDe•mchog,
"Supreme Blis.s," which is how they interpret this name, whatever the spelling,
and S~vara as sDom-pa, understood as "binding" or "union." The compound
name, Cakrasaq1Vara, is therefore interpreted as the "union of the wheel of the
elementa" explained in various ways, but suggesting in every caee the blissful
scate of perfect wisdom. Thus the point may be made at once that the inveati-
gation of origins of the materials uaed in the formation of the tantJ'as and the
interpretation that Buddhist tradition places upon these materials are two very
different things indeed. Samba means in Sanskrit blested or fortunate, similar in
meaning therefore to Siva. A similar word Sambhu with the same meaning ii
used as a name of Siva. Sambara, like Takkara (see section 111.4) and Sumbha
were used u demonic names in the Saivite cucle just u were Herulta and
Bhairava. Thus in their original we all these names suggest no more than a
fierce manifestation of divinity, to be placat.ed on occaaions by such epitbeta as
"fortunate," precisely as Siva ("fortunate") was earlier applied to the god Rudra
("Wild"). In tranalating Sambara as "Supreme Bliu" the early Tibetan
translators, presumably following the advice of their Indian muters. wett
rhus: that !he wi&domUIMioio)oC1.hl!yogin penetrates lhe wildoma of All Buddbat aod tbeer att
mutu.aJly pervading and pm,asiv~. R~poling in this•tatt totally mean& that one does not repoel!in
~ the wiadomsby d~, but that one ~i,o- ln them aponianeou.tfy(Sanskrit.,..,.,-,. Tibetan
ag-car). [The Samknt test, p. 81, I. 1!>mURbe oom,aed In accordantt with the Tibetan u,,u.
TT vol. 68, p. 249·!·2, by uuerting a negative paniclt o· before slkitam and m,wpor~ting the
additional w«ds which Bhattatharyya rdqaca to a footno1e. J
lndrablw:tl then ll1111trata thi1 by a q1.totadon from the STTS (translated beJ..., in ecetion Ul. l!l.f).
For ill explicit applicarioa IO the Buddha ~iltyarnuni, see Leaing and Wayman, Ftmd4mflllttds of
lluBudtlhiJt 1ifflNll4, pp. 28·55. .
ea ~e my editi011of the Hnojra Ta,atra. beginning ol U.~.
154 111. TANTRlC BUDDHISM
deliberately interpreting it in a vny special tantric aenae, which detaches it from
its "pagan" origina . We now see how this fierce manifestation is described:
Within the divirM!abode (the ma.9<Jala) in the center o{ the circle on a ,olar
disk rcscing on an eight-petalled locua is Caltru8J1lvara bimtelf. He has four
faces, the front one dark blue, the left one green, the back one red and the
right one yellow. Theae symbolize the four material elements_ (eanh, water,
fire and air), the four infinitudes ( = "pure abodes", bmlamav,h4Ta). the four
releues and the four ritual acts .ff His body is blue, indicating that he does not
diverge from the (celestial) Dbarma-sphere . Each face has three eyes,
indicating that he sees the (whole) threefold. world and that he knows the
substance of the three times (past, present and future). He has twelve arm&,
indicating that he comprehends the evolution and revens~ of t_hetwe~vcfol~
caU,Salnexu5 and eliminates these twelve stages of uanmugrauon. With hm
first pair of hands, which hold a vajra and bell, he cmbra~ his spouse.
symbolizing the union ofWiadom and Me~. With his next pair of ha!1ds (he
holds aloft) a raw elephant hide made mto a garment, thua rending the
elephant of il1U.1ion . object, he has a lOOiClower garment of tiger skin . He possesses the fully
With the third (right) band he holds a drum, for hia voice resound&joyoualy.
With the fourth an axe, since he cuts off birth and death at the roots.
With the fifth a sacrificial knife, since he cull off the sis defects, pride and
the rest.
With the sixth a trident, since he overcomea the evil of the threefold world.
With hia third left hand he holds a 1'h4fvmiga(acepter adorned with super·
imposedskulls), since he is poeeesaedof the blissful Thought of
Enlighrenment.
With the fourth he holds a skull filled with blood, since he has cut away
discrimination between nistence and nonexiJttnee.
With his fifth he holds a vajra noose. since he binds pure wisdom in the
life-series of living beings.
With the sixth he holds the (severed) four -faced head of Brabml, since
he avoids all illusion.
Indicating that through his grut compassion be remains in the realm of living
beings, with his outstretched right foot he treads on the supine figure of the
70
Night of Time (who TCpn:sents) the extremity of nirval}&, She is red and
emaciated and holds a sacrificial knife and a skull cup. Indicating that
through his great wisdom he holds neither to the idea of a person nor of any
real e!rment, with his left foot which is drawn back he ueads face-downward
the figure of Bhairava (who ~epresents) the extremity of 1&Jlldra. ~e .is bla~k
with four hands and in the r1gtu ones he holds a drum and a ,ac::nficialknife
and in the left ones a khalvanga and a skull cup.
Since he (Cakrasaqivara) is replete with accumulations (of meritl and
" The f<>ur,~leuc6 (wnok.f,r) are that of the Void (m..,,..,..-,.,oAta), of Signlcwna,s (Pinulta-),
Effortlea,-s (apronihlla -) and the totally nomonditionecl (anabhira~·). The four ritual KIi
ar<-esplained bf:lowin !lr.'Ction
Ill . I S.e. . worud. He .i.,,,e.,,.,. acclamation aathe mo1t heroic (and tell-effacing) tr&111latotfToll\ Tibeun into
,e MNightofTiD\c" ( fibetan Dua·mtsban·ma . conespon<ling to Sanskrit 1Ularatr1')i,coru:eiwd of
as a godde11. Thm like a good Midhyamika he avoids t~ two extttmt$ of nirv~ (undemood ••
final desmaccion) and saJ!IISara, ,ymbooml by the bloodthirsry Bbaitava. · (e.g .• balloon, buffer. etc .)forwhich the.-ewu no straight equivall!nt.
UI.6.b Vanous Kinds of Tamras 155
knowledge), the tip of his matted hair, which is bound up on the top of ~s
head, ia adorned with a precious wish-granting gem, for be bestows all
desirable tbingi in accordance with one's wishes . Since the Thought of
Enlightenment iaever on the increaae, there is a lunar crescent on the left side,
while on the top of his massed hair thett is a crossed double vajra (vilvavajra),
indicating that be operates through different kinds of action for the good of
living beings . There is a crown made of five deticcated human heads
surmounting each of his four faces, indicating the fully developed quality of
the five Wiadoms . He has a garland of fifty freshly severed heads representing
the purity of the fifty vowela and comonants (of the Sanskrit alphabet).
Indicating that he has vanquished the Evil One (Mlra) and false teachinga
be makes a grimace and his teeth are fanglile. His ear ornaments symbolize
(the perfection of) patience, his necklace generOlity, hia braceleta morality . bi1
girdle effort, and the coronet of bones meditation; the funeral-pytt ashes with
which he is smeared represent wisdom, thus completing the Six Perfection& as
represented by these aix adommema .
Heroically subjugating the Evil One and avoiding the cotu:cpts of subject and
d~loped qualities of Body. Speech and Mind and ia skilful in coming to the
aid of those potential followers who are distressed by the emotions. Thus he is
flamboyant, heroic, unlovely, wild, fearful, terrible , compassionate, dignified
and serene. Such are the nine modea of bis dance. 11
Dapite the symbolic interpretation in exclusively Buddhist terms , the origin of
this divinity must surely be clear. The naked ascetic smeared in ashes with piled
11 A ahol'ie!' "canonical" delcription of thiadivinity, vii., with°"! inteTpfttllio.na, will be found in
Shinfchi T.udJI'• e,ra,llent edition of edected chaixen from the s.t,ilwrod4,e Toatra, pp. U9 •4 .
Myextract i1 tUai from a Tibetan ricual tnt entitled: "Clarifying the Oi'dft of the ritc (_,_Ila.,.)
of the circk of the mat14ala of Sri Cakrasarpvara " as pnblisbecl with Daw a Samdup'a English tra& ·
lation by Arthur Avalon (John Woodroffe) In bla Totaim Tt#ts, "C>I. VU. 1'hc volume is milleadingly
ffltitled Shric/uaJmuambli.¼raTtllltFa, A BuU/ust Talllni, as though it coola.inedtbe basic tantra ,
which it docs not. Anbur Avalon is wdl known foe his won:. on ~aivite tantras. and in this volume he
find• himlelf in unfamiliar territory, as is at once clear from bis introduction. Kazi DawaSamdup
•• a quite remaitable Sillime,e lama, w'h<iee abilhles ~ made w;c of by others in a mannCT that
would11earcclybe pmaible nowada)'I-He ii rcsponaolcfor all the diffie1)lcwwk of tramlation in three
of the ,olumea of Tibeuin tc,,ts. edited by W. Y. Evan.,Wmti , who impoeed his penonal illter·
pretatiom upoa daerrl in hia 111111 introduc;tions . n._ Kazi Dawa SamdllJ) -nc:-erm:c:Md the kind of
uliltancc whim he ~rwd. such as mcoura,anau in the editing orh is tCi ta before 1ranalatiDC1.In
the prewnr caH the Tibetan tnt i, limply ~u~ u hc found it on hi, block print. Thu my
a-arulation presume.the need f'" ccnain C!lrlendati<>N.
The ttttact will he fowld on p. ll, I. 7 10 p. U. I. 4 of his reproduced text. MUlJ such .JiltlluJftlU
are auilable, but for convenience 1 ha~ chmed it agaimt Taong,kha,pa·, "Clarification ol lhc
bliaful nw:tbod of Cakrasaq1vara according to the Great Yogui Luipa" as rendered into Italian by
Professor Tucci in Jnd(,.Tr'beticc, JIU. pp. 22-6. The ~ription is practically identical but the
aairoiladON aft &lightlydiflaendy ordered. One should refer to dlis wodt for a detailed description
of the whole mai;w,lala. One may acid that Kaai Dawa Samdup'1 tramlatiOll ill rendett.d rathCT tedious
to foll- beu1&1Cof bi, 1,1,eof invented phonetic llfl"llill8' for the vase number of dmnities who
appear before u1, althoqb in many c- accurate Sllllllrit equivalent• are (i9ffl in bis footnoia.
Other no1a arr not ao 1ucefllf11Iand irl4lftd could not be gi11enin the conditiona 11*• wbieh he
l.i>glish who hN tter ap~ared In our ldtolarly world. Hc produced llil'(lehar,ded the fint btfluh ·
Tibd&n l>ictiOMry (cak:una. 1919). i-ting ingenious Tibetan lnierprcta tions lo, En11wt ienna
156 III. TANTIUC BUDDHISM
up matted hair, adorned with a lunar crescent, wearing akins of elephant and :~_:;,·_
tiger, garlanded with skulls, holding trident, drum and hkatrl4nga.,all these ""
anributea indicate Siva a1 lord of yogins, the very one whom VajrapaQi is
presumed in another context to have reduced to abject submisaion. Thus the -.
aame Indian divinity, who already possesses several aspects in Hindu devotion,
enters the Buddhist pantheon at varying levels of acceptance. and no contra - ·:}
diction whauoever manifests itself, as this spontaneow appropriation of ~
religious figures (and aome not so religious figures) proceed,. All the divinities
listed above together with Sambara are of Saivite type and the only name -~
amongst them which ii a Buddhilt invention ii Hevajra, derived from the -~
salutation of He Vajra ("Hail Vajra!"), with which a master acclaims his pupil ·,,
after the relevant comcaation (see the extract from STIS in aection Ul.15.a). ·i,
The reptttentativc, of supreme enlightenment as interpreted by tantric yogins, ;)
:fI
they are aU said to be fierce forms of Aqobhya. the Imperturbable Buddha of ·J.t:
the East, whoee name is duplicated as Acala (also meaning imperturbable, · 1}:
immovable) within this context of fierce divinities . A5 will become dear below,
when we deal specifically with Buddha-familie.1, AltlfObhya's family ia the family ':J
of wrath. However, it seems to have been in eastern India in the central and '{; ·
lower Ganges valley, where Bodhgaya u the actual site of the winning of
enlightenment was certainly the chief place of traditional Buddhist pilgrima~.
that the tantras which centeT on these divinities who are identified with
A~obhya originate or at lea~ first come to light. As was observed in section
11.! .a above, the image which fixes symbolically the winning of enlightenment i•
that one where Stkyamuni is represented as touching the earth with the fingers
of his right hand in order to call the Earth-Coddeu to witness, thus showing him
rE.:~;..;;;
!~;;-,:;~:;;;1;;::.:1
.,.•
:;__
_,•._.,_
~ .-.:~--:~':};
_
that arose later in this region nttd not be surprising. Their geographical origin ;.,
would seem to be cenain fur two reuona. Many of the famous yogim, who fint
promulgated these tantras, some of them writing commentaries that arc
preserved in the Tibetan canon, are also well known as the authors of religious :?f.~·
so~ rel~ting pre~ly to the sam~ tantric teachings, and survivin~ in a ~id~e )j j;.
Indian dialect , which bas been vanously referred to as Old Bengali, Old B1han, - ,1fi-
Old Mithili and Old Oriya.n They may well relate in some way to all the modem
languages of India which go under these names, but there is no doubt that they
all belong to eutem India. They may be dated at the latest to the twelfth {~ ·
century, but many of them are likely to be several centuries earlier. Dating,
according to the authorahips attributed depend upon the dates one attempis to ,i
give to these tantric yogins, and with very few exceptions, for example NAropa
(probably A.D. 956-1040), uncertainty prevails . It may even be doubted whether )f
the same name means the same author, as names are so often duplicated. None
7! For a definitl~ edition of them aee Ptt Kvaeme. An Anthology of Buddllist TO'lllrie Songs. For
examples.- below.
m.6.b Vanous Xin.ds of TantTa 157
1 of these problems, however, affect our preaent arguments, for the geographical
area in which the ir activities are centered remaina unquestionable. A second
,t_
~_J
_·_ reason for certainty derives from the fact that these yogins, who are con·
ventionally numbered as eighty-four "Great Adepts" (mahasiddha) are alto
't · known of in Saivite ttadition, being aaociared with the practice of tantric culu
in dlf: same general a-n!a, which continued to be practiced long after Buddhism
had ceased to be in any sense an established religion in eastern lndia(Pl. 2J). ltis
li interear.ing to note that two of these great yogiN are aseoc:iatedwith the founding
of a form of yoga, closely related to that which is described in the Buddhist
tantru now under conaideration, which has survived to tbi. day in a Saivite
SC'tting.and has been accurately and sympathetically described. 75
What may be fairly deduced 10 far from dleff rather general obaervations IO
far as the origins of these Buddhist tantras are concerned? Betwttn the eighth
and the twelfth centuries certain Buddhisis began to take a ,pecial interest in
forms of "violent yoga" (hathayoga) which were then in ·vogue in eastern India.
:1 Thus they frequented the places of retreat where such practice. could be
learned. M01t of these yogins, as will immediately be aeen from our further
discussion, lived deliberately as "outcastes" from society, rejecting its
__
.:::'.·_::~
--~.~~
;_;·/f_:,_.
conYentions and nomu. However, while they were not "Hindu" in any strict
f, Brabmanical sense, they were inevitably affected by the whole religious environ·
ment of their upbringing. Thus thoee who met together as maaten and pupila
. :{g would certainly not be all operating at the level where andistinctions are merged
__
,_•.~,}_
' into a "single flavor" and all divine forma are resolved into the peraon of the
; practicing yogin. There can hardly be any religious practice anywhere, even that
:J\ · which relies upon the mental and physical cult of yoga, which dispcmes
altogether with outward forms of wonhip of a chosen divinity. This may have
':,';~-=
.• ·_
·.
been attempted in the earliest Buddhist period. whe? Sakyamuni himself was
present as a center of devotion, but we have obaerved already how rapidly the
cult of the stlipa developed, followed by that of his image,, gr-adua1ly coming to
represent a plurality ofBuddha-namea.
i!(· If we seek to know what kind of worship was practiced by these later yogins of
eastern India or at Jeaat by their lea advanced followen, the answer i• clearly
available in the relevant tantric texts at our disposal. They worshipped a divinity
in terrible form, whether male or female, identifaable in Hindu tradition as a
i. fierce form of Siva or of his spouse the Great Goddeta (DeVf), using a variety of
-Ji{ names, such as were adopted by the Buddhist practitionen who were associated
with the1e groups. The Saivite identificadon represented the continuing Indian
:1,· tendency to bTingall locally indigenous manifestations of religion into the Hindu
fold, mainly by means of croa-identification of diviniriea, and thus in origin
)J : such fearful gods, being no more Hindu than Buddhist, could be interpreted in
accordance with differing philoeophical and religious traditiona.
:i ,
/1:-'
Ar;:_
All thete high ranking fierce divinities are C$1Cntia1Jythe same and the various
traditions that developed concerning their names, attributes, feminine partnen
,, G. W. Briggs, Gcn1.Unetlland tlw Konp4ala Yogis, a> which I make detailed ~fer,:ncu below.
l1
,,,:.,.·.
-L r

158 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
and penonal entourage, depended upon whatever became fixed in a particular
cirde where the cult wa, established. Theae tantric circles drew upon similar
source materials, as is dear from the texts, which were gradually accumulated,
usually in a rather haphazard method. Even the names of the chief divini~es are
to some extent interchangeable: thus Hevajra's panner, who is usually Nair•
atmya (the SelOe• One - a good Buddhist name), may also be Vajravarahf (the
Sow-Headed Goddess, usually usociated with Sambara) or the leas known Vajra·
,p.'lkhala (the Goddess with the Cham), depending upon his various mani·
festations (Pl.s. 26, 27). According-to the texts the poasible combinatiom could
be infinite because the diainctions have no ttal significance in themselves. In the
matter of the entourage there ia far great.er 1tability, because the divinities, male
or female as the case may be, of which it was composed, fixed in effect the
description of the map.4ala and it wu always important that this should be laid
out correctly. The great tantric divinities are usually surrounded by females, u
may be expected, and probably Hevajra's circle i1the moat carefully formulated:
Envisaging in the aky that Lord. who is vajra-born and of great compaaion, .-;
one lhould worship him in the company of right goddesses who are all ~caring
their adornments. Gaurt (the Blond) holds the moon, Caurl (the Thief) the :,
aun•veuel, Vetali (the Vampire) holds water, Ghasmari (the Rapacious) holds
medicament. Pukkasf (the Outcaste) holds a vajra, Savari (the Hill-woman)
holds ambrosia and Ca'l)c;iali(the Half·ca$~) sounds a drum. By these the
Lord is worshipped, with J;)ombi (the Washerwoman) clinging to his neck and
impassioned with great passion. 74
The items being offered by these godde111e1are concealed by the use of the SO·
called "enigmatic langua~" (sandhobhdio). They comprise semen and blood,
urine and excrement, tieldom referred to explicitly in the Hevajra Tanlro, but
frequendy listed elsewhere, especially in the Guhyo.samiija,which is not so much
concerned a bout secrecy."
J;>ombi, the Washerwoman, who is identifiai in the above passage with
Nairltmya, ii probably the moat favored panner, and Kmia (K~ha) who wrote
a commentary on the Hew.fro Tantra co11$U.Ddysings her praises.
Outside the town, 0 l)ombf, is your but.
The 1havcn headed (brahmin boy) goes constandy touching you.
Ho {)ombll I shall a.uoci.atewith you,
I, Klt,ma, a Uplli-yogin, shameless and naked.
One is the lotus, sixty-four its petab.
Having mounted on it, the poor l)ombl dances.
Ho ()ombll I ask you earnestly:
74 H.T. J.iii,8-10. Th-c:igbt"goddaaes'' are akotbc companiomo!hl,paru,er, Naidunya.
75 They may be illleTpffted in the Hno.jra Tamra by ma.lung1DCof Kinba'• commeotary (,.ol, II,
p. 114) and the tile of equaaona on pp, 99-100. A.afor the Gull,--. Tamra, aee e.g .• Chapter
Pifteen {Bbauad:iaryya. p. 64. I. 5, p. 65, I. 1!1,etc. ). Thii chapter aleo co,nmnd.s the t)oalbi ... lhc
ideal partntt. A good diecuaiOftof "enigmatic langua~" will be found in Aphanallda Bharat1, TA,
Totric TrodiU-, pp. 164--IH. A useful list ol examples occ:un iD d,i, H..,,.jm 1'ant,o, • inter•
pretl!d by me in vol. J, pp. 99-100.
Hl.6.b Yariow Kinds of Tantras 159
In whole boat, 0 J;>ombi,do you come and go?
Strings you aell, 0 J;)ombi, and also baskets.
For your sake I have abandoned the actor's box.
Hof You are a Oombi, I a kipali.
For your sake I have put on the garland of bones.
Troubling the pond, the ~ombi cats lotus roots.
I kill you, 0 t)ombf , I take your lifel
Or again:
In the middle between Ganges andjumna there flows a river.
The outcaste woman effortlettly ferries acrou the yogin who is sunk thctT.
Steer on, t)ombi, 1teer on, 0 t>ombl.
It became twmght on the way; (yet) by the grace of the feet
of the True Guru I shall go again to the City of the Jinas.
Five oars are plkd at the stern, the rope is tied behind.
With the pail of the skysaturate (the boat so that)
water does not enter through the joints.
Sun and Moon are the two wheels for raising and lowering the mast.
Ignoring the left counc and the right , steer on at will.
She does not take pennies, she takes not farthings-
she ferries across at her own will.
But whoever enters transpon unable to control it, sinks down
on either bank.76
The companions of the other great tantric figures may not be so colorful. Thus
Sambara, whosespouse is che Sow-Headed Goddess, has four other female
co~panions, who are named III J;>akinf("Enchantress"), Lama ("Paramour''),
Khandaroha. (?"Arising from Fragments" according to the Tibetan form of the
name, viz., Dum-sk.ye.s·ma)and Rupu,I ("Beauty"). They are all referred to a1
k4fJ4linfs, companions of Uplli-yogins and seem to be distinguished only by
equarioN that are made between them and the four classes into which Indian
erotic literature divides women as objects of enjoyment. 71 The C~~maha·
r~~ Tantra, which deligha more than any other in the joya of copulation ,
providet its chief divinity, the ''Fierce and Gready Wrathful One" with an
entourage which is manifestly an entirely Buddhlst creation. His panner ii the
76
See P~r Kvaa-ne, An Anth.owtyof Budt/Aisl Tonm~ S11111s, pp. lUff. and IS I ff. for a detailed
upooition . One: may refer also m S. Daegupta, Owa.N R•ligiow Cull&, pp. lOS-6. We are
c-n..d ti.,..., with yoga 11ndthu, what Is being de.cribed in the intetoal procaa wlrh me yagin'•
body; 11tt s«tion Jll.15 .c. Kitp«Jitt , meaning "auociated with slulls, ~ ii an adjective lorm«l from
lrirpi,la,and rcttTIto the clua of yoglo with whom we att now dealing. Thi, IYJM! of yogin In a ~ivilt
contt,1.da ~bed by D. N. Loremm In TAe Kilpirliltoscltd KilamltAhcs; 1-w- ioucbl!s upon &imilat
groupsof Buddhist yogins but refer& to little ~lcvant material in this respect, On pp. 69-70 he quotes
IOale of Kanha 'a verses. but lacking Per Kv:crnt.'s autboritatl,e "en.ions(published five yean bu:r)
of this very difficult linguistic material. 1w.provides a rather ua,awfaaory translation. Following
upon G . W . Briggs and S. B. D11J8Upca (sec the Bibliogiaphy) his work II ao invaluable ~triburion
ii:.dus little known S>lbject, od1eiwile -.iliau:d by thl! pttjwlicn of ignonnce .
77
Stt S. Tauda, SalllVlffOda,aTMllflJ, XIII, 2~-7 and XXl. 1·16. The fout cl- ari, "low,.
lib" (fJGdminC),"elephaodi~" (ho.Jthtl), "conc:hliu " (lattihinl) and ''uricgarecl" (citrir,lt). Tbe-y
Dit:tion.ory,which quowaIn each caac from the Ratimalljatt.
att all deRnedin Apce·a S..11.1/wit

160 111. TANTRJC BUDDHISM
"Lady of the Vajra-spbcrc" ( VajradMtvlwan) and they have eight companion,,
four male and four female. The male ones are all known as Acala
("Im.movable'') synonymous with ~bhya, aa we noted above, and they are
distinguished. only by their colon as appropriate co the four quarters, namely
white, }<elk>w,red and dark green. 78 The fe~ale ones. ar~ all Vajrayoginia name~
after four of the Five Evils: Delusion, DeS1rc, Mabgmty and Envy. Wrath is
omitted AS thia coalesces with the "Lady'' at the center.
'1. T ANTRIC FEASTS
:_:·
The reader of tantrk texu soon becomes awatt that they range from the
preac-..hingof ttrict living to extreme licentioumcss, the former applying quite
explicitly to the pupil who is undergoing training, and the latter to the perfected
yogin, who ii not only free from all social conventions but who has a1aolearned
the secret of the abaence of puaion by meam of the pauions. There is a tendency
nowadays, much promoted by Tibetan lamas who teach in the Western world,
to treat references to sexual union and to fonna of wonhip carried out with
"impure substances" (referred to usually as the "five nectars") as symbolic. l"Mre
ia some justification for this, but it ia only part of the truth. Thus when Ktl)h.a
serenades his washerwoman as the source of his bliaa, he is referring to internal
practice. of yoga. Likewise the Hevafra Tantra is often q~ite explicit in its
reference to esoteric meanings. But when modem apolog11t1 use the term
"symbolic" u though to suggest that the external practices were never taken in
any literal sense, they mislead us. Central to tantric pracice ia the reflual to
diatinguishbetween the everyday world (saqiu.ra) and the experience of nirv1?a.
The outer practices were certainly performed in the centera where the matenals
of which such tantras consist were recited and eventually committed to writing,
even if the TibetaN have since ceued to perform m01t of them. Indeed many of
them were so much part of the Indian sceM, that their traneference to Tibet wu "'
possible only in a partial form. J obeened earlier that the setting of these tantras
is totally different from that of the Mahlylna 10tn.1 and thole other tantras
(mainly ,ny4 .. cary4· and :,oga·) that continued the tradition of attributing
their teachings to S:ikyamuni in one of his more recognizable forms in a park. or
palace or some such idyllic place. The typical setting of these tantras which
centcr on the cult of Heruka and 1imilar fierce manifestatiom ia quite well
described for \1$ and the sites are even methodically listed.
Placing the linga in the bhaga and ki111ingher again and again, so producing
the experience of Great Blias, the Adamantine One talked abou.t fe~ting,
Now listen, Goddess of wide open eyes, to the matter of fea~m~ m ~be
company-circle, where having feasted, there is such fulflUment (siddhi) which ·
,. s« c. 5. George, Tit• Cati-"41,.aA<irosa!UI
Tantm, pp. 18 and t4. In a footooi£ (p. 18) he_
to relate cbe nameAc"'4 t0 CM name of the eighth stage of Bodhisauva. It is indeed tbesame word,
buc there ii lllO dim,1 ~ati011 in the ptaent case:.
Ul.7 Tantric FtaSts 161
fulfilla the tubatance of all one'a desires. One ahould set about this fea11tingin a
cemetery or a mountain cave, in a reaort of nonhuman beings or in a daeni:d
place. One should arrange seats there, reckoned as nine, in the form of
corp1e1 or tiger lkins or throucb from a cemetery. The one who embodies
Hevajra should be placed in the ccnter of the yoginls, wh01e places are known,
as taught before, in the main directions and intermediate points. Then seated
upon one's tiger skin, one thould eat the "gpiced food" of the sacrament,
enjoying it, and one ahouJd eat with eagerness the "kingly rice." When one has
eaten and eaten again, one should honor the mother-goddesses there and they
may be mother or sister or niece or mother-in-law. One should honor them to
a high degree and gain fulfillment in their company. The chief lady should
offer to the master an unmarred sacred skull filled with liquor, and having
made obeisance to him, she ,hould drink it herself. She should hold it in her
hands in a lotus-gesture, and present it with the same gesture. Again and
again they make obeisance, those winners offulfillment."
The "spiced food" of the &acrament refers to a concoction of the flesh of a
human being, a cow, an elephant, a hone and a dog. The "kingly rice" ttfen to
specially selected human flesh, that of a man who has been banged, a warrior
killed in battle or a man of irreproachable conduct who hu returned aeven times
to a good human state,., There need be no doubt that these items were sought
after and used according to their availability. We are also informed by KaJ}ha's
commentary that the "special skull" means one of a brahmin. The tantra itself is
explicit enough: "One should mark. out a 'te\'Cn-timer' with the characteristics
ttCOUnted in H~jra.. In the seventh birth there comes about that perfection
which is typical of the 'joy of Cessation.' He has a fair-sounding vojce, beautiful
eyes and a sweec-emdling body of great gplendor and he pollllClleS srven shadows.
When he sees such a one the yogin should mark him out. By the mere act of
eating him, one will gain at that moment the power of a·n aerial being."
(I.xi.9· l l ). A commentary by a certain DharmakJrti explains the magical rite by
which the seven shadows may be seen, but there was probably no need to
protted so far once the more obvious characteristics were noted. Did one track
him down and wait for him U> die or did one hasten the proces&?AU theae tantras
give so many fierce rites with the object of slaying. that the second alternative
might not &eem unlikely, and indeed there can be no doubt that the followers of
the Great Goddess (Devl or Durgl as she may be known) souglu out suitable
sacrificial victims, a practice still attested in British days. Such a fate almost
befell the most famoua of Buddhist Chinese pilgrim-acholan, who toured all over
nonhcrn India in the seventh century. It is not without interest to quote from bis
travelog:
The Matter of Dharma left the kingdom of A yodhyl, having paid reverence to
19 TM H•r,afra Tanh'a, ll.,ni.5,15.1 haw: a~ecl myearl~rtranllatlon.
90 The terms att interpreted in acconlan<.e with the fixtd "enigma.de Ian~" as oonfirmecl by
commematon. K.inha wed d~ co&! go·ku·da·lta-na for the five kinds of fleeh (my ~I. II, p. 155,
l 24). For the interpretation of the code 1tt H.T. l.xi.5-9. Con«-ming the one who returns seven
times, s« H.T. l,xi.9·11 u well as l.vii.21 with the rdevaru foocnotu.
162 111. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
the saettd traces, and following the course of the River Ganges, proceeded
eastward , being on board a vessel with about eighty other fellow passengen.
He wished to reach the kingdom of 'O-ye-mu-lthi (Hayamukha). After going
about a hundred li, both banks of the river were lhrouded by the thick. foliage
of an a.Jokaforest, and amidst these trees on either bank were concealed some
ten pirate boats. Then these boats, propelled by oars, all at on.cc burst forth
into the midstream. Some of those in the ship, terrified at the ,ight, cast them-
selves into the river, whilst the pirates, taking the ship in tow, forced it to the
bank. They then ordered the men to take off their clothes, and searched them
in quest of jeweb and precious stones. Now these pirates pay worship to the
Goddess Durgl and every year during the autumn, they look out for a man of
good fonn and comely features, whom they kill, and offer his flesh and blood
in aacrifice to their divinity, to procure good fonune. Seeing that the Master
of Dharma was suitable for their purpose, both in respect of his distinguished
bearing and his bodily strength and appearance, chey exchanged joyful
glances and ,aid: "We were letting the season for aacrificing to our goddCIS ,
pass by, became we could not find a suit.able person for it, but now thia monk
is of noble form and pleasing features- let us 'kill him as a sacrifice and we
shall gain good fortune." The Master of Dharma replied: "If this poor and
defiled body of mine is indeed suitable for the purpose of the sacrifice you
propose, I, in truth, dare not grudge (the offering), but as my intention in
coming from a distance was to pay reverence to the image of Bodhi ( = Bodh-
gaya) and the Gri;lhrakO.µ (the Vulture Peak), and to enquitt as to the
character of the Sacred Books and the Law, and as this purpose has not ~t
been accomplished, if you, my noble benefacton, kill this body of mine, J fear
it will bring you misfortune. "~1
The "pirates" refused to relent and while the sacrificial altar was prepared,
HAian-tsang composed himself by meditating upon Maitteya. becoming so
ravished by the joys of Main-eya's paradise, that he was totally unaware of what
was happening around him. A mOLStterrible storm suddenly arose from CM four
quarters, smiting down trees, throwing up clouds of sand and lashing great
waves from the river. The "pirates" were terrified at such an omen, and so
renounced their intention. Hauan•taang, meanwhile awoken from his trance,
accepted their change of heart with compassion and preached to them on the
evils of their way of living.
Allowing for the quite proper litCTary embellisbm~ts, wt: have heri! a valid
account of how a suitable victim might be found. If we are indeed dealing with
"pirates," then they might well paS& on a ponion of such valuable flesh to related
groups of yogins. who could use it for their own special purposes. Flesh was
certainly required at these festivals, and one reason is given implicitly in the
shore passage quoted concerning the "seven-timer." By eating his flesh, one
11 Stt T~ LJJ~ of Hitun- Tsiong by Shaman HWlli 1.i aod Slll'f\o!i'lBeal. lirill publi1b,,d in Loodon .
J884. available now fr<>mAcademiea Aaiatica. D~i. 197~. pp. 86·90 for tlw whole story. C..on·
c:eming Ayodhyio(modem Ajodhya) aftd Hayamukha, onr may n,ff,r to Samuel Beal, S..ddlwi
RuordJ of Ille We.Item World. pp . 224·!14. Slight amend-nu have bttn maM ir, th,, traMlation
with the-help of Dr. Katherine Whitaker.
111.7 Tantric Pea.sis 163
appropriates~ oneself hie exalced nature, which is said to typify the last of the
four stages of JOY(sec pp. 245-6, 264-6). The "power of an aerial being" is inter·
preted in Saroruha's commentary as meaning the universal power of a Vidyt·
dhara. The partaken can scarcely have expected such an immediate effect, but
they may well have believed that the aacrificial flesh would fonify them
"spiritually" on the way toward the powers they sought. 81 Thus any kind of flesh,
once con.ecraced aacramentally, would serve the required putpoae, and if meat
could not be obtained any ~itable substitute, worked onwith the imaginative
power of mental concentranon, would do. The Guh~maja Tantra teaches
quice openly on theae matters without the constant use of "enigmatic
language," in which the Hew.fra Tantra excels .
With the pree~inent sacrament of human fleah one attaim to the supreme
!hreefold VaJ~ ( = the Body, Speech and Mind in the ultimate Vajra senee).
With the preemment sacrament of faeces and urine one becomes
a lord of magical power ( vidy6dh11Ta).
With the sacramental flesh of the elephant one gains the five magical
accomplishments (abhijii4).
With the 11acramental flesh of the hone one muten the art of becoming
invisible,
W!tb the sa~c~al flesh of the dog one achieve&all ritual successes (siddhi).
Wuh the .sa':"ficial flesh~{ ~e cow che Vajra power of invoking (4lar,s4~
= conJurmg up, drawmg mto one's prewnce) worb best.
If all these kinds of flesh are not available, one should envisage them
aJI by meditating . With this vajra-yoga one becomes empowered by all
the Buddhas. as
1:he ~w_etf~cbapcer from which this is taken emphasizes tbe importance of
V1SUalwngm the performance of the various rites, and thus the above lilt is
intended merely u a general statement on the u11e1 of different kinds of flesh.
Th~ fifteenth cha~~ prescribes the actual course of the rites, such as gaining
~gh~nmcnt, ~,nm~ power ove-r others, llaying. becoming invilible,
possorung, removing po!SOD, etc. and the use of the different kinds of flesh u
there carefully specified . That 1Uh.titute1 were often used, there need be no
doubt, and this hu become the norm in the fierce Tibetan rites which have their
or~n in ~eciaely such beliefs as these. When yogina and yoginl5 aaaembled in
then _meenng-_pI_aceafor ~ festivals which are so clearly described, flesh was
certainly_required. Equally amponant was the use of spirituous liquor. Thus the
twe~ty-eigbt~ chap_ter of t~ Sa~varodaya Tantra contains recipes for the
makingof sunable hquors, which it resumes with the general statement:
One knows the different kinds of liquor as a matter relating to the particular
82 Sec D. N. Loren.en, op. cil., pp. 87·95 forauc:hucrificialneedsincheirShaivitecontnL
85
Bhati:acbaryya'aed., p. &5, U. 17ff. One may no<e also p. 1!8. II. 1·16, which a qui~ explicit
eoncernlng _tlw 11te of human llei!b, faeces and urine, blood and semen. Mo-r a u. pracdtioner
~Id envnage wbate"tr food he ~II as faeces, arme and meat a befits the ritual, p. 140, l.tSt
""'-·
164 lll. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
region, and this distinction between liquors it made known in the tantras and
related works. Without the drinking of liquor there can be no worship, just aa
there can be no burnt offering (homa) without butter, no religion without a
good guru, and no salvation without religion. Without the production of
liquor thett can be no sacrament, and such Mobtained by foru of one's own
merit thank&to a satisfied guru. 114
The eighth chapter of this same tantra deal&in some decail with the ordering
of such sacramental ceremonies, and in order to 51:ttaS the serious nature of such
a gathering I reproduce the fine few venes:
Now I shall explain carefully the sacraments in due order.
by the mere knowledge of which fuHillment ia quickly achieved.
Jn one'&own house or in a secret &potor a pleasant unfrequented place,
in mountain-cave or thicket, on the shore of a great sea,
in a temple of mother-goddesses, in a cemetery or between two rivers at
their confluence,
the one who wants the very beat results should draw the ma~la.
The donor, great in faith, should invite the master with the yoginf.a
and yogin.,and all the divinities who come from sacred sites ( Pllha),
born of the mantras of their locations.
For a layman or a novice a n1onk may be master (of ceremonit!$),
or the master may sometimes be a monk who lives by a layman's rules,
or it can be done by any accomplished man who has acquired the proper skill$.
The faithful donor ahould cho01e the best available from such as theae,
and with the masttr in first place, the glorious mai:i4ala ahould be arranged.
So one should make as master of th~ offerings a leader of good qualities,
who has received the consecrations and who avoiding the ten evil acts
has no ill reputation.
Having insisted that everyone who is unwonhy should be excluded, the text
continues:
One should alwa)'I perform the worship correctly by making a separation
between the elders and the junion, U4ing flowers and incense, )amps and
perfume especially that of sandalwood. Having prepared the sacrificial
offering (bal,) which ia decOl'ated with bannen and a paraaol the master (of
ceremonies) should pay honor to it thus propitiating the divinities. Then he
should ask the donor what ritual he has in mind, whether one for pacifying
(icmta) or one for prmperity ( J,u#i); for the purpoae of fulfillment and in
accordance with the rite decided, he should carry through the ritual. Liquor
made from honey or molasses or grain. such as is obtainable, is offered. Pure
and mentally reposed. confident, free from desire and delusion, knowing the
essential 11.uneneasof al1 thing,, the adamantine master of the rite should
make his dispositions. The donor should place in front of the ma~ala the
food and drink as well aa water, betel-nut and his donation. Afterward, the
expert adamantine master should distribute the things. First he distributes the
sacrament (samaya), which is joined together with a hook. With this all
H SttS. Ttuda'aedidon. XXVI. !;Cl-!.
Ul.7 Tantnc Feasts 165
completed the master(ofcerenionies) should iovok.ea blessing: "O Yo~ Heroic
Lady Goddes.'ICSwho dwell in sacred sites (pi/ha) and related sites (upaptfha),
in sacred localities (k/etra), places of pilgrima~ (mi,la) and cemeteries
(smas,ma), I bow before you with devotion. You goddesses arc oursuretv. The
sacrament is our surety. The proclamation so made is our greatest ~rety.
Through this truth may these goddesses be a cause of succour to mel""
Probably one should distinguish between a ceremony performed for a specific
p,upoae, categorized u the four rites of pacifying, prospering, overpowering or
subduing, and destroying, instituted by a donor, who may be a layman, a monk
or even a whole community, and general religious feascs held at particular
religious sites on auspicious days. The first kind is still performed in Tibetan
monasteries and its origjna presumably go back precisely to the kind of ceremony
rekrred to in our immediately quoted extract.
In translating I have often used the word "sacrament," and this requires s~
explanation. The Sanskrit term is samoya, which means literally "coming
together." In ordinary da11ical Sanskrit usage it means an occasion, a suitable
time, a compact, a convention, etc. In Buddhist tantric usage it becomes a
crucial term in that it signifies the "coming together" of transcendent being and
immanent being. 116Thus an image of any kind u preacribed by tradition, once
properly consecrated (or empowered) is po&&eSSed by the divinity, and for this
kind of "coming together" sama,a is ueied. To call such an empowered image a
"symbol" of the divinity is scarcely adequate, but sometimes one has to make do
with such an interpretation. The ultimate aim of tantric yoga is the self-
identification of the practicing yogin with the divinity he ia invoking and whose
powers he then appropriates. This form·or "coming together" is also known a,
.rama,a, when the word "union" might suggest itself as a tolerable translation.
Siml1arly in the ceremonie, we are now reviewing the aacm1eial offering
(Sanskrit bali, Tibetan gtor-ma) is consecrated to the divinity who is being
invoked, and thus comes to represent the divinity. For the fierce divinities who
are central to 10 many tantric rituals, the best offerings, as we have noted, are
flesh and blood and other bodily substances. By partaking of the$Ccomecratcd
items, one absorbs the nature of the divinity, and for this use of samaya. "sacra-
ment" suggests itself as a fit translation. We have already observed above in the
case of the "seven-timer'' that by eating his flesh, one absorbed his ·gooc1
qualities. Thus once the sacrificial items are "consubstantiated" with the chosen
divinity one partake, of his even higher qualities. The aaociation of ideas
between this meaning and the Christian understanding of sacrament scarcely
1
~ The Sa,pvaroda)lo Tantro. Vllt, 1-'i and 18,26. My tral'lll.atioa diffen io many cktai.l.tfrom
thal ofShinki TSllda (~ pp. 26Sff. ofhia edition) but no 1111friendly criticilm is Implied. Bec:aullt'ol
I~ WKe~inty _of ,nmmatiail encii11gt,in~rpretaliON are afcm dco:abtful,e.g .• In veroe !! I talc.<,
dAinaJ>a:1&$ 1ubiec1, w~ile he h:td _chosen -~~ &llC\lald~ ending from ~onflicting MSS and tranalated
·~~y. r.recogruie that II i. one thing (by far the harder tulr.) t0 make known a 1es1 by
p11bli&h.ing
Olle• work, and another thlng ro make use of this ~t and impro~ upon m1trp.mations.
the b.ard "•pack•work" has been done.
onc."t:
"' ~in« cona«ration (abhise44) implies c:-mpo~rmem (odh4,hcn.), the4(' terms b«.omt"
pracucal!y synonymous. I normally disringuiah them ill 1nl16iation; Stt .Empowermt'ntin the Index.
166 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
requires further elab oration ." In the Buddhiat tantric understandiDg the
samaya becomes a "pledge " of a "coming together" of the divinity with the
image that repreaents him, the sacrificial offering that "embod iea" him. or with
the yogin or even the faithful worshipper who is one -pointedly int ent upon him.
"Pledge " ii probably the bat word in English to cover the whole range of inter-
pretations, and it is thut that the Tibetans transl ated the term (.sama,a = dam-
tshig), but it would scacccly convey the intended me.ining to an uninitiated
reader. U1ing different English word&to translate the same Sanskrit word ha. the
disadvantage of giving the impression tmt this word has a variety of meaningl.
This may be argued in ~rtain cues, e.g .• whett this word means "occ:uion,"
but in the preacnt cue samaya in its Buddhist tantric seme hill one meaning
embracing all the interpretations, which I have juat aumtpced to give. It i• thm
a highly myatical tenn , used in its own right as a powerful mantra.
Al a religiow offering ( bab' = gtor •mo) comecrated to the divinity, the aacra•
ment c0Ni1ta of thoee items sanctif'tcd by traditional usage. While there need be
no doubt that the actual bloody itffl)S named in thae texts were ulCd in Indian
tantric circlet where some of our tau originated , it ia equally certain that
aub. titutes in the form of sacrificial cakes were used in other tantric com-
munities , where flab and blood were not '°
eui.ty available , or where their U9e
met with disapproval (Pl. 80b). This was probably the cue in those established
Buddhist communities, the great monuterice of eastern India , where the cult o(
fierce divinities was gradual1y introouced. Apa.rt from the liturgies preserved in
Tibetan tranalarions, we have little know~ of thne. but it ii certain that the
Tibetanl did not invent thcmselws the many rituals of such a k.ind, which are
perfonned in their templea and monasteriea (now all in exile) down to the
preeent day . The aacrificial cake (gtOT·ma) which they mold out of routed
'7 Sinc:e writincthis I ha~ CIOIM acroM by cha .ntt a rele .. nt paM&ge in Grqory Dix.}•• .-I
Cue l (London , l!IM , ttprinted 195!>, 1967), p. 9'. ~ he is diltlnguishmg bet-m 11\agicand
ucr- . attributes , which arc brought under contra!, are identified with various sets of
I am old enough to ttlQembcr proksson trained in all dv: -mptions of 1bt ni~eenth CC11t11r,
,aDr.iog easily of the fonna tiw. influences of ..Mithniam" 011 S. Paul (the dieciplcof G111uliell)and
using the inme$1lng w«d "'m~. • II it a pity that they never dl<Npt of c;onaultin, wilh
pra(;U&ini magicia.-.. Thty would IOOO bate clilco¥eredWt (whatc.u - may thiak of die
efficacy of either in ica own aphcff) "magic '' and ·sacr al'D£QII- <>pffMe In diffttmt world• of
thoup, the world af natural ~ and the world of religion . (1 re-mber a J.lldiagJu ·ju man
of Kumaw11 among the beautiful ,..band IIIO\lfttai111in We1t Africa e,cplalfling io ,ne 1hr
differelM.~ clearly and limply . He had all the o"omb and that touch of couneoua conde9Cension
which aJ,,,a-,.mult tM man of edenr.e explaining to the rlw:ologwi.) True . both magi c and
aauas1-ta aeeltto opaau: by mo.111of an uianaJ action : it ia tbelr ODlyliluilarlty . The efft-CC of
,nagic • atai .buced to tlu Pfff""""41tU of tla, ritt iadf ; this ii am«illed of as a "acienli6c "
prooechare. df'tttive by an emi rely nat11ral ca usation . n>e effect of a ucra- ii attrlbuied
directly to the Will of Gi,d. Who has apli cidy oommtndc:cl that action to bTiD(llbout that dfect;
it ia cooceived of u an a<:1of --.hipping obcdientt , etTec1i~ by an endrely s.f,rr ·nallirOI
causariooa.
Gregoa-y Dix mam hia def'tniiliJM widiin an eu .lmiwly ChriMi&11comea r. bet ttry little ch.allg'P la
needed m lria wotdiqg ill order 10 aecommodare Buddhilt as well u Chriltiaa 11111cc
, e .g .• "The df'eet
of' a aacramm t ii arrribured directly to divine lntel'Vffl.tion u prt91:ribed by trad.irio(i; it isconceiwd
ol •• ao act of wonbipping obe~. dfe t d\O'eby mp"1r-1'iaJural ca11&alion." Thw magi c and
aacraml!llta an be dutinguithed quite uc:learty in Buddhism u in Christianity .
111.7 167
barley-flour (uamba) , water and bu tter, is modelled to a conventional pattem to
repreaent a panicular divinity. and not only an ,uc:h aacramenta ·uaed during the
rituals, but they are abo 1<m1ttimes placed in a case as a kind of "rescrved sacra-
ment' ' representing the divinity. Subsidiary offeringl often repraen t in
gruesome details the bodily parts after which they are named . It may be added
that in aome circumstance1 a discreu use of actual flesh {even human fleth when
available) is alao sanctioned.
Thia rather long digre•ion from the subject immediately under considera tion,
namely the circles in which aome of the tantric traditions originated in India . ii
justified by the~ to 6tt the whole subject in aa wide a contezt as po55ible. It is
certain that 900ner or later aubttitut ct were f011nd for 1acrificial items, which a
modern spectator as well as many earlier ones might conaider repulsive. It is
equally certain that che references to ritualized copulation were interpreted by
certain practiced yogins, such u ~ . whoseverses ha,ie been quoted , aa
applying to procenea of internal yoga . But all such terminology wu ulCd in thia
",ymboli c" way preciselybeca~ the practices to which they clearly refer were
prevalent in the circles where thele deliberate 1ubttit11tio111 were made,
We have noticed ,ome of the d.istinguiahlngfeatures of ceremonies performed
for specific purp<IIICliof the kind which continue in me in Tibetan comnuuuties .
Something more need, to be said about tbe general religious feasts held at
particular "holy places," for in a strange esoteric semc thae have even greater
importance. The full title of the Hevajra Tclllna is "Union of the AIICIDbla~
(literally, web or net) of pdlws of the Glorious Hevajra " ($rt-Hevajra-~
j4la·sc'f'vara) and iu meaning is effectively the ,ame u that of the related tantra
from. which we have been quoting , namely the Cakras,.upva,a,interpretable as
"Union of the Wheel or Circle'' of diviniti.e• (or~) in the central divinity
Herub/Hevajra. Such an interpreta tion of theae title& marks mcb tantra.a as
primarily concerned with procaeee of internal yoga, in which the phyaical
divinities , whose union represent• the perfect integra tion of the expen yogin.
Various RU of divinities were uaed for thia purpoee. but one set derives din!etly
from the divinitin who were believed to preside O¥crcertain sacred places, where
the very rites, interpreted u ttage• of intffllal yoga, were performed u
externalized ritual. They are referred to at the end of our last quotation, and
although there is a certain vapeneu
concern ing some of them. such places
clearly existed. They are listed with their actual geographical namt!S in Pan I,
Chapter Seven of the Hewjta Tamra , being quite widely dispened over the
Indian aubcontiMnt. although the actu.al sites may be no longer identifiable.•
In thi& respect one may note the existence of certain yoginl-1hrines, the m<l8t
impmsive of which , precisely in the f0tm. of a circle, can ttill be visited near
Hinpur (Pls. 29a fY b ), M>metwelve miles from the toWn of Bhubaneshwar in
3' S« allo the S11'11-1Gr
odc:,c 'lanl ro, lX , whio:hcontaiw similar raal:Crial, DDUJIIallo what
S. Tauda writa on the 111bjcctin his introdllCtJOl'I, pp . 51ft.
168 Ill . TANTRJC BUDDHISM
Oriua." This particular ,brine ia datable to about the tenth century. t.he per iod
with which we are now concerned . Places such as these with their cults of
presiding divinirin provide the cultural background to much of.the teaching in
these tantras . In d~ resorts !t!male pannen were available to wandering
yoginl, who might use aecret ligm in order to identify auitable yoginll (Pl . 28) .
Thus, commenting on a whole series of aucb aigns, lilted in the H,vofra TantfVl.,
a certain Vajragarbha uplaina the reuolll for their u,e.
Yogim and yoginll who practice the Hevajra yoga must make effon to
remember these aigns of body and speedi , so that in the company of rnallciOUI
outliden and male and female go-betweens (d<aa) from other groups (Ut .
families) one need not converac in the term• of ordinary epeech , but if we refer
to that great aecrct by meam of signs, malicious people and go-betweens who
are outside our circle willbe bewildered.
Practicing yogim who viait the Hc:redaita (p,,l&o) and place, (*.!,,ra)
looking for proficient yogints, should use these r.igm so that they ~ay know
which among the yoginfaare in p011ellion of the necaaary tenets which accord
with their own, ao that they may arouae in than a condition of mutual re&·
pomivcneu. '°
Juatas nowadays, aacred placea wtte open to all and sundry, and it is intttestlng
to note bow the practitioners of Hevajra yoga are referred to as one group among
le\'eral such achoola of yoga. While it wu doubtle111easy to remain separate from
other equally well-constituted group, they would inevitably come into contact
with the hangera-on of .uch groupe . who may have been looking out for au.itable
contacts and supponen .91 In such a setting u this, we a.re u near to the origins
of the H•wfra Tan.tTa and aimilar tantru aa we can ever hope to get. That they
also had their own oi-gantted gatherings is clear from the extract quoted a~.
Thae muat have been colorful and carefree eventl . " If in joy IOOp are aung,
then let them be exttllcnt vajra-songs , and if OM dances when joy has ariten, let
it be done with rcleaee a, iu object . Then the yogin, aelf-collccted, perform, the
dance in the place of Hevajra. Song repraenu mantra, dance repreaenta
meditation, ao linging and dancing the yogin alwaysacts.',. The Lord is aakrd
to esp)ain this and be replies in the form of a aong which is included in the tantra
in one of thole dialecta of eutem India, in which IU~ha 's ~nes . quoted above,
are likewile pttterved.
n Fewa dctcripcion- Charla P•bri , HUloryof IAe AWof O,wa , pp. 74ff. for u acc:o&1u cof the
~«yqilm at limlJ.a, ·~ placs " up tot>'""" dines. -G . W . Brlgp. GoMU!lilh 11114
t/14Koaj,ltau YOf'i. eh. 5.
90 Sceany~tionoftheH•"!P"a T1111tni,vol. I, P· 66n.1.
tl It may be « intereat co na1e thac when Vajra~i maka up !he mav4Ala oi --victory o,,er
uwTtuedold World," compoaed of conwnrd hcfflia , he grou)ll chmi • " leaden of the _8JC'IP"
(,-...,PIIU) , · p~ " (ailU) Slid "Mnaeca· (e,fa) . Such - may ha,-e beea ~ u, ~~te
grada amonp the yagim , bat llKh a ~ reqv.irft confinnu ion. See STI'S , F,usird4 Edit-..
p . 49.
ff lltVIJjrr. Ta,uro, l.vi.10 & 1$. Thie wholr chapter dcs(ribes 1/Cl'Jwell how a practitioner of
Hevajra yogatboald conduct hiA*!f.
UI.7 169
The yogin is from Kolla.giri, the yogini from Munmuni .
Loudly the drum reeound1; love ii our bwine.1 and not dia11enaion.
Meat is eaten there iestfully and liquor is drunk.
Hey there! Worthy are we who are present; the unwonhy are kept away.
Fragrant ointment and muak, frankinc:e~ and camphor are t.aken..
Spiced food and 1pecial rice att eaten with relWi .
We come and go (in the dance) with no thought of pure or impure.
Lim be adorned with bone ornament• and the corpae duly praent,
Incercourae occurs at the meeting , where the unto11chable ia not kept away."
The commentaries give to this song a literal interpretation, explaining the
"enigmatic language " accordingly, and a parabolic interpretation according to
which a proct!a of internal yoga is indicated ... While the latter may be quite
valid in its own right, in no way does it can doubt upon the actuality that ia
deteribed in the aong , the meaning of which is deliberately obscured to aome
extent by the uae of the "enigmatic" terms . TIJeir u,e is quite auperfluoua 10 far
u the parabolic interpretation is conoemed. ThWI the items listed in the fifth
and sixth lines arc interpreted as the Five Agrega.tcs (skandhos) of penonality,
namely bodily form , feelings , perceptions, comciousnea and impulses (in this
word-for-word order) and the last item "special rice" as the false n0tion of a Id£
to wluch they all give rile. All theae att coasumed. The "going this way and
that" refers to the Thought of Enlightenment which rises producing the effect of
Great Blia and then returns pervading the whole body. "With no thought of
pure and impure " mean, with no thought of existence or nonaistence . " Limbs
adorned etc. " refen to the pervading of all the leaser veina throllghout the body
by the sensation of blist, and the "corpae" refers to Nairttmyl, the partner of
Hevajra with whom union is symbolically effected , and ahe u the untouchable
( ==PrajM in iu double meaning of feminine partner and Wiadom)is not abtent..
Now all this and more can be beuer explained , aa indeed it ii in exegetical
works, without recourae to such Iaboredequation, . The real meaning of the song
is however entirely relevant to our enquiry into the background where 1uch
worksu the Hn,,ajra To,atm originated, for the summary that it giw:s of aucb
ritualized gathering, confuma other similar descriptions. Moreover the whole
purp01e of the "enigmatic language," which is ao auictly uted in this particular
tantra, is to obscure the meaning forthe uninitiated while declaring it for the
initiate, . Thw the ite-Dll lilted in Jinafive and six mean faeca and urine, blood
and aemen. a concoction containing five kinds of flab (spiced food) and finally
the apecial human flesh, as explained above. "Adorned with bone omamenu"
mea111 the same a1 naked. The corpse mean, the place of repose. The un-
touchable is J;>ombl,whoec praises have already been sung. Kollagiri ia a "sacred
1ite" (J,ftlao) according to the commentary and Munm.uni is listed aa a sacred
95 Hfflljre Tonlro, 11.iv.6·8.
M Boch ue taken from K~a·, commaiury. Stt nota to my ~on of thr cancra, vol. r,
pp. 101-2, and vol . 11, pp . 145-6 lor the actual commentary .
1'10 III. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
place (k,ldra) elanrhere in the tantra.' 5 Places such as these, whether listed as
twenty-four or thiny-two represented in a real sense the whok world for these
wandering yogj.ns, and thus they could be arranged symbolically around a
m~4ala in order to expre11 its universality in all directious. 96 J.'urthermore, since
the external world (macrocosm) comes to be identified in tantric theory with the
body of the pracricing yogin (microc01m), all these places are identified with
"veins" related to the various "lotus-ccnten" (see section 111.15.c) up and down
the spinal cord. A fuU liet of thete equations is available in the S011ivarodaya
Tantra, chapter 7, and nothing is gained by listing them here. Despite these
"symbolic" interpretations, the actuality of these "sacred sites a11d places" and
the ritts performed there links this clau of tantric literature, at least in their
origins, with fraternities of yogins woo were very well acquainted with them. i:Y
Moreover, similar fraternities of yogina have continued to exist in India and their -,:;;;
: know the es~~e
practices, found u abhorrent by modem observen, correspond in very many
details with th<Mere~rred to in BuddhiSl tantras .97
8. THE ARGUMENT FOR. IMPLICIT INTER.Pll'ETATIONS
I have referred above to this wt phase of Buddhism as astoanding. uaing thu
word advisedly, fw we are informed in the Guhyasam4ja Tantra (in chapters 5
and 9), that "right-thinking" Bodhisauvas were not only astounded but aJao
fainted with fear at the teachings propounded.
Then the King Holder of the Vajra ( Vajradhara) of the Body. Speech and
Miod of All Buddhaa, Supreme One, Lord of the World, diacoursed on the
character of the practice which has as its object that Dhanna which is the best
of aupractices:
Those belonging to the families of Passion, Wrath and Delusion, being well
versed in the meaning of nondiscrimination, achieve the ~ry best succe.a
(sidd/u) in the supreme (anuttoro) and highest way. Half-castes, basket-
weaven and suchlike, thme who resort to killing and are intent on personal
gain, succeed in this excellent way, the supreme Mahlytna. Even those who
have committed the five wont sins and other evils succeed in the vastness (lit.
great ocean) of the Vajraylna, this excellent way. Those who speak ill of their
teacher never succeed despite their practice, but those woo take life, who take
,s H.T. l .vii.10-H . s« also the klJlt.a1'ff4)"1 Tallt1'0I,all chapter vii and ix.IS to end. These
··p1.ac:eaofpilgrimagc"are QrefQllydividcd into caiqJories, of which thc ..ii1c." (pl/lua) and ·pta<:d" ;;:i- i
(4f•trci) are b11t rwo. Tbe otben are d&andA>lua, n&11iapolu, and .hilisana (cemercl')'), S. Oaappta ·_;;? :
( Obscw~ ltdlfi01U Cults. p. 197) lila S.iwlnha (meaning "UIClllblage ..) il*ftd of Clta,idolu,, which , ;~ .
has no eaty uuerpfflation. Md4pou ii clqrly connected with nula, a term still in 111e in India f• a .,Jf.·
pat ttllgiout gatlu/ring. Thete uiegorit» are dupticaud by the 111eof the prefut up,,•, which caa ._};~ 1
gm the meaning of "~u by" M "tubeidiary. A tilt of tffl 111chcacqoriea ii artificially ~ated with / ;~ .
h
the tm scag,taora Bodhi,auva in the S<tf!'Ull'Od/ryeTa11lna, i1t.%2•4.Svch equationa leC!'III co be made };,1/1··
quicec»ually. ' /i'. :
ff For a dacriprion of such a ma94ala see C. Tucci, Jftdo. Tioetiea, lll ,2, pp. SSff. · ·Jl ·.
t? See fore11amph! G. W. Brigs, Goro.Ah11Gthond tl&~Kanphat11 l'ogil, pp. 172·&. .)Ji'._
tt-
Jlr.8 Th• Argumffllfor Implicit Jntef'/)r•l4tions 171
pleuure in lying, who always covet the wealth of others, who enjoy making
love, :Whopurpos~ly consume faeces and urine, these are worthy onea for the
pracuce. They~ who makes love to his mother, sister or daughter achieves
enormous suce61 tn the supreme truth (dharmattl) of the MahtyAna. Making
lo~ to the m01her of the Lord Buddha be is aot defiled, for it is thus that the
w,se man who don not discriminate achie~s buddhahood."
Then all t~e Bodhisattvas led by Sarvanivaraa,avif)tambhin (Preventer of
~ll Obstruct~ons) were overcome with wonder and astoniahment, saying:
How come. u d1at the Lord. the Chief of all the Buddhaa should pronounce
such evil words in the midst of this a115Ctnbledcircle of all the Buddhasl"
Theo All the Buddhas hearing what was &aid by Sarvanivaranavi4kambhin
and the o~heTB<>:<i~isattvas,spoke thus: ''F.noughl Do not speak thus, o sons of
good family. This 1s th_cpure truth (d~rmatd) of those enlightened ones who
"!tbi~ (.Rlra). Such is the basis for the practice of enlight-
enment coruasung m this eaence as the meaning of Dharma "
Then those Rodhi3attvas who were as numerous as the ~toma which go to
make up th~ number of holy mountains (Sumeru) in the innumerable and yet
more t~n mnumerable Buddha-paradises, were frightened, were terrified
and fell m!o a swoon. Theo a~l the Lord Buddhas seeing those Bodhisattvas in
a swoon said to the Lord who is the Chief of the Body, Speech and Mind of All
the Buddhu: "We beg you to ~1eitate these Great Beings the Bodhisattvas,"
Then the Lord Buddha who is the Vajra of the Body Speech and Mind of
All_Buddhaa relapsed into the state of mental composu~ known u Nondual
VaJ~ of the Samcnea of Space, and as soon as they were touched by his
~diance, all thoee Great Beings. the Bodhisattvas, were seated again in their
nght places. 91
~hile it may be urg~d that such ~perverse" teachings are a form of hyperbole
intended to ~mphasize the doctnne of univenal sameness as realized by a
perfect~ yo~n. they ~e taught, it may be noted, in the same tantra (chapter 9)
as a medttanonaJ practice.
T~n the King Holder of the Vajra ( Vafradhara), the great unchanging one
of u~1vcnal space, supreme in the practice of all consecration, aJl-compre-
he?ding, lord supreme, discoureed on the maq.d,ala of the triple vajn, that
enJOyment of Body, Speech and Mind, which is the supreme and delightful
~~et of those who passess Buddha-knowledge:
One should _envisagea Budd~·mai:a4,ala in the middle of space. Then one
produces.from It Ak!obhya-Yajra and envisag~ him with a vajra in his hand.
It blazes m a mas., of sparks and is replete with rays of five colors. Meditating
upon the Budd~s of pa~, present and future, one should crush them to
powder th~ with that vaya. One should practice this best of meditations,
where.the enriyment of Body, Speech and Mind is destroyed and crushed with
the VaJra, as It conduces to fulfillment (siddh1) of Mind. With that secret vajra
one about~ slay all_living beings, 10 that they may be bom as Buddha-sons
(= Bodhisattvas) m the Buddha-paradise of Aqobhya-Vajra. This is the
Pledge (samaya) of the quiddity (tattw) of the Family of Wrath in the
18
Ga/a~ Ttmt?a, Bbanxbaryya'std., pp. 20-1.
172 Ill. TANTRJC BUDDHISM
~nivena) family flood."
Then the King Holder of the Vajra who effecc. true salvation through
ignorance (ajMna), putt and immaculate in his true nature, teacher of the
practice of enlightenment, explained the Pledge, that quiddity which pro·
duce the enlightenment of a Buddha.
"One should envisage a Wheel•mai,C,ala in the middle of apace, and having
produced Vairocana (Resplendent One) from this, one should envisage all the
Buddhas. One conceives of them in vajra-fonn with the univenal use of gems.
Then one imagines the robbery of all these things by means of the triple vajra.
Replete with this vast quantity of things, which are like a wish-granting gem,
they (?living beinga) become sons of all the Buddhas, truly herolike saga. Thia
is the Pledge of the qulddity of the Family of Illusion in the universal family
flood."
Then the King Holder of the Vajra who effects s.ilYation through passion,
inconceivable in bis secret purity, explained this mar:i4ala. "In tlw! middle of
space one ,hould envisage a Lotus-Ma~ala, and having produced Amitlyus
(Boundle11 Light) from this, one should fill it all with Buddhas. One should
envisage them all in union with feminine figures with the yoga of the fourfold
Pledge. Such is the supreme Vajra method. Joining the two sexual organs
together, one should enjoy them all. This ii the meditation on the invwble
triple body of all Buddhas. This is the Pledge of the Family of Passion which is
to be meditated upon."
Then the King Holder of the Vajra who fulfilbi the intention of Vajra-
mantras, who is selfless in bis wisdom-nature, spoke these worda: "In the
middle of space one should conceive of all these forms as the vajra-baais of
faleehood, and so one should deceive all Buddhas and all (beings in the)
Buddha-abodes. Thia ii the pure akylike Speech of all Buddhas, known u the
fulfilhnent of mantras and the secret of those who are possessed of wisdom.
Thi, it the Pledge of the quiddity of the Family of Pledge-Fictionalization9 9
and it should be practiced in accordance with different intentiom."
Then the King Holder of the Vajra, source of the Buddhas of the indea·
tru.ctible triple vajra, the teacher of vajra-fulfillment, spoke these words: "In
the middle of space one should envisage a Pledge-ma~ala, and having
produced from it Ratnakecu, one should fill it with all (Buddha·)forms. Then
treating them with wordsof abuse and so on, one obtains wisdom . Thus spoke
the Lord, The Vajra-Muldtude of All Buddha.a."
Then all the Bodhisattvas led by Sarvatathagataaamayavajraketu (Vajra
Banner Pledge of AD Buddhas) were overcome with wonder and astonish·
ment, and said these vajra -words: "W}1yhas the Lord. Chief of All Buddha&,
who transcends the threefold world and all phenomenal spheres, pronounced
in the midst of the auembly of all Buddha.a and Bodhisattvu, such vajra·
words of untrue import?" 1oo
I Jlave quoted this passage in full in ordrr to illustrate how the deliberately
9' ''Fictionalintioo" translat~s Sanakrit alut~. which means to draw to onr'5 pre,mce •. to
conjure up a person or thing. Thus ooe makes a ''fiction" of the P,:XSOPor the thing ,o that It may be
worked upoa during the ritual.
100 CST, Bhattuharyya, pp. 3!1-6.
UI .8 The lfrpmmtfor lmplirit lnterpretotion.s 175
perverse teachings of some of these yogins came to be elaborated in a Buddhist
conteXl . Here the set is arransed , perhaps rather casually, to accord with a set of
Five B~ddhaa and in this context I have need to refer back to this particular
quotauon (seep. 207). Elsewhere more direct interpretations are given. Thus in
the H6vajra Tant1'4 - read:
You •~uld ~ay living beings; you should speak lying words; you should take
what is ~ot given:. you s~uld frequent others' wives. To practice singleru:sa of
thought IS the taking of life , for thought is life. Saying "I will save the world" is
interpr-eted u lying speech. Semen from women is what is not given, and
another's wife is as fair u one's own.101
A well-known Western writer on tantric Buddhism has written: "It i, C\lltom ·
ary in cenain Western circle, and among th01e in the East who have come under
Western philo&0phical and Chrutian influence, or who are anxious to commend
the East to the West by eatablishing an identity between Eutern and Western
doctrines, t~ consider Tantrlsm as a medley of ritual acts, yoga techniques, and
other _pracncea, mostly of a~ :objectionable" type, and therefore aa a degenerate
lapse into a world of supersbtton and magic. . .. Nothing of what Isthus fancied
about Tantrism is borne out by the original tcxta. Although thi, crude and yet
highly cherished dogma hu been challenged recently, the question 'what does
Tantra mean?' has remained unamwered ." He then goes on to explain in a foot ·
note that it is the pretent author who bu challenged that "highly cherished
dogma " In the introduction to his edition of The Hevofra Tantra, but immedi -
ately complains that I do not say "what Tantra means" and deal with it m~y 31
a literary document.'" One's knowled~ being limited, one can never sat:idy all
readera , but we must urge the value of literary interpretations .
Western readers may sometimes be conf\1$ed by the use of the word Tantra to
refer to tantric developments u a whole. A tanlf'O in the singular can normally
refrr only to a particular tantra, just as the word .sutracan only refer to a parti·
cular sutra, Mahayana or otherwise. No one has yet thought of using the word
sutra in a Budd.hilt conte:&t u a general term for non-Tantric Buddhism, for we
are well aware of the great variety of literature that is co~red by the term. The
aame applies to the tantru, which contain a vaat variety of teachings, which may
fairly be described u "a medley of ritual acts, yoga techniques and other
practices." Many of its propoeitions had been found objectionable in India long
before Western influences began to affect ideas of public and private morality ,
~nd even if not considered objectionable, they would appear to be uMec:euary,
if the only intention is indeed the inculcating of a higher mystical under-
1tanding. m Study of the tantras is quite properly a literary intereat, if one wants
!OI H.T . II.iii .:29-30, C01=roing the withdrawal of .iemen r.itile, to which ther-e is a p..,...med
reference, lttRCriOD ffi ,Jf.d.
IOI See lwrbrn V. Guenther , Th• Life IUtd T.aching of Naropo.,p. 114. a book which is to be
Cflm!Denckdand to which further -reference will be made. ·
1
°' '!1uas chaprer 6 of the Ca,'!4mahino/O'IJIO1"ontralisu a oonaiderabk •.ariety of ~tum for
sexual 1nttTco1use.and rbe foUowmr dl.lpttr gives advice oo the regaining of atrengrh to counteract
174 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
to know anything of the origins of this phase of Buddhiam, just as literary
exegms in biblical studi~j'. de5Pediteearlie1_ prondus~ fofromCh~~ in_ ~ighe rt --~.--~_;·_~,!,
, .
authority, has gradually tra .... orm our unucrsta mg na ......n ongam. 1 •.
is now generally agreed that there is a perfectly valid literal and historical J
meaning in many Old Testament pa11ages,which were deliberately interpreted Ji
in a prophetic or allegorical manner ( and oftc n _quite re__:onablyso )kbythendcarJy
Christian Church . 1ne same argument, app 1y in any .... ort we ma e to u er. : .
stand the history of Buddhist thought despite the protew of tboee whose faith is j/
so narrowly based that everything muse be explainable according to a single
unified uadition, where uncomfortable pronouncements are simply ignOTedif "
they cannot be reinterpreted suitably.
The f~dom to kill, to rob, to live with total aexual licence, to lie, which is :if,
proclaimed in r;o many Buddhist tantras (with varying forms of interpretation) is ; ~ ·
clearly a deliberate reversal of the fint four of the aet of ten moral rules imposed ~'
:~:::=::::~:::==~=:
enforced or not enforced, as suitable or as unsuitable. He should not conceive ,:.
of merit or of evil. of heaven or salvation . He should remain composed in the
single-state of Innate Blill. Thus if a yogin, constant in yoga,. is pcrfe~t in .j;i;•
iMditational practice, through the union which be thus effects with the ~rce .t~
Wrathful One (Ca1,14al'Of-'a:ia) he becomes the Self lncarnate. 104 Even if he :.:<.
should 1Jay a hundred brahmins, he is not touched by evil. So he should ·,)i
meditate upon the Lord Fier~ and Wrathful in precisely this manner. By the
same evil acts that bring people into bell, the one who uses the right means F'' ·
gains salvation, there's no doubt. All evil and vinue are said to have thought -;;_ ~
as their basis . One's state of rebirth, one's actual condition and so on, all such '-
~!h-
distinctioOI are forms of thought-construction. 1115 ) it
The same tantra teaches the regular moral rules as binding upon the neophyte
before be should be granted any coneccration, and thus a contraat ia drawn
between what is suitable for the beginner and what is penniued to the one whose
Mperfection" (Jiddhi) traa.port1 him above all distinctions of whatsoever kind .
However, elsewhere the "perverse" actions are rationalized in accordance with )) :-
earlier Mahayana teachings, which allow a Bodhiaauva to comnut wrong actions jf,i:
(and willingly pay the penalty for them by a temporary sojou.rn in one of the _;1t ·
hellish abodes), if only it is for the good of living beings. This kind of interpre·
·.;;;
\,
the ineritah~ ph-,.ical Hhaustion. Howev,:r, i1 may not be impollible for a ~purist" to find a luitahlc
symbolk illterpl'ctation for all thi,.
UM Literally "the bea~, of the notioo of selfhood" (Skr. a.\amA,i,wdhan'n). Such a tmn .is thl•
might seem to suggat the oept:ion of !he fundamental Bllddhi,t doct~ of ~no self' (•n.ilmtul), :-
but it can cuily be paralleled with similar cxprasioas . Thim in the Hwafra Ta11tnz(l.&.10-ll!), the / N
abeolute acaie is labelcd ;,,ur tdia .. .uiwc:me penon and lord ... '',elf' (atman). ''IOlll" (jl•) , ::-ft
~being" (.ldttvd) etc.
1ot Canum«har.,_ Tantra. ed. C. S. (;e;)rge. Sall6Uit text, p. St, D. l· 12. Similar ideu will be \:Jf
foondinff.1'. l.vi.18-24.
m.s The A,gu,n.tnl for Implicit /m,rpretations 175
tation seems to be found in those tantras, whose origins may be more cloeely
linked with Mahayana sucras. Thus in the Sarvadu.rgatiporilodh.a.na Tantra the
rules that a pupil must observe are given in at least three places, and the
exceptions that are allowed ;u-e also once clearly stated :
He should nOl abandon the Three Jewel, (Buddha, Doctrine, Community).
::_:l _·:_.'.:•;r:,'
;'.
___
the Thought of .Enlightenment and hia Good Teacher. He should not kill
living beings or take what has not been given him. He should not apea)t ill of
J.f hi, teacher or step on his shadow. He should not cleave to one who is not his
teacher, and the name of bis teacher is not to be used. He must never speak ill
of the mantras, the symbols (mudr4s} and the divinitiea. If ever in his folly be
1k doea 10, be will certainly die of disease. He muat never place hia feet across the
shadows of the immaculate divinities and the symbols, marked out with seed-
syllabks . whether relating to ( the gods of} thiJ world or the world beyond.
As for th01e who are confused about the Buddlmt teachings, hating the
· -~=
· ::::
_,_: ;:::,_•_'.
___.:_j_:_
:!,; .. :
Three Jewels and intent on apeaking ill of religious teachers, the thoughtful
slay them. Out of compassion the one skilled in mantras should slay by meana
of mantru th01e nonreligioua people who delight in evil, hate our sacraments
and are always harming living beings. Seizing the possessions of the miserly, he
should give them to suffering creatures. Also in order to honor one's teacher or
to complete a sacramental offering (Jama,a), for making a ma9cµ.la, fOTthe
general benefit of thoee who adhere to the sacrament (Jama,m) or for wor,
shipping the Bodhisattvas one should take things if they are the pOIMCSliom of
miserly people . One who is intent on the good of living beings should always
speak falsehoods for the purpose of protecting sacramental ltcms, one's
Jl 1tacher's possessiow and the life of living creature.. For the purpose of
impulioning the Buddhu and for cheriahing the sacrament, the one skilled in
mantras 1bould resort to another's wife for the sake of fulfl.llmeru. Abiding ill
the state of Vajra-Being. one does everything, enjoy-aeverything. He succeeds,
yet he does no wrong, and how the more 110, if he is endowed with tom·
.]i,: passion. 106
!~i ·. .Similar ideu, perhaps rather more neatly exptt$St!d, are found throughout
i : another tantra, from which quotation, have been drawn, namely the "Sym·
Ji!• poaium of Truth." I give one which links with a previous quotation toward the
end of.section 111.S.
Then VajrapaQi , knowing that he had eatablished all thoee who belong to
the Vajra family at the stage where there could be no bac:k·sliding for the good
J~. of all living beings, said to the Lord: "I have been coNeCTated by all the
:i~ Buddhas, the Lords, as the repository of secrecy (gvlayadh.tlritvaf!i).
) ~; Pronounce that .ecret of the Buddhaal"
l~ Then arising from that state of composure known as Secret Vajra of All
W Buddhas, the Lord pronounced this .secret of All Buddha1:
"Since all beings must be converted according to their various natures,
:t( So it is for the good of living beinp that purity is effected through
paaaion and the rest (vu., delusion and wrath)."
::f.
}; 1116 SDPS Ttmtra, ed. T. Skorupski. Saosltrit MS fos. 60-1 aod hiatra111lacion
pp. 100-1.
·'I.:
176 llJ. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
Then Vajraparµ said his own secret verse:
·"If for the good of all living beinp or on account of the Buddha's teaching,
one should slay living beings, one ia untouched by sin."
Then Vajraprbha said his own tecrCt Gem verse:
"If for the good of living beings or from attachment to the Buddha's interest,
one seizes the wealth of others, one if not touched by sin. n
Then Vajranetra said hil own secret Dharma ~ne:
"There is no blisalike passion for offering to the Buddhas.
So one gains merit by resorting to another man', wife for the good of others ."
Then Vajravi§va said bis secret Karma verse:
"Performing all one's actiona for the good of )iring beings and on account
of the Buddha's teaching, one gains enormous merit. ·•107
Here the "perverse" teachings have been arranged to fit in with the fivefold :~
scheme of buddhahood and in accordance with the more general Mahiytna ,
willingness to countenance evil acts if they are committed for an ultimate good. ]
It may be difficult to explain bow the act of resorting to the wife of another can
serve the good of living beings. but with special pleading even this might be .:~:.
justified. It is however likely, as ,uggested above, that the original notion was the
total freedom of the perfected yogin from all .ocial reatraint, even such
universally acknowledged evils as sexual relations with another's wife, not to
mention one's mother, aiaur, daughter and 10 on. To my knowledge these last
extremes of license are not justified by appeal to a Bodhisauva's willingness to
sacrifice his own personal destiny, which i, aomething quite different from being
in a state which is "beyond good and evil." Yet as we have seen from the
quotation from the Durgatiparisodhana Tantra , C\'en these two quite different
notiom can be linked.
9, THE IMPOllTANC:E OF ONE'S CHOSEN TEACHER.
We muat now deal with one injunction which can never be tramgreued u it ii
the basis _of all tantric practice, namely that of the absolute necessity of total
devotion to one'• cb01Cn teacher or master (Sanskrit:guru; Tibetan: lama). Here
no exception whatsoever is permitted, and it may be noted how in the midst of so
many "evils," which are acceptable in given circumstances, this one iupecifically
listed as allowing of no reservationa. It is noteworthy that it recei"ttt in the
tantras, especially in those of the Supreme Yoga class, where secrecy ia also
strictly enjoined, a central importance, which it nev« had in the early history of
Buddhism. One may fairly state that it takes the place of all the great perfections
°'
1 STTS MS fffi. 1Ci'1'·l685, Yamada·s ed., pp. 51lff. This chaptu (lfb) CQr»pietes
tection of VajraPai.ti's mall'Jala for the ~oo"'rted di9inims. See above, pp. 156-4%.For tbe naines ol
1beFamily-Bodbisaui,as '*'d bere, .1tt p. 242 n. bdow.
IU.9 The lmj>orlance of One 's Chosen Teacher 177
that are caught in the Mahayana sutraa. Here the advantage of having "good
friends" (kalyd~muni) as opposed to evil ones (papamitra) is certainly urged,
and to have a good friend as one's teacher is highly recommended and it ii
proper that one should trust him, but for all his vinucs he is but a meall$ toward
final enlightenment. One quotation from the "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight
-l-~
~! Thousand Verses" should be sufficient to illustrate the difference between the
traditional concept of a religio\16 teacher and the peculiarly high ttate to which
i
~.~
-:.·.[
.
he is elevated in some tantras:
Son of good family, you should strive for the Perfection of Wisdom by develop-
ing the conviction that all dharma.s(elements) are void, aignle1s and effortless .
, You must practice abandoning signs, existence and the falae view of any
ii being. You must avoid in.d friends. You must honor, love and stay close to
J~ good friends. These are they who teach the Ohamia saying: "All dharmas
are void, ,ignleu, effortlaa, nonarilen, unborn, unobstructed, nonexistent."
a Progressing thus, my son, you will before long be able to study the Perfection
* of Wisdom either as found in a book or in the peraon of a monk. who preaches
the Dharma. You 1hould invat with the name of Teacher (.fastr) the one from
whom you learn about the Perfection of Wisdom. You should be grateful and
I
!
·i
appreciative, thinking: "This is my good friend from whom I am learning the
Perfection of Wisdom, and learning this I shall become irrevensible in regard
to supreme and perfect enlightenment, I shall be near to those Tath1gatas,
Arhats, Fully Enlightened Buddba.s, I shall find myself in Buddha-paradises
where there ia oo lack of Tathlgataa, I shall avoid unfortunate conditions and
enjoy propitious conditions." Weighing up these advantages, you. should
·t invest this monk who preaches thus the Dharma with the name of Teacher.
You should not be attached to this monk who preaches the Dharma with
tboughta that arc affected by ideas of worldly gain. You should be attached to
:i·
·,:14
him in your quest for the Dharma because of your respect for the Ohanna. •oa
In contrast to this passage we may take a quotation from the Cuhyasamaja
·:i.
:.J ·
Tantra:
Then Maitreya the Bodhisattva, the Great Being, bowed before all the
Buddhas and said: "How should the Lord the Vajra-Teacher consecrated in
·i.J . the hidden Secret Union of the Vajra of the Body. Speech and Mind of all the
JJ: Tathlgatas be regardedby all Buddhas and all Bodhisattvas?"
jJ . All the Buddhas replied: "Son of good family, he is to be regarded by all
:' .. Buddhaa and all Bodhi.sattvas as ·the Vajra of the Thought of Enlightenment.
.:~ : And wby so? The Teacher and the Thought o{ Enlightenment are the same
and inseparable. We will just explain briefly. All the Buddhas and Bodhi-
Jji : sattvu who dwell, who hold and maintain places in all the ten directions
'.j ;: throughout the past, present and future, worship the Teacher with !,he
:~ · worship of All Buddhas. and then returning to their Buddha•paradises make
:~ •· this pronouncement of vajra-worda: 'He ii the father of all us Buddhas, the
·.:~1:
mother of all us Buddhas, in that he is the Teacher of all us Buddhas . .,
the Furthermore, 0 son of good family, the merit of a single pore of the Teacher
UNI A!!<IWlasrlu, ASP, Vaidya, p. 2S8, U.25ff.; Conze, pp. 201-2.
178 Ill. TANTRIC BUDDHISM
ii worth more than the heap of merit of the Vajra Body, Speech and Mind of
all the Lords the Buddha of the ten directions. And why .so?The Thought of
Enlightenment is the very euence of All Buddha· Wiadoma, and being the
source it is the rcpoaitory of omniscient wisdom." ·,;_(;~
,: _·
Then the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Great Being, was frightened. was .
terrified and so remained ailent.
Then the Buddha A'k.!obhya, the Buddha Ramaketu, die Buddha
Amitabba, the Buddha Amoghasiddbi and the Buddha Va.irocana relapsed
into the atate of composure known u Su.staining Vajra of the . Saaamental
Fulfillment of All Vajra-Holdera, and then they instructed all the Bodhi·
11auva'sthus: "Listen, Lord Bodhinttvas. all the Lord Buddhas in the ten ·
directiom, who are born of the Vajra-Wiadom of past, present and future,
come to the Teacher of the Secret Union (Guhya.,am'1ja).wonhip him and
bow before him. And why so? He is the Teacher of all Bodhisattvas and all
Buddha,. He ia the Lord. the Great Holder of the Vajra, the Chief of all
Buddha-Wisdom."
Then all the Bodhisattvas said to all the Buddbas: "Where, 0 Lords, are to
he found the fulfilbnenu (siddhi) of the Body. Speech and Mind of All
Buddbas?"
They replied: "They exist in the Body, Speech and Mind of the Vajra
Teacher who ii the Body, Speech and Mind of the Secret Triple Body."
The Bodhisattvas questioned further: "Where is this Secret Vajra of Body, .,
Speech and Mind?"
The reply wu: "Nowhere." Then all thote great Bodhisattvas were over-
come with wonder and astonishment and so they remained eilent. 1°' :·_;
The astonishment of the Bodbisattvas, like the alarm &hownby Maitreya, who
bad been brought up in the older school of devotion to a single Buddha (see
section U. 2.b ). may be preaumed to arise not from the teaching of ~nothingness"
in which they mould be well versed already, no but from the preeminent poaition
that is given to the Teacher. Jn tantric Buddhism dm becomt'JI so central that it
ia not enough to explain it as the natural development of earlier Buddhist
pracrice. In all religions teachers are eaential and in thia respect they play an
equally essential pan in early Buddhism and throughout tm- whole Mahlylna
period. The teacher is thus a quite proper mealll to an end which tranKend&
him as much as it transcends the pupil. In certain forms of tantric Buddhism he
ii not only the eaential mean11but also effectively the end, and thus in keeping
with the Mahly~ia "dogma" of the Perfection of Wi&dom, he is identified with .,
the Void (.fim-_ygla) out of which he becomes, in a certain sense, manifest to his
pupil.Ill This last piece of elaboration is entirely Buddhist, but the cult of the
119 CST, 8ha1tacharyya'sed. , p . 197, 11. Uff.
110 The Guhyosaml!ia Tmuro cOlltairui qui~ a kw p_.ga Iha, confonn to the ..-egularPerfection
of Wisdom teaching oftb.e Void (.fwnJ4t.i). s« e.g .. all of chapter!, the end of chapter l!', (Bhatta·
charyya p. 107, IL 13ft'. 1pccifically on tb.e dreamlike nature of existence, and part of chaptrr J7
(p. 1531. 2 top. 15!1I. 8)on cbr'"voidoees" of Body,Spe«h and Mind.
111 A pid nample of 1hia nocion ii pl"O\'ickdby Niropa', sea.n:b for his Guru Tilopt1, See H. V.
Guencher , TA- l.ij'u1UI. Teacftin, o/Naropa, pp. Hff.
lll.9 179
Guru was also central to the religious movements outside organized Buddhism
that wen: now penetrating and transforming it. On the eignificance of the Guru
in Indian religion generally one cannot do better than quote from Sbashibbuaan
Dasgupta:
It will be aeen that in a aeme aH the 1yaterm of Indian phi.loaophy and religion
are mysdc, for according to all the syatems truth always transcends intellectual
apprehension or cliscunive speculation- it is to be intuited within through the
help of the preceptor, who hat already realued it. Truth i11transmitted from
the preceptor to the pupil jua as light from one lamp to the other. The only
way of knowing the truth is, therefore, to ask the grace of the Guru, who, and
who alone, can make a man realize the Supreme Reality. It ia believed that the
true preceptor in his non -dual state identifies himself with the di&ciple and
performs from within the disciple all that is necessary for the latter's spiritual
uplift. The true disciple becomes an ill8trument in the handa of the true
preceptor. It is for this reuon that in Indian religions the Guru is held in the
highest meem. Sometimes the Guru i.sa substitute even for God, or at least
God is to be realized through the medium of the person of the Guru, who
stands as living proof for the exutence of Gocl. 111
In the rites, of which something will be said below. the Teacher is clearly identi-
fied with the particular god of the ma1)4,ala, be it Heruka or whoever is chosen,
and the god ia but an envisaged emanation from the Void. to wh~ substantial
being worship is conventionally offered, just as to the Teac~r himself.
Identified with the Void, he is the end result OJ' the ao-called "fruit." Hia central
imponao.ce is related to the need for a series of ever higher consecrations, some
of which are treated as eecret, and which only he can beitow . However he is
equally important for the practice of internal yoga, and to this the enigmatic
songs of tanttic yogim bear full witne,s .
High and lofty is the mountain; there dwells the girl of the hill-folk (Savart).
A peacock's tail-feather she wears on her body and she bas a necklace
of gunja-berries .
0 drunken hillman, excited. hillman, man no noise or complaint.
Your wife is named Fair Lady of the Joy Innate.
Various treeA are in bloom and their branchr.t reach to the sky.
Alone the hill-girl roams the forut, wearing earrings and vajra.
is
The couch of the Three Realms prepared and the bed of Great Blis&
made ready.
The hillman is a lover who gives delight, increasing the pleasutt of
his paramour, and night becomes dawn.
Eating the betel· nut of Thought and the camphor of Great Blils,
She gives delight as ehe clings to his neclc..increasing his joy in Great B~,
and night becomea dawn.
With your Guru's word as your bow
Hit the target with the ·arrow of your mind.
Ill ~ S. Dasppu, Ob~e Religio,u Cults, pp. 87-8.
180 Ill: TANTRJC BUDDHISM
Apply ju.at one shaft and pierce, 0 pierce, supreme nirv~rµP"
Or one may quote more explicitly from Saraha's 10J1gs:
Thoee who do not readily drink the ambroaia of their master's inatrucrions,
Die of thirst in the desert of multitudinous treatises.
Abandon thought and thinking and be just as a child.
114
Be devoted to your master'& teaching and the Innate will become manifest.
10. THE LATER. AMALGAMATING AND PR.OMULGATION OF ·,f-,:;
TANTlUC TEACHINGS } ·:
Our excerpts serve to illustrate the difference in styles between I.hose tantras
which are more easily relatable to Mahayana suu-aaand those whoee background ·;({
is represented by places sacred to wandering yogins. It should be stressed, }{
howner, that only some tantra• may be allocated with confidence to either 'J{
category, and little is gained by following thOR earlier Buddhist scholars, Indian
and Tibetan, in attempts to pre1eribc exact categories for lheae elusive works.
Typical of our first category is the Tantra StJrvatatluJ~a-lattvtNaf!&gra}ta
("Symposium of Truth of All the Buddhas") and the main features are the ':. °'{ •.
i.,
following:
1. A conventional Mahayana setting where the Lord Buddha, identifiable as
Stkyamuni, presides o~r a gathC1'ing of Bodhisattvu and other celes«ial beings. '}
2. An arrangement of Buddha-families, five in number, although traces of an ·~~ . .
earlier threefold arrangt!ment appear in the material. );" :_.-
5. The work is written in the same kind of Buddhist Samkrit with which one ii ·!f {.
familiar from Mahilyana 1Utras. . )t '
4. Non-Buddhist divinities are clearly recognized a& such by those who com· · jl}.,: ·
posed the work, and their role tends to be subsidiary, · ;J . :
Typical of the second category is the Hn14fra Tantra, and the c:lilllinguiahing
features arc the following: f i :.:
I. Tone is no full introductory scene, and the presiding "Lord" in the /:( _:
embrace of bis kminine panner is scarcely id"..ntifiable as Sik.yamuni or any f.
other Buddha-manifestation known in Mahayanasiitras. :.(,'.':,.
2. Reference to Buddha-famili" is incidental to the material and scarcely \i ·
affects the anangement of the mal)4,ala and the presentation of the teaching. {i',:j·.
Thu,. I.here should be no need for the neophyte to throw a flower or a tootb-pick· )' ,f~;
to decide an appTopriate family, for the tantra in quelltion praume1 only one j J /
~ ....
1 u Por a detailed analysis of tb- difficult Yl!tlft, - Per 11.vaerne.Jin AntAoloo of Buddlwl_
TaJllrlc So,ags,pp. 181-8. My tra11slationIs not quite• lilcnl •• his, and l haw used the Tibel11>
~nion rather more readily, fa example, instead oi '"bow" (third llM from end) t~ original lndla11 :\~ •. :·
text has "tail-fcathc.-." Concerning the term sohafa, rende-red here a Hlnnate," see Index for
references.
m See Bll4dhi# TIQCl$tl~h, th# Aga, ed. E. Co111e,p. 2Sl, aud for the original iext
5hahidullab, Les CAtmtl My,tjfWs dt KifA,I d SoN.IMs,
pp. HS·6 (n. !°>7-8).
m.10 Lale-r Amalgamating tmd Promulgatfon of Tantric 1"eachings 181
family, I.hat of the presiding Lord, whether Hevajra, Heruka, Ca948mahl·
rosana, or whoever it may be.
s.· The work is written in clumsy, often seemingly ungrammatical, Buddhist
Sanikrit, as though it were a sanscrituation of a local dialect. m Also, the
material.a att preaented in a haphazard order, aometimes as though I.hey have
come out of a "notebook."
4. No distinction ii made between names already accepted within the Mahi·
J: yana tr..dition and the names of Hindu divinities, and {lakinu and low-caste
women are rai.ed to the rank of leading goddeaes.
lt would seem that tantric Buddhwn took shape simultaneously in bolh
11ening1,thOICthat were strictly Buddhist but which willingly accepted the new
:};·f
theories of medltational and yogic practice, and those that were primarily
J intere,ted in the YOik practices, whether interpreted within the term• of a
Buddhiat or Hindu terminology. It is likely that the teaching, recorded in
properly Buddhist settings were the fint to gain more general acceptance, and
while there may have been eome hesitancy about ac:c:epting worlt1 which _were lea
l specifically Buddhist, it would have been difficult to refuse them in so far as
'L•. their basic lheoriea and practices were e•entially the same. Th01e aspect$ of
xi~ tantric practice which are often found to be "objectionable" by outsiders and
which modem R1pportcrs of tantric theories, including many Tibetan lamas,
J~· explain away as ''symbolic" (thus conceding in effect their otherwise objection·
;1: able nature), arc not the special preterve of the tantras produced in those circles
of yogins and yoginls illustrated above. There are, for example, constant
reference, to them in the "Symposium of Truth," of which one example has been
translated already. It muet alto be clearly atated that many exegetical works
explain lheae various practices as actual ones, although they may also be treated,
once one ii expert in them, as an imaginative proceas. This is 10 generaJJy the
case that illustrative quotations may seem superfluous. HowC\'er, one or two may
be helpful, if only to emphasil:e the teriousnc:aa with which they were treated:
-%;
) At all times respectful to his lord, his glorious adamantine teacher, the valiant
man who has done all that ought to be done, should apply himself to the
secret practice.
'f~ Posaesaing total freedom of action, having turned away from aU attachments,
he proceeds in all ways lionlike, intent on final reality.
r Knowing lhings for just whai they are, ettabliahed in right views, firm in
thought and self-reliant, be i. concerned to save the world.
t m In ma.k.i11gdlil ob«rvation one recall, that aome of the early Mabiryw suuu appear IO be
aalllkritized ffniona of earlier m:i1atio111in dial«t, ,inc:e tbe adopcion of SllJllkrit from abo\11 the
firlllcentury A.I>.onward by Buddhilu wu a gradual procaa. However. by the lfte'lltb century when
:·{:t:/J/{ the tal\tr11a began to~ pan of an accepted B&&ddhitttradition, Saruarit wu well e.tablilhcd
and In regular .-. Tirua. an.)' tantr• that clew,loped within an eidwivdy Baddhiat community
would be composed in tbc! normal Buddhist .Su11kritidiom. By contn,t. tllOR which weR flnt
;,JI§ ·. ttoordcd by teacher& aDCIp11pilain the circles of yogim, whom - bave been characterizing u well as
x~ might be, would be wriucn fim in local diakct:s. which one may ufely presume ro have been the
M. J:_ same as those in which t~ IOIIIP, of which examples bavc hem given, are pre.:ned. At least one
2fffl iancra, chc P..t."!"IW (ed. N . N . Chaudhuri. Cak11tta, 1955) ia p.--n-ed whole in auch a dial«t.
)~
182 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
He abandons altogether repining thoughts, sloth and torpor, the pl~asutts
and companionship of ordinary life, thus all the eight worldly dharmas. 11•
He is always impenurbable, singleminded and resolved, intent on achieving
buddhahood by application to the Six Perfections.
He is entirely devoted to the welfare of living beings while having no fabe
ideu conc:eming them.
Thus railing his thought to enlightenment, he holds to the true course.
Personally united (suyuklatma) with Wisdom and Means, turning away from
all auachmems, and intent upon hi&pracric:e of the truth (taitw), he
succeeds in this very life.
Enthused in his self-consecration by means of yoga as appropriate to his
thought, he foJloWIthe whole aacramental coune as prescribed on the
Mantra Path.
He has rccoune to the Five Ambrosias in order to pacify Mara and suchlike
de&tnactive foKea. and this supreme protection consists of urine, faeces
and the rest.
Fever, sickness, poison and disease, the attacks of (14/n'ni.sand constellations,
Maras and evil 5Pirita are eliminated thereby.
The knowing man eats with enthusiasm these five, human flesh and horse,
camel and elephant as well ii$ dog.
With the other sacred aacramenta which elevate the mind he gratif1e1 his
adamantine thought so as to tranquilize the turbulence of breath.
The Perfection of Wisdom ihould be worshipped in all wa)'i by those who
?ffirc release; she who is pure in an ablolute senae, while pouessing a body
m terms of relative truth. Indeed she exists everywhere in feminine form,
and thus it bas been taught by the Vajra Lord that she is maaifesc in this
exterior sense.
So the yogjn (s!dhaka) quickJy succ~ by mea111of this true yoga as he
makes low to this Symbol (mudm), whether she comes of Brahman caste
or of low degree, whether she is immoral, another's wife, defonned or
maimed, whether she is one's mother, sister, daughter or niec:c.
With the sounds of flutes and other instruments which delight the mind,
with the physical means who are the eiuerna) Symbols performing the
various modes of love, with the five kinda of sensual pleasure, he should
worship himself for the sake of the happiness of his own jewellike thought
by means of that yoga where he him,elf is the divinity.
He should have ao doubts of any kind concerning suitability er unsuitability,
for everything may be enjoyed by means-of the yoga where everything
appears a,illusion. m
Like m01t of the "Great Adepts" ( mahiuiddha), the date of the author of this
well-composed work remains qnite uncertain, although the eighth to ninth
llfi T.be,ieatt gain and 1-, fUM and ill-repute, praise and blame, happlne,s and m~.
edited Sansllrlt 1ext rads :1iddhain,t<:ad of middAa ( .. torpor,Ti~tan gnyj4 ).
"' Extracted from the Projl,,,~rcanuiddhi of Ananpvajn, eh. 5, ""· ~26. Tbe Correl"
ponding Tibetan venion ill in T.T.vol. 68, pp. 241-1-'1ff. See B. Bhauacb.iryya, T-,,,o Yo;,-a-jiPla
Work.I. in Bi~liography. Hi, cditioa, 11wfwas it ii, WOllld have been greatly irnprovccl u°be had
c~ S..!MkrittentM against die Tibetan . Simila, ~achingl an found in the ume
un1at1isfllc:tory
volumeinmejM11&1iddl!ioflnd111bhlitl, cb. I. apec:ifkallyw. 15-15.
m.10 LAltr Amolgamating and Prornu/gati,m of 1omn'c T,acliings 183
:~ '.: century may be likely. It is even possible that he was connected with Padma-
l '_ sambhava, who played an important part in the introduction of Buddhism into
._;-~
· Tibet in the late eighth century, since both are said to have come from the Swat
Valley (U44iyina) and Anangavajra's teacher is named as Mahlpadmavajra,
conceivably identical with Padmasambhava . m However, whatever the date, the
description of the religious life given in this extract corresponds with that of a
wandering yogin and certainly not that of a monk in an established celibate
community. For several centuries these two ways of religious life must have
e~isted side by side, presumably right up to the last days of Buddhism in India,
although the literary works in use on both aideswould have exerted an increasing
mutual influence. With this in mind it may be helpful to resume in a coherent
manner thote features of the tantras which have already been deacribed more or
kss adequately. Certain imponant features, so far dealt with inadequately or in
too disparate a manner, 1Uch as Buddha-families, ma~alas. and rites of con-
secration, will be described in more detail in separate s«tions below.
So far we have clarified to some extent the relationship between the Mahl-
yllna sutras and certain tantras, while drawing attention to the very different
aetting in which such a text as the Hnujra Tantra muat have been compo5ed.
We have drawn attention to the importance for the promulgation of tantric
teachings of certain master-yogina, conventionally known as the eighty-four
Great Adepts ( mahasiddh.o) who flouriahcd in various successions from master to
pupil between the eighth and the twelfth centuries. It was surely during this
period that Buddhism in it&tantric forms became prevalent in northern India,
although i~s uncertain beginnings may be dated as much as thne centuries
earlier than this, while many of the tantras, later to be accepted u "canonical,·•
were cenainly in existence well before the eighth century, as is proved by the
known dates of 10mc of the earlier Chinese translation1. Some renowned tantras,
as different in content u the Dmgatiparisodhana ("Elimination of Evil
Rebirths") and the Guhya:samaja. were among the earliest Buddbisc Sanskrit
works translated into Tibetan in the eighth century, about the same time that
the earliest Chinese translations of tantric works began to make their appearance
in the early yean of the T'ang Dynasty .119 Important among thete ia the "Sym ·
posium of Truth" from which several quotations haw been drawn already. It has
been observed abo~ that the relative dating1 of Tibetan translations of sutraa
and tantras ha,-e no relevance to the datings of Indian original texts before the
eighth century, because this was when the great work of the: Tibetan translaton,
lasting IM!r the next four centuries, began. But since the work of translating
Buddhist sutraa into Chineae dates from the second century A.D. and that of
tramlating UU1tric works dates generally from the eighth century onward. we
1.~
118See my rditieln of the Hwapa Tantra, lnr.roduc1ion. p. 13.
lit Conc:emlng IM eigl11h-ttntury Tib«an Lranslation of LIieGu/a_)l(IJ4t~ Tantn, 1tt Kenneth
W. £alll'l\an, "The Tun-huang Mllnuscript of the Oath)-.ua .... Tantra," a paper presented i11
Japanest to the Twcmy-Seffnth Contt.ntion of the Japanelle Associlltion for Tibeun S1ooif:s.
17 November. 1979, KJO(o.Japan (Nihochibettogakkaikoihi>.no. 26, March, 1980).
 :>
184 Ill: T ANTRIC BUI>DHJSM lI
;,_!~
~f~
have a fair indication when such worU were sufficiently in vogue in Buddhist ···'.'· ··
centers in India to attract the auention of foreign translators. It is impossible to
date with any semblance of precision a particular tanua, just as it is impo,aible
to date an y one sutra. It has already been remarked that rnany of the beliefs and
teachings expreued in later Mahayana autras can be traced back to a far earlier
period, and the same is true of the tantras . In part, e.g., in so far as tantras were
used as protective spells, they belong to a very early phase of Buddhism . In ..
certajn other respects, e.g., the theory of self-ickntification with a chosen
divinity who has no obviou$ earlier Buddhist affiniti" , we may suspect the
teachings to be comp aratively late as an acceptable form of Buddhist practice,
quite as late as the sixth or seventh century. if we are looking for the actual
origins of a text in question. Very early dates have been suggested for the
Guhyasamaja Tantra, but from my knowledge of its contents I find so early a · ·
date aa the founh century hard to accept . 1:o This is a well-developed tantra,
which has absorbed the "objectionable" practices of tantric yogins into a well.'
defined Buddhist wetting, where the fivefold conception of buddhahood is
already accepted and a sixth universal buddha-manifestation is added. A
comparatively late Mahayana sutra, later categorized by the Tibetan, u a
tantra, probably becawie of the four Buddha -manifestations to the four quarters · :
which it takes for granted , is the Suva17J,O/)Tabhasa ("Sutra of Golden Light"),
and this is moat likely dated to the fifth century A.O. in its earliest known Sanskrit
version. m The development of the theory of Buddha-families from three to four
and then to five with eventually a sixth Buddha added, will be diecussed below,
but in its final form it must belong rather to the eighth century than to the
fourth . Here again, h~ver . readers must be reminded that the form in which
theae works are known to us in Sanskrit scarcely ever represent their earliest
versions, and the whole quC$tion of datings remains open to SJ>C(:Ulation and
comequent disagreement . For the history of Buddhism in India what is
important is not so much the dates of the earlie&t versions of texts which are only
known to us in later versions, but the effects that such tex111had on Buddhist
beliefs and practices once they went into wider circulation, and for th is the
eighth century onward must be the period under consideration .
The famous Chinese scholar-p ilgrim Hslian-uang made between the years 629 ,.
and 645 the long journey acros1 Central Asia, entering the Indian subcontinent .·.·
through the far nonhwest and visiting all Buddhist sites of imponance
throughout nonhern India before returning home , traveling back over the same
far -flung regions. His travelog contains detailed information of all the places .
visited , descriptions of places of pilgrimage and shrines, noting the divinities ·
they contained, as well M the numbers and types of monastic communities and ·!
the kinds of religious practice of the inmates. He knows only of the four main ·
"schools,'' which arc cla111edgenerally as Hlnaytna and Mahlylna, and there is :,
no indication that he ever encountered any form of ritualized Buddhism that :..
The Bi,cdh.isl Tant,os , pp. 15·19.
lzo s~ Ales Wayman.
m S~ R. E. Emmcrick. The S..tra o/Gwlen Light. Introduction and n,ferencrs.
111
. 10 Latrr Amalgamation on4 Promulgation of Taf'llric 1'eat:hings 185
·.
might be described as tantric or encountered any of the great tantrk sets of
divinities, even the set of Five Buddhas, who may be defined as entirely Buddhist
in inspirat ion. He moves in a religious world that clearly relates to the kind of
Buddhillm known ro Uf from the earlier period (see below, section IV.1 .a). It is
passible that this was a matter of his own spontaneous choice and that he noted
Jitde of forms of Buddrusm of which he diApproved , or maybe he did not
recognize ,uch religious forms as truly Buddhist. ThWI, writing of the Swat
Valley (U44iyana) in the far nonhwm, he says that the people have great
reverence for the Buddhist Dharma and believe in the Mahayana, listing the
various schools of the Vinaya tradition that were known. but he also makes the
general comment that while learning may be appreciated, there is a lack of
application, and that in particular the an of spells is practiced. He also notes the
existence of ten temples of divinities, in which dwell a mixed number of
unbelievers. in These scattered references could well indicate a community
where tantric Buddhism has taken root , but in thia first half of the seventh
century we are apparently still far from the later times when tantric studies will
become established in the great Buddhist teaching-cente11 of eastern India .
The reviewing of the history of Buddhism on Indian soil ia inevitably a form of
academic reconstruction drawing upon a vast quantity of literary materials, few
of which survive in India in the original languages, much surviving in Sanskrit in
Nepal, and even great er quantities in T ibetan and Chinese- translations and in
the biographical writings of visiting scholars, mainly Tibetan and Chinese. u
well as occuional ordinances promulgated in their homelands. Considering that
Buddhism flourished in India for some seventeen centuries, one notes how ~ry
little remains of architectural and iconographic significance apart from the vast
quantities of ruina and fragmented images unearthed mainly in thenorthwestem
parts of the subcontinent . Viaitora may still be impreued by the restored temples
and stupas at Bodhgaya, Samith, Kasia (Kuiinagara) and Saiki, but the great
monastic center of Nalanda is a vast tragic ruin with little to show in the local
museum, while most of the other great monastic ccnten that were active until
the lut days of Buddhism in northern India have diaappeared altogether, excq><
where a cluster of archaeo logical discoveries may indica te some such now
unidentifiable ancient site. It is perhap s intereeting to note how very scanty is
any fonn of tantric imagery amongst the litde that does survive here and there in
sit11in sufficient quantity for one
to gain at least an impression of the icono -
graphic predilections of the later inmates. The Indian Museum at Calcutta hu
received Buddhist remains from all over eastern India, but here too there is very
little which docs not belong to the more conventional Buddhist world of
Buddhas and Grea t Bodhisattvas. Tantric imagery was certainly represented by
a well-advanced production of metal work, as is proved by the continuing
development of the craft in Nepal, where a whole variety of tantric divinities
ltz See Si-:,u-1,i, Btuldhisl R•co1'ds oft~ We~lern World, uanslattd by S..murl 8 c-dl, Pan I,
pp. 120-1. OM may fl':feraho oo ltme GT-I , In tlat Footst•J,s of the Bwldlaa , pp. 111-2, £oTan
iotn-pn,tative acrount of this part ofHailan •&Mng',uavelog .
186 Ill: 1"ANTRJC BUDDHISM
have continued to be produced right up to the present day. One may note too.
that tantric imagery is extremely complex, especially where large sets o(
divinities arranged as maq4illa• are concerned, and paintings in the form o(
large murals are clearly the most suitable fonn of artistic representation. We '.
know how much the murala that survive in early Tibetan temples of the eleventh :.
and twelfth centuries, as well as the murals from seYeral discovered ancient :'
Central Asian Buddhi1t sites, d-rew upon Indian mocrels and inspiration. but the:;.
Indian originals no longer exist in thoee many temple$ that have long since i Sbuwslesscompassion than an ogre.
turned to rubble and dust. Some direct links can be e.tabliahed with miniatun: i
paintings on palm-leaf manwcripta from eutern India, which have happily.~
survived in Nepal and maybe al&0 in Tibet (Pls. JO et Jl). Furthermore, the:_ : You are more intent on rotten remains than ants in a tumbledown house.
Buddhiu wall paintings that have survived miraculously at Ajantl are no later -'
than the eighth century , and all we have is the negative evidence that tantric ·
imagery bad not yet been developed at this one site. . Alas! With worship such as this, you will be reborn in a mire of rotting corpses.
We have mggcsted above that some tantras were compoecd within monastic'.'
compounds and othen amongst the lay followers of tantric yogim. One group ·:
may be characteriud by a general conformity to Buddhist Mahlylna teachings, :
while the other introduces many concepts for which there would appear to be no·.
Buddhist sanction whatsoeVer. Tantras classed as Yoga tantras might seem to:~
fall into the first group, while Supreme Yoga Tantru fall into ,he aecond. But a,;:
we have already observed, it is the latecomers who usually order teachings to suit ~
their own latest productions, placing their own teachings in the highe5t category ::
and claiming that earlier ones arc in some way inferior. Thwi the claim that the·:
so called Supreme Yoga Tantras are the only ones to teach the set of higher\
consecration, is manifetdy a false one. They offer in effect nothing higher; theyi
merely provide the same teachings in the more outspoken and deliberately :
ecandaloua language and in the unorthodox terminology, which one might welt:.
expect of wandering tantric yogins, who claim to haw- no allegiance anywhere .:
except to their own revered teacher. Presumably it ia becau,e they taught the·_
same theories and practices as the more orthodox Yoga Tantras, that it was:
posaible £or them to be accepted into the main stream of the Indian Buddhut :.
tradition. It was merely necessary to interpret them in accordance with the ~
theory of "enigmatic" meanings, and this is what the commentators set out to :·:
do. Moreover, once they were accepted, much of their terminology might be'.
used in tantras composed in a monastic setting. A possible example of this is the :
Guh:,cuam4ja Tantm, which wu first ~ved in Tibet as one of a 11et of so• ·•
called MaMyoga tannu, and one may note that its literal interpretation was still i
a cause of anxiety some two ccnturiet and more later, u is shown by an i.
ordinance of King Ye-sbes-'od of Gu·ge (western Tibet) who ruled in the tenth to ·.,
eleventh centuries. .··
You tantric apecialiats, who live in our villages,
Ha~ no connection with the Three Ways of Buddhism
And yet claim to follow the Mah.lylna.
Without keeping the moral rules of the Mahayana
Jll.10 Later A maigomation and Promulgatwn of Tantrlc TNC'hmgs 187
You say "We are Mahiyinisu."
This ii like a ~ggar saying he is king
Or like a donkey dressed in the skin of a lion.
And again below:
o village specialists, your tantric kind of practice,
If hea-rd of in other lands would be a cause for shame.
You say you a~ Buddbius, but your conduct
You are more greedy for meat than a hawk. or a wolf.
You are more subject to lust than a donkey or an ox on heat.
You have leaa concept of purity than a dog or a pig.
To pure divinit~s you offer faeces and urine, semen and blood.
You thua reject the ieligioo of our Th.xeefold Scripture..
Alas! You will indeed be rebom in the Avtci Hell.
As retribution for killingcreatures with your .so-called "rite of deliverance,"
Alas! You will surely be bom as an ogre.
AJ retribution for indulging your lust in your ,o-called ''ritual embrace,"
Alas! You will surely be horn as a uterine worm.
You wonhip the Three Jewels with flesh, blood and urine.
In ignorance of wenigmatic" terminology you perform the rite literally.
A Mahayanist such as ,his will surely be born as a demon.
It is truly amazing that a Buddhist should act in this way.
If practices like yours result in buddhahood,
Then hunters, fishermen, butchrrs and prostitutes
Would all surely have gained enlightenment by now. 10
Such an ordinance castigate& much of the "religious prac:tke" that the texts
under consideration dearly associate with free-roving tantric yogins who
a11eD1blefor their rites and feasu at the sacred places known as pqha etc.
However, despite this general condemnation, texts dealing with such matten arc
regarded as acceptable, once their "enigmatic" terminology is not misunder-
itood.114 Moreover, thoroughly reputable Tibetan tranalators and scholara were
directly involved in the ttansmission of those very tantras that contain such
obnoxious reference$. Thus Rin-chen bzang·po, known as the Great Tramlator,
whose chief supponer was the same King Ye-shes-'od, was responsible for the
translation of the "Symposium of Truth," which contains occasional references
to the desirability of slaying. robbing, lying and promiscuous sexual intuooursc,
and also for an amended translation of the Guh,asamaja Tantra, already
m Sec Samten G. Kannay. "The ordinance of IHa Bia-ma Ve-sha-'od," Tibetan Studies in
H-r of Hvgh. Ru:Jumls<m,pp. lS0-62. The Tibetan text, retran,htted bett. is on p. 156, D. 6-lS.
aruhgainp.156, lascagbtlineuop.157, 1.17.
124 Tht wurd lt'anab.ted htff as ''eni,m.ttic" is Ti~u ldffn,.qon,s, whK:bmigh,. be rcncl<:ttd
litttally as "hu~ as a riddll!." It ttpraencs Sanakrit .rantl4iil>lw40.
For other references we
·l?lligmatic tangua~·, in the lQdex .
188 111: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
translated in the eighth century, which contains throughout reference& not only
to 5Uch pervene conduct but also to the whole range of foul sacraments in
contexts where the original meaning may well have been 1iteral. 1i$ There is no
doubt that patrons of Buddhilm as the new religion of Tibet, a&well as members
of monastic communitin, were perturbed by this class of religious literature; but
what were their criteria for judging between one text and another? Such waa .
their unbounded respect (which in the circumstances mu.t surely be judged as
naive) for Sanskrit as the sacred language of the Holy Land where the teachings
they were now introducing originated, that it was sufficient to prove the
ex..istcnceof a Sanskrit original for any soi,di.aant Buddhist text to be accepted u ·
"canonical." This led in due course to many tantras of the Old School (rNying-
ma) being excluded from the Tibetan Buddhi1t Canon when it assumed a final
form in the thineenth century, although it is likely that Sanskrit original& had
once existed, while at the same time the ~oon contains the m05t obnoxiou.s
passages simply because a Sanskrit original version was already known. Tibetan \
translators and scholars who visited India during ihia formative period (mainly ·.:·
the temh to twelfth centuries) sun-:lyrealized that all that was written in Sanskrit .
was not necnsarily Buddhist, but if anything written was traditionally declared ;:
to be a Buddhist work, whatever its actual textual origins, they accepted it in ;
good faith. Once confronted "at home" with all these works fast appearing in ',
Tibetan traMlation of supposedly unchallengeable authority, religious leaders .
had no other means of explaining them away than by the theory of "enigmatic" I
meanings, and so it has been to thia day, although nowadaf$ amongst Tibetan :
Buddhist enthusiasts one hears more of "symbolic" interpretations. In general :.
the problem has been solved fairly simply by replacing the foul sacraments by :~
acceptable substitutes and explaining the perverse teachings in the two ways in :
which they are already explained in canonical texts, namely as directed- '.,
legitimately in certain circumstances-against the enemies of Buddhism or as :
indicating the state of perfc:ction aimed at, where no distinction can be made ;
between good and evil in that the Five Evils are ttansmuted imo the Five ,
Wisdoms of ultimate buddhahood (seep. 280 below). ·'
Sexual yoga ia in a cue apart, for it should not neceaarily be confused with·,'.
the promiscuous sexual intercourse as recommended in different although ··.,
sometimes overlapping contexts. As already ob&ervedabove, aexual yoga is quite i
as legitimate as the accompanying yoga of breath·control, although ju~ ' succeu in the 8Upreme and highest way." Theae three will be recogni2.ed as the
unsuitable for thoee who had taken monastic vows. However, even this becomes:;
in Tibet an internal process of yoga in so far as the conditions for its practice no :,
lon~r existed . Thus it iuaid: '.
Such teachers and pupils together with their Spells (vidya) possessing all the ·,
characteristics as described, do not now exist. So the Knowledge.Symbol
which one aspires to receive from one's guru and the series of questions and
Hmtag• of L.4db»i:·
1u For the lif~ of Rin-chen bzang-po 11« Sncllgt~ and Skorup9ki, C11ll11T'Al
vol. 2, pp. 8S ff. A long list of his translatio111is given la C. Tucci, lndc-Tibstic,i, vol. 11,:
pp . 40 ff.
)11.11 Buddha-Families 189
-; on are explained as a method. Then by reflecting upon the union of oneRlf
with the Spell as the male and female aspecu of one's tutelary divinity in the
state of complete mental clarity. one of keen faculties does indeed experience
bli11.12•
One may fairly wonder what purpose IClNal yoga may then serve, which is not
already served by more conventional forms of yoga based upon the theory of the
union of two coefficienu, often known as Wisdom and Means. Would the yoga
of breath•control be equally effective, if ins~ad of being actually practiced, it
was used as an imaginative process? One can certainly appreciate that breath·
corurol, cenain forms of aexual control, or indeed the we of certain drugs can
produce states of con.scioU$nCSS which those who experience them may identify .u
an elevated religious experience, but when the proce.s, consists of instruction in
principles and patterns. followed by meditation upon them, we surely have types
of reJigioua experience which differ no way in kind from the meditational
practice$ of nontantric Buddhisu. One bas the clear impression. that the vast
variety oftantric imagery, when divorced from the actual tan.tric practica of the
kind we have illustrated, becoma in effect nothing more than new styles for old
practices, and Buddhism remaiw after all very much what it had always been, a
tttreat from the world for the unworldly and a meana of religious livelihood for
the more worldly memben of the community, with the occasional appearance of
some truly great men of religion, who while remaining unworldly, continue to
work effectively for the benefit of those who are immersed in the world. In short,
tantric Buddhism seems to offer litde new in results, which earlier forms of
Mahlyana Buddhism do not already supply. Nonetheless, some more detailed
account of ita complex imagery remains to be given.
11. BUDDHA-FAMILIES
There have been several references throughout the last section to "families" of
various kinda. Thus we are informed in the Guh.)'IJJ:Gmaja Tont-ra (see 1ection
111.8) that: "Th~ belonging to the families of Passion, Wrath and Delusion,
being well versed in the meaning of nondiKrimiruuion, achieve the very bea
three fundamental evils which keep the Wheel of Existence, interpreted as the
continual round of rebirths, in circulation according to early Buddhist theories
(see section 1.5.a). Elsewhett the same tantra (111.2 above) relates them directly
1 with various kinds of perffne actions, with the Buddhist ttilogy of Body, Speech
and Mind, and with the Hindu trilogy of Brahm!, Sivaand V~9u. The fact that
so: . u• Extracted fTom mK.hu-gnib--rjt'1 ~fJllels of tit• BV41lhi# Tanlr1J1. p. SU; the putage
Ii tffl"an1lawd wilh acbowled.semcm, co the ed.iior, of 1hr tat and to dleir earlicf tra11&lation.One
may note that 'dff.lJia ii • luenl tranalation of Sanskrit ~1""-'fi. m0tt often 1.J"anolatedby
Tibetan :,i-"4,n ( = tucelary divinity).
.
190 Ill: T ANTRIC BUDDHISM
it is thoec "well versed in the meaning of nondiscrimination" who achieve the
promi&ed success, suggests at once the notion , so often met with in tantric texts,
that the perfected yogin transcends in bis thought all concepts of good and evil.
According to the philolophical concepts of the Mahlytna one f"mds this
expreaed as the essential identity of nirv~a and sa1'sara, so dearly and unequi -
vocalJy stated by Nlgarjuna and his succeuon . We have already noticed how
this cross-identification of good and evil is used to explain the continual
beneficent activity of a would -be Buddha (Bodhisattva) in this world of suffering
and sin. Such ideas arc also expressed in the sutra entitled ''Conttntration of
Heroic Progress." in the "Teaching of Vimalakini ," and especially perhaps in
the doctrinal verses of Sintideva:
The bodhisattva& who understand such connections,
gladly accept the sufferings of others,
Plunging into the deepeat hell like swans into a lotua·co~red lake.
(Sec II.5.c-d)
But we have also noticed how in the later MaMyana a rather different idea is
expraaed, namely that since we ourselves by our very nature have no choice but
to operate through the phenomenal world (saqisa.ra), so it is by the tram--
formation, even the manipulation, of the three fundamental evils that we
ourselves gain release. In this respect Asaiiga's verses concrrning extrication
from the emoriom (klesa) by meam of the emotions were quoted (111.1). Thi5
theory that release from puaion and the others (primarily wrath and delusion)
are achieved by means of passion etc. ii indeed fundamental to tantric practice .
The theory is rationalized. by the further asaumption that ttaining should be
adapted to suit candidates in whom the evils of passion, wrath and delusion :·~~i.
predominate, and theee come to be referred to as "families."
The idea of placing potential practitioners of Buddhist doctrine into different
categories is a very ancifllt one . Thus Sakyamuni. surveying the world with his
Buddha-vision immediately after his enlightenment saw "beings of little
impurity, of much impurity , of keen or dull faculties, of good or bad conditions,
easy or bard to teach. "117Later the follo'Wt'n of the Mahlylna distinguished the
"ways" ()Cina} of the Early Disciples (sr4va4a), of Lone Buddhas (prat,eka-
hddha) and Bodhisattva, , •~times equated with the possession of dull,
medium or keen faculties . We have noticed bow the term gotra, literally ,:,if(
meaning "fold," comes into use, .referring to those who belong to the Buddhist
fold, and later how five such "folds" are distinguuhed, including the three
accepted. "ways." those who have not made up their mind and thoae who mi11
final salvation altogether (11.4.d). All such categories are clearly conceived of as
Buddhist, even the la,t mentioned one in cenain respects. ln tantric literature
the trrm "family" (4ula) appears frequently, and so gradually the whole
structure of Buddhist tantric symbolism , as expressed mOft clearly in the
ma~C,ala or mystic circle, becomes directly related to such Buddha-families. One
m Se~ E.J. Thomu, Life ofllt• &.ddltc, p. 82.
Jll.11 Buddha-Families 191
may note in paning that the term kvla, while appearing frequently in Maha-
y•na works, occurs in such combinatioN as rdja·kvla ( == of royal family or
lineage) , brahma'"'·ktda (.., of priestly family), nlca·kula ( = of low lineage),
ucca-4ula ( = of high lineage) etc., thus having no specific Buddhist application.
In tantric works, however , its use becomes specificallyBuddhist. jwt as the term
gotra had been adopted to Buddhist usage in Mahlylna works. Thus both tenN
cometo have the same meaning, as recognu.ed by the Tibetan uanalators who
used a single term for them (viz. rig, ==lineage or family), and are di&tinguiahed
only by the contexts, Mahayana or Vajrayana , where they ,1re used.
The tantra entitled ''The Fundamental Ordinance of Maftju6rt," which for
reasons that should become ever dearer aa we proceed, may be assumed to be-
at leaat in its oldest parts- one of the earliest tantric works, u,ea the tenn 1culato
distinguish the already traditionally accepted Buddhist higher beings (viz. thO&e
many Buddha- and Bodhisattva-names which we have met in our quotations
from MahlyAna sQtraa) from originally non-Buddhist divinities, whether gentle
or fierce, who were then in the proceaa of being accepted into the Buddhist fold
both u objects of devotion aa well aa forms of symbolic imagery. Thus three
main families are clearly diatinguished : the Buddha Family (Tathagata-kula),
the Lotus Family (~clma - or abjo -lcula) for gentle divinities and the Adaman-
tine-or Vajn Family ( Yafra· or ltuliia-luda) for fierce and powerful divinities .
The use of the tet"m Buddha Family (for such a term inevitably retains an
I
exclusive sense) acknowledges in effect the earlier non-Buddhist associations of
the members of the other two families, although all three come to be treated as
adherents of the Buddhist fold. It may be noted , however, that there is a clearly
defined gradation of importance, namely Tathigata, Lotus, Vajra, in the first
category of tantras (lraja-tantro) where these three families are generally the
I
only three well-defined ones. Thus one who has received consecration in the
Tathtgata Family is authorized to practice d1c rituals of the other two; one who
has received consecration in the Lotus Family may also practice the rituals of the
I
Vajra Family, while consec:ration in thto Vajra Family limits one to rituab of that
family only. 1!8 The formulation of these three families thus represents a
conrcioua effort to incorporate divinities who are originally non-Buddhist, and
Jj , the benign ones were more readily acceptable than the fierce ones. The main
argument justifying their incorporation is the ttadirionally accepted one of
;
·~
1: Bodhisattvas appearing in any guise whatsoever, so long as this conduces to the
convemon of living beings .
Other Bodhisattvu, those Great Beings, appear in tbe form of women, for they
do not withdraw from the world, such being their endless activities; for the
purpoae of establishing all living being&in the irrevt>rsiblepath which is their
aspiration, they usume the form of unaccountable spells (vidytl), of mantTas
and mnemonics ( dlw.ra:r~,')and various kinds of medicinal herbs , or they take
the form of different sons of winged creatu.re5, of yalq,u and ogres (1'4iklasa),
128 See m.Rhas-grub-rje's Fwnd41'Unta/J oflhe &"4/ust Tontru, p. 149,
·:Ji~·.
192 III: T ANTlUC BUDDHISM
of Gem-mantras and Jewel-rajas, thu1 adapting themselves to the activities of
living beings by entering into such categories of living beings and of non-
beinga, so doing whatever is suitable for convening living beingsin accordance
with their aspirations, and adapting tbamelves to all th011eaaumed forms, for
they understand the teaching of the "Mighty Ones of Magical Power'' (vidya·
Taja) and are perfected in the Dharma, appearing in the families of the
Buddha (Tathllgata), the Lotus (abjo), the Vajra, in worldly and celestial
forms, so without transgrcuing their vow1, tM)' establish living beings in the
path of inatru.ction, thw acting without paning from the linea~ of the Three
Jewels. 119
The ManjuITtmulokalpa is a voluminous and compoaite work; thw one can
expect no very clear formulation of the various "families." However, the three
that are clearly defined are thoee of the Buddha, the Lotus and the Vajra, and it
is precisely these three that continue to hold their own in Buddhist tantric
tradition despite the later formulation of a aet of five "families." Thia particular
tantra is interesting in that it reveals the theory of these "families" in a formative
process, with three already defined and others still in a state of uncertainty . As
many as eight are named rather incoherently, and some of the terms involved
reappear integrated into the later fivefold arrangement. i,e For present purposes
we need only be concerned with the generally accepted form of the three-family
arrangement aa preserved in lndo-Tibetan tradition. In what may well be its
earliest formulation, it ia deac:ribed thus in the second chapter of this early
tantra:
Then the master of the mal.)qala, evoking the Buddbas and Bodhisattvas,
ligh,ing inc:enaeaccompanied by the inceme-manua u previously taught,
making a gesture of homage u he bows before the Buddhas and Boclhisattvu,
and a salutation to Maiiju&rl in bia princely fonn, takes the colorcd powdcn
129Maitfa.irimiJaltalp., p. 9, ll. 9--16.T~ who are io1ereaed in the disapcmen11 of inter·
pmation whi<;hm<1yniR in w chu:id.ition of ll difflCUh,-age such as ibis. 5bouldme,- to my
Buddhat Himala:,o. p. 6', and Ariaoe Macdonald'• M"flt/tllo du MmijvmmiJaulpo., pp. S6,7. I
ha~ oow retramlated die pa11asr in full, rejecdn,r her complaint that J tau as .ubject thl'CXlghout
the "miuionary Bodhieattvu." The wholr complex eencenceia bound topd1er by a aeries of long
"ODlpoundl all ending with in•rumental plural gramm11tical endinp, wh.ich m111t relate to the same
subjttt throughOllt, namely the Boclhl,auvaa. I thank Profeuor J. C. Wright fOI' checking che
stnic:ture of the phrase, and happily confirming my interpretation. Mn,e Macdonald alto argues 1he
eicistmce of four "fams1ies,•• tbe fourth one being "the wotldly and c~lltlal." This is gnmmatkally
poalble, but quite unn«-llry In 1he whole contciu of. w line three chapten, with wbkh she ii
mainly concerned. The word for "family" does not occur in the Sa111kritversion. but only In the
Tiberan, where its position at the end of the lisr ,igtmies no more than its pcmtion at the beginning.
u required in the English a, French tranalatiom. Concerning the "Mighty Ona of Magical Power"
(\CdJirijo)&eubove p. 1!15.
ISO For I IIR of tb<. eight ..farnilieJ" ,_ Ariane Macdonald., ,,,. cit •• PP· 42-5. At wa1Ibe lttD
lattr. the Clem Family is ttrained aa one of the ewiuual five and the l'Jephant ~main• as one of the
Buddha-fthic:lc\, although their dirtttlona are changed. Famille of .Earl:, l>i$dpkt aod Pratyeb·
buddhas by their very nat1,tt are ezdu<kd from the lain ,ec of Buddha-families, and thrir appear·
<1nc:e here demonstnies a conniectioo. only co be expected in the early tanuic period. bctwttn
"!amilics" (In.la} <1nd"folds" (gotnt) as de&e:ribedaix-. The differait conia11 arc not yet clearly
dilli~.
m.11 Buadha·Families 19S
and traces the images which are to be filled in by the painters. In tbia manner
he draws first the Lord Buddha Sakyamuni with all his fine attributes seated
on a bejewelled lion-throne in the divine palace of the Pure Abode, as he
teaches the Dhanna. . . . Then to the right side of the image of the Lord
SAkyamuni he should draw two Pratyekabuddha$ seated Cros5·legged in the
lotuivpo&tute, and below these he should draw two great disciples listening to
the Dharma. Still further to the right there is the Lord Avalokiteivara a.domed
with all hia finery, white a.s autumnal reeds, seated in the lotus-po,ture,
holding a lotus-flower in his left hand and making the gesture of giving with
his right. On ms right ia the Lady Paq4aravlsinf holding a lotus in her righc
hand and making a gesture of salutation toward the Lord SAkyarouni; she Is
se-ated in the lotus·po•ture; her hair is arranged u a headdreu; she wears a
white garment with a shawl of white mu,lin around her and she has a triple
mark ma.de with ashe5 (on the forehead). Likewise he should draw Taraand
Bhruku~i seated with their appropriate postures and &tance.Above theae one
should draw the Lady Prajnaplrunitl, Tathlgata•Locani and u,~arlja.
One should draw the Sixteen Bodhisattvas, namely Samantabhadra, Ktiti-
garbha, Gaganaganja, SarvanivaraJ)avifkambhin, Apiyajaha, Maitreya
holding a chowrie while looking at the Lord Buddha, Vimalagati, Vimala-
ketu, Sudhana, Candraprabha, Vimalaklrti, Sarvavyldhiclkitsaka, Sarva·
dharrneivararaja. Lokagati, Mahamati, Paridhara. These sixteen Great
Bodhi&attvuahould be drawn in a tranquil upect and adorned with all their
finery. The chief of the Mighty Ones of Magical Power and the Q.ueen of
Magical Power should be drawn with their fcatuIU and symbol&8$ one recalls
them for the Lotus Family and the rctt in their proper placca according to
tradition. In the last position one should put a square space adorned with
lotus-flowers. and let those Gods of Magical Power who have been forgotten
take up their pOtition in thia place.
Thm on the right ,ide of the Lord Slkyamuni there should be two Pratye-
kabuddhas, namely Gandhamadana and Upiriffha. A ma,xlala should
always be made with its main entry toward the East. On the other tide of the
Lord Slltyamuni two other Pratye.ltabuddhas should be drawn, namely
Candana and Siddha. Below them one should draw two great disciple,,
Mahikaiyapa and Mahakaryiyana.
To their left is the noble Vajrapal}i, of dark hue like that of a blue lotus-
flower, of gracious appearance, adorned with all his finery, waving a chowrie
in his right band, while with bis left he makes the wrathful gesture of the
Vajra-Fist. He has as entourage Vajranku.ti, Vajrur,.'ikball, Subahu, Vajra·
senaand all the Mighty Ones of Magical Power, both male and female, all
with auitable drca, accouterments, po1tutt1 and thrones; they should be
drawn as one recalls them with their proper features and symbols. To the left
of them one should draw a square marked with crossed-vajras, and having
drawn it, one says: "Let thOIC Hosts of Magical Power who have been forgotten
take up their position in this place."
Above them the Six Perfections and the Lady Mamaki mould be drawn
adorned with all their finery and in tranquil aspect.
Above them are the Eight U~r;tlfa·rljas who should be drawn completely
encircled with flames and in the guise of Great Universal Monarchs all with
194 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
their appropriate symbols. They att: golden in color; their senae•faculties arc ·•
at rest and their gaze is raised slightly toward the Tath!gata (~llyamuni).
Their names are: Cak.ravarty·UfJ,l~a. Abhyudgat(lft}ifa, Sitiltapatra,Jay()f,;tifa,
Kamalot~fa. Tejorili and UnnatOf~. Such are the eight U!~~a -rljas who
are to be to the left of the Pratyekabuddhas .
. . . Below the lion-throne one should draw the Wheel of the Doctrine,
entirely encircled with a ring of flames, and then beneath that a palacc.-of
gems where reposes the Great Bodhisattva the Lord Mafijmrf. the Prince in
princely fonn, of yellowish saffron-like hue, tranquil and graceful, with a
somewhat smiling expreaion, holding a blue lotus-Rower in hil left hand,
while his right band makes the gesture of gener01ity and holds a myrobalan
fruit. He i1 adorned with all the finery of a young1ter and decorated with five
crescs, while be wean a string of pearla in place of the aactt:d thread (of a
brabman). He wean an upper and a lower garment of fine material, and he is
quite splendid, entirely surrounded by a ring of flames, seated in the lotua-
posture. u he glances at Yamlntak.a, the Lord of Wrath, while facing the
main entrance of the mar,4ala with a graceful expression. On his right side
below the lotus one should draw Yamantaka, the Lord of Wrath, terrible in
appeuance, entirely surrounded by a ring of flames, with his gaze fully
directed toward the Great Bodhisattva, on whose command he attends. m
I have quoted this passage at some length since it includes important sets of
divinitiet, auch as the Eight u,'Pfa (although only aeven are listed) and the
Sixteen Bodhisattva&, who will appear later on in well-defined maJJ.4alu. But itS
main intereat at present is the deacripcion, however aeemingly disordered, of
thrtt predomin.ant groups of divinities under the leadership of Mafijuirl,
associated with the symbol of the Wheel of the Doctrine and placed immediately
under the Buddha SAkyanm.ni; Avalok.itdvara with the symbol of the Lotm·
flower to the right; and Vajrapa11i with the symbol of the Vajra to the left. It is
interesting to noll! that Sil:yamuni has in effect an entoUJ'age of Pratyeka ·
buddba, and Early Disciples, thus relating him directly with the Buddhist
categories of the earliest period. while Maiijuiri u bis primary representative
requires no special entourage despite his clearly suggested preeminence. The
wrathful divinity Yamantaka ("Destroyer of Death"), who is explained according ) ~ ·.
to later theories_as his ow~ fierce manifes~ti~n, alone awai~s his c~mands. The
two other leadmg Bodh11attvas, Avalolutesvara and VaJrapa91, each has an
entoura~ of feminine divinities, tranquil for the one and f~rce for the other. ,. ·
The Mighty Ones of Magical Power" (u'dytiraja), representing the new
0
divinities now in the process of being introduced into the tantric pantheon, are
allocated to one group or the other depending upon whether thei r nature is
tranquil or fierce. This is clearly the formulation intended, although the whole
ma~4,ala, even envisaged as a paint ing, might be difficult to execute merely
p. 39, ll. 10-16; p. 40, 1.2-p. 41, I. 1$; p. 41.
HJ •or d~ Sanskrit text see Manjusrfmula""1.lpa.
I. 20-p. 42, I. 5, The complete French uan,lation will be found in Ariane Macdonald, op. cit.,
pp. l05ff. The only n0tcwonhy divelJlffl(e if Vajrapa,!li'shand-get1ure aod t~ seit of his smaU
emoura~ .
IU.11 Buddha-Families 195
from the directions which are given ben:. Certainly there is no very symmetrical
arrangement, usually fivefold or eightfold, so typical of the m~cµlas which.will
be com.idered below. The text goes on to dCKTibe three prmiding Buddhaa,
named u Sailkusumitarljendra ("Beflowered Lord of Kings"), •a who is placed
above SM;yamuni, Amitabha ("Boundless Light") placed above Avalokiteivara,
and Ratnaltetu ("Gem Banner"), presumably placed above Vajrapai,i, but even
this is not made clear in the text. Of these only Amitabha retains in later
tradition his position as presiding Buddha of the Lotus Family. and I mention
the others here partly to illmtrate the fluctuating efforts at formulation in this
presumably early tantra, and partly because we shall meet them again later in a
regular fivefold mai,.4,ala, Although references to Three Families continue to
occur, they are effectively eclipsed by the later Five Family arrangement, which
has a so much greater symbolic application. We have alre-.tdy drawn attention
above to the reference in the Guh,asamilja Tantra to the three families of
Delu1ion. Passion and Wrath, although this tantra operates generally within the
fivefold system. It will be explained below how the Three Evils. extended to five
to fit a fivefold scheme, are identified with a set of Five Buddhas. Probably the
most significant survival of the earlier threefold scheme is the cult of the three
Great Bodhisattva,, Matljum, Avalokiteivara and VajrapAl].i, referred to u the
"Lords of the Three Families" (Tibetan: rigs·gsum mgon·J,o). Shrines to these
three will be found throughout the Himalayaa. wherever Buddhism prevails, and
this popular cult surely derives from Buddhist India, although all trace of it, like
so much el&e, has disappeared there (Pl. JJb). They may be repre.ented by
painted stone images, or by a simple row of three wayside shrines (cMten)
painted usually red, white and black. m Far more commonly they are repre-
sent,:d by their mantraa or "spells" (tcd,a) inscribed on flat stones, piled up into
sacred walb, usually known as maip-walls after the first word of this little aet of
invocations:
Of!-1M~IPADME HUfi( - 0 thou with the jewelled lotusf 1'4
0~ VAGl$VAR1 'HO¥ :aO thou Lord of the Word!
O~ VAJRAPA~r H'Ut,1 = 0 thou with the vajra in hand!
It u a fairly easy matter to set down in tabulated form the names of F"ave
'-iJ ;. Buddhaa u presiding over five farniliel together with all the other fivefold
<~; equations; five evils (an extension_ of the earlier three) . five aspects of wisdom,
five aggregates of penonality (.skandha), five material elements, etc ., thua giving
the impression of an overall uniformity throughout Buddhist tantras. Yet not
Ut Hi1 ru,mo, in Tlbeuo lhould be corre,cted to M• ·tOt h•MICS Tg-JDS-f,tt'irgJtll·po; d. Arianr
Macdoaald. op.eil., p. 1!>8.I. 28.
1" White for Avalokiteivara, red for Manjusrl (according to Tibd,m tradition; he is in face
~cribed u "'reddish; ' dma.--skya. in the pasu~ ;u.1tralllWed, where the Sanskri&staies "yellow·
1\11''), and ~fl blue or bJack for Vajra~ .
m Thtee "apelle" ("'d.)IG)att all feminine in (onn. whkh is mlittly normal. md tM oft _,.
tr&nll.11tion of "J~ in the tow,- Is a later mi.undentAndmg of aomeone who is unaware of the
nature of such ''~II" and the whllk feminint comat of their application.
196 111:TA..''1TRICBUDDHISM
only are there sevcTal diffettnt acts of Five Buddhu, but even their auociation
with familie5 was clearly a gradual process. We have already •ccn from the
excerpts just quo<ed that the lords of the earlier ,et of three familie& are Bodhi -
$attvaa, not Buddhas. and that presiding Buddhas are a later addition. In origin
the notion of Five Buddbu need have nothing lO do with families at all, but
signifies as a symbolic pattern the universality of buddhabood in a cosmic acnse.
We have already observed how the Mahayana sutras tell of innumerable
Buddhas presiding over their paradises throughout space and how all thete
Buddhas arc in essence manifestations of a $ingle Buddha, ine-vitably identified
with the Buddha Slkyamuni, around whom all Buddhist doctrine had developed
from the earliest recorded period onward. In its simplest form this idea is
expressed by a central Buddha with one other in each of the four main
directions. Thus in the SuvartµAp,ablulsa four such directional Buddhu
manifest themselves, cl«laring the infinite life-span of the glorious Buddha
Sakyamuni. They are: ~bhya (East), Ratnaketu (South), Amitabha (Weat),
Dundubbiavara (Nonh). With a alight change in tlK- name of the southern
Buddha (Ratnasambhava for R.atnaketu) and with the replacement of Dundu·
bhiavara ("Lord of the Drum") by Amoghasiddhi ("Infallible Success"), this is
the set which eventually predominates (Pls. JJa., 62). Two tideuttach themselves
specifically to Suyamuni as central Buddha, namely "Omniscient" (Sarvavit)
and "Resplendent" (Vairocana). The second of theae becomes the usual name of
the central Buddha throughout the whole class of Yoga tantras. As SAkyamuni
aayain the Surangamosamtldhi Sutra: "That Buddha (namely 'Resplendent
One, Adorned with Rays, Transformation-King') is myself with a different
name, preaching the Dharma in that universe and saving living beings" (see
p. 78). As will be noted below, the gesture of preaching or "turning the Wheel
of the Doctrine" becomes the typical iconographic feature of Vairocana when
the Five Buddhas come to be differentiated by their hand-gestures. A pre·
sumably early tantra of the Yoga Tantra class, where Vairocana or Maha-
vairocana (Great Vairocana) as he u also known, presides ia preciaely the
Maluiwirocafl4 Sutra. Here the four other Buddhas are: Ratnaketu (East),
S~luuitarlja (South), Amitlbha (Welt), Dundubhi.svara (Nonh). It may be
interesting to note that we have already met thrtt of these Buddhas in our
excerpt from the Maltjwrlmulalcalpo, and IO Ratnaketu's pre1umed poaition
over Vajraplr,i bas some scmblaru::c of confirmation for whatever this may be
worth. However, reuoN might be hard to find for Saqikusitarija's elevation
above Slkyamuni. Some of these rearrangements are seemingly so wayward that
Su.yamuni may find himaelf occupying one of the £our directions, while
remaining in CS1enceat the center under one of his other tides. Thus in the
Sarvadurgatiporiiodhafl4 Tantra we find the Omniscient One (Sa"avit) at the
center with the following arrangement: King-Eliminator of Evil Rebinh (East),
Ratnaketu (South), Suyamuni (Weat), S~k.usitarlja 1~~ (North). This arrange·
m To avoid confusing a patient reader with too m,any variatlOll$ of the~ names, I use om: pal'f;i·
mi&Buddha is also knCJW11
C\llarform of any parcicuJar na111e.Thus as Yi.usilab.m.,no ("'Jltowerm
111.11 Buddh4-Families 197
ment of the Five Buddhu baa no explicit auociation with Buddha-families,
which scarcely enter at all into the teachings of this particulu tantra. Alao it is
noteworthy that in the main tantra of this Yoga clasa, namely the ..Symp011iumof
Truth," where the Five Buddhas emerge in their generally accepted disposition&,
the rituals are arranged according to a theory of just four families. Vairocana/
Sarvavit presides universally, manifesting himself in the four directions as:
Aqobhya (East), Ramasambhava (South). Amitabha/ Amitayus (West),
Amoghasiddhi (North). Their main entourage consists of a set of Sixteen Bodhi-
sattvas, a variation of the act already encountered in the Manjummulakalpa,
and which is disp06ed in groups of four around each of the four directional
Buddhas. This arrangement then has to be brought into relationship with a set
of four families, which is an extension or perhapt further rationalization of the
three families met with in the Manjwnmulakalpo, and which clearly does not
correspond to the fivefold arrangement of Buddha manifestations. Moreover,
the Five Buddhas ultimately preside over all the four families, which are led, a,
in the ear)ier tantra, by Bodhiaattvu thus :
Tathagata Family: Samantabhadra alias Vajrap~/Vajradhara
Yajra Family: VajrapAJ]i alitu Vajrasauva
Lotus Family or Dhamaa: Avalokitesvara alias Vajranetra
Gem Family or Action: Akisagarbha alias Vajragarbba
Aware of the lattt accepted pauem of Five Buddha-families and unaware of
the po•ibility of hi5torical development as an explanation of such anomalies,
commentators explain such an arrangement u a deliberate amalgamation of
two families, the Gem Family (of Ratnasambhava) and the Action Family (of
Amoghasiddhi). 1~ The more likely explanation is that the Gem/ Action family
brings together tho,e divinities and living beings who were not included in the
early three-family arrangement, and that such categoric:$ are in origin a separate
development from the scheme of Five Buddhas. In the last pan of the '"Sym·
posium of Truth" there is indeed the appearance of a recurring arrangement of
five families, as represented by five leaden who speak in iurn, but here the five
are:
Sarvatathlgata (All Buddhas) represented by the Lord Buddha,
Tathagata (Buddha Family) represented by Vajrasattva/Vajrapal)i/Samanta-
bhadra,
Vajra represented by Vajradhara/VajrapA,;u,
Lotus represented by Avalokitcivara,
Gem repretented by Altliagarbha.
There are aeveral variations in the namea of the five leaden, and Manjubi who
has no substantial apn to play in this tantra, appean exceptionally as the
Blc.11n"), whik Dunr.lubhiavara ("bd of the Druin"') la known as Ditrjad1U1tlu6hflMgAtu&irghoS11
("Divine Thunder of DnuN"). ·
U& See mKhas-grub-rjc's Fu,ui,,nu,ataJs of tlN Budrlllist TanJrOJ,p. 217. Fot"the ahernadvt'
namaof 1heSb1een Bodhisattvas 11te,ection 111.12.
198 Ill: TANTRJC BUDDHISM UI.lf 199

,poketman of aU Buddh».m . .,
The significant change which baa now ta~~n place is that all t~ families
may be regarded at legirimiied Buddha .famlhcs, although the •pee1£1c nam e of
Tathagata ( = Buddha Family) continue& ~ adhere to one of them. So far as
rites in the mal)Cj.ala.sare concuoed, th,:re 1S no 5eparate Sarv.tatlu.gata (All
Buddha) Family, and such is the powerful ,ymbolian of tM term mjr4 that
Bodhi5attvas with ic.fra-names predominate, and thU$ the mai:i4ala for the
Buddha Family is known u the Ma114ala of the Vajra•aphere , being all but
identical with Vajrap:U,i's Vajra Family ma11q.ala, known as the Ma114ala of
Victory over the Threefold World. Thia rcpiaenu a totally differfflt situation
from the one which we noticed in the "Fundamenta l Ordinance of Manjujrl ,"
where the Vajn Family teodl to be regarded as the inferior one of the t~en
accepted three main ones. The divinities of the Lotu&/Dharma and Geml Action
families, which make up the four families of the uSympolium of Truth," are
a.imply variations with suit3ble Lotus (podma-) namo or Gem (ma~-) n~et a•
the case may be of Vajrapi~'s Vajra Family maf.l4.ala. At the same ~me th.e
older tradition of non-Buddhist divini tiea being convened to the Buddh11t fold 11
pttsened and a special Vajra Family ma~la is a~ated by Vajrapi~ for their
benefit , as dacribed in tramlated extract.a eulicr on (tee .ecuon 111.5).
However, all family members may now be accepted on ~ual terms as aspirants
to final enlightenment, and thua family membenhip comet to be rationalized
according to rather different principles , controlled by the cosmic con~eption of
buddhabood as expl'~ in all m~alas that are arn.n~ accordm g to the
,ymbolian of the Five Buddhu. Thus this farther devdopment ii be5t explained
within that enlarged context.
12, THE MA~J;)ALA
In normal Sanskrit usage matµ/,alasimply meam "circle" or any form of circular
array, prttiaely as we might speak of a circle of attendants. In magical arts , ~it~
which the ,anuas have ao many connections at their more popular level, it is
used in the aense of magic circle, " while in a more elevated senee it ma y refer to
04
an encloaure. not neceasarily circular, which aeparates a sacred area from the
everyday profane world. Thus it represents the special domain of any particular
divinity:
And all should cry, Beware: ! 8cwattl
His flashing cya, his floating bairl
Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread,
For be on honey -dew hath fed.
And drunk the milk o( paradiee.151
111 For some 9.1.mplnatt the sn·s. Facsi,,,.ih Ediliott, my inuncluaion, pp . !19-67.
,,. ThefinallinesofS . T. ~rid~'• poemKub/a Klltnt.
In the modern world we have becomt: generally so divorced from ideu ·and
practice, that were all part of common knowledge in earlier centuries, that it
may be helpful to recall such associations of similar ideas, which many rcaden
wiJIhave ,imply taken for granted . It it prcciRly in the sense of .acred endotUtt
that the term mm.w!,aJ.a is uaed throughout tantri c works. and IO it comes about
chat it is represented often enough as a aet of concentric circla, set within a
square, and then further enclosed by a circular boundary. The "aquan," which
i6 regular ly described as having a door on each of iu four aidee,the main one
be.ing toward the wt. and all adorned wub an elaborate portal (tympanum i,
the more accurate term), represen ts the normal Indian four -sided temple, many
of which ,u rvive in Himalayan areu and especially in Nepal, a• aeen from above.
Since a temple is primarily conceived of as the domain of a particular divinity,
the significance of the maJXiala as a stylized two-dimeo.liona1 pattern with
id~tlcal intention becomes quite expliciL
The cent.er of the encl01ure it iu most sacred •pot while the outer ring borden
on the profane world . Thus a set of concentric circles can represent various
5tagcs of accommodation to the not so sacred. There i, an exact analogy with the
gradatio111of chief minilten, la.er ministen, serving naff and m~gen , with
which a great king seated in state might be auppo6ed to be surrounded.
However, mat)d,ala, can often be very much more simple than this; they may be
a simple symbolic pattern with or without a sing)e central divinity, or there may
be a central divinity, surrounded by an entourage of four or eight 1Cller
divinitio. A more elaborate one consists of the cientral Buddha, attended by four
high-ranking goddcue1. with his four emanatiom in the four direction,. each of
these Jurroonded by a group of four Bodhiaauvas, while four more goddeacs
occupy the intennediate points of the compaa, and the whole uaembly is waited
upon by a further eet of goddeues with offerings and four fierce guardian
divinities, each keeping one of the four portals . Simple or elaborate, the signifi-
cance of the ma~4&la aa enclOling the radiating power of the central divinity
remains consta nt.
However in Buddhist usage the mai:i4a}a has yet a furth er significance
deriving from the more general Mahayana teaching that nirviJ}.a (here identi·
fiable aa the sacred sphere) and ••ll'•it'a (the profane everyday world) are
easentially the same , their identity being recognized in the stare of finaJ
enlightenment, where all di6c:rinunations disappear. Thu., one who ia properly
prepared by ~ng trained to recogniie the significance ol the aymbols of which
the m~cf.al a is composed, dilcovcn by meana of it the whole mystery of
existence, as interpreted in the traditional Buddhist terms. Once again this idea
should not be unfamiliar to Western readers. In the opening acene of Goethe's
greatest poetic drama the learoed ,cholu Fauat , opprcsaed by t.hc aecming vanity
of all academic learning , ,udden ly throws open a volume of a famoui aineenth
century astrologer, Nottrodamw, where be seea the symbolic pattern of the
macrocosm . At the fin t glance he excla ims:

!00 111: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
What joy ariaes at this sight ,
Flowing suddenly through all my sexlteSI
I feel a sacred youthful vital bliu
Now glowing through my ve~ and nerves.
Wu it a god who drew thelc 11gm
Which ttanquilize the inner turmoil
And fill the stricken heart with gladness,
And by aome quite my.teriom impulle
Reveal the powers of nature all around me?
Am I a god? Such light there is!
I tee in thete pure traits
The natural world unfolded to my inner being . 1:1•
We find here both the idea of blissfuJ awareness usoclated with ~at brilliant
light , known to Buddhist tantric adepts as the pure light of the Void, as_well as
that of seJf-identification with the aurrounding world . Fault ma! ~tat~ to
believe that he baa become one with the god of the ma:Q.cJala . but tb~ '_5~~ly
the objective of the Buddhist practitione~ . Belief in _one's eh~ divmuy. wnh
whom such self-identification it sought. is the tantnc codlictent of the Mahl·
ylna teaching of the Void. Such knowledge repreeenu divine wisdom, but
:m.rw
't hout the divinhy who provides the means toward iu realuation, belief in the
emptineu of all concepts would be mere nihilism, from which no
salvation is possible. Used in this extraordinary manner , the mal)iµla bee~
the most potent expression of pantheistic realization that has ever ~en devued.
Wbatner thingt there are , whether moving or motionlc:u, graa and shruba
and creeping plants they arc conceived of u the final quiddity (tofti;.wa)and
having the same nat~re as one.self. In them there is juat ~nc wi~ot1t .a ~cond,
great bliM which ia self-experiencing, Final perfecuon (s,ddlu) ~ self·
esperiencing , an.d likewite thought -crea tion ( = t~ irn~ginedworld) 11 aelf·
experiencing . Karma consiat1of this same self-exper1enc1n,.for .u~ comes
about from oppoairion (viz..• the poaiting of all such oppoaites a1 del~1on and
knowledge. etc .}. One ii oneself the Dmroyer , t.he Creator , the Ki~, the
Lonl . Pauion and wrath , envy. delusion and pride. ca~ot pr:"ail . one
sixteenth part (viz., even by a single phase of the moon) agamst this bha.sful
<%Dtralpoint. It is Wisdom , where like space. the el~ents (dharmos) ~ave
their origin, thus comprising Means . It is the!!
that the threef old wodd an1e1,
poeaesaingthe nature of Wildom and Means.
Thua the m~ala ttpreaenu the self.identification of the microcosm (the
human per.on) with the macrocosm, which has the naru~ of ~s.lra f?r the
unenlightened mind; convcnety, it revea11 iuelf as th~ perfect ,expreSS1on of
buddhahood when all misleading distinctions disappear in the enlightened state
of nonduality. The whole conception develops from a variety of r.eparate
'" J have (k:Yi,iedmy own tn,-.l•tion from tbt Gennan of Brill'• edition, 19~6, vol. l. P· U • For
thole who do not rct11d~.,..., 1hc ua llllaoon by Bayard Taylor (Chuidof Cta.i.c:s, F. Warnr & Co••
lAndon , oo da 1e) may be c:omaacnded,
UI Hn,o.jraT4ffllr4, I.viii, •U-9.
111.12 ThcM~ 201
patterns. some already fivefold and thus readily adaptable to the simple cosmic
pattern of a cemer and four directional points , while others need to be encnded
or truncated, u the cue may be, ao tliat tbt>ymay fit. Readily adaptable are the
five great elements , representing the macrocosm, and the five aggregates of
personality , tq>t'Clfflting the miaoco1m . The three fundamental ~Is. delusion ,
wrat h and passions, one of the oldest Buddhlit triads, are enended to five with
the addition of malignity (poilunya) and envy (irr.,4) ... , Likewise the Buddha-
famnies ttceive a fixed fivefold formulation. Sometimes the sill sen,es (light,
hearing , 1mell, taae . touch and power of thought) are accommodated to the
four quarters, the zenith and the nadir . In a similar manner the Ten Perfections
can be included by apportioning them to the dircctiom of the quarters and
intermediate pointa and U"Dithand nadir . Thus the ma:Q.4alais the repository of
all truth as interpreted in the concepu of Mahayana doctrine. It repretenta
both the meam of reintegration into the state of buddhahood . and also the
outward movement of $aving gra<% of one 's choeen divinity. who conjoint the
oentral Buddha with the aspirant through the medium of hia guru.
The mandala is wisdom's noblest form.
Unlike th~ moon it does not wax and wane .
But like the sun that shines alike 011 all
The 1ame compusion holds us all in thrall .
Wildom supreme, Boddha ineffable.
Thou glorious Buddha -body, now fivefold.
As human Buddha, whether stem or kind,
You suit your method to a conven 's mind .
Evoked by thought, conceived as having form,
Intangible , 0 Lord, you change your nonn.
To offer salutation we make bold
And worship you with offerings untold .
Yet worshipper and worshipped join as one .
Who lifts his thoughts to buddbahood i. Buddha' s 10n. m
A m~4ala, drawn on comecnted ground, becomes the aaettd place where an
aspirant is conaecrated by hit teacher. Painted as a mural or as a temple-banner,
it ser~ both as instruction to a pupil in the intricacies of its paru, and u a
means of calling to mind a particular Rt of divinities in the meditati.e practitt
known as the PrOCCIIIof Emanation . Every tantra has its presiding di~-initywith
bit or her traditional entourage arranged u a mar:,4ala. and some tantras have
141 An aitcsxiw- reader may note tbal in chr p,,u-. jQttquoied from the H*'llllfraTantns, instead
of "malignity ," "pride " (Sanskrit "'4NA) occur, in thla extended ttl of five. This suggais the
~ble u ocfflainty ueociatfll with its e¥eflt\lal l'ormulatioci .
14J Tb- jinglUJgvmes att my adapudon of a paaa~ tTaD&lated by me far mott literally in my
.814ddJtistHmJ,Jaya,,p. !50, from thr rNyiog-ma mual mown a, "Union of the Prcc:io"US Ona"
it together wi&hrwo ~,
(d1'0ft-mcltog spyi- 'dt,s). I h.l.c 11.SCd quouuom rewed bt-tt , in an article
"c.o-ological Pa1tern1io Buddhillt Tndiuon.M cot1tributed i.o 7'k ~ oftl •• eo,_,,nut MM .
pp. 87-110 .
 Ill : TANTRIC BUDDHISM
altemarive arrangements of divinities or sets of quite different ma~4alas. But
although the variety is enormOUI, their function of senring as the means of
integration of the religious practitioneT with the ch01en divinity remains
generally the same. It is reC'.ounted that when the famous Indian Buddhist
teacher Atiia came to Tibet in 1042 he met the Great Tranalator Rin-chen
bzang·po who had worked on the tral1$lations of numerous text&, and he said to
him.:
"O Great Translator, do you know this and this and this?" thus questioning
about the Buddhist Canon and all the sutras and tantras.
"Tbeae I know," he replied.
"Well then," said Atiia, "there was no need for me to come here."
When they retired that night, they were in a three-storey temple. On the
ground floor there wu the cin:le of divinities of che Guhyasamilja , on the next
floor the circle of divinities of Hevajra, and on the top floor the circle of
CakrasaJilvara divinities. At twilight the Translator practised meditation on
the ground floor, at midnight on the next floor and at dawn on the top floor . }~
The following morning when they were having a meal, Atiia asked: "O Great
Translator, how was it that you practised meditation yesterday at twilight on
the ground floor, at midnight on the next floor and at dawn on the top floor?"
The Translator replied: "In that way I can produce separately and reabsorb
the different sets of divinities."
Ati.ia's face darkened a1 he said: "There was indeed need for me to come.''
The Translator then asked:"How do you understand it?" and Atiia replied:
"I don't understand it like that. Even if one practbcs all these religiom ways
with one's thoughts quite subdued. yet fundamentally they all have the same
single flavour. It is quite sufficient to experience in one single spot all pro·
duction and reabsorption. " 10
This story well illustrates the different auitude of the scholar and the religious
teacher. The latter often profrllaeaa lack of interest in academic work, forgetting
that the religious practices to which he is so devoted would not have reached him
in an intelligible form if it had not been for the previous work of scholar& and
translators. In this case too the disparaging tone used by Atiia is hardly fair.
Rin-chen bzang-po was cenainly familiar with a great variety of tantric cycles,
and it was doubtless all the same to him whether he meditated upon thrtt of
them or only one. for he knew quite as well as Atiia that the result would be the
same. The story i8 probably apocryphal in any cate, but it makes the point very
well that any of these maJ>4alas would have served the same purpose. It is also
true that the great variety of tantric traditions that were adopted by the Tibetans
result in a vast unmanageable quantity of literary and artistic materials, to the
embarrUllJlent of anyone who wants to write in a comprehensible way about
Buddhist tamras. Tibetan exegetea (and they have been many despite Atib's
dictum) devote much of their di1euuions on the subject to explaining disagree·
ments of interpretation between the followers of their own school and those of
••....,.......................
.._ .. -~,c .. .II'..
,..,H~-.,.......,.
.....
,.~,.
UI.12 203
othen. We for our-pan might list the many varied sets of divinitie1, describing
their iconographic features and doctrinal interpretation. 144 This is helpful to the
keepers of museums of Oriental art and to commercial an collecton, but it
would serve no purpoee in a book euch as this, even if the preaent writer were to
claim. the rcquittd far-reaching competence. He tends to regard the vaSl
concourse of tamric divinities like a large ueembly of guests at IOClle private
reception. Many of them one may have met before, some well known, some
known but imperfectly. Others one may not know at all; to thex one may be
introdu«d, and of this number 110mewill be remembered on a future occasion
and some hardly remembered at all. In many cases the onca remembered will be
those with whom some common interests were established, and the one or two
with whom one becomes rcaJly intimate can become friends or partners for life.
We are often told that a perfect partner should auiat ua toward the realization of
our whole jnner potential, and although this remains perhaps a rather vague
concept, it may help to explain the theories of tantric Buddhi&ta concerning the
choice of one 's religious teachers, one's companions, and one's favorite divinity.
The possibility of such a choice is fonnula~d according to the pattern of a
ma~q.ala conceived as fivefold. Thus the aspirant may throw a 0ower or a tooth-
pick onto such a mal)Qaia drawn on the ground, while led toward it blindfolded
by his teacher. and wherner the object falls, this 1hall be his Buddha-family,
indicating in his unregenerate atate a preponderance of deluiioo, wrath,
passion, envy or malignance. Such a theory ia logically applied in a tantra such
as the "Symposium of Truth," where the various mat)cµlaa suitable for several
different "families" are given; but for many asp.iranu the choice might seem to
be already made once he is accepted by a particular religious teacher or even by
his entering a religious order, where ccnain tantric cycles are in vogue and
others not. Jn practice two families become pttdominant, thole of the TathA·
gata, centering on the Buddha Vairocana, and thole of the Vajra, centering on
tM Buddha A~bhya. The ftrst group includes generaUy those tantras that are
rdated rather more closely with ttaditional Mahayana teachinp and thus were
the more readily approved of in China and Japan, while the aeoood group com-
prises those that center on the more horrific deities such as Hevajra, Cakrasaqi·
vara, Guhyasamaja and Kllacalc.ra, who have become especially dear to. the
_,:,i;l:- Tibetans. To the group <:entering on Vairocana, often referred to as the
?!~ ·. "Omniscient,,. belong mainly the Yoga Tann-as of which the "Symposium of
j~ ,: Truth" is undoubtedly the most important. Reaching China, mainly by the sea
i}~ _:: route, already by the eighth century, their popularity is attested by the rapid
Ji;/_ development of tantric sects both in China and Japan. Under Tibetan influence
/~1:. they alao flouriihed at Tun-huang in far northwestern China (tee section IV .2.c)
'.YJ.lf
.:. where many painted scrolls and manuscripts were diac:overed at the beginning of
xl ~: this century. Thus numerous painted ma94alas have survived, of which
}) / examplet can be seen in the National Museum of Delhi or in the .British Museum
, . 1H The 11101t notablr
l 1C01WJCf'Cl/mU
wwk of 1uch a kind ia tbat by Maril!•Thffae de Mallmaan, lffffodwtiorJ d
du lantnsm• ~ddhiqM1t .
204 Ill: TANTRIC BUDD'filSM
in London, and it will be noted that wherever the set of Five Buddbas is
ponra~d. it is Vairocana who i1 central, in accordance with the general
tradition of the Yoga Tantras. Likewiae in the ancient temples of the old
kingdoms of western Tibet. dating from the tenth to twelfth centuries. we find
the same tradition prevailing. Northwestern India and especially Kashmir,
whkb was then still a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom, clearly provided the routes
through which the texts and the anudc techniques were transmitted int0
Central Asia as well as into western Tibet.
The tantras of the Supreme Yoga category were cenainly not unknown in
Central Asia aod China, but there is little artistic representation of their horrific
divinities . These prevail in Central Tibet, where they arrived direct from nonh-
eastem India and Nepal. These are the tantras that centtr on Ak!()bhya, the
Imperturbable Buddha of the eutero quarter, who is typified iconographically
by the so-called "earth witness" hand-gesture, deriving from the traditional .'/; ~' .
accoun, of Sikyamuni Buddha's final realization of enlightenment at Bodhgaya
(11.2.a). This was by far the most popular image of a Buddha in eastern India, }(, ·
aa is shown by the many still to be seen in Indian museums, and his dose
uaociation with the Buddbitt tantraa promulgated in that area need came no ··.{\ •
surprise. Thus he comes to be accommodated at the tenter, while Vairocana is /ff ·
relegated to the eastern quarter. It is noteworthy, however, that although such a
maJ>4ala is often described in exegetical works, i~ does not seem to ~e so often
depicted, and thus it may be mainly a thcoreucal structure relatmg to the ·.{If{ ,
maqcJalas of horrific divinities such as Hevajra. Guhyasamlja and the rest. Such )~ \
a mal)(Jala is dCSCTibedin these tantra&. but what we see depicted if not a central ·'l!..;
A~obbya, but Hevajra, Gubyasamlja or whoever else it may be, identified as a
manifestation of Ak,obhya . To emphasiie the transcendence of buddhahood as ,·¾'.;
a counteraction to the pantheiatic: involvement of the Five Buddha& in the
phenomenal world, a sia:th Buddha is sometimes mentioned as though trans- ·• '
cending the other five. In the Guhyas4m.aja Tamm, Vairocana is thus
duplicated as Great Vairocana (Mahavairocana) and so returns to bis position of
pneminence over Aqobhya, here the central Buddha of the set of five. In the ·//l
Hevafra Tantra there is a passing reference to Vajrasattva as this sixth Buddha. ); ·
As Hevajra hirmelf explains:
In full the families arc ,a, but they arc also fiye and three. Just listen, Yogini:
A~obhya (wrath), Vairocana (delusion), Ratnasambhava (malignity),
Amitabha (passion), Amoghasiddhi (envy), Vajrasattva (bliss). They ~~Id
be conceived in this order with their spheres of purification. By omuung \fo,
Vajrasattva we have a fivefold set of families. Then they become three with ·/r;,. ·
Wrath, Delusion and Passion. But these six or five famil~ ~re comprised in
one, that one family which has Mind aa Lord and corwats 1n the Wrath of. ;~r
~o bh ya. Su eh•1st he a da manune
AL. • power ofW ra th . 14~
. • ·.::.:
Thut for Hevajra the Buddha A~obhya, of whom he himaelf ia a horrific mam· ;::-t.
14& /1.wjna Talllrc, JJ.lv.100•5.
111,lZ 205
festation. remains supreme in essence. As we have already obsCTVCd,Vajrasattva
(Adamantine Being) is an epithet of abaolute power such as penains to Vajra-
ptQi (Vajra-in-Hand) at the summit of his successful career when he is effectively
identified with Vajradhara (Vajra-Holdcr), a ritle of the sixth Buddha favored
generally in traditions associated with the Eighty-Four Great Adepts . An icono•
graphic distinction comes to be drawn between Vajraplrµ as Bodhisattva and
Vajradbara as Supreme Buddha. but since both names are earlier used of this
all-powerful Bodhisattva, it is dearly he and no one else who attains thi1 high
rank. Although the Hevajra Tantra refers vaguely to the existence of six
families, there is no sixth family of bliu existing on the same plane u the families
of the five evils, aince thete are trammuted into bliss in the supreme state of self·
experiencing knowledge. In tantras of the Supreme Yoga clus all the earlier
dietinctiona that were made between the different families seem to disappear,
and they may be referred to as six or five or three as suits the symbolism of the
<ft ,. ritual. Thus according to the /Calacalcra 1'amra a preliminary conaecration of a
pupil is deSCTibedin this manner:
J~: Then the teacher makes the pupil enter the mar:icJala(which is marked) on the
ground and imprints him with the six families (using the mantras) o~ Al;I
J; ,· HO¥HOl;I HA¥ Al;« on the forehead, throat, heart, nave l, top of the head
(UP.lfla) and genitals, then he invokes Vajrasattva with the mantra: o~ A A A¥
.:,fl:. Al;I VAJRASATTVA MAHA.SUK.HA V~RA-KALACAKRA S~YASYA -ABHIMUKHO
BHAVA SANTU~TO BHAVA VA.RADO BHAVA ltAYAVAKCITI'AD~'f'HANAM KURU
KURU SVAHA (O~ A}. A~ AJ;f Vajraaattva Great Blia Vajra Wheel ofTime be
present to this pupil , be pleased with him . be beneficent and empower him
.\~
f '. in body, speechand mindsvAHA). l 46
Here the reference to six families auita the context of ,ix vital parts of the body.
?i :. and "family" h.u come to mean "buddha-sphere." Elsewhere in this tantra the
Supreme Buddha is referred to u Adibuddha (Prime Buddha} defined in this
way:
··j ;: The word "prime" (adi) means without beginning or end, and "enlightened"
(buddha) mea111being enlightened with regard to the elements of existence
(dharmas), free of all false conceptions . So being primary and beiug buddba,
·j1 he is Prime Buddha, with no origin and no decease, omoilcient. It is said in
::~ the Eulogy of Names (rn!masmtgfti):
Buddha without beginning and end, Prime Buddha with no associates:
He embodies Compauion (Means) and Void (Wisdom). and he is known
as Kilacakra (Wheel of Time).
For Kala (Time) expreues bis relative asp«<
\i 2:. And Caltra (Wheel) expresses the Void,
> But be is beyond duality and he is eiemal. 1• 7 (Pl. 79)
,.,~ .· .
:·},·':.::: 146
See the S.ltoddriofll&a,ed. M. E. Carclli, p. JO,11. 17ff.
~f :.,..
,.•·,•
:: U1lbi4., p. 7. II. Z!'>ff. Pr. Carelli II-. tranalated this -a111tp-gc on p. 21 of his Intro·
:};:;li. d11edon,imroduclng the term Jal«ti(or which tlwre i. no equivalent in the original Sanskrit vfflion of
~leitl.
206 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM f(J . J2 207

Another title for this Supreme Buddha, later wed by the followers of the Old and some aa Samaya-Tarl. Some appeared in the nature of Form , some.of
Sound , or of Smell or Taste orTouc:h.
Order (rNymg-ma) of Tibetan Buddhism u well aa by Bonpos, is Samanta·
Then the Buddha Ak'°bhya consecrated the immaculate four-sided
bhadra (Universal Goodne&S), and this is presumably an elevated form of the ma1}4ala in the vagina of the Vajra -Maiden- - the heart of the Body, Speech
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra who is c.he leader of the Tathagata Family in c.he and Mind of All Buddbas.
"Symposium of Truth" (Pls. Jlc, 78. and p. 197) where he alternates with
Translucent and "jllll so" by nature,
Vajrap~i/Vajradhara). . _ Yet manifest in varied fonus,
The student of taotric Buddhism must accu&tom himself to a bew1ldenng Pervadedby a boat of Buddha,,
variety of Buddha-names, many of which relate to distinctive iconographic Brilliant with iu shooting rays,
form&, but which in their true essence know of no diversity. Scarcely any other With translucent circles such as these
religion can display 10 many different divinities, some appearing singly, some The resort of All Buddhu is thus compoaed.
appearing in sets, all tttated by the simple Tibetan believer as the ma~y god, Then the Lord, the Foremost of the Vajra Body, Speech and Mind of All
(lha) of hi, religion, yet recognized by the true adept as mere expressions of Buddhas, took his place at the renter of the Great Mandala of All Buddha&
absolute buddhabood adapted to his own special circumstances. Thus all thele and the (Five) Buddhas Aqobhya, Ratnakctu , Amita~·. Amoghasiddhi and
divine fonm are dissolved by him into the luminous state of the Void, and it is Vairocana dwelt in the bean of the Buddha Vajra Thought of Enlightenment.
out of the Void that they are duly summoned by means of his meditative J :: Then the Lord Buddha Vajra Thought of Enlightenment relapsed into the
practice. The tantras usually open with just such an emanation of supreme .\I ·: state of composure known as "Vajn Subjugation of All Buddhas.'' and
buddhahood, and c.heaim of the practitioner is to identify himself with the du~ )~ :.· immediately the whole reahn of space was et1tablished in the adamantine
process of emanation and reabsorption of the Bu~d_h_a-~ormswith whom his '/I/-:'.. nature of All Buddha, and all living beings throughout the whole realm of
teacher has familiarized him by the due proceasn of 1runauon . It may be helpful i:l'.,.•• space experienced the bliss and happint'ls of All Buddhas a.sa reault of their
to quote the actual bcginningofthe Guk,asam4ja Ttmt1'4: )! i,.;· empowennent in Vajra-Being (Vajrasattva). 148
./i ,.. :
Thus have l heard: at one time the Lord reposed in the vaginas of the Vajra· (~ ..· The Supreme Buddha is here referred to as Great Vairocana, as Vajra Thought
maidem--the bean of the Body. Speech and Mind of all Buddhas. He Wil5 ii~;. of Enlightenment and (at least by implication) as Vajrasattva. He is said to
accompanied by Bodhisauvas, those Great Beings, as innumerable aa &he.jj ::, reside at the center of the mar,4ala in the 1en.sethat the set of Five Buddhu
atoms of dust of which the sacred mountains of innumerable Buddha-fields (~l) .; emanate from him. but in practice it is A~bhya who occupies the central placx
are composed . Thus there were the Bodhisattva Vajra-Union (Sama,a) as }tt .: amongst the five in any schematic arrangement of this Supreme Yoga Tantra.
well as· .,~~ _. We have already noted that Vairocana occupies the central position in the Yoga
. {fJ;~ .:
Va~ra-Body Vajra-Earth Vajra -Form '/;m, Tantras with Aqobhya in lhe East, and it may be presumed that a certain
VaJra·Speech Vajra -Water Vajra·Sound :,:,;. : linsering notion of Vairocana'1 primacy results in the sixth all-comprehending
Vajra-Mind Vajra-Fire Vajra-Smell ';~ ; Buddha having as one of his titles "Great Vairocana" in some Supreme Tantra
Vajra -Concentration Vajra-Air Vajra-Tute iij, ,: Tantras. So far u the Guh,asamtiJii Tantra is concerned, the supreme divinity is
Vajra-Recitation Vajra -Space Vajra-Touch ::~1~·..• Guhyasamlja (Secret Union) himself, just as Hevajra is supreme in the Hevafra
Vajra-Thought .)J : TanlTa, Cakrasa)\lvara in his tantra, Kllacakra in his etc. All these divinities
and all the others, as many as the atoms of dust of which the sacred mountains · f;:·,.. may be conventionally identified as horrific forms of Aqobhya as the central one
of innumerable Buddha-fields are composed. Moreover he was accompanied '!,It . of the Five Buddbas or equaJly well as manifettationa of a sixth supreme
by c.he (Five) ~uddhu who pe?'Vade the realms of Space,_ ~mely: Aqobhya }l~;: Buddha, whether known as Primary Buddha (Adibuddha) or Great Vairocana
(Central), _vairocana (East), . R.atn.aketu (South), Am1tahha (West) and '.~\ ',_· or Vajra ·Being ( TIajrtJSattva) or whatever tide may be used. These names merely
AmoghavaJra (North) , all the size as 1t were of a sesame seed, and the whole of :J{f ':.. represent different tantric uaditions which have originated in the manner
1pace teemed filled . :\~ ':.·
Then the Lord the Great Vairocana relapsed into the atate of repose known? §~:. suggested above in different monastic communities and different groups of
yogins.
as the "Great Passion-Method of All Buddhu" and thus rcabaorbed that )}~
whole boat of Buddha-form• into his own Vajra-Body, Vajra•Spcecb and .)}; 141
GuA)Nl,IC'IMfaTa,uni, ed. B. Bhattacharyya, p. 1 (beginni!J8} to p. 5, I. 20. One may rder
Vajra-Mind. Then all those Buddha,, in order to please the Lord, the Fore• \{@', ~It to p. 152 for the c:ootinu.ation of this quocation. One niay also refer to another qu0tation
most of the Vajra Body, Speech and Mind of All Buddhaa, assumed feminine Jf~ from t~ tantra in IK'lion !II·~· wbeTethe Five Buddhas att ldeotifim with the "penene teachings"
forms as they reemerged from the boflyof the Lord Great Vairocana. S~ jf or slaYIJlg.robbing. pnlffltSCWIJ. raJsehoodand abwive language, thWI~purifying'"the F'ive Evilf
(deluaion,wrath. passion, malignity and envy).
took the form of Buddha-Loc:ant, aome of Mtmakl, 90ffle as PaJ)4&ravisiDl:X~
·}1:
208 Ill: T ANTRIC BtJDDHISM
The names of the various Bodhisattvae , u liated in the above passage, alao }J. '
require some elucidation. Body, Speech and Mind are the three main aspects of ';; ;
human personality as well as of 1upreme buddhahood, representing a form of j :
Buddhist trinity, which is identifiable on different planes. Thu.a. Body may refer Ai
to a manifested panicu.lariz.ed Buddha, divine or human , Speech rnay then refer ;lf ·
to his teaching and Mind to bis intention of leading all living beings to buddha- ·~ J
hood . An interesting analogy might be drawn between this &et and the Chri.atian \ :
Trinity of God, Word (Logos) and Holy Spirit, while noting the differences of ;}. '
interpretation ariaing from their separate cultural backgrounds. On the plane of
the religious cult, Body, Speech and Mind are repreaented by all Buddhiat
images, signifying Body; all sacred litenture , signifying speech; and all shrinea, -;~-·
eapeciaJly st(ipas, signifying Mind. Thus there i4 frequent mention in religioua ;j' ·
biographies of the merit acquired by creating "supports (in the sense of inscru- :-§;;
ments) of Body, Speech and Mind," which means that the penon concerned
paid for image$ to be made and consecrated, religious books to be copied
printed, and ahrinea to he built . 1U However, once translated in theae realistic :{ .
terms, the subdety of the religious inten1ion behind the actions is lost. It must -}} •
always be undentood that Body, Speech and Mind are the main upc:cts of ./f;;
buddhahood, manifesting thcmselvea in the phenomenal world . However , like .:J;·.
other sets ofthree (e.g., the three evils or 1he earlier &et of three families) they too
are extended to five in some contcxtl in conformity with tbe cosmic conceptiop.
of buddhahood u fivefold. Thus it comes about that among the Bodbisattvas ·
listed in the opening passage of the Guhyasarrwlja Tantra we have Vajra-Body, }i.·
Vajra-Speecb, Vajra-Mind, Vajra-Concenttation and Vajra-Recitation,'
followed by another set of five, beginning Vajra-Eanh , representing the five ji :
elements . These are followed by a set of six, representing the six semes, visual,
auditive, olfactory , ptatory, tactile, and the "spher e of the eJemenis ," viz. 1,f;' .
mental (see section 11.4.c). The first of all these Bodhisattvas as li$ted here is·l ;.
Vajra -Samaya , representing here the whole divine manifestation underscood as}f .
the "sacramental pledge" of the "union," Hterally "coming together" of the·{},'
essentially inexpressible tramcendent plane and its symbolic exprcsaion as a }J.
conventionaliied 11W;14ala.
The Five Buddhas must be thought of here as including all other Buddha- and'
Bodhisattva -manifesta tions, who fill apace in all directions, and it may be .W ·
wondered why their feminine manifestations should be limited to replicas of just i} ·
four goddase ,, Locanl, Mamaki, Pa.,4llravaaini and Tua. The numbers are ?:
dictated by the ma9cµla. for while the Five Buddhas occupy the center and four
main poinu of the coropa• , the four goddell<'S occupy the intermediate poina /} i;
southeast, southwest, northwest and northeut. The four named are perhap$ tbe_:_-i
set mott commonly met with and their names have been explained elsewhere Ji :
(IU.6.a) . A fifth godde,s is somerimes mentioned as partner of thr chief-~;ii, •.
Buddha-manifestation at the centre of the mat}(Jala. She may be knownsimply. )t;
it9 Stt fot examp~ my Fo"r Z..wu of Dolpo, p, 271, whett many iiems are listed undenhe
headings of"imap" (Jiu-,tffl) . "books" (K~lt(·rlm) and "shrines" (thvgs-rtem} .
Ul.12 TheM~la. 209
~~i . a.sth e l,ady (Bhago.vati) . aa Just So (Tatha tii), as Voidncss (Sun,ata), as Per ·
fection of Wisdom (Praj,'Updrcmita), aa Limit of Reality (Bhfttako#) . as or
Absence of Self (Nairatmya) , for she possesses the true natu re of VajJ asauva and
is Lady of the Vajra-sphere ( VajradMtti.i'fJtlf'l). •~0 ln the so-called Yoginl T antr:u
of the Supreme Yoga cla11, where all the main divinities of the lrul\l4ala may be
feminine, there will b~ a set of nine goddeuea, occupying the center, the four
main directions and the four intermediate directions , as in the Hewfra Tantf'a .
Here Nai.ritmyi (Abtence of Self) holds the center, surrounded by an entoura~
/,f' of yogioJs named after low-caste women such as Pukkasi, Savarl, Cas:,4,111 and
S,. J;>ombini, and other miscellaneous names such as Gauri (Blonde or Virgin, one
of the titles of the spouse of Siva), Caurl (Tbief) , Vetlll (Vampire) and
Ghasmarf (Rapacious). These eight alao repreaent the entourage ofHevajra, who
; usually embraces Nairltmyi as his partner at the centcr of the ma9cJala . Other
i · names can be added in order to accommodate all the variou& 1et1 , viz. , the
or·l , aggregates of penonality, the five evils, the elements, the six senaes etc., all of
which are symbolized in the layout of the rna9qala. 151 If one choO&ellto follow
through the various combinations and p«mutations given by this tantra and its
various commentaries, fairly consistent cross-identifications can be made . Thus
for instance the four low-caste yoginll named above reveal thenuelvft u
)J · equivalents of the more regular four , Locanl, Mmaakl , P~(Jaravasini and
}j : Tara. Well may one aak. if all ma9C,alu are in esaence the same, why should
k. there be such a vast variety of them. The only answer to this .isto say that they
were thua traditionally received u variously devned in different places and
·1
t. timC$.
It may be useful to iUuatrate one or two maQ4aJn according to the traditions
J; of Yoga Tanttu, as these are so often represented in the old temples of WC$lern
Tibet and amongst the paintings discovered at Tun-huang , thus arguing
atrongly for their prevalence in nonhwestern ~ndia and in Kashmir, if not
elsewhere in northern India (Pl. H). These traditions, introduced into Tibet by
Rin-chen b.zang•po and bu colleagues, we~ maintained at first by the Tibetan
,. religious order of the Ka-dam-pa (bKa'-gdams-pa) and subsequently by the
-j~ ·. Sa-kya-pa (Sa-sk,a-pa) . The main groups of divinities of which most of thelle
0/'. m~cµlas are composed arc the following:
Five Buddhas with Vairocana (a,esplendent) as central one.
Four Buddha -Goddeaca: (Buddha -)Locani (Buddha -Eye), MamakI (My Very
}: :_ own ), Pal'.)4arav~inl (Lady with White Ga~t) , Tua (Saviouress).
'1!: Sixteen Bodhisattvas , arranged in groups of four and thus a&10Cia1edwith the
four Buddhu of the main directions.
I! ·
160 See the ahon tn:atiK of Advayavajl'a encided "Fivefold Manifal ation" (Ponai.la,a) aa trant-
latcd by me in Buddhist Tut, tleruu«h th• Agn, eel, t:. Conze , pp. 249-S2 .
IH Stt 1-lffOjl'tl 1'0lllru l ,ls and tlwi diagrams inm y vol. I. pp. 126-7. Thr equivalent., for ux:ana
:;;;, etc:, may be identified by bringing this cbaptu int0 reladonshlp with K~ha's commeruary on the
ihrce· :j t_ o~nlng WOl'dsof the tantra "TluJS by me 'iwaa heaTd" (~oa111ma,a irllla,ri) ol my edirion (vol. II.
:;} p, 104).
~J
i
210 III: TANTRJC BUDDHISM 111.12 The Ma!'4ala 211

Eight Goddeaeea of Offerings: Vajralbya (Vajn Love-Play), Vajramala (Gu. · ·

land). Vajragtti (Song), VajranrtyA (Dance), VajradMpl (Incense). Vajra- . VAJkAl,OKA
pufpa (Flower) , Vajraloka (Lamp), Vajragandha (Scent), whoae names like ·,
Four Door-Guardians: Vajrlnkuia (Vajra Hook), VajrapUa (N001C), Vajra ..·
spho;a (Feuer), Vajraghai,ia (Bell) also known u Vajrlvela (Persuuion).
These are all fairly constant in name except for the Sixteen Bodhi&attvas, Vaj, .. pbo!-1'
9 10 11 It
although many of the variations are simply synonyms tlius: m
V•jf>dll"""" 11
aj, •bi,"•
Aqobhya'a group; VAJRAMALA VAJRA(;h'I
Vajradhara (Vajra-Holder) Vajrasattva (Vajra-Being) i 1,
Vajrakarfa (Vajra-Coercion) Vajraraja (Vajra-King) V•juh ... Vajuhnn•

Vajradhanu(Vajra-Bow) Vajraraga(Vajra-Pauion) AMITAIHA

MAM/\Kf PA!'il,)ARAVASlll:i
Vajrabarfa (Vajra-Joy) Vajraudbu (Vajra-Good) IUOOHA 11
Vajrara~a
Ratnuambhava's group:
Vajragarbha (Vajra-Embryo) Vajraratna (Vajra-Gem)
Vajraprabha (Vajra,Llght) Vajratejal} (Vajra-Splendor)
Vajray3.!p (Vajra-Standard) Vajraketu (Vajra-Banner) RA'l'NA·
VAIROCANA Al>l()(,HASIOOtll
Vajrap6h 5AlldllHAVA
Vajrapriti (Vajra-Happiness) Vajrahasa (Vajra·Mirth IIUDOHA 8l:DDHA IUDDffA

Amitlbha's group:
Vajranetra (Vajra -Vision) Vajradbanna(Vajra-Religion)
Vajrabuddbi (Vajra-Knowledge) VajratJq~ (Vajra-Sharp) 6 1~

Vajramai,-<Ja(Vajra-Essence) Vajrahetu (Vajra-Cause) \.'ajl'ak'ja~ Va)ray•~•

AK~OIIIV A
Vajravaca (Vajra-Word) Vajrabhafa(Vajra·Speech) LOC.ANA
BUDDHA
TARA
16
Amoghasiddhi's group:
V~jr.asaudhi
Vajravi&va(Vajra -Universal) Vajrakanna (Vajra-Action)
Vajramitra (Vajra-Fricnd) Vajrarakta (Vajra-Prot:ection) %
Vajraca~4a (Vajra-Wrath) Vajrayaqa (Vajra-Yaqa) Vajmai-
Vajramu,ii (Vajra-Gesture) Vajruandhi (Vajra-Implicitneas)
As may be seen from tlie accompanying diagrams, these sixteen Bodhisattva, :':·
t:AS1'
may be arranged in groupe of four around their particular Buddhas, or else.::
arranged around the ma~ala, four to each side nearest to their own Buddhu, : ;
or again they may be arranged in a circle, in which the fim one (Vajradhara< VAJRAGANDIIA
alias Vajrauttva) is placed by ~bhya and then ao on round the circle. .·
The Tantra entitled "Elimination of Evil Rebirth" has variant names for the >
Five Buddha.a, u already noted above. Otherwile all the other divinities remain',
the same. This same tantra abo uses a ma~ala consisting of a central Buddha :·:·
(Sakyamuni) and eight Utr,ffa-Buddhaa, known as:
Vajra·U,~fa (East) Tejal, · (Northeaat)
Rama- (South) Dhvaja· (Northwesc)
Padma· (We11t) llql)a· (Southwnt)
Viha· (North) Chatra· (Southeast)
The names of thOlle of the main dittction1 are jmt Buddha -family names, ·as:\
10 STTS, Fac:r.imileEdition, pp. 26-8,
m Other variations will be found in my in1roch&C'tion
21! JIJ. TANTRIC BUDDHISM 111
. ts.a 215

usedalso for the four main Bodbiaattvas (Vajrapai)i. Ratna-, Padma-. Viiva•).
the other four are translated: Splendor-, Banner-, Sharp·. Parasol· (Pl. Jj).
There are no Buddha-Goddesses in dm ma9qala and the set of sixteen Bodhi·
sattvas is an entirely di!fettnt one, consisting of four sets thus : Maiueya,
Amoghadariin , Apayajaha, Sarva§okatamonirghatanamati (East); Gandha·
bastin, S\'lral!lgama, Gaganagai'ija. JiUmaketu (South); Amrtaprabha,
Candraprabha . Bhadraphla. Jiliniprabha (West); Vajragarbha, ~ayarnati,
pratibhu,akus:a, Samantabhadra (Nonh) . m Despite variations in names, both
the set of eight Buddhas and these Sixteen Bodhiaauvas are dearly related to the
sets already listed as they occur in the Maiifam,nfl,/akalpa (section Ill . I 1,
pp. 19.5-4above).

18. INITIATIONS AND CONSECRATIONS

R&t .. Aml>no•a l
>
a. Jnitiatwn as Distinct from ''Ordination "
The word "initiation" suggesta the ritualized acceptance of an "outsider'" into
a community which reserves to itself cenain privileges and responsibilities that
are often regarded as aecret 10 far as the outside world is concerned. In Buddhiat
tantric practice this English term may fairly be used to translate Sanbrit
JN4WS4, "act of entry," especially w~n ref.erring to the act of entering a
ma~ala as a privil~ bestowed upon a wonhy disciple by a suitable teacher,
that is to say. one who is already initiated himself and possesses all the neceenry
attributes. The initiation ceremony (m1J'IJ,,!ala-pravdo. -vidlu) requiru certain
rites of "consecration" (Sanskrit abhi,eko) with the mult that the two terms are
often confused in discussion of the 111bject, although there is no reason why they
should not be kept apart . Used in this tantric context , both tenm should be kept
diatinct from the earlier nontantric rite of the taking of monastic vo-,.,s, a
universal and almost entirely open performance fundamental to Buddhist
practiao aa an organized religion. Thus becoming a monk. for which the Indian
1trm "going forth" (Sanskrit : pravraf "from home to homelessness' ') was
regularly used in the earlier period, was open to any phy.ically and mentally fit
person, who was prepared to renounce the ordinary life of the world and agree to
keep the rules as a celibate member of a Buddhist monutic community . 154 This
involved as in Christian usage a ceremony of the "taking of vows," in which the
postulant committed himself as one who "takes refuge in the Buddha, his
Religion (Dharma) and hia Community (&mg.ha)."" allowed his head to 1M!
shaved as a sign of his renouncing the world , assumed the appropriate garments
of a monk and formally took the vows that were binding on the community . 1r.s.In
m Sec 1he SDPS Tollt,a. eel. Skorupllri, uallllatioo on pp. " ·Sl .
pp . 4Sff. lt 11IIICd
151 On the euly "81! of diia tmn tee S. Dutt , Bu4d.Aid Moalu arul Mo'IUl$fc-rNs.
of m,, aCtUalrite ol ..orllination" (Skr: prt1vrojji,.Pall: fMblxljji),
IS& For a de.criptioll of tM rite u perfonnrd in lf!llmth -cemury India. eee I-Tsing, .ii. Rtt:ord of
Ille Bltddhist Relffion, pp. 9Sff., oocing chat die 1enn "priest" insr.~d of "monk" Is m~dingly
usedhi his accoum as tra1111la1ed by J. Tabltu 1u .

Zl4 Ill : TANTRIC BUDDHISM
the Western terminology of tho&e:who write on this subject, this formal act is
often referred to as an "ordination," a term that ia quite appropriate if one j · i,
allows for an extension of the usual Christian use of this word, where it applies ·:i,- - -~-
not to monks, but to priests, whether married or celibate. It is also sometimes )~ ~,:
referred to as an initiation , and even this term may be appropriate: in so far aa { · ~:
the would-be monk is being initiated into a new way of life, and especially K.'. ;.
perhaps in the unusual case of the bamas 0£ Nepal, who take the vows of monk-· J~ :·
hood in order to negate them four day. later ao that they may be initiated as ,-~ ·
youngsters into the same caste as thdr parents."* There is no evidence of this _:
occurring elsewhere and the Tibetans who followed the accepted Indian .::
practices in all such matters have preserved on a vast scale the tradition of -~
communities of celibate monb and nuns as the main upholders of Buddhia i .
traditions. As already noted above the whole Mahlylna movement left intact the ;- ;·.
ideal of monkhood while at the same time recognizing laymen, who lived
suitable lives, also as upirants toward buddhahood. With the further develop- :)
ments of tantric theories the same situation continued to apply. with the result )
that monk, aa well u layfolk might choose u teacher a tantric master, receive .:
initiation into the ma\\4ala of hi& chosen divinity. receive the nec~ry '!-
coD&CCrationaand perform the appropriate religious practices. The only ~
difference between them was that whereas laymen might practice rites of sexual ·;
yoga in accordance with the theories of the tantras of the Supreme Yoga :.
(anuttorttyogo) claas, monlu clearly could not do so without breaking their vows. :-.
However , in so far as the we of actual feminine partners wu considered ,:
unsuitable, the tantras even of this so-called highest cla• came to be practic:ed /·
through the mental powers of visualization , with the final result that all tantras :::
have become available to all and sundry, if only a tantric master can be found to}
perform the required initiation. ·_'.'
Because of the terminology of "taking vowa" the euendal difference betweftl ·;
the "vow taking" of a monk and initiation into tantric rites may be obscured to ,
some extent in later Buddhist tradition, 1ince ccrtain vows are judged mitable
for a tantric postulant, juat as there are vows for a monk and also, let it be
recalled, for a Bodhisattva. Thus there are 1aid to be three grades of vowa
(Tibetan sdom -pa; Sk.r. sa~tAOnz),namely for a monk, for a Bodhisattva and for
0
the practitioner of "secret mantras, and these are thought of as corresponding :·.:/fJ. J\
to the three main "ways" (ydna). the Hlnayana, Mahtyma and Mantrayma. /IB::,
However, in Mahayana Buddhism , wherever it may have been practiced }/j :;
exclusively in India (for it must be remembered that in aomc comrnunitiea /~ ; /
Hlnayma and Mahayana monks lived together), and certainly as practiced in
Tibet, there are in effect only two grades, for no simple monk is likely to adm.ic /~ij~'.
that he is following an "inferior way" (Hlnaylna) which docs not involve at least \j l {
potentially the career of a Bodhi11auvaas poma~d 10laviahly in the Mahayana :/j1,:-
sutras. Thus Tibetans commonly refer to the two waw of the sutras (meaning Jf/. ::.
,- .,,•[ejf •
1
~ ~e~tlon lV.5,b below. and e1pttlaJly J. I<..Locke, MNewar Buddhist Initiation Rit~ ... la
C""'11lna1otaslo N•pal- Studws , vol. 2, no.!. pp, 1-2.
)~...}'\
::i
···~.
.·r 111.u.a lm}i.ationsand C<,useCTatitms 215
J\ Mahiylna wtru only) and the tanttaa, as practicable courae&.
Despite this u~ of a similar terminology of "vow taking," "ordination" as a
rnonk and "initiation" into a mai,qala or tantric cycle rema in very different in
kind. as ia dear from the life story of any Tibetan monk or man of religion,
whether recorded from the put aa a form of religious biography, a genre of
literature very popular in Tibet, or told today by any contemporary prac·
titioner . 157 The vows of monkhood are taken normally once only in accordance
with ancient formulas, while tantric initiations may be performed according to
different tantJic cycles for as long as the practitioner is interc:ated in "collecting"
them and 10 long as he can find tantric muten qualified to bestow them. In
theory only one such initiation with the appropriate consecrations and religious
practices i, required , if the poetulaot is seTiously concerned to experience the
moment of final enlightenment by this very means and no other, but in practice
i, ' many are often eought and received, each involving visions of different aeta of
divinities, who in essence are all one and the same. Thus whereas ordination as a
monk transforms one's whole way of life at least outwardly, tantric initiationa
admit one to the possibility of acquiring what are m06t easily described as
psychic powen leading to the realization of enlightenment u a state of
spontaneous achievement. Thia may well have the effect of changing one's way
of life, but it is clearly envisaged as operating on an entirely different plane . It
corresponds in fact to the various techniques of meditation that are known to
ha-re been performed in the earlier periods of Buddhism and for which careful
training may have been required but certainly no initiatory rite. isa In what then
doe.1the power of the rite consist if not in its psychological effect? A, an example
of the whole procesa we may take the initiation of an acceptable pupil into the
maqcfala o{ the Vajra·Sphcre ( Ya}ra,tlh4tuma~lo.), as briefly described in the
fundamental tantra of this group. Firat the maQ4,ala itself must be drawn on a
specially prepared site, which has been suitably purified and cleared of all
adverse influences:
With a good new thread, well wo-n:n and of proper length, the ma9<Jala
should be meuured out by one well skilled who strive&his best. It must be
four-sided with four entrances adorned with four portals, hung with four
cords and be-wreathed with garlands and flowers. Them one should draw the
outer circle of the ma9<Jala, decorating it with vajraa and gems, thus filling
· the spaces between the four corners and the ends of the gates. Then coming
inside this outer ring, one should make a circle with a ring of vajraa like a
wheel. It ia equipped with eight pillan and on the inaide of these vajra pillan
{;f:;· it is fitted with five lunar disks. At the center of the central disk one should
u, One may quote as a ~ of many eumples. Th, lif• of BtNton Rm·tx,-ch•. crallll. D. S.
Ruegg. pp. ns : the Ii-a of F~r Lamas of Dolpo. my ll'enfMtion, pp. ~ . US , 248; or die lik of
Atiia, for which- Helmat Einer . rN11m-tll4r rgy,u-po, vol. 1. p. 195. One may note that for~
"Dl'dination" the Tabetan exiwe.ion Ml)lffl•flGt'~g,-po, Iii . "perfecting OM's approach" (for Skr.
uptuamp,,d.) ii ofcenuaed, u wi!lla, rab·tu 'b,,.lfl·l>a, lit. hgoingforth" (,. Skr. prm,,ajya,)
.
Ji(.
-:/ff :i .
· 1118For me,enc:5,-« L de la Vall« Pouain, Bovddhisme, ltu~J et nuithiaw., pp. 94-7, and
for examples Buddhaghofa, The Pat4 of Punfica.tia,n, nansl .. ced by Bhik.kbu~anamoli, pp. 126-84.
j,Jl' (.·
!:~ti.;:,:.
216 Ill: 'fANTRIC BUDDHISM
place the Buddha-image (viz.• Vairocana). Then in the center of the disks of
the Buddha-direaiom one should place the four guarantots (sama,a. viz., of
buddhahood). 1" Thus approaching with a vajra movenl<'nt dria fourfold set of
ma-;i4alaa, one should place there all fo11rB11ddhu, Akf()bhya and the others.
Ak4obhya'smar,<J.ala is righdymade with Vajradhara and the others
(Vajrakaf:l&, Vajradhanu and Vajraharta}.
Ratnasambhava's ma-;i4a}ais filled with Vajragarbha and the others
(Vajraprabha, Vajray~ti and Vajraprlti).
Amitiyiis'a maqqala is refined with Vajranetra and the otliers
(Vajrabuddhi, Vajramaqqa and Vajravlca).
Amoghasiddhi's milQ4ala is drawn with VajraviJva and the othen
(Vajramin-a. Vajracal)CJaand Vajramllfti),
In the intermediate ,paces of the circle one should draw the Vajra-Goddcsses
(Locanl, M~kf. Paiwaravi.sini and Tara).
Jn the comers of the outcrma1;14ala one,bould draw the(eight)goddeaes
of Buddha-worship (Vajrallsyl, VajramMa, Vajragfti and Vajranftyil;
Vajradhupa, Vajrap~pi. Vajraloka and Vajragandha).
In the middle of all four gates one ahould place the four door-guardiam
Vajrlnltuia, VajrapMa, Vajrasp~a and Vajragha~Ja). 1'°
~sh:::~~:~;~~:=~~:
::::!-:!r ~=:;::r:~~ajra•
Teacher enters and performs the gestures of divulgence.
:_~_
..l_t·:tr .:.. _:_:
:~,1
The spell for effecting the possession (of the maq4.tla by the divinities) is: Al;fl -;.,:.~
.l . .:
Being properly authorized and having performed 1elf-cOU1eCration and the '"
;·I':~
:::i~~~~~=~~ t~:~=~~r
_· _:' ·.:
..
·,',
·::;~:,;-·
0
M~g•::: ;:7.;;~ji:.:t:
by mapping his fmgen a number of tunaasmnbles all the Buddhaa.
At that moment all the Boddhas together with Vajrasattva and the othen
join as an assembly in the ma~4,ala so that the whole mat}q.a)a is full .
Then meditating on the Great Symbol of Vajraaattv~, he should recite just
once the litany of the One Hundred and Eight Namcs, 161 and pleased
with the assembly, the Buddha• stay firm (in position), while Vajrasauva
who iaself-effective keeps clo11eby aa a friend.
Then malting the excellent sacramental hand-gesture3 of Being-Vajra and
the rest, he should coerce the Great Beings, recitingJ~ H!J~VAP!fHOJ;II
Thua all the Great Beinp. the Buddhas and the othen are summoned,
159 For the:ran~ of meaning of the cenn ,a-,.., aee rtto~nca in tbe lndo!Jt.11may be noted duat
the same word oca,ra below trallllated u ·•saaamemal" in the pbrue ~exc:dlen1eacramffltal hand·
.-,e" (.ra"'41,.,.fl!I m!Uil'li~).
Ito Ahopdl« these repreaent the lbiny-settn ruin divinities of the cy<:leal the Omnlscieoc One
n almidylistedin T/t.eCwhuralHnitagcof l..oti.Ut.vol. I, pp. 54-S. TbcvariatioNdn thenamc:sof
the Sl.&ttt:nBodhlsanvu, beaded in the present atract by Vajradhan ( = Vajrapaoi), Vajragarbha,
Vajranetra and Vajraviiva ia best explained by n:ferrillg to my translated cxiracu of the srn,
pp. 26-8. TI~ "great beinp" raiding in the outer mandala comprilc anotkr tct o! Si:ueen Bodhi•
11cnaa (of the Good AF), Sixteen Arhau, Twelw PratydabllddbN and SiJCtttl\ Fieri;e Diriniiia,
" 1 1"bi, tt&n w the "'litany" of one hundred and eight name, of Vllirocana/Vajradhara u All in
All. It it ttpeaced in e.rry part of the STI'S and will a!IO N found at the md ol the SDPS Tantra,
T. Skorupai'aedition. pp. 107-8.
(Jl.13.a lnitiali<mJand CO'TISecratitnu 217
drawn in and bound u an assembly. so entering his power. 161
Then contenting these great ones with forms of secret worship (viz., by
enviaaging the eight goddffRI of the offerings) he requau them, saying:
"Aet on behalf of all bein.gsfor our general success!''
The passage that follow&immediately upon thia request has already been
translated above (section 111.5), where it was said that entry into the mU].4ala is
for saving the whole sphere of living beings without exception, and having
elaborated this statement, the text goes on to describe the way in which a pupil
should enter the mai;aqala.
Now fint he should make four aalutations to all the Buddhu in this
manner. Bending the whole body forward with the supplicatory vajra-gesturc
he ,hould pronounce this mantra:
0~ SARVA-TATHACATAPOjOPASTHANAYA-XTMANAPifNIRY.ATAYAMI/
SAllVA-TATHAGATA-V1')R.ASATVA·ADHITJ$THASVAMA~//
(I offer myself u the place of worship for all Tathagatas.
May Vajrasattva of Alt Tathlgaw empower meJ)
,f ; Then standing, he makes the aupplicatory vajra•gature level with his bean,
and bowing down with his forehead to the ground, he pronounces thiamantra:
o~ SAllVA-TATHAGATA-POjABH~EKAYA-ATMANAl)I NIRYATAYAMI/
SARVA-TATIIAGATA-VAJR.ARATNA-ABHl~l~A Ml"¥//
(1 offer myself for comecration in the worship of All Tathigatas.
May Vajraratna of AU Tathlgatas consecrate me!)
,
Then standing up again, he makes the supplicatory vajra-gesture at the
level of his head, and bowing down with his face to the ground, be pronounces
this mantra:
Ol!f SARVA-TATHAGATA-P0JAPRAVAltTANAYA·ATMANAtit NJRYATAYAMI /
SARVA-TATHAGATA-V.\}RADHARMA PRAVARTAYA MA¥//
(1 offer myself for the promoting of worship of All Tathagatas.
MayVajradharmaof All Tathlgataa promol'e met)
Then atandingup again, he makea the supplicatory vajra-gestu.re, lowering
it from bis head to his heart, and bowing down with the top of his head to the
ground, he pronounces this mantra:
O~ SARVA-TATHAGATA-P0JA·llAJU,JA~'E ATMANA,¥ NlRYATAYAMI/
SARVA-TATffAGATA-VAJllAMRMA KVRU MAtif//
(I offer myaelf for the act of worship of All Tathlgata1.
May Vajrak.arma of All Tatblgatu act upon met)
He is wearing a red upper garment with a red tcarf covering his face and he
should make the Being-Vajra hand-gesture, as this mantra is said:
SAMAYAS 1-v.u,s (You aretheaacramentl)
Then aa he holda the garland of flowers with his cwo middle fingen, one
lead&him to the mai,<J.alawith this mantra:
SAMAYA H01tt (Sacramentindeedl)
162 The four ayllabla recited bm: relue to the functiona of the founloor guardian, (KC p. 222 ·S).
218 Ill: T ANTRIC BUDDHISM JII.IS.a 219

Then making him enter, one should say: "Today you enter the family of AU will attain to universal buddhahood.
Tathagaw. I shall arou&e in you that vajra-wisdom, through which you will Then making the hand-gesture, he releases it ac his heart, as he pronounces
gain the aucceu (.sidahi) of AU Tathagataa, not to mention other auccesaes. chismantra:
When such wiadom has been aroused in you, do not tell those who haw not TlHHA VAJRA D~O ME .BHAVAtSASVATO ME BHAVA/
seen the great mai,4ala, or the bond will certainly be broken." IB.J)AYAM ME 'DHITl~HA/SAkVA-SIDDHll'!f CA ME PltAYACCHA/
Then the Vajra,Teacher him,elf makes the Being •Vajra hand-gesture, ( O scay vajral Be stable, be eternal for me!
showing it toward the inside of the pupil's mouth and outside, next placing it Empower my heart and grant me all success!)
on his head, as be says: "This is your bond-vajra; it will split youThead apart, HOt,t HA HA HA HA HOJ:{
if you tell anyone."
Then he should throw the garland into the ma!J4ala , saying:
Then he blesses water with a sacramental guture and a single pronounce-
ment of the oath-mantra and makes the pupil drink it. Now this is the mantra PRATlCCHA VAJRA HOij (Receive, 0 vajral)
of the oath: Wherever it fa&, that (section of the maJ].C,ala)is effective for him. Then
taking up the garland, the Teacher binds it on the pupil's head, saying:
VAJR.ASATVAl:f SVAYAM TE 'OYA ~DAYE SAMAVASTHIT AJ;I/
OP!( PRATIG~~A TVAM IMAJ.\fSATVM,f MAHABALAl;I
NlllBHIDYA TAT~A~AF!{YAYADYADI BROYADIMANNAY.Alrf//
(Today Vajrasattva has eatabl.imed himeelf in your heart. (Receive thou this being,0 mighty ont')
Mayit disintegrate the moment that you speak of this rite!) By the action of tying it on, he is pervaded by that great being, and success
Ol'!f VAJRODAKA THAl;I(0 vajra-water ~hal}) 165 . (§1_ is quickly his. One then removes the scarf from his face when he is thus
Then he says to his pupil: "From today I am Vajrapllµ to you. If I tell you ;l~i '.'. pervaded, saying:
to do anything, it is to be done. You must never contravene me. If you fail to °';;~--: OJrf VAJllASATVA};f SVAY.Atif Tf. 'DYA C,AK$0DGHATANA
TATP~/
avoid thu uansgn:•ion, you will fall into hell when you die." \~ :' \JDCHATAYATI SARVAK$(> VAjllACAK$UR ANU11AltAl\f // HE VAJllA. PA3YA//
Then lie commands the pupil to say: !:~ -:·
:•, ,, '
(Vajrasauva himaelf, concerned to open your eyes this day,
SAllVA•TATHAGATA-ADHfTIHHANTU VA.JllASATVO ME AVJSATIJ :-f:;;] :'. now opens them, the all-eyed, the vajra-eyed, the supreme, 1ec HE-VAJRAI)
(May all TatblgatuempowerZM and Vajr•aattva pervade me!) {f. ) Then one shows him the great m~ala in the regular manner, and u soon
Then the Teacher quidly makes the Being, Vajra gesture and aaya: JJ ·. as he sees it, he is empowered by All Tathlgatas and Vajrasattva abides in his
heart . Becau.e of this empowerment beaeea miraculous forms variously mani-
AYA~TATSAMAYOVAJJlA¥VAJJlASATVAf\4mSMlTAlrfi ;:'.~~',- feat in circles of brilliant light-rays, and the Lord, the Great Vajradhara, will
AVF.SAYATU TE 'DYAJVA VAJllAJNANAM ANUTI ARAfit // :'._·;_it=-~-··.
:__
:. reveal himself or some other Tathigata. From that time on he will mca:ed in
(This is the sacramental vajra known aa Vajrasattva. _: all things from whatever he may want up to the state of Vajradbara, or (in
May the supreme vajra-wisdom pervade you this vCTydayt) )~~ :; other words) the state of buddhahood. TJM-.nwhen he baa been shown the
Then he should make the wrathful hand-gesture and divulge the symbolic :{~ ~: great m~4a}a. one consecrates him with acen1ed water from the vajra-
gesture of Being-Vajra. He causes (the pupil) to recite a vajra-vene of his ::ii· empowered jar, using this mantra:
choice pertaining to intuitive knowledge of the Mahlytna. tfi Thus it pervades -J!.,;· VAJltABH~l~CA (Vajra consecrate!)
him, and as soon as it does so, divine wisdom becomes manifest. By means of ·\ .,;;
that wisdom be kno~s the t~oughts of ot!1crs; he k™?ws all events in past,
present and future; h11heart 11 confirmed an the teaching of aJI Buddhu; all
JI.,.
j~ '§.; .
Then binding him with the panicular gesture and garland, one should fix
his appropriate mark on his hand, saying:
sufferings are ended; all fear is dispersed; he is invulnerable to all beings; 165 all )~!, -~· ADYA-ABHl,IKTAS TVAM ASl .BUDDHAJR VA.JRABJU~EKATAJ;f/
Buddhas empower him; all achievements lie before him; joyful events, happy, _)~ ':: !DAN TE SAR.VABUDDHATV~ ·ctµiNA VAJllAJtit SUSlDDHAYA//
pleasurable, delightful, previously unknown and without special came, will J;;:;-
! .•.,: (Today you are consecrated by the Buddhu with the vajra-consecrarion.
come about, and because of these some will experience states of mental calm. -:}fj,( Take this vajra, (symbol of) univenal buddhahood for total succe11I)
some will bring spells ( dlaar~i) to fruition, ~ all their hopes, while IOl1le /j ,: 0~ VAJllADHIPATI TVAM ABH1$1~CAMt ~HA VAJllA SAMAYAS TVA~
16~ If one lftb a dic:tlonary meaning for the 1yllab~ ["4. one will find audl a variety a,: sun·dia :§(i/ (I conaecrate you Vajra-Lonl . Stay O vajral You are the 1acrament)
or ~,rdo,, • Ncred 5PO(,a divinity, a - of ~iw, an.d (when uaed repetit~ly} the aound of a jar . }f'. ··· · Then one consecrates him with the Vajra·Name Consecration with this
rolh.ng down nr.pi.
164 I follow the libctan VC1$ion
intuitive ~ledge
here: the Sanal<.ritmay ~ tramlatcd as "he pronowicra his
oft~ Mahayana with a v.ijra-vcrse ."
1~ The T1be1an VffAOIIappt:an to undc-ncand c1111dhya
. .
/r
-.,:~.,,,

..-_/
;~
mantra:
0~ VAJR.ASATVA TVAM ABHI~INCAMI \.'AjllANAMXBH~.EKATA\l HE-VAJJlAN
(mwlnerable) u though tt meant "all" ·_ ,·,:\iii\ (1 consecrate you as Vajrasattva with the name of HE.·VAJRA NI)
(TT, p. i!I0-,-4), and Ol'K' may note alto Egerion'• BuddAut H"Jl>rid Stimdrn Dactiotl41-y,p. 72. -};3/ff,
Ho-ver. Iler~ the Samlr.rit as tranalated is surely COl'ffel. ::}~1,

;ff;
2%0 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHlSM
Whichever na~ is applied to him, H.Etmuat be said.
Such is the ritual in detail for the entry into all m~alas. m -.
An account such as this is in fact rather brief. but it contains all the essential ~ ·
elementa of the rite. Euential to an understanding of the whole practice ii the M i·
intenretarion of che tenn samaya, which has already bf:en discussed in some :]
detail (IICCtionIII .7). As oblervcd there, a variety of poaible transJationa offer ;~ ;
themselves, such as union, pledge, sacrament , and even guarantor. But it must ·J :
be emphasized that theae are not so much different meanings as
illustrations of j/ :
the fact that we lack in Englilh the one aing~ appropriate term. The Tibetans W'.
pouea it (dam-tslug) only because they coined the term apecifically to translate j
.sama,a. When ducuaing the term previously, \tt tended to stttll the meaning of
''sacrament" in so far u the term is applied to sacrificial offerings. It is possible ·¾ ··
to retain this meaning in translating the above extract concerning the pupil's
consecration, so long as the primary meaning of "coming mgethu" or "union" is ;~ ·
kept in mind. A sacrament may be described as a "coming together" of the .:j ·
object offered and the divine element that pervades it. In precisely this sense the
pupil becomes the sacrament, when he is pervaded by divine wisdom . Hence we
have the exclamation: "You are the sacrament!" Jn other words this may be ·j
e.xpra.sed as: "YOUare now the union of your own human body and the supra· -'i ti ·
mundane element of buddhahood." An understanding of .sama_ya may aho be
assisted by the following section .
b. Th, "Descent" of Absolute Wistwm 'j i ,
Mahtylna Buddhism in alJ its forms takes for granted the absolute state of ~ t gatas. If one wonders whether be is not the Vajrasanva who appears before
perfection, known as enlightenment, as buddhahood, or as the state of "j\Ht so" _j ,
(tathatcl), or moTe preciaely u the state of one who has achieved such a state· l ~ :
(tatktlgatm17t). In philosophical terms this state is often referred to as "void"
(iun,a) or aa "voidne11" (.nmycitd)in so far as it is entirely free from all demon· H~
strable characteristics. Eschewing the literal meaning of ''void." some Western
interpreters have uxd the term "relative,·· thus considerably weakening it, force. ~?,·•
This is really unnecessary if one remembers that thia same "voidnea" is also the )~¾'
"embryo" OT "enclosure" or "essence" of all Tathagatas or Buddhas (see section
111.4.e). Even though this particular terminology may appear comparatively late
in Buddhist philosophical developments, it is certainly taken for granted in the }7 :
earlier Madhyamaka period, in that Buddhas of neceuity emerge from thus such J'.:-
a "void" and in due course return to it. Represented as cosmic pattern on a sinrle
plane, it corresponds to the ma1,14alaof the Five Buddha,, whether conceived of ·J · •
as imminent or transcendent. As already observed above, their transcendence is }Ji'_ .'·
sometimes repreaented by a (sixth) Supreme Buddha, known u Vajra -Being
(Vajrasattva). Great Vairocana, Vajra-Holder {Vajradhara) etc. (Pl. .:16).:~li / ·
Envisaged and experienced at such a level of attainment , the whole group is :~ J!·:::
16' Extracted from the STTS, Yamada '&edition, pp. 63-72 and the Tibetan vcnion in 1T roL 4,
pp . 229·S·2 10 250-4-8. A parallel version. rathff lonaer, will be COUlldin the SOPS Tanaa,
Skoruptl<i',cdicion, tra111h1tion
on pp. JOOff.
Ul.lS.b 221
_:.,~.-,!.'
referred to u "deities of the final result" (Sanskrit phalo = fruit, and thus the
reault of maturation). Here a quotation may be helpful :
At the outset one should always envisage Vajraaattva, we are told , and this is
the reuon. In general the chief of all families and all ma!].<1,alas
is the Lord
Vairocana, and be has two aspects: Vairocana and Great Vairocana . The
difference is this: the true nature of the bodies of the Five Tathagatu who
abide fully enlightened in the Akani"ha Heaven, that i, Vairoc:ana. His
Mind, where without any duality between thinker and thought Vairocana and
Vajrasattva and the reat are produced, ia characterized as the Dharma·
Sphere, beginningleas and endle11, and thia is Great Vairocana. Thus
Jl : Vairocana is a Glorious Body (sa,r,,bhoga-k4Ja)and his Mind. namely Great
Vairocana , ia a Dharma-Body. It is precisely ~ri Vajraaattva who ia vested u
the bodily form of Great Vairocana. Thus in the "Sympoeium of Truth" it is
1 ·: said:
Oho! I, Samantabhadra. ablolute being, am self-existent.
l~. Although bodiless became of this absolute nature, yet I assume a body
as (Vajra·)aattva.
¾~ Although some say that this is the same person as the Vajrasattva who is one of
the Sixteen Bodhilattvas, the Precious Lama bSod-nama rT1e·mo (114.2-82)
says that he is Chief on account of his power to cause all the family mani-
?/ . festation or again because of his sovereignty. So it is the Vajrasattva from the
·i context of the One Hundred and Eight names where he ia the Lord, the Chief
.11•. of all Tathlgatas. Also in the (aection of che) "Victory over the Threefold
World," he is proclaimed as Father of AU Tathagatas , Chief of All Tathl·
A~obhya, indeed he is, for there is no difference between them. So in this
matter it would be good to follow the Tantra (viz., the "Symposium of Truth'')
\ii . and our above mentioned Lama. 161
I refened above to the ma9<l,ala as the moet potent exprasion of pantheistic
ti ·
l'7 N nearly always our qaoutiom ,crwe mott thu OM pv-rpoie, ic ia relevant in the pramt
comot to refer to what wu writ111mabo9c concerning Vajrapioi '• snidlial meto pR"Cminmce
--
1~~, during the Mahiyina period and the manner in which the names Vajra~i. Vajruattva aod Vajn·
-J; :' dhara - oftm llled interchangeably d111ingthio format~ pa-iocl. While the title Vajrasatrva
(Adamant.me Being) cenainly relMa co the abeolute teate of 1Upreme ~ddhahood (viz., die
Dharma •Body), it is frequently uu,cl • •·IJ'IOIIYl'ftrorVajrapil)i c:onttl_. al u a Bodhilattva. In
tM vene quoted•~ from the ''SympoaiUIIIof Tnatb"' (srt"S, Yamada', Sanskrit ed., p. 1! and my
J .; mtroduaion to the facamlle ed .• p . 17. wb.ere it i. tramlued) it dearly Nlfen to Vajrapii;li u one of
the Sisteen Bodhisattva. 0111author may be quoting the 'lerte from memo,-yor maybe if he ia -ate
of the c:onrest dim be is dearly at pait11 to refier ic fom1>lyto Vajr-uva as abeolute- bring. Tbe
uliianies' ' of one bunlhed and eight _, will be fouad ia Yamada', ed ., pp. 5-6 and again
J: '· pp. lM-6 at the a.n of the tanira Part U dealing with the ma~"' of Victory 09er the Tluecfold
World, for which tee the STI'S facsimileed., imroduc::tion,pp. Stff. Ooe may mention that Vajra·
paJli is frequau}y reftned to in this tanua a, "Lord of All Tathisatu. ·• Resll'llling all 1hia one may
IIOIC!that Vajrapioi cli&s Vapvauva •litu Vajradbara may be (i) che embodiment of the abtolute-u
enwlaagm in the pr..,.,m ucraa, (ii) ooe of the Siaeen Bodlmatnu, and (iil) one of the eet of four
Jr,
~ ;:_
· Bodhisauva,wben he appean before Akfobhya.
:~;pJ.:: The above quotation ii taken from the .Kun-r{&'du,..p ,-m,bsAu, fo. 64, L $-fo. 66. l. !.
·.\~{ ·/
'.$~-:.
..·.tri :::
..:
2%2 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
realization that has evt!r been devised. Here pantheistic is used in the sense that
all phenomenal manifestations at all levels of exi&tence are expreaiom of the
1upreme being (e.g., Vajraaauva). The implied immanence of such a supreme
being docs not necessarily contradict his absolute transcendence, and Indian ..
religion generally, whether Hindu or Buddhist, clearly asseru auch transc:en•
dence. 181 We emphasized the concept of the two planes of existence, nirv~a
being uanacendent and s~allra being immanent, according to early Buddhist
beliefs. Now while the Mah!yma assem the identity or rather the essential non-
duality of nirval}a and sa.qi1ara, it continue• to diatinguiah between tramcen-
dence u the absolute state of quiescent buddhahood, and immanence as the
sphere of Buddha- or .Bodhisattva activity, h if from this tra111cendent 1phere
that the divine power mu,t be aummoned in order to enliven the mal}c,ala or
indeed any image or symbol of divinity. All these are means toward the final
result, which is the aspiration of the practicing yogin. Without means there can,
be no realization of wisdom; without cause there can be no result. Thus as means
toward the result he mW( first place in pogition in the mar.,4ala the samaya-
beings, the symbols or guaranton of the divine beings who are identified in their
ultimate state as pure wisdom. At a second stage he induces the deacent of pure
wisdom, which then pervades the sama,a-beings, transforming them into
"wisdom-beings" (ftiana-sattw). This proa:11 is e11mtially the aame whether
applied to samaya-beings in front of onese.lf as a form of external yoga, or to
oneself as a samaya so that one may then be comubatantiated in buddhahood a,
a "wudom•being." It will be now more readily understood how this term
sama_ya,which means literally a coming together or conjunction, may in some
contexts be suitably translated as &acrament. 1&t Thus, addre11ing his pupil at.one
point, the teacher says:
This is the samaY4-vajra known aa Vajra-Being.
May the supreme vajra-witdom pervade you this day.
Here the panicular hand-gesture referred to as "Being-Vajra" (sattv4tJOjri)
combined with the appropriate mantTa (0¥ VA.JllAVESA Al:J)should produce the
desjred result if the pupil is properly prepared.
One may note that the four door guardiansrepresent the four atagea of intro•
ducing the divinities into the ma~la, which are effected by the mantra JAl;l
HO¥ v~ HOl;II Vajrcinkuia (Vajra-Hook} summOllS them; Vafrapdia (Vajra-
168 Tbe term "pantheistic" is -tima applied to Indian rdigion by Wcsirrn writcn in a
deroptory smae, as though rM immanence ol diviniry conflict& with all p<Nl(ibilityof aanKendmce.
Alchou.gfl Chrilliao theologymalr.a a ahaq, dmlioa bcn,een un~ated and creaCN being, dwt
rraneceudmc:c o£God. nay,ric:alfflision knOWIof no 11.1ch
IINffling the absol1.111e clear di,dnctioa.
althoufb the two 00nmponding level. of exiltena, mondane aDd aupramundane, mnain known £or
what they ue, that ii to uy. the everyday 1tate of exiail~ aa conrr•lff with the atate of divine
nptute.
169
Theft ii surely an analogybctWttn such a Buddhllt rite as 1h11and tM delcent of d~ Holy
Spirit, effected by the appropria~ wonlsand geu11r5of the prien, which uamform ordinary bread
and wnie into the areal presence" of Christ . What ia a sacrament in Chriltiall m-minology but "an
outward and visible sip of an inward and invisible pace"~
UI.IS.c Initiations and Consecr4ticm,1 225
Noose) draws them in; Yajraspho,a (Vajra-Fetter) binds them and Yajr4wi4
(Vajra·Penetration) alias Vajragka~a (Vajra-BeJl) completes the pervuion of
the mai:i~a by wisdom. This fourfold process is clearly defined in our extract
from the "Symposium of Truth" just above, when it ii said that ''all the Great
Being,, the Buddhu and the otbers, are summoned, drawn in, bound, so
entering his power." The teacher follows the same four stages when he intro·
duce, his pupil into the maz,~ala according to the Durgatipariiod"4no Tantra:
Taking a garland of flowers with his two thumbs, he should be Jed in with this
spell: 0¥ I enter upon the vajra•samayol He r;hould be led to the eaitem door
with Vajra•Hook, made to approach on the aoutbern side by mean, of the
NOOlt'; he should be bound on the western aide with the Fetter and made to
enter at the north by means of Vajra-Penetration. Leadi~g him in once more
by the eastern door, he should say this: "Follow throughl Now you have
followed through with the Vajra Family of all the Tathlgatas, I will produce
for you the Vajra-Wisd.om." 170
This fourfold function of the door guardians fully explains their names, which
might otberwi1e appear quite arbitrary. The names of the eight goddeasesof the
offerings are self-explanatory. All these divinities, Buddhas, Buddha-Goddesses,
Bodhiaauvas, Door GuardiaN and Goddeues of the Offerings, together malung
up a total of thirty-seven, will be represented in their traditional postures and
color1 with their &pecified accoutermenta on a mal)(Jala that ii painted as a
mural or a temple-banner, but when the mal14ala is laid out on the ground,
meR symbols suffice. such aa their written aeed-syllablea, or again the whole
procm of their manifestation may be entirely mentally produced. Even so, one
must go through the due process of fint envisaging the samaya-divinities and
then empowering them as wisdom-divinities.
c . The Use ofJa-rs mConsecration Ceremonit.t
The consecration of the pupil, with which we are dealing immediately, is
compoeed of a eet of subsidiary consecration,, which will be contidered in due
order. This whole set comes to be known as the Jar CoNecration (luzlaJdb/aqeka)
for reasons that will become clear below. but fint a deecription of the way in
which the sacred jar is empowered will serve to illmtrate very well the whole
process of envisaging all these divinities in front of oneself, whether in a maz,q.ala
or jar.
As for the sacramental jar, it ahould be made of gold or silver, copper or even
clay. Its capacity should be about two pints (Sanskrit dro'!,a, a rather vague
measure); its circumference should be aixtttn "inche&" (Sanskrit angula, a
finger-breadth) and its height thirty "inches": the neck and the spout should
each be two "inches"; it must not be black and in any way defective. It may be
170
See SDPS Tantra. Skoruptti'a e'dilloo, p. lOS and the coneapouding 6anakrit on p. %90. I
have cha~ the translation slightly in order to bring ouc the c:onn«liona with the Door Guanliam
and what illbeing dolW to tht pupil. In tM lut ,enu,nce che Tibetan tei.t ii prefttable, as baa bttn
•hownby Dr. Sk.orupslu.
224 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
iilled with pure water po•essing the twenty -five "euenees," or it may contain
the {ive medicaments. the five types of grain and the five kinds of gems. 171 It
should have a mantle made of silk of five colors marked with the signs of the
Five Families. Its mouth should be decorated with foliage.
Such a jar symbolizes the Buddha-Wisdom which knows of no duality. It
must not be black around its base as thia Wildom i.spure by its very nature. It.a
girth suggests the profundity and vastness of Wisdom. The length of its neck
suggests that the depth of such Wisdom is difficult to measure. The five kinds
of gems indicate that it fulfilll the aspirations of all beinp. The five medic. ,
ments indka~ that it removes all their afflictions. The five kinda of grain
indicate that it produces a tp"eat harvest of vinucs in their life-series . Thus the
water (with which it ii filled) is sanctified with all the twenty-five "eaences."
Its mouth is decorated (with foliage) because by practicing vinues in one's life.
series, one gainsthe salvation which is the fruit, etc.
As for the actual empowering of the jar, fires one disposes of evil forces by
reciting the mantra and making the gesture of Vajrayalqa. Then one recites
the mantra: o~ pure by nature are all elements; pure by nature am II From
this mantra (which recalls the Void) one envisages the seed-syllable PA&,f, from
which a lotus-flower (pad.ma) emerges, and then the seed-syllable A, whence
arises a lunar disk, on which one envisages the seed-syllable BHRU>tf. One
envisages this as tramfonned into the jar aa described above.
In the cent.er of this Victorious Jar one envisages a jewel-throne supported
by eight lions; to the east there jg one supported by elephants. to the south by
hones, to the wnt by peacocks and to the north by griffon, (garu(la). All have
lotus-flowers and lunar disks on them. As £or the places for the divinities of the
entourage, in the case of there being no circk be1ow(the jar) with the resulting
abaence of center and apoka, one should envisall'! their varioue places on an
upanse of water just aa though it were before one. Then in a single moment
one should produce all the thiny-seven divinities from the Omniscient Vairo-
cana on the a:ntral throne to Vajraghal)ta (the laa named of the four Door
Guardians). Sending fonh rays from one's own hean, one envisages all the
Buddhas in the pattern of the thiny-seiien-fold basic group of the Omniscient
One invited from the seH-existent realm, the pure abode, by means of the
mantrat and gestures for this Vajra aasembly. Then reciting three times the
verse that begins: ''For the benefit of all beings etc." and the mantra JAij HU~
VA~ HOl;fl one preaenta the (prepared} thrones to them as they appear in the
sky before one. in
Once empowMed in this way, such a jar expresses the same totality of Fivefold
Wisdom as doe, a similarly empowered maQ',iala, although in the case of the jar
the whole proc:es.\is one of pure visualization. A mai,~ala is usually produced by
111 The twmty,five ''aoenc:ff~ an theoret ic.dly combinalionl f>f five lunch of meialJ. germ.
med~inal herbc, grains and scrn1s. A complicated dluenatlon on the 1ubjec1 will M found in M. E.
Cattlli'• edition. o£ the Sd.oddela!lM, p. l?. I. 22 -p. 19, I. 15. Here are l.i.ued alternative HU of the
five kindJ of guin. gmv, ccc., oflffl with a concluding commcN that they should be a«cpted as
available. One may oote that for mo:st of the ittms the Tibetan tramlaton (,_ 1'.T .. vol. i?,
pp. IJ 1·4-5ft'.) found no equivalents and so con!fflted themselwes with transliterating the Sa1lSkrit
telllli. An Englishuamlaticm would sc-.i.rcdy~ tnOl'(' .helpful
m u1naed with ablncwiations from.Ku1t-rigcho>-p'irMm-"1114d, fos. 128, I. 2 -iSZ, I. 5.
JU,13.c lnitiatiQ'llsand. Consec,·a#ons 225
a combination of v.isualiution and the symbolic repreeentation of the divinities
in their proper positions. Again an appropriate number of jars, often five,
representing the Five Buddhaa, may be themselves arranged aa a ma~~ala. The
idea of coercing a particular divinity or a whole set of divinities into a jar is an
intere.ting one, but it ia likely that two rather different uses have come together
to produce this result. Thus in the Malfjusrimulalt.alpa. Tantra, from which a
long ex.tract describing tbe relevant IDaJ}(Jalahas already been translated above,
the jus are used both as offerings to the various divinitia and as instruments of
consecration. Here we have a far lea developed form of symbolism,
As for the above -mentioned ritual of aummoning and dismissing (the divini-
tiea), he (the teacher) 1hould enter the ma1]4ala again. He should definitely
offer eight full jars in which are gold , silver, gen11,rice and grain; they arc
draped with dean mantles and decorated with the ]eaves and fruit of mango.
They are offered(one) to Slkyamuni the Lord, the second one to all Buddhas,
the third to Lone Buddhaa ( Pratyekabuddhaa) and to the Noble Diaciples. the
fourth to aU great Bodhiaauvas, the fifth to the Great Bodhiaattva, the Noble
Manjuid, the sixth to all goda, wht1e the seventh and eighth arc to be placed
by the doors of the second (viz., outer) circle; of theae the first is fo1·all demons
( bhuto) and the .second is to be dedicated to all living beings in general. Then
one should 1ummon (them all) in accordance with the aforementioned rite.
The jars are not only offered to these various classes of divinities, but also dearly
sene as ..supports" for their presence in the mai;i4.ala, although this is not specifi·
cally aated in accordance with the later theory of coercing them into the jars.
One may add that the jars are full of pure water, impregnated with precious.
medicinal and nutritious aubstances, conventionalJy numbered u twmty-five, as
we have just noted. There a.re many di.fferent kinds of separate offerings
presented to the divinities, lampa and flowen and incense, a whole variety of
cakes and sweetmeats and so on, all specified in the text. Thus the account
continues:
The master of the ma~ala performs, as previowly described. the main rite
for gratifying them with offerings, whereby he invokes them, praises them,
incenses them and so on . Then hi, aaiatant who is skillful and quick (takes)
a meatle• sacrificial cake intended for all the demon,, and having circum-
ambulated the outer maJ}4ala, which is adorned on all sides and above and
below with incense and flowers, lamp and garlands, he &hould scatter far and
wide the cake for the demons, while the joyful aound of the music of drums
and conch shdls resounds. Then after his ablutions he (presumably die
teacher who is master of the maJ}(Jala)should make a burnt offering (homo) of
boiled rice mixed with curds, honey and clarified butter, as he recites ~e
basic six-syllable mantra one thousand and eight times. 175 Having made this
burnt offering, he performs a rite of protection for the Great Beinp who have
been brought into the ma,;i4Ala and eatabliahed there pttvioualy. Then he
should show the ma1]4ala to those whom be has accepted as his pupib, who
m Concerning bumr offerinp (/tq,naj 1tt ,eciion Ul . l!l,t' below.
226 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
have produced the thought of enlightenment and made theh· confession, who
have offered their own bodies to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and who hold
their posaessions in common with all living beings with perfection as their
object, who are capable of advancing toward the place of enlightenment and
are desirous of obtaining the state of omniscient buddbahood; such as these
are freed from all sin by the mere sight of the ma9q.ala, and even those who
have committed the moat terrible aim are freed that very moment.
Then the Master of the MaQc;lala should cover the faces of those who will
enter the maQq.ala with new cloth, of which the threads have been remO\led,
which are f~e of fluff, which have been comecrated by a sevenfold recitation
of the basic mantra and perfumed with sweet-smelling sandalwood and
saffron. First he should cause to enter the ma"4ala children from the a~ of
three years to sixteen, who are adorned with the five crew or the single crest
or the topknot, those who are king's SOil$ who have been anointed on their
heads, or the sons of noble families or those who are desirous of great
sovereignty. Then as they stand in the second ma~ala with face covered, they'
form the hand-gesture representing a blue lotm-flower and recite just once the
basic mantra of Maiijuiri the Prince, and he gives them a sweet-smelling
flower in both hands, which have been totally purified with a mixture of
sandalwood and camphor. They should throw these Dowen, and whcrettr the
flower falls, one should give the one concerned the (corre,ponding) mantra.
It is e.ieemed as his mantra. It is linked to him for a series of eight births. It is
his religious friend for it accomplishes his advance to the place of enlighten-
ment resulting in the omniKience of a Great Bodhisattva, It produces great
wealth, great kingship, great fame and singlenees of purpose.
·,·
The consecration itself begins with the pupils paying their muter royal honon:
Then having made all preparations as for the consecration of universal
they honor their teacher. They spread the
sovereignty (sarvt1.rdfyl1,b//,qeka),
great canopy; they set up flags and bannen. of victory; they hold a white para·
sol over his head and wave white fly-whisks. With great ceremony they cauac
the conch shells and the great drums to make a joyous sound and they praiJe
him with cries of victory, with auspicious venes, with verses of praiae and good
fortune such a, declare a conqueror. Then hBYingbowed before the Buddhas
and Bodh.isattva5, they should say: "O Master, I wish to enter upon the ,
mantra practice of the Buddha, and Bodhiaattvas; 1 wish to enter the secret
circle of salvation that tranacends all that pertains to this world; J wish to
attain buddbahood involving universal sovereignty in the Dharma. In brief,
may I be a Buddha!"
Then the pupil should be seated on a bundle of .t·u.Ia grass, facing the Eut
and looking toward the maq4.ala. 171 As for the Vidyt Consecration which be is
given first, he should be made to make the great hand -gesture of the Five
Crests. Then he should write with bezoar on a piece of birchbark whichever
174K1e.f11-gra•.b0tanla.l name Poo ry,t.OJ11roidcs,b a tn,e of Indian gTllSS '*
seemingly much in
by lndian asc~tics. lt is apecifled here. becauae in all the accounts of ~ Buddha Sakyamuni's
mlightenment. be ~ said to have made a seat of this same gras&.!-or a !>rid mention Stt E. J.
Thomas. Ufe of tlu Buddha, p. 71. but rather see Andr~ Bareau, Recherchts ,n,r la bitJgraphie du
Buddha. pp. 57-61.
Jfl . 1$.c: lniti4tion.s and Co?UeN'IIHons 2!7
m.anua pleaaes him; having written it, he should cleanse his hand, with sandal-
wood ~~d saffron and placing the mantra inside a covered dish, be should
place 1t m _the ma~qala at the feet of the Bodhiaanva Mafijuhi. Then seated
on the .twa grua he 1hould fint of all recite the buic Vidya mantra one
hundred and eight times. Then he should receive the co:naecration while still
sc~ted ~n the gra•. The teacher should take the jar which waa for all living
bemgs ~ general and wa, placed near the door in the outer circle, and reciting
the ba1.1cmantra consecrate him on the head. Then the others receive the
water (of consecration) just as he wishes. NeJtt he should give the covered dish
to him (the pupil) and make him recite the mantra toward a lamp. If it is
preciselythat one, making effon he will gradually be successful. But if it a
another one, he will succeed by the mere n:citation of the mantra . But if the
ayllabla arc given short or in excea there i, no doubt that he will be successful
just at thu first C\'Oeation. m ThUJ there is no doubt of his succea with the
three evocations which the teacher wrote down before . So in that way the
Vidyi Consecration ia to be given.
As for the consecration in the aecond circle, one should give the consccra-
~n _withthe jar that w:asoffered preYioualyto alJ the gods. By performing the
nte JUat u before on h11bead, he is freed from the whole morass of evil, he is
accepted by the Lord Buddhas, he is empowered by all Buddhas and Bodhi-
sattvu to perform the sacraments (.tama.)llJ), ma~u. maotru and hand-
gem1ra relating to everything mundane and supram\Uldane and be may
receive the Muter Coruccration.
I~ the third circle he receives consecration on his head with the rite uaing
~he Jar that was ~ffercd to Lo~ Buddhu and Disciples, and he should be told:
You arc authomed by all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of great miraculous
power to recite the mantras and tantras, to draw and to teach the mandalas
to pr~cti~ and to t~ch ~nd-~ura,. thus you~f both performi~ and
teaching. Moreover an th11 very life or m one of his next eight lives be will
attain the state of buddhahood. 11,
~ee for the aforementioned rite of the Royal and Victorious Consccra-
t1onahe should be ooneecrated with the full jars previously offered to the Lord
Sikyamuni and the jar offered to the Bodhisattva,. He ia told: "You have been
accepted by the Lord Buddhu, the Bodbiaattvu and the Di1eiples. Spdtes
(bhutc) cannot prevail over you; no bodily creature can overcome you; may
you have power over all spellsand achieve whatever y01tdesire ."
So the master of the mlh}4ala should give to each the five consecrations just
as he wishes. Having brought them finally into the mar.,4a1a, he dismisses them
after they have offered themselves to all the Buddbu and Bodhisattva, and
then circwnambulated the mal}4ala three times . 117
m The incendon here remains obecure, but Sanskrit ind Tibetan vcNio 111.-,:u.
176
J follow the Tibc!an here. Sa111kri1aa11: "He will alwaysobcain the Mate of buddhahood iri this
oerylife or during 8UCCCNive li.enp 10 (wha, wiDbe) a IMSrri>lrth."
177 "For thne three do.-:ly n,Ja1ed texts ttt Mk . p. 47. 11.20·7 {Ariane Macdonald. p. 130 for
French n-anslauon and p. lfiS, 11.!!ff. for edited Tlbeun text}; then MK , p. 48. I. 24-p. 49. I. ZI
(A.M ., pp. 152-7 and p. 167, I. 2-p. 168. I. IS}; then MK. p. ~- I. &-p. &l. 1.24 (A.M, . pp. 138-42
and~- I~ Nlp-_171 ''!)· I ba~ear!M!I" ttmslatedsomeol theee ex1racu in my article "'The Nocion
of DiWle Kingship In l 1~ac Buddblam," pp. %06-8and wBWIUJiistHi.,._.,. (-,al referrnca).
228 Ul: TANTRJC BUDDHISM
This extract bas been chosen to illustrate the use of &1.1ch sacramental jan in a
context where their symbolism is not yet exprested in so complex a manner a5 in ~1 ;,.
the description above. The tantra from which the extract is taken, the Manjusrt- ·'1. '·
·)~ ":
mf.dakalpa, being classed as an Action Tantra (kriya-tantra) is one where the
whole theory of Buddha-families is in an early formative phase (see section {;~
~:-::.
111.6.a. where the ttlevant ma1'4ala is described), and where we find ourselves in
an early Mahayana environment, occupied by Buddhas, Pratyekabuddhas,
Early Disciples (.frtlvaka), Bodhisauvas, _gods and demons. By· contrut in the
later tantras of the Yoga class the .stage is Ot"cupied, as we have i;een, by the five
cosmic Buddhas, th, ir Buddha-Goddesses and sets of Bodhisattvas. attended by
the symbolic offerings and door guardians. At this later atage, the Pratycka- . ..
buddhas and Discip~eahave a quite secondary importa~e, and if repr~en~d at
all, are placed oumde and around the malJ4,ala. The Jar& are then mev1tably .:,i: ,
}I:'.
. comecrations than one would expect to find amongst such a vast milcellancous
imbued with all this later symbolism. In our extract just quoted there is;} ;··
reference to five consecrations, and this would simply appear to mean the )~ \
pouring of water on the bead of the pupil from the five jars, which are specified ·.{' ,
in a rising order of importance, namely the jar offered to all living beings, the Ji,:
one offered to the gods, the one offered to Disciples and Pratyekabuddhaa, the :!t i
one offered to Bodhisattvas and the one offered to the Buddha Siltyamuni, :i~ :'.
although reference to the last two is rather cunory. They appear to have some .!i L:
kind of progressive effect. The first one concerns the Vidyl (sec section 111.Sfor <~
:,.
an earlier interpretation). which I have left untranslated here. It doubtleae refen }t ·~
here to the spell of the discipk!'s chosen divinity, whom he should now be able to )1.:·.·
invoke. The second consecration enables him to perfonn the sacraments etc. of ::;t·
this particular cycle; the third one authorizes him to teach so that be becomn a JI\
"master" in hi5 own right; the last two would seem to consecrate him as a Bodhi· ·JI '.:
sattva and potential Buddha. One muat note that the aame term, are used with _.:i~·
different meanings at the various sta~ in the history of the development of j~ ':·
tannas, and this cau1e1 difficulties to the later Indian and Tibetan interpreten, ··:{'tJ'
who do not always tale historical development into account. Thus although~ Jj :,
:')i i
have five coNCCrations here, they arc all conaec:ratiom performed with water
and so have to be interpreted all aa just the first one of the later formulated set of 'f:,:_
fow (see 111.14.c). Also it ha.a to be made dear that the conaecration as Master :)~ ::·
performed here is different from the Master-Consecration bestowed in the };' ·.
higher tantras, for which the name Jar Consecration or Vidyi Consecration is ·\I i
still used (111.14.a). The garland, which is practically indispensable, may be /~ 't
thrown into the mar,cJala to discover the pupil's special association with a \~ ~-.
particular Buddha-family, or in tbi.ausage it may be replaced by a flower or even · '
a toothpick. Also the garland may be used for crowning the pupil as may be the
case in our extract above(Ill.13.a) from tbe"SymposiumofTruth."
d. The Ordn of Consecrations in Yariow Classesof Tantras
In our example of a consecration (p. 218(.) the pupil was led to the ma~la
where his master first administers the oath of secrecy. The oath is confirmed by
111.iS.d lniliatitms and Consecrations 229
the appropriate mantra and by the pupil accepting a drop of water from a
sacrificial jaT consecrated to Vajruattva. Thua the teacher aays: "Today Vajra-
sattn has entered your bean," and the pupil iJ theoretically pervaded by the
transcendent wisdom of buddhahood. Then the garland, which was previoualy
put into the hands of the pupH as he approached the maJJ,(Jala,is thrown by him
into the maQcJala, where it may be expected to fall into one of the Family
segments. The teacher takes it up and binds him round the head with it, thus
crowning him in hjs appropriate Buddha Family. He is then shown the mar,qala,
after which he receives three consecrations, one with a "vajra-empowered" jar,
one with an actual vajra, and finally a renaming consecration.
Exegt:ticaJ works often sug~st far more regularity in the ordering of these
collection of tantric ritea, which were developed by different mutera often in
quite different religious settings, as we have tried to show ahow:. Bearing this in
mind, we may however refer to so.me of these theoretical Khemes, for even if
they do not fit in every case and also aometima impose later interpretations. they
cenainly assist toward an understanding of these traditions, as subsequently
received by Tibetan converts.
A succinct interpretation of the so-called JarConsecration is given in a short
work by Advayavajra, one of the eighty-four Great Adepts, which is entitled
"Brief Account of the Proass of Consecration," and an extract from this may be
helpful:
Fintly we deal with the Jar Coruecration, which is in fact characterized as six
jar-consecrations, viz., th08Cof water, crown, vajra, bell, name and master.
A, one washes away exterior din with water, so one sprinkles water for the
purification of the impurity of ignorance; for this reason it is called a
"sprinkling'' (seka). in As the jar is wed in all of them, the name used is "jar-
conseo-ation" (kalasa-abhi,,ka). Thae are conaecrations from which there
can be no backsliding because they are of the nature of the Six Tathagatas,
thus:
The Water Consecration corresponds to the Mirrorlike wisdom of Ak'°bhya,
The Crown Consecration to the Wisdom of Sameness of Ratnasambhava,
The Vajra Comecration to the Discriminating Wisdom of AmitAbha,
The Royal Consecration to the Active Wisdom of Amoghasiddhi,
The Name Consecration to the Wisdom of the Pure Absolute of Vairocana
being the wisdom that puts an end to ignorance,
While the Master Consecration cottt1ponds to Vajrasauva.
Of them ( the first) five are ( al10) known ar. Vidya Consecrations bee awe they
make use of the Five Vidyh, Buddba-Locanl and the others. nt
The Water Consc<:ration is bestowed by the Vajra-Master personifying
171
1~ noun sda, '"sprioliling." of which 11blli~ka is a demed form, make& this play on words
possi"blt in Sanskri1, but 11(1!so easily in a Tibetan or an f.ngliab translation .
l7J These art the four Buddha·Godd- with Vajradhatvllval'i (Lady of tht Vajn·.Sphere) as
1iw:fiflh. Hen, Vidya a• fe,na~ pam= r,:,pracenllthr. later inlrt'Jl1etation. Compare Vidya on p. 228.
250 Ill: T ANTIUC BUDDHISM lfl ,15.d /nitiaJioru and Consecmtions 251

. Aqobhya upon the pupil whom he envisages as Vairocana. Such is hie total heaven. •••
aaurance. · h 'ldo The Encouragement relates to the understanding of words that begin thu,:
The Crown Consecration imparts tM seed which develops mto t e Wl m• "You arc freed from all impediments and have been acttpted by all Budd.has
bump (~~a) of this future ~ud~!a. and Bodhisattva.a." 116
A, for the Vajra Conaecranon,
It should be observed that such generalizing statements on the correct
Firm substantial and solid, of uncuuabk, unbreakable chatacter, ordering of the variou.s consccntions arc usually made from the viewpoint of one
Unb~rna ble, indatructible, the Void is said to be Vajra.
who looks back over the whole range of tantric developments and whose concern
In the Hevajm Tantra (1.1.4) the vajra i~ said to be_unb~eakable. The is to bring order into the apparent confusion of variow traditions. They att al10
batowal of the Vajra Comecratlon_giva, as 1t were, an 1nfuaion of the seed written with all the different classes of tantras in mind, as they were later
which grows into this unbreakable WJedom. arranged , with scant regard to historical realities of time and place. Thus it muat
& for the Bell which resounds in such a wa_yas to ~a~ k.n<>W?the whole
be kept in mind that the rite of consecration as extracted from the Manjuhl·
supreme Dharma, although it thus manifest, its supcno_nty and 1S r~Uy the
agent productive of causality, nonetheless the Consecrauon of the Va1ra-Bell miJlakalpaor the "Symposium of Truth" is in each care conceived of as aclf-
• Co nsccr~ao~.
is preceded by t hev aJra ' Ul
. . , sufficient within iu own particular context of time and place. There is no
The Name Consecration conAi.ts m givmg up ones own name so that one . consciousnes on the part of the participant1 of performing a rite that can be
may understand the namele11Ress of all ~Aar~ while obta~ing a na!1'e categorized as higher or lower. What is true of the standpoint of the later Indian
suitable for a Lord Buddha that accords with the lineage of ones own famtly- interpreters is even more true of Tibetan interpreters, who, having received the
divinity. l8i • • • • whole tantric tradition when it was more or lea complete, Wett understandably
As for the Master CoN«ration, 1t u charactenzed ~ the VaJra S_acrament, at pains to discover why it should exist in so many variant form5. Thus th06e who
the Bell Sacrament, the Mudn Sacrament, Wonbines.,, Sancuon, Vow, promoted Supreme Yoga tantras, which have had such a vogue in Tibet, have
Prophe.sy and Encouraganent. • reinterpreted the whole concept of consecration in accordance with their
The Vajra Sacrament consisu in underaanding the w?rds: 'You an: the
theories 0£ sexual yoga, and they teach a set of four 1uch conaecrationa, which
Sacrament," 50 undentanding (the change) from a.c?"u~t body to the
wiD be described below in the next section. At the same time they demonstrate
final union which is noncontingent and knows of no d,sunct~ns. .
The Bell Sacrament consists in the n:solurion to proclaim the eighty-four an apparent superiority to aU other classes of tantras by accepting u their fim
thousand teachings of the Dharma. .. consecration the whole set of consecrations which were already all in all for the
The Mudra (Symbol) Sacrament cons.iatsin undentanding the words: You practitioners of the earlier tantr.is, referring to this set, as we see from the above
are of the self-nature of your chosen divinity." quotation as the Jar or the Vidyi ComecratH>n. It is also referred to as the Mascer
The Sacrament of Worthiness comprises the quiddity (tottrMZ~ o~ the. Consecration (4c4rya-abh4ek.a) because when a pupil bad received the whole set,
maq.qala, the particulan of the purificatio~ of the ma~!a· the qu1?d1tyof he could become "muter of the ma.tJ4ala" in hi• own right. It wa, precisely in
the divinity, the particulan of the purificauon of the dmntty, the ~uon of a this way that the particular tradition was carried forward from master to pupil
teacher, knowing how to produce the m~ala mentally, the five lrghu and who once trained and consecrated becomes a muter in tum. It must be clear
eating the (five) ambrosias. 1*' . that the idea of mastership can only relate to the particular sphere in which one
The Sacrament of Sanction is for the purpoec of tummg the Wheel of the
Doctrine, which viewed from the Proccs., of Realization is void of aU self. ~comes a master, and thus sanction (anuftia} to teach according to an Action
Tantra is different from the sanction to teach a Yoga Tantra. However, for these
cxiatence. · I as well as for Performance Tant~as. viz., all the first three categories, such
The making of the Vajra Vow ia for the undoing of all hercuca vows.
The Prophecy rden to the defining of the nature ~f the ~th and the rest. mastership reprctent• a kind of finality, while for the tantras of the Supttmc
Thus the atmoapherc contain& the _earth etc.; t~ skyIS tclf-exutent; the world Yoga class it i.sthe lowcat of four consecration., and thus cannot bestow master·
is in a state of becoming: such 1s the meaning of earth, atmoaphe~ and ship in the normal SCD5C of this term, 10 in thia cue it becomes a mere name for
110 ThepM1Age ckecribing !he vajra. omi~d httc, is tra111l11ted iDtee:tioo111.1!,
PP• I_SS:1·
which some suitable interprccation need& to be found. A commentary on the
111 The ~ll (olia.sSo~p) Comccr:uion la J!f«"ded by a dftcription of *. bt.U aimilar to the term occurring u the first of the set of four in the Hevojra Tantra may be
passage quoud ab0tt about the vajra (Ill.!). l'hus it is said: 'To show thu k • the cause of the
ltnowlcdge whtte tMre is no distinction bct'Wftll Voidnes and CompaHion, the .~ntenanet! of the lM Here we ha"' another play on lilte-1ot1ndiog words which Is loet io ttam!atlon.
(Goddea) Prajna is shown abo.c (on the handle).'' thus arguing for the mpenonty ol the bell u ass The Sanskrit rext would mean: "You are d11tsacrament (sam4,a) of aU Buddha, and llodhi ·
symbol. 1attvaa." For thia wholeextract see the Admyallqjr11,14f!1JYW, p . 36, 1. 7 -p . 88, I. 2,.The corTttt
m I follow the Tibetan ffrsiOII here, u t~ Sanekrit ii oblcutt.ly corrllpcecl, Sanshit title o( this short wad. i, S,AatoAarycua'!'pha a0eorcling to the T ibetan. MJ ttanslar.ic,n
toatihUC$ on pp . 24'·4 bdow.
,u Concnning dk'. meaning af "pw-irtcation • io this context , see the Index for refe:reocea.
 UI.U.d
252 III : TANTRIC BUDDHISM
~~
Buddhas with namea already familiar to u, from early Mahly lna sutraa and
q uoted in il1U1tration of thia : -,~ related Bodhiiattvas , Pratyekebuddhaa and Early Dilc:iplca, u well a, eome
I . 1W ':/.
The fint ia called the Ju Consecration or the Master C~mccration. t 1• ea it feminine divinitiet whoee cult already fomu part of Buddhist practice , as well as
a "aprinkling'· becaute impurity ii washedaway. lt II called the Jar C?D· _- 50me fierce protecting divinities . We have already noticed the te11dency to
sccration because it is cbaracterucd by a jar, and the Master Conaecn.tlOO \ arrange thete into the three main families of the Tathlgata, the Lotus and the
became ic proceeds far from evil an~ wickednelili. It is also called the V1dyi -i~ Vajra in this clearly specified order of imponance. In short we find ounclvca in a
,.__ · L.-- .,_ · t overthrowa 1.-nnraoce and aroutea an awarenesa of .,,
....,..eecrauon , ""'"-'a- 1 .,-- ·t normal Mahayana world and the ritual worka that were later catcgo~ as
the five spheresof knowledge.\ l6 =~ Action Tantras wett not then even thought of aa being part of the different
With ,uch a shift in meaning one understands how m.isapptthcmione can arise )j ;; sphere of tantra• aa oppoted to sutru. Indeed at this earlier stage they wtte
when all the variom comecratioN ue litted for all ~-- of unt~ as though ) . , u,ually rderred to generally as s6tras and not u tantras at all . Much the nme
they were to be ncated u a progressively hipr ~s _ofrelated 1~ - Such a .".: . ·. .;ruation would aecm to apply to the rather amalJer group of ao-called Pcrfor -
cluaification of higher and lower can alao be misleading w~en apphcd to the -' lt : r:nanceTantras, which continue to belong to the same lti.nd of Mahiytna setting,
tantras generally. as separated into the four gradea of Acuon, Performance, j ,;_: although in IO far as Vairocana comes now clearly to the fore u the primary
Yoga and Supmne Yoga . Thu. one_~~ finds ~t aase~d that these fou ~ grades ;~)_··:: Buddha , llill preaiding, be it noted , o"W!rtbrtt Buddha -families .• and Vajra ·
have been taught to suit the capab1liues of ~now beingl , whoR faculues may ./: . pal)i'• importance • clearly recognized, we may oble-n-e a kind of intermediate
be categoriied u inferior, mediocre, superior or_truly excellent, as though all ,",_· -. · development between the Action Tantras, so called, and the later Yoga Tantras
four grades were available at all times rather like our prcaent·day grades of ::t_.. with their well-formulated set of five cosmic Buddhai and their well•patterncd
· · .-1- E-en thia com""'mnn, however , ia misleading, for it is clearly ,;,_ :· mu,4.alas . However , we are still in a normal Mahlylna Buddhist world , even
Ul'llVerstty -e•-•• • ,, r---·· goal mc} ·.~, :
and quite rightly taught that all grades of tantru have the same '. na Y \· · :; though one might refer to it now as late Mahiyloa. and the fundamental tantra
· ·
the wmmng o u
f b ddhahood -. that as a final i-esnlt there can be no difference
,-
,;;I .
he,.;.-~ .: of this claaa, namely the "Sympoeium of Truth," wu still traditionally refttN'!d to
between them . We have already oot.ed above how those who come latelt onto t YI.~ ~ 11 a sutta . Once buddbahood came to be envisaged aa fivefold with the added
historical scene tend to grade the various phuea that preced~ them ~ }. - ; theory of fiw: Ruddh a-familica , the earlier three-family arrangement might
_._ ___ ..iing aa- of inferiority , and it i&preciaely thii that occun with the later ·'.:i:~ . easilybe ttgardcd as a lets developed theory and certainly less managuble when
--.... ..-
categorizing of all the accomulated maaes of tantru a t vanoue c~ra·
nd be • ·r,~ ,
\;j _: it came to the drawing of ma114alae, where the fivefold arrangement fits
tion• that they bestow. Th\.15 in order to mak.e &Orne seme of tht! va~ _::&,-; pcrfec:dy,We have noted above bow difficult it is to envisage as a ma94,ala the
explanations offered by uaditional acholan for the ~ of such a vanetJ , -~ -- groups of divinities who go to make 11pthe mas,4,,la of the Maiijvmmwolcolpa ,
--"· L • • d _,.._ all -important factor of h11corlcal development ,. ,l .....· limply bccaute we toO have come to conceive of ma-,~las as symmetrical
one n~ to aeep m mm '-""' . , • b :=:ai:
The consecration ceremony extracted from the tantra Maff;~miila/colpa '. su · \iJ·: arrangements of symbols or divinities arranged according to the general pattern
scquentlJ claacd a.aan Action Tantra, would have to ~ cl~d ac~~ .ng to ::/~ ·. of a Center and the four main directions .
IOlnC lalff theories al primarily IUitable for thole of tnf~or faculties , 'fbe•_¼ ,J' . Thus the point may safely be made that those ritual works known later aa
noneena1ty · of .L.:. • e.., ....lf~Vl·dent • unless
u ... 1$ su11,, -- ... _·
one takes ones stand
• • • • •
resolutely on ..:-,/~t~ ·. Action and Performance Tantru were originally the main ritual texts which
the aide of cl.ua dietioetiona , the essential artificiality of which 18 adcquatdy :S:i: formed part of Mahiylna religious practice at a time when later tantras were
argued in Buddhiat philosophical trea~ises wit~ut ~ need to tum to mod~ - ·,f ·: unknown . The term "Im-yd . for which I have adopted the conventional tnnt ·
weaern refonnen. Jo tenna of hut.orical com1derat1om , as already tre~tcd in .:i;,, .:. lation of Action, simply means a rite of any Jund. Caryl. translated convention-
aome decail in this ~nt work, d~ question of why there sbou.ld be d1ff~t ·)j ;° ally as Performance simply in order .to suggesc aome kind of difference between
kinda of tantraa i1 more euily answered, namely t~t th~ were pan ~f a _qune ·,J{ :· these two groupa in accordance with later theories , also ~ans a rite of any
t l religious ~pment that affec.ted Buddh11t behef• and pracuca 1n the ;!. J :.. kind . 111 In short , there ii essentially no differcnc:c in meaning at all , and thae
is not without significantt tut ·.·=· 1t.
na
coune ura of. I
1ta ong 11C:ory
b ' on ln ..:an
.... soil · Thu• it . . _.~, \ ;·:· two groupe of worlu, later differentiated according to the terminology which
the ao-called Action Tantras de&eribe m&J14al111 and ntes rclaung to th°'c i~!i·; happened to be in use , viz., kriy6 or carya,can beat be understood if they arc
. · ·· -..1 b' h- 1....:_..,. who were pan of the early Mahlyana scene, naDtely :=.> ( ·..· accieptcd n part of the normal Mahlyin.l scene. They provided the directions
d 1VIOltlCI aUQ 1g .,. uc;u,.,- .-: l
"(. • ) d ··---'- far" -~
i. :_
116 s«H .T ., .ol . 1. p . 95n . Thc-.erbalcona,ectionbul-eea -~..-i «? _an r-- :_~ :- 187 I ha-..echOlffl the tnm s Action and Prr{ormantt in this book 0111 of deference to Jeffrey
(onicUi,ryGm CdNIII) on which thuoth~ 1nmp1Ttat1on ~ baaed, unnot

on~
apparmtly 1t.n~
~roduced ·4!i~r In the Tlbetau tut. which I am here tnnalat1ng, or In_llK Engl.b . The
is f°'nld ii, 1.il).ha'i commenu.ry, tramlated Oil p . 152 (top linet), when thr S
•::t~';~,be_:
,:~p:.:
:'\~~ ::-
Hopkins, wbooc two boob on the Yog• of Tib.i cOfttaln much incere•inr dilcuuion of the
ditl'erenca ~twcen die -.ario\11cl- a w:rymuch lattr Tibci•n ••ndpolnt .
of uiruru u o1tt11 fl'<IIII
Wbol\' time teq"CIICe a.ad bJRorical ck.dc,pnient &ft'~ Well into a«o<IOI.
a-ilablc . :(;,. ·:.

ir
254 Ill : TANTIUC BUDDHISM
235
-~
a_nd the liturgies for the worship of the regular Mahlytna divinities and they :$ rather arid aod outmoded acholatticiam for whlch earlier Christian scholara .are
introduct:d the kind of comecration ceremony for a would -be Bodbilauva of the~); often taken to task . Much of it may be ingeruou, but hardly enlightening .'•
kind we have already illustrated. Both involve the practice of yoga. No tantric :;A In 10 far u Yoga Tantra, represent an advance in aymbolic representation and
vow of any kind wu involved for the atraightforward rea&on that tanuic pracrice, j; religious pract~ce upon Action and Performan~ Tantras , 10 they tended to
as later conceived, was still unknown in thfte con,entional Mahlylna circles: :: replace them, and t:hw we note that precisely the Yoga Tantru provi~ for the
Thua the path toward perfection remained that of the Bodhisattva, that self-f;:;.. tram ~ission of :antric Buddhism to China and Tibet in the eighth and ninth
sacrificing being. who undertook to run hls courae through aeons of exiltence. j · : ';. centur1ea. Also u would aeem to have been inevitable that the earlier tantric
At the tame time the appropriate consn:ration performed by one's teacher in the}' . \ traditions, in .to far as they continued to be used , should be interpreted in
presence of the Buddha-aymbols could have a powttful piycbological effect,: i }: ac;cordancc WJth later theory . Thua we may note an interesting controversy
increasing one'• faith in the goal , one's zeal, one's comprehension and so on, thus);~ / concerning an eaa_,entialattribute of the Yoga Tantras. namely their power to
shortening the time needat to run the coune and win one 's crown . There}~ ? enable o~e to achieve a state of &elf-idenrificatioo with a Npremely divine fonn
appean to be a doee relatiomhip between thae Buddhist consecration, and\~ , 1.: repreaentmg the goal of buddhahood , and the extent to which Action and
thoee of consecration to kingahip, and the connection ia ea1ily found in the early t Petformancc Tantras might achieve a 1imilar effect . 191
Buddhia conception of Sakyamuni Buddha as "universal monarch" (cakrvi~ti . •~.
vortin) and a "pat man " (moluij:>tmqa) poaaaed of the thirty-two major mana
t ..\
and eighty minor marks of perfeetion. One need but quote from a pa••~
l: ::: e. Th, Po-r of Coercion
already translated above , where it ia taid that the teacher introduces into the:.~' <.' ~ll tantras claim the powe~ to coerce divinities , for it is by coercing them into
ma~la for eonsecration "children from the age of three yean to mceen" w~t ~:: an miap or symbol that one u enabled io worship them and make them suitable
are "sons of noble families or deairom of great &0vereignty."While any yo~ ) ~ ~ offeringa, and it i5 by coercing them into Ollellelf that on e is enabled to act with
aspirant toward enligh~nment might be admitted, the idea of royalty woul' ( ·, · their aaumed aamrance (or literally "pride," Sanskrit manoor aho11tlrara ,
seem to eurcile a specw appeal (p. 226) . Y,~
. Ti.bet.an "Ba•,g:,ol ) and thua achleve the objective in view. All tantru of all
The later ex~tts, who explain for ua the nature and limitation, of tbetcJ clautl promi1e both aupramundane success (the pining of buddhahood 100 ner
earlier kinds of comecration within the much later context of fully developed;'.( < or ~ter) aod mundane 1ucce1RS, ~c:h a, gaining proeperity. offspring , a
tan tric theories and practices , are ~n:ainly aware of the differencu betweci{" · { parucular woman. good harveata or ramfall , overcoming adverse inff~ces IUCh
what they now regard as lo'Wff and higher tantras, but the real reason . namel J:S:, {: •• v~ kinda of diaeue·ca~ ing evil 1pirita, curing the effecu of poilon etc . It
that the 1uppoeedlylower tamras belong to an earlier phaae of the Mahayba, ~f · is sometunea suggested that whi~ the tantras, later classified as inferior, cater for
obscured for them, becawe they them.selves are already operating within ~ : d~ more mundane requirements , the euperior ones are concerned with more
later phue , and 10 they interpret according to the later theorin . Thus mKha 5:~;
grub-rje argues quite rightly that it is wrong to introduce a vow of the Ywe: \'.". :·.
Families in Action and Petformance tantra. , quoting cues where this haf,,,j ... i'(.
occurred ., .. He knows that it ia wrong for traditional reason, , but u we ha~ f -;,-.
noted, the fundamental reason is the historical one that the theory of ~ l· {·
faJDilies had not yet been formulated in the cin:lea where theac worb fin1 !,:r~.'\
circulated . He is also aware that the only vows necesaary for taking part in ~ ::C ;)_,
consecrations of Ull! 111>·called
"lower canuu" are th01e of becoming a monk an4t~ ·
of aspiring as a Bodhisattva to budd.hahood, no rantric vow being neceaaary,: ;i3 .,
Fl'om the viewpoint of later theoriesthis waa a mat~r which required f·-·\i
eJu<:i
dation, for thc.e rituals had now been clearly clallcd aa tantra, . 1• On~ agaut{ 1 1/ .
from a hiatorical point of view, the anaweris far easier: when chese rites wett firs~\~. t
petformed within tlM!traditional Mahiyana .tetting, no such thing as a tantI~ :;. . .' \
vow had yet been heard of in thole circles. Thus it comes about that a great cte.I •- , '::.·
of complex. argument that one reads in later exegetical work.aconuponda to tii!f,f· -..·
1• Stt mKhu,gnab-~'• FIINl,,,,.Rlab of Ill• BIMldlii# Tc111tra1, LCNinc . pp. a,.i J,;
It Waym&n
1,s Ibid ., pp. IM-5. 'r_~·-

·i?.:V
256 Ill : 1·ANTR.lC BUDDHISM
truly religious objectives. In fact all tantras are int erested in precjsely the same
objectives, whether supramundane or mundane. It must be rcmembcttd that
from the earliell timea the acquisition of miraculous powers (Sanskrit rddhi,
Tibetan rdzu- 'phrul) was closely auociated with the realization of enlighten·
ment. Sllkyamuni's own enlightenment was in fact defined in terms of the
miraculous kinds of knowledge (vidy,1}that he achieves, namely the "divine eye"
(divya-cak,ur) enabling him to see all beings being reborn with their various
characteristics in all sta tes of existence, as well as the special knowledge of all
his own previous rebirths (see section I.3.a). There are other powers, such as the
"divine ear," which hears all sounds everywhere, from the preaching of other
Buddhas to the conversations of others however distant, the knowledge of the ,;.=j'f
thought• of others, together with a whole variety of magical powers, which came
to be grouped together as a scholastic set of five (or six) "further knowing"
(Samkrit abhijiia, Tibetan mngon •par shu·J,a) of which the miraculous powers
form one quite large group. This includes already many of the so-called ':_t~ .
m,mdane powers claimed on behalf of tantric yogins, e.g. , the power to become :,~i ).
invisible • to pass through solid ob:1" ~-r--nn&ition,to aSlJUfflC ~ <
ects, to Dy in a crouJe-,1
different appearances, sending forth other emanations of oneself, to coerce
others into doing one's will, to bestow material benefits on ot~n etc. l 9l? Thus ,
neither in the supramundane nor in the mundaoc sphere do tantnc masters offer ~~'. i:
much ebe that was not also believed to be with in the reach of a successful Bodhi, }lli' "...
sattva who continued to operate within conventional Mahayana limitations. The :;@1
main difference wu the time fact or, for what took a Bodhisattva aeona of time to ·';f ;::
acquire might be won by a tanuic yogin within the course of a single birth. The ;f; :.
small additiona to aucb mundane achievements introduc ed in the tantras relate Jtk
to increased scope for coercion and the practice of avowedly harmful rites, such
as the desttuction of property and the slaying of enemies . In Action and Perfor· _ ;f
mance Tantras the three main types of mundane actions, namely those of a
pacific kind. those aimmg at worldly benefits, and those of a fierce destructive j ''.
kind , are allocated quite logica11y to the three primary families of the Tad1l•
gata , the Lotus and the Vajra. 1" Thus the Buddhas preside over such rites as }} ~-.
"pacifying " illness and diaeue or the cauacs of untimely death; the gods such a, :) ~.\
preeminently A valokiteivara control rites to increase prosperity in various ways, )jf \
while powerful fier ce divinitiea such as preemin ently Vajrapal)i preaide over the .1ijt \
rites of coercing. destroying and slaying. This helps to explain the ordering of )j \
theae three families in the earlier tantras, to which reference was made above . In ·J'
theory one who has received a consecration in the Vajra Family, thereby
becoming skilled in fierce activities , is not fit to perform beneficent ones •. ,t :;_
whereas one who is proficient in beneficent ones could, if he would , perform ·):{ { .
fierce ones in case of special need. At the highest level one who has received · ;[{J--
consecration in the TathAgata Family should be able to operate effeetively on the ··~ - i.:
two lower spheres of activity. Such a view corresponds with conventienal
m Sec Har Dayal. The &dhiso.tlva Doctrine, pp. 112·6.
m Stt abuve p. 191; alsoJeffrey Hopl.in.1,op. cu.. p. 174 aod mKhas-grub·rjf:, op. dt. pp. 200-L. jJ
uus.e lnitiati,ms and Cmuecralioiu 237
Mahlylna theorict where the Buddhaa remain superior to all other beings .
Bycontrast in Yoga and Supreme Yoga Tantras the Vajra Fam ily comes to the
fore aa reprnented in the Yoga Tantras by Vajraptr}.i/Vajradhara/Vajrasattva
(see 111.2)and in the Supreme Yoga Tantras by the great horrific divinities 1uch
as Hen.aka,Hevajra , Sambara and the rest (III.6.b). Through self-identification
with these divinities all achievemenu of a supramundane and mundane kind are
attainable and in this respect all gradation of family allegian ce disappears. The
Yoga Tantras continue to operate in terms of families and the con5ecration one
r«eive& should fit one's penonaJity , depending upon its inherent tendency to
Wrath, Delusion. Pa111ion,Malignity or Envy. However, in whichever family one
receives consecration , the same achievements become theoretically pouible .
··l akhough certain family apecialities may be noticed. The Vajra Family spcciaJues
·l in slaying and destroying, but it gives abo the powers of rC4tora.tion; the Lotus
<i Family specializes in subduing beings to one's will, as well as in becoming
invisible, assuming various bodily forms and flying in the sky; the Cem Family
1pecializeain the gaining of wealth with special facilities for di11COVering hidden
-tr::: neaaure . '" All such powers are gained through the bestowing of the relevant
ij \r. consecrations . One example from the Vajra Family may suffice:
tJ { Then Vajraplr.u Cllplained the pledge -mau;uµla of subde knowledge according
to the Vajra Family. "Now I shall explain, " he said, "the supreme Dharma -
ma~4-tla, which resembles the Vajra Sphere and ia known u Wrathful Know-
.:, ledge. One &hould deaign the whole m~ala in the manner of the great
( Yajradk4tu) ma~4ala, and in the cencer one should indicate the Buddha
centered on the Know)edge-Vajra. To the (four) sides of this Buddha one
ahould indicate all the (other four) Buddhas. Then approaching with a vajra·
jJ; seep one should place within the set of four circles the Victor of the Threefold
World (Trilolcavijaya)and the othe r dMnitie&, and by their sides the gods of
JJ Vajra-Wrath all aa preacribed ."
Now as for the rite in thismaz,4ala of subtle knowledge of the Vajra Family ,
Yr one should bring in (the neophyte) and say to him : "Today you are con -
aecra~ by the Lord Vajrapar}.i in the Vajra -Wrath of All Tathagatas. Be
fully attentive. Until all realms of existence without exception have been
saved, it is for the sake of winning that fruit which ia the •upreme achievement
in joyful blia of All Tathigatas, that one sJays all beings with Vajra •Wrath as
a sign of their purification , and h_owmuch the more all evil beings ." Then one
should remove his face-scarf and showing him the whole ma~ala, place a
t vajra in his hand and teach him the subtle knowledge of Vajra-Wrath:
Wr
:'.: Stabilizing the subtle vajra as one stays united with Vajra -Huqikara
( = Vajrap~i), toward whorruoever one directs the syllable HO~. the
life of that one is destroyed.
y Stabiliiing the subtle vajra , one sends it fonh in the way preacribed,
and wherever it is thus sent forth, that enemy is de.troyed.
.J\~~
\ Stabilizing the subtle vajra as one stays, united with Vajra-Huqikara ,
1}), ( I~ For tome ~xamples one may refer lO myiniroduction to the sn-s. pp. •s. !it. 5r,. Stt auo
';;_ ltCDOn 111.14.c below.
Jt:t
238 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM )11.13.e Initiation., and Ctm,ncration.s 239

wherever one sends it forth in wrath, one de1troya thole living beings.
Likewisehe can withdraw it and insofar aa the yogin wishes,
he can restore all life without exception . 195
In Supreme Yoga Tanmu all family distinctions are in effect transcended,
and the successful yogin mould be able to practice any rite he pleaaes. The
second chapter o£ the H8W.jraTantra is devoted entirely to such rites, and since )f '.::
this is available in Engliah translation, ninher examples are scarcely neca-
sary. 196 Other references from the G'KhyasamlljaTantra have also been given in a ) "·, :;
previous section of the preaent work. A major interat o£ all tantras ia the gaining :,~ ,
of powers of such a kind and for most practicing Buddhists, whether Tibetans }~ :'_
nowadays or the Indian Buddlmta of the past, mundane achievemmta evoke ···~::
greater interest than those supramundane ones which seem to have little
relevance to their everyday lives. Religious expertl, whether monb or non-
celibate y~. are expec~d to be proficien~ in.~hat a re g1!tie~Uy rdcrred to !I'
the "Four R1tea" (Sanaknt catu~ ka~,. 11betan las b%m), namely tran- .:.W:
quilizing, p~&permg, 1ub~uing and de~royi?g. Grouped under such hea~i~, ··~ ·.
the appropnate ceremonaea are deacnbed 1n the Yoga Tantra D'Uf'ga.tij,an- J1, ,
Jodhana, and although in other tantras tbil fourfold arrangement doa not ;i j .:
emerge so clearly, many commentaries seem to take it for granted, and it ia in ):.~ ::,
this form that they were accepted in Tibetan Buddhist tradition. 191 They were ~ ¾: '.:
presumably arranged as a set of four, because as the Hevajra Tantra informs us,
"everything goet in foura ." 198 While they may be performed by means of mental
concentration (such is the implication of the term "subtle vajra" u used just
above), they are more wually accompanied by the performance of an appropri- ) ~! :·
ate koma ceremony, as described in more or less detail in most tantras. In),-\ .•
• rwma
San.sltnt '-- ( connecte d Wlu1
•.t.. L-
tnc: ver bal root h 1'· mearung ~ ") means .:;
• " to ouer ·i t .,.·.
•.,,!:,'.
simply an oblation made from Vedic tima onward, uaually a• a burnt offering.
The practice of making such an offering to the gods w» taken up by Buddhist.s.'.;j ·.
during the Mahtyrma period, and it waa mentioned as we saw above inji i ..
connection with the consecration ceremony as performed according to the ·
Manju.frtmfiloialpa. It cornea to be closely U10Ciated with rites involving
"mundane" aspirations, the size and shape of the sacrificial hearth and the items ?j ·
which are comumed in the fire depending upon the kind of rite, tranquil or -)~ :
prospering, subduing or destroying, which ii ro be performed. While exegetical
works go into great detail OD the subject of the correct performance of an/ i}i !.
appropriate homa ceremony, the many variant references to be found in th< j,
tantras themselves suggest the exercise of much individual discretion in accord· }~~ ,
ance with certain buic rules, such as sweet-smelling wood and ueefu1products of:iijj -:
a pleasant kind for beneficent rile$ and acrid wood and unpleasant items for:'(. ~'.·'.
harmful ritet. (~~ '
1,a From cheSTrS, c:h. 8, Yamada ',S.nikciced ., pp. UfM , TI, wl. 4. , pp.1'.47-4-4ff.
'" See my edition, wol.1, pp. 50 -5.
m See SDPSTamra, ffl , T . Skorupski, pp. 68fl.
m See H .T ., 1.1.30 and the quocation from Vajragarbha's com111C11cary
in my Yol.I, p. 88n.
Concentrated in thou~bt h~ ignites <hefire with sweet-smelling wood .
and self-composed in VaJra-Wrath he burns up evils by offering i;esame oil
W_iththe very same wood he ignites the one who conaumes the ob1ation ·
( .. the _fir~-god) and by_offerin, grain, prosperity for the howe is assured .
The sage 1gmtes the fire wnh mellifluous wood and offering th ere the young
shoots of millet with clarified buuer, he causes an extension of life.
With the very tame wood he ignites the one who consumes the oblation
-'!; :. and by ~ffe:z-ingthere the young shoots of kuia grass together with oil,
protecuon 1saJways &11ured.
Or again:
First lighci_ngthe fire with bitter wood and self-composed io Vajra-Wrath,
:'f , : by offenng thorny branches (the victim is) truly coerced.
)i ; Lighting the fire with the very same wood the wrathful one can petrify
j~ ;. moving man when he offera red flowen and fruits. a
' . Ligb~ng the fire with the verysame wood the angry yogin can bind with
vaJra·bonds when he offers metal filings .
l.igbting the fire with the self-same wood as he concentrates bia thought
with wrath he causes death that moment as he offers peppercorns. '
Or again:
Lighting the fire with acrid wood, the sage of wrathful mien offera the fruit
.\°i·.
·-ii ; and flowers of th~ tamarind tree for such ii the best way of subduing.
Wel~comp:iaed he hghta the fire with the verysame wood and with wrathful
)i :- mten he offers the "fruit o£desire " (a kind of mango) and 80 gains any
form he pleases.
L~~ti?lf the fire ~th the very same wood,he offers dusters of flowers of the
1nvmble plant and becomes invisible at will
·)~1·, With thought well composed he lights the fire with the self-•ame wood
~nd offe ring there flowers of the "sky-creeper" plant, he u able ton;
mthcsky. 199
/f . Ge?ei;~•!Yit may~ said ~at homa rites represent an importam "additional
~~{
t. pracoce m all dealings wuh higher and lower divinities. There is frequent
refettnce to them in the tantnu because they serve as a support for the gaining of
those powers , whether mundane or supram undane, which the consecration
ii ·, ce~ony bestows, aa i~ were, in a,nticipation. Thus they may be performed by
~e- s~~ of a m~c,tala, m fact the eastern side , as an extra special offering to the
divm~ttea of the m8.?4ala, who have first hCffl "coerced" into it in the manner
descnbed ~bo~. They may be offered to otJier divinitiQ for special purpose,
who have Jikewtae been brought first into the presence of the practitioner by the
&amepowen of coercion. Some of the items mentioned in the above quot ,uion
sugges~ ~ clem~t o! •ympathetic magic in that briars are offered for coercing.
Ji :- metal !ihngs for.b~ndmg foes, a fruit known as kdma (also meaning "desire" in
,).g
~; Sanskri t) for ga1n1ng the power to a85Wlle various forms according to one'a
:(~ 1.
/ff :· 199
From die Sl'TS , eh . 9, V.unada', ed ., pp. 240-l!, omitting the:s~U., 1,·wd, -:1.pp. l!"8,5-2!f.
/t .·
~.
:·.~11..
240 m, TANTRIC BUDDHISM
desire, and a plant named adr.iya (unidentified, but with a name which also ::: t
means "invisible" in Sanskrit) for gaining the power to become invisible. In this :~,.
rapect, a1 throughout tantric teachings, we have the mange mixture of popular :
superstition
depend on theandrite
higher religious
itself.and thusstriving. In anyelement
any apparent case their
of effectiveness
sympathetic does
magicnotia ··,_:~
altogether transcended in Buddhist usage. They att only effective in so far as
the one who perfonns dus rite baa tint achieved a state of sclf·identification with .~
the higher divinity whose conaecration be hu received. As a neophyte he will
have received the appropriate consecration through the administrations of his _,,
religiou1 teacher. & a confirmed practitioner himaelf, and bette r 1tiU one who ,~ ~!
cannot go into retrogression (avaimrtiAa), having received the Master Con-
.ecration (acdrya-abki/dta) in the mai;tc.lalaof the Vajra Sphere in accordance ] ~
with Yoga Tantra theory, he can, as it were, summon his chosen divinity into ~)
himself any time by a proce11 of self-con1ecration. :j
:;r~~",:f.'~;:- ........... (u,j~) - _.. .. the
Yoga Tantras which separate their consecrations from those performed in : ?''
accordance with otherwise similar rituals deacribed in Action and Performance ,,..,
Tantras. Thus only with the Yoga Tantras and consequently with the Supreme
Yoga Tantras do we reach a form of Buddhist practice that may be called Vajra - ·
yana aa distinct in $01lleway from Mahayana. This distinction is clearly shown by i ~
the need to reinterpret the enlightenment of Sakyamuni Buddha as realized
under the sacred pipuJ tree at Bodhgayl (see section 111.1), thua subtly altering
an account which had proved totally adequate for the followers of the early .::~ii
schools, referred to generally now aa Hlnaylna, and of the Mahayana. This
indudc:a the practitioners of the so-called Action and Performance Tantras,
which, as has been shown above, a.re beat undentood aa part of conventional
Mahayana practice. )!~
The fundamental tantra of the Yoga Tantra class, namely the "Symposium of '1
Truth," after the opening praiKs proceeds to describe the process of self. '.:f
conaecration into the newly conceived adamantine 1utt which the Bodhisattva
Siddhanha (the future Sakyamuni Buddha), who is here referred to with the. }~
vuiant name of Sarvlrthuiddhi, need.a to receive in order to attain this further .:~: :
. h tenment (a bk.rsamb"""'
state ofcnl 1g JI.')
. . '!l-.1.
i'I ·
The Lord the Great Thought of Enlightenment known as the Great Bodhi- ·;~ ..
sattva Samantabhadra (All Good) resides in the hearts of All Tathigata. j i: ·.
Then this Buddha-Field (viz., our world) became filled with all the Tatha·
gatas the size-of eesame seeda. They all came t•ther as an usembly and ?ii ·
approached that great being, the Bodhisattva Sarvuthuiddhi,as he sat on the .'t_!
J .
seat of enlightenmen t . Going up to him, they displayed their glorious fonns
(.sambhogda,a) and said: "O son of good family, how will you realize the )~ ¾,
highest enlightenment, you who undergo such privations in your ignorance of )~j, ;
the Truth of AU Tathagatas?" <J~:
i' ~
111.13.f
Then the great being, the Bodhisattva Sarvlnhaaiddhi, thus urged by.all
!4)
the Tathigatas, arose from his state of immobiletDOconcentration and making
k) a aalutation to all the Tathagatas , spoke thus: "O Lord Tathagata1, teach me
1 how I should gain acce11 to 1uch truth." Then all the Tathlgata.s said with one
.:~~:,,
[;_::_·,.··,.
1
.-~:~
~=
-;:~··;:.
~ voice to the Bodhisattva: "Proceed with thu mantra, reciting it as much as you
plea&e, which clarifin and compOIC:Ione's thought and which ia spontaneously
effective: 01',f CnTA~ PR.ATIVEDHA~ KAR.OMI (01!( l penetrate thought)r'
Then the Bodhisattva said to all the Tathagata•: "I see, as it were, a lunar
_ !:,:~-
.-.:,
~;;._··.:.:
disk rnc:aled in my own bean." AU the Tathagatu replied: "That, O son of
good family, is Thought which is naturally radiant (p,abhdsvara),1" 1 As one
works upon it, thus it becomes, just like $tainl (disappearing) on a white
'I garment." Then in order to develop hia knowledge of Thought which is
naturally radiant, they got him to raise the Thought of Enlightenment with
this mantra which is spontaneously effective: 0~ BODH(CITIAM UTPADAYMf(
(o~ I ra.ieethe Thought of Enlightenment)!
Then the Bodhisattva, having raieed the Thought of Enlightenment with
the sanction of All Tathagatas. said: "That appearance of a lunar disk, I .ee
: ,:.i,:_;_~_
. :_._:_1,:
it really as a lunar diak." All the Tathlgatas said: "The heart of All Tathl·
gatu, that Rising of Thought known as Samantabhadra has become manifeat.
Proceed with it wellt Now in order to stabilize that Rising of Thought known
.[j as Samantabhadra of AU Tathlgataa, concentrate on the form of a vajra on
the lunar dw. in your hean, aa you recite this mantra: o~ Tl$THA VAJRA
Jf (o~ Vajra stay)!"
The Bodhiaanva said: "Lord Tathigatas, I ICC a vajra on the lunar dillk."
\i~ AU the Tathigatas said: "Stabimt> this Thought-Vajra of All Tathlgatas,
'J~
i known as Samantabhadra, with this mantra: o~ V"fRATMAKO 'HA¥ (o~ I
am Vajra itaelf)I"
J~ Then the Vajra -elements of the Body, Speech and Mind of AU Tathagatas,
;m~ as many as there are throughout the whole of space, entered that Being-Vajra
;~l with the comecration of All Tathagataa, and that Lord Sarvlnhaaiddhi, the
great Bodhisattva, wu consecrated by All Tathlgatas with the vajra-name
consecration, naming him Vajradhatu (Vajra-Sphere) .
1 Then Vajradhatu, the great Bodhisattva, said to all the TathAgatu: "I see
i· myself, 0 Lord Tathlgatas, as the Body of All Tathtgaw." All the Tath!-
,f ;.• gatas said: "O Great Being, envisage yourself as d1e Vajra of Being , that
Boddha-Fonn t~t comprises alJ excellent manifestations, reciting this
mantra which is naturally succellful: o~ \'ATHA SA'RVAl'ATHAGATAS
TAl'HAHA~ (O~ I am as AU Tathagatas are)!"
·-~~t . As be said this, the great Bodhisattva Vajradhatu, knowing h.imarlf to be a
Tathlgata, made ,alutation to alJ the Tathlgatas and said: ''Empower me,
Lord Tathagatas, and stabilize this state of enlightenment." When he said
;ffi·
~ "Jmmobik' ' tr.n11lates Ti~un mi •g•yo,ba; 1hr S.neli:rlt hlU itsp)u,f'a")a, nontully rrandared
bytheTibetamu "IJlll«·prevading' (m4ha'•llh:,ab-p«). Stt abo p. ,OS Mlow.
Jf . •
1
Uptothi!point the pn:smr passa,geisalaoquo~ by lndrabtnai in his/Nmcsiddhi(B. Bhatta·
charyya, Two llajra:ya,,aWorks, p. 81, U. 18ff. Howevn there he dila1ts a link on dae tenn
fmibh4Swra, mnoing radiant or luminou,. which comes much inio favor in tantric; Buddbitm. The
Ti~tans rffldcr it by 'o«·gsal,litc:Tallym1nelated as ",:lea,- light" but h«e, ;u wa• often the c-, they
•ere coining a new word £ora Samlirit BvddhiM tenn for which tl,q poaeued no equivalent,
; 1-.
242 III: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
:'~,
that, All Tatbigatas entered the Bei?g·V~jra of the Tathlga~a Vajrad_hltu, .J'!/<\·
and at that very moment the Lord Vajradhaw became fully enbghtened 1n the ·. ·
wisdom of the samene5$ of All Tathlgataa: he entered upon the secret pledge of;
the symbol of the wisdom of sameness of All Tathlgatas; he entered upc,n the :.
secret pledge of the symbol of the wisdom of same~ of ~ v_a1ra-gem•.
conaecration of All Tathlgatas; his self-nature was punfied m hi.a under - ,•
standing of the wisdom of the sameness of the Dbarma o~ ~l Tathip~•: he ':
became the ,ource of the wisdom of that spontaneous brilhance which 1s the ·
eamenesa of All Tathqatu; so he was transformed into a Tatbagata, an_·
Arhat, a perfectly enlightened Buddha. , . '.
Then all the Tathagatas emerged on« more from t~at Bem_g-y_aJra, and ,
having been comecrated with the great gcm-conaecrauon of Akaaagarb~ . .
and having manifested the Dhanna-wisdom of Avalokitdvara, and having;
been eatablnhed in the Univeraal Activity of All Tathagatas, they went to the,
summit of Mount Meru where there ia a palace of germ with tiered roof, and :
having reached there they an-powered the Tathlgata Vajradhatu as the /
totality of All Tatbigatu and they placed him on the lion-throne of All,:
Tathlgataa and he faced in every direction. ·:
Then the Tathlgata Aqobhya, the Tathlgata Ra~as~bhav~, the Ta!hl· :
gata Lokeivarari.ja and the Tath~ta Amog~S1ddhi ,. having recen~d .:
t~lvcs empowerment in the totality of All Tathagatu, tn ~~r to expre• :
the universal samenas of the Lord the Tathigata Sakyamuru with regard to:
the sameness of all dircc:tiona, took their places in the four quarters. tot ; items usually amounting to six or seven. The short work by Advayavajra on the
As has been shown above , this set of Five Buddhu i& fundamental to the "
mandala of the Vajra-spbere (~jradh4tuma'.'c;fala) . and now the above quoca'.,:
tio~ '..naka clear that the whole manife5tation is comprised by Sakyamuni
Buddha. who has been consecrated as Vajradh l tu. While he is of the eaacnc~of:
All Tatbagatas , he is also e&SentiallyVajra-Being ( Yajr4Selttva), and thus VaJra~:
plni's Vajra Family. relegated as the lowest of three in Action and Performance.:
ta~nas, has come to pervade all ()(hers as the one e,scntial "family. " Reading on.
in this particular tantra, one notes that Vajrapa~ himsel! emerges as an exptts ,;
sion of Samantabhadra , named above as the Lord Bodh1Sattva of the Though~·;
of Enlightenment. It may be worth noti~ in t~ res~ tha t whe~ all ~ ':;
Tathagatas emerge ontt more from the Va1ra of Being (VaJradhat~ 4!taJ
Siky~-i
muni), they receive the gem-consecration of A~~bha (the pre11d1~gBodht~,
sauva of the Gem Family) , they are proficient 10 the Dhanna-wis~m of._
Avalokiteivara (the pres.iding Bodhisattva of the Dharma/Lotus Fa~1ly) .. and;
they are intent on the universal activity of Viivaltanna ("Univenal Action. . ~.
presidi ng Bodhisattva of the Kanoa or Action Family) . Logicall~ no men~on ~ -
made in thia conte xt of the Vajra Family, because all these emergmg Tathagat :
are already vajra-beings. 111s Thus it may be fairly stated that with the appearan ..
m S1"1"S,Yamada 'sSansluited .. pp. 7-10; Trvcl . 4 . pp. 219·4·2". '.
20, The ps:aiding Bodbisauva of the Vajra Family is In faa Samantabhadn, _whence-~· :·
Vajrapat)i. From Ak.iiagarb~ emnges Vajraga.rbha/~ Vajma~a (Gem Family): ~ A-.al°;,;.
lr.icmara emeQl"I Vajranecra / Vajradhanna (Locus ~amily); fr~ V18Yak~.-maenc'F' VaJrakann_ai:>
Vajram va (Karma Family). For thCR varioui equatJOCUstt my muoducuon to the STfS , PP· 26 8-.~
::
Jll.14.1
of the Yoga Tantras we have an effective Vajrayana. Because of the presence of
this "adamantine elemeot" the consecrations received in the Vajradhatu and
related ma~alas have a different character (whether real or supposed it is not
for an outsider to assen) from the very similar consec-rations bestowed in the
ma~alas of Action and Performance Tantras . In these a pupil progresses to
111asrership in due course, receiving a "master's consecration," but thia remains
within the conventional Mahayana context, and thus is to be distinguished from
the (v-:.ijra-
)acarya-abh~eka (Master Consecration) of the Yoga Tantras .
14. FUR.THER CONSECRATIONS
a. lnterp,etatioos of the Higher ConseCTatiom, Scholastic, Lyrical ,ind Ritual
We have already observed that the whole aeries of consecrations as given in the
fint three classes of tantras (Action, Performance and Yoga) and there regarded
as complete. come to be regarded in tantras of the Supreme Yoga class as
represmting in combination merely the first of a higher set of further con-
sea-ations, aod to thi1 primary set a further three are added, thw malting a
separate set of four. There ar e variations of a comparatively minor kind in the
primary set as formulated by followers of Supreme Yoga tantras, the number of
subject , which was quoted above , lists six such primary conaecrations, namely:
water, crown, vajra, bell ( also referred to there aa "royal"), name and master. 11H
Regarding them all as essentially one comecration , whether known as that of the
jar , or the master or the vidya, he goes on to def'me the three higher consecra-
rions, known as the Secret, the Knowledge of Wisdom and finally the Fourth.
His de1eription of these three further consecrat ions is certainly recondite , and
for this very reason it may serve: as a &uitable introduction to this particular
section. The whole matter ,hould become clearer as we proceed :
The Seettt Consecration is tlu! bestowal of the Thought of Enlightenment,
which is produced simu ltaneously on both sides and it is for the purpose of
making Wisdom (prafoa) a gro und for faith (iradd/aa) and for protecting the
pledge (samaya). One bestows it from tM secret places of Wisdom and
Means(updya) and so it is defined as secret .~
There are two defin itions for Knowledge of Wisdom . Knowledge (arises) by
Wiadom, and Wisdom is the ~ternal knowled~ . The intellect (buddki)
contains (within itself) the (various) aspects of subject and object; (and at tlK
same time) Wisdom is identifed as woman with the nature of the four elffltents
(earth , water, fire and air), the five aggregates of personality, form etc. and
2CHAn admir&bie a.nicl e by h1' KVRl"Df!,"On t1,e Cona,pt or Sahaja in Indian BuddhiM
Tant ric Li~racu re," dHl1 with l'IIOll of the topics c-ed lo this panicular 1ecd on. with which it
may be helpfull y rea.d in conjunction. Thus on his p. 9S theu ~ a diagram showing the realationship
~tween chesix or aeven consecratiom ol the primary 11!1.
· ~ "One besroW$" following the Tibetan ~rsion, which reprnenu Sanskrit d~e; Bhatia •
diuyya ·, edition n:ads dtpoyote, "one call$C$it 10 1hine fotm. " Either u f)<*ible .
244 111:TANTRIC BUDDHISM
the six spheres of sense. It is the knowledge of her (Wisdom's) Thought of .·
Enlightenment, and it is in her that these characteristia have arisen. Such is;
the fint definition. She too is that state of consciousness which is void of the •
dua1 aspects of subject and object. This is the other definition.
According to M>lllethe meaning of the Founh (Consecration) is the final.
objective (.radh,af!'I) involving the seven constituents of enlightenment as
characteru.ed by the Knowledge of Wisdom. Others aay that the Founh
resembles the clear sky of autumn (as deriving from) the Knowledge of
Wisdom. Yet others explain the Fourth as the pure state of self-existence .
(smblu.wa) conveying that abaenee of duality where the Knowledge of Wisdom ,
in its natural state is united with its evolved state as produced from the natural_'. ·'..
state. Other views are not stated through anxiety of writing coo much. 106
We have already met Wisdom (praftla}with the two applicationa to which Adva-:: .-
yavajra here refcn. As the Perfection of Wisdom, it (or she) is the absolute /
whether defined as the Void (sunyatti) according to Madhyamaka teachings, or.as,.
Pure Consciousneas, where there is no duality of subject and object, as taught by:'
the Mind Only 1ehool. At the same rime in accordance with thi5 later tantri(
terminology ahe is the feminine counterpart of Means (upaya), for without
Means, Wisdom remains unattainable. The Means as we have seen is the fomi:
of the practitioner', ch01en divinity with whom he muat identify himself in the:
embrace of Wisdom. Depending upon the corucxt, the absolute, neither mal~~
nor female, may be referred to aa though it were one or another, e.g., as the.-
Perfection of Wisdom, who is certainly fetninine, or as one of the several male=
titles for the ab10lute 1uch as Vajrasattva, Great Vairocana etc. Envisaged frou{
the male aide. Wndom can be seen as representing the evolving universe, antf
thus meiii described above u having the nature of the four elements, of the '
aggregates of personaliry and of the spheres of sense. 0111: may observe
passing that this interpretation of her correiponds with that of the-Jakti in Hindu°
ranuic terminology, for in these Supreme Yoga tantras, a• we have aJready aeeni
Hindu and Buddhist notiom are often intermingled.
Through the union of Wiadom and Means there comes the Thought of.\
F.nlightenment (bodhicitta), "produced simultaneously on both sides," as
defined above, and this is identified ritually with the drop of 11Cmen(bindu)
the tip of the vajra (the male organ) as it rests in the lotus (the female organ). I~:
is with this "drop" taken "from the aecret places of Wisdom and Means" that the:
maaer consecrates bis pupil in the Secret Consecration by placing it on the tip of,
hia tongue, Thu.a comecrated, the pupil may proceed to the next consecration, _;
the Knowledge of Wisdom,IO'Iwhen be knows Wiadom lwnelf by being unitecV
with her. He experiences in her embrace external experience (the external world·:
as defined by the four elements etc. above), which through the ecstatic unioJii.
toe Tranalated frnm A""°'411Qj,4Ja'!'grolto, p. 58, D. Hff. The pc-,n utratt i,, the diNCI':
continuation ol the earliff paaage translated in Ill. 1'.d.
M While keeping to this tnmlatlon for projM·jn4M.bttaWI<!il -- to be the m0511uitable in_;
t~ come:n of thCKcomecrarion&,1 remain aware of other traoslations sometime,; employed for dlll!Se;
clusi..e terma.
)II. )4,a Further Co,uecratums 245
becomes reabsorbed into the natural nondual state of abaolute nonduality, as
defined in Mahtyana philoaophkal concepts. In our above quotation the term
. usedfor "natural state" is tnakrti-rupa as distinct from the evolved stare (vslana-
riJ,fJ<J)
of abaolute being, and this particular terminology belongs rather to non-
Buddhist, viz., Sankhya philosophical theory, but it may fairly be regarded as
now belonging to a common Indian cultural heritage. Perhaps one may point
out at this stage that the same term in Sanskrit, just as in English, may carry
interpretations that appear to be opposi1es, depending upon the viewpoint of the
... '.
115et. Thus what is defined as "~al" in everyday terms may at the same time be
described as "unreal" in abaolute terms when its ttansient and contingent nature
·
: is taken ;nto account. Likewise the term prakrti may refer to the absolute in its
natural quiescent state or it may refer to the natural condition of thinp in the
",:
everyday world.
The Fourth Consecration, a consecration in the sense that it is induced by
one's master, is precisely this transcendent state, which resembles the clear sky of
the Indian autumn in its utter vacuity after the last of the monsoon rainclouds
. bave finally pulled. The relatiomhip between the Third and Fourth Consecra-
tions is expressed in terms of grades of joy, known as Joy, Perfect Joy, the Joy of
Caution and the Natural or Innate Joy. Tha founb joy comes about in the
Fourth Consecration with which it is effectively identical, and the term used for
it-yet one more term for this nonconceprual ab10lute state-·· is sahaja,
'. meaning inborn, natural, innate. sae
The first joy is of this world: the second is of thi$ world; the third joy is of
this world, but the Innate ex.istsnot in these three.
Neither passion nor abaen<:e of pasaion jg found there, nor yet a middle
in· 2111TM meaning of thll word in the p..-N amtnt b .. btt.n well defined by S. B. Dasgupta in
Obscure Rflig{ow Cwlts. pp. ?7£r. ~ uaNlatea it ~rfy as "Innate," as do M. Shahidullah, c.
Tucci and otben including m,-elt'. Mott rettndy Herl>en Cuenthu with hia well known zeal for
-'\ coining new terms bas aigued for a tr&mlation as "co~~e." foU11Wed by Per KvzrM (op. t:tt,
pp. 88-9), who prders "1imultan~usly-arism.. • Both diac rathet- cunibcrsomc circumlocudont .Are
based upon t~ Ti~tan term (l.licm-ag sltye1-po)which is a literal n-ansbllion of 1hr Sanskrit J4h11-jo;
;'. ~en broken mt~ its two pans chm, it means "born ~Iler with,'' hence the a«cpted mcani11g of
at 1abom, natural, innate cic. le can be a fallacy to buc tranelatiom of Buddhist Samkrit leml6 on the
Tibetan cquivalmu, which oftffl had to be invented with pat ingenuity, simply becauH-suitable
tn.m1 did noc aln:.idy cut in their langu•F· Should we abandonthe tmn "abtolate'' in uanalatiom
ol Buddbut worlr.tbecauac the 'libctans rendered Sanlitril pdramim/ta (1111.preme reality) ao do11-
'4m·,,. and invent a DION! literal rendering? Shoold lff 1ffl0Wla! tbe uee ol the term "telatiwe truth"
~·- the Tibl!Can&ckvleed the term ·~·rd.tob (literally: altog,ethtt fabc) for the SanKrit so'flv,fi
(literally: concealment)? Sucb a p~1ng leads to absurdity when.tlM! Indian term ,frAat {literally:
~y) u ~ of a perfeaed. Buddhiat Yint of~ oldtt «:hools, appears In Engli&h trarubtion as
. foe-destroyer' (toeeot. my friend Jeffrey Hopkms), bec.anse the Tibetao• chaoctd m interpret it
1ncorrcc1lyby breaking the Sanskrit in.co two pan& as •Pf<*dly derived from ari-luu (1trit.tt o<
foes). when th.eywere de-wilinga suitab~ tttbnkal tnlllladon . The Tibetan achi-mC'Ot in buildin,r
up an entirely new tOC:abulary for their ttuulat:iona from the Bwidhi¥t Sanelcrit is altogcd,ff
. ·_-., ~r~ble, ~vt wc_acldomfind awcabk English term. for thole aune Sa.n&kri1ona by utranalatlng
d~ar ~dlful ll>Vftl-. In cbe prelCllt Qfe co tranalace swja 11 ~ or tlmultaneoualy-
anacn ~ nU- like ~lung the English word "inborn" and imiltillg on intttpttting it aa in-bom and
tbeo Ullng sum a araunlocvtion •• "born inmiorly." It ii made quite clear in ow- tew that the
"Innate" ii - ''born to~ther with'' anything; it ii tocally r- In lu rcallution.
246 Ill: TANTR.IC BUDDHISM
state. Because of its freedom from all three the Innate is calJed perfect en- ·
lightenment. The esRnce of all things and yet frtt of all things. one may mark ,
it at the beginning of (the Joy of) Cessation, but from those other three joys it
iii free. 20t
And again :
From Joy there is 50me bli16, from Perfect Joy yet more; from the Joy on
Cessation comes a piwionless state, and finally the Joy Innate! · ":
The first comC$by desire for contact, the second by desire for bliss, the third ;
from the passing of pass.ion, and by that the Founh is realized. Perfect Joy·,.
may be called aa~slra, and nirv~a the Joy of Cessation, with plain Joy as a)
middle state. But the Innate is free of all three, for there ia foWld neither ·;
pusion nor absence of pusion, nor yet a middle state. ;'
In the realization of the perfect truth there ii no Wisdom and no Means. By:,
no other is the Innate told and from no one may it be received. It is born of its ~
own accord by merit and by due attendance on one's guru. uo · freedom in interpretation of received teachingi; and in experimenting with
If exe~tical works tend to be reticent on the subject of the Fourth Consecration, :
this is understandably so when treating of a mystical state that transcends all :·
rationaliiing philosophical concepts. Its praises can only be sung by those yogw ::
who have experienced it wing the allusive language of which the tantras are so::
fuD.111 If one holds to the view that this ultimate state, whether achieved by:.'.
tantric meana or by the Bodhi.sattva's practice of the great perfectiom, remaim /
one and the same, then all the categories of the latter must apply to the reaJiza. ·
tion of the Fourth Con,ecration. Thus Advayavajra says that it involves the aeven:
constituents of enlightenment, namely mindfulness, tl.isttmment with regard to - ·'
Buddhist reaching&, heroiam, ~ontentment, serenity, mental concentration and· _:;
equanimity. 112 · satisfactory mutual relationship. Such equations, which arc partly forced in
The Hewj-ra Tantra wlar~ly concerned with thete four comecrations and _:
their interior realization. which we shall consider below, but the references tend :
to be scattered through various chapters, thus obacuring much of the procedure.
However, in the very last chapter they are listed in the highly abbreviated form :
of the words of authorization pronounced by the teacher on each of the four ..
o«asions:
Then the Adamantine One spoke regarding the four consecrations: ..
(I) "O you who are already consubstantiated with the Vajra, take up the:.
mighty vajra and the mighty bell and perform today for youi- pupil the bene· ··
ficeot act of a Vajra-Master." · wisdom. Thus the whole procesa, whatever appean to occur outwardly, take,
(2) "Just as Bodhisanvas are consecrated by Buddhas, so in this Secret /
Consecration you are consecrated by me with the flow of 'Thought' (viz., the ,
zooH.T .. J.1t.l!>, 17-18.
110 lllid., I.Yiii.5!-6.
Ill See abo Per Kvcme. A1'Anth.,/ogyo.f Bwddhist TllfflTiCSo7tfJ,e.g .• nc». S, 4, U , 27, 'tt. 50, :··
For a bdpl\11 discuaoioo of cbe natiare 0£ d\i.$s\lprenx state, a« his anicle, n . 204 above, pp. 124ff, . :
fl t Conttrniag these -n 0001titurn11 of mlighl.f!111n""r (bodh)ltlllp), -. Har Dayal,
Bodlmtittui Do<triM, pp. 149-!>!>.
111.14.b Furthe, Conucrati<MS 247
Thought of Enlightenment, bodhicilto, in its actual and ritualized sense)." .
(5) "O thou great beipg, take, take to yourself this beautiful and delightful
goddess, who be.stows bliss. who batows achievement (siddlai), and having
taken her. pay her full honor."
(4) "Such knowledge is Great Bliss, the Vajra Sphere, immaculate like
,pace, tranquil and ,alvation-giving. You are your own pr~nitor. "tu
such in brief are the four conaecrationa. When one embarka upon a more
detailed description, one becomes immediately aware of what may be ttgarded
as conflicting interpretations in the canonical sources, but what mua fairly be
regarded of differing traditions as foUowed by different masters. Buddhists were
never disposed to accept a <:entral regulating authority for their belief, and
practices. For this very reason the teaching& of Sikyamun.i were from the 1tart
represented by so many diffcRnt schools of thought, developing gradually into
the rich variety of doctrine as deacribed in previous cbapten. Even greater
techniques of yoga waa taken for granted by the followen of the tantras, and one
should thus be surprued at the amount of uniformity that was achieved rather
than penurbed by conflicting interpretations.
b. Scholastie Equations in s,ts of Four
At the same time some apparent problems may be caused to u, modem inter-
pttten by the intereat taken by Indian ieugetes in set patterns and lists, so that
they bring sees of term1 into parallel relationshiP', especially their favorite sco of
four. Thus we are dealing with not only four coD1ecrations and four grades of
joy, but four moments, corresponding with the experiencing of the four grades
of joy, and four mudrci (aymbob), all of which have to be brought into aome
order to produce the desired pattcrna, are often made without reference to what
llttl'DS to occur in the actual consecratiom as described elsewhere. 114 Thus many
i of the interpretations are symbolic of the overall unity that is the final objective
and 10 may not be of great assistance as an explanation of a panicular passa~.
This overall preoccupation with aecs of four is freely stated in the very fmt
chapter of the Hevafra Ttmtf'tl and it needa to be taken into account whenever
these terms occur arranged in similar patterns in the commentaries. The object
of all tantric practice, one may well add of all Buddhlat practice, ia the total
reintegration of scattered personality in the pristine state of self-realizing
m H.T., lt.xii.l-4. Stt below 111.14.cforthefallcoe1to.tofdv:se Vtt-.
tit All ex.ampleof dlie ill providea by 11.iq.ba'a u uanalated
.:ommetttary oo the fo,arcon11ecralioae
l,y nw in H.T., n,I. 1, pp. 151-S and again by h1- Kv•me. an. cli , n. 204. pp. lll2 -S. Al ·he
oblerws, "beyoad doubt chillpaaa~ ram at many qunciona • ic UIIWeff," Thew quntiona -relate
·. co CM manntt in which the various tets of itiema arc correlated, and. rbit particular ~lanation ;,
furdier complicated by ttl&tlag the three higher a,,-c-ratiana with pl1pik wh<Mefacultln are llle'ak,
medium or strong, eo that they might appear ae altematiws. This it ,car~ly intended, and one may
assume that die samr pupir, flcullin are mengibmed a, he proc~. Concm:iing !he correlations
n, · of the mudrain this pamage.see immediately below.
248 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM IJl .14.b 249

place within the practitioner 's personality as expressed by his actual human ? ··
\, aecret knowledge of fourth 4 consecration,
master
body. While the body may be no more real than any other external phenomena )\ wisdom
it provides the yogin with the only available means in Ol'der to attain his goal. Ait!i'' smile gaze embrace union 4 attitudes
other means, mantras, maQcJalas, "symbols" (mudra) of various kind$. as well u 't: Action Performance Yoga Supreme Yoga 4 tantra claases
philosophical teachings aa propounded by different schools, the various kinds of.i;:· karma· (eamaya · (dharma- mahmaudra 4 symbols
mudri mudri) mudra)
tantric: texu etc ., all are subservient to the practice of yoga as perfonned with} .
one '• own body u the final means. Thua u we are told, "everything goes in/~ Later we shall meet with :
foun." and all these sets of four are arranged symbolically within the yogin's)i void extreme void great void universal void 4 voicle
body, corraponding with the four vital nerve-centers (known aa ca,ni o,J ,·· light manifestation perception radiance
"whtth" in Sanskrit), between navel and genitals, at the heart , the throat and) ., oflight ofliglu
relative imagined perfected omniackntt
the head. The symbolic nature of the whole arrangement is well illustrated by,l ·
thought thought thought
the use made of the Sanskrit words niti'l' ma.)'4, which in this particular cont~
tf' ( paratant,a) ( parikalpita) (pa~pa nna)
are left untranslated by Tibetan ttan,lators for rcuons which will be apparent ,{' mind mental states neacience
These are the opening words of all s<itru and tantras, followed by the third word}; ,1 awake dreaming dcq,sleep fourth (tunya}
J111ta'1', and together the three mean "thus by me ('twas) heard ," iodicatint } ~·
Before treating the set of four comecratiom in detail we should give rather
originally tha t the canonica l work.about to be recited was indeed heard from the/~
mouth of the Buddha . Howe~r. Jruta71'- means not only heard, but also lea~t f ; more genen) considerationa to the various sets of four as here luted, dist inguish-
and understood. Hence the four syllables E-VAtif MA-YA eymbolize the whole'. \~· ing those which clearly have a prior claim to be considered as fourfold from
truth of that tantra and by implication of all tantru and the whole Buddhisi i~: thoee that have been reshaped to fit the overall fourfold scheme. We may also
doctrine. Thus the-y too may be incorporated within the yogin's body. Jn ~.;V!J note that while some sets consist of graded items with the fourth item usually tbe
supreme one , other 11etsare composed of four itemJ of equal atandiog. One may
different context where the polari ty of Wisdom and Means, offemale aspect and}~ :
male aspect, of the lower pan of the body and the bead , are under c::onsidera~};"'· well ask if there can be any logical relationship with sets of such different kind.
tion , then EVAM alone can express the final truth of unity and so the three wonu ?i;' Perbap& the first question concerns the Teasons for this preoccupation with
ew111ma,a .fruta11&are interpreted aa "I have understood E (Wisdom) and VA~ )~ ; arranging 10 many items in theae fourfold sets. We may note that many already
(Means) u a unity." Thu.s, speaking of himself, Hevajra can say: "I dwell in tba?! ~ exi,ting patterns cannot be pressed into a fourfold scheme, such as Buddha-
Paradise of Bliss in the bhaga of the Vajra-Maiden in the c:auet of Buddha-gemi }.~. familiee, already recognized aa either three, five and poeaibly sis in number, or
with the form of the letter .E" (see below IIl.15.c) . This comparati~ly 1impl~\{C~ the five components of personality, or again the six senses and their corres·
ponding 11phere1of senae, or the 1ix or ten pi!rfections of a Bodhiaattva, and
example illustrates the deliberately affected nature of such equations and the 'J~"
wayin which they can be differently applied depending upon the context . Since ~):.i{ many other items. The basic Buddhist s«:t of four items is d early the set of Four
we a~ ~ dealing wit~ fourfold sets: it may be useful to reproduce the variouf; r,j
Truths u attributed traditionally to Sakyamuni's early preaching:
1eta bsted m the Heva.;ra Tant~a (l.a .22,50) , adding the other aeu which are:'},/ 0 monks, what are the four noble truths? They are sorrow, the origin of
given later in the same work and a few from elsewhere. •/~ '. sorrow, the cessation of sorrow and the way leading to the cessation of sorrow.
::,J~t
Navel Heart Th.,oat Head \iii[ In this set it is the third item that corresponds with nirvai,a and thus we might
E VA~ MA YA
""""" haveexpected an appropriate rearr-angement to have been made. In any case we
Locan1 Mimaki P11}4aravuinf T i r1 4 goddesses nore that .seu of four are quite common in early Buddhism. For there are four
nirmil}a dbarma saqibboga great blia 4 nerve ccnten recognized magical powen, four stations of mindfulness , four upure abodea"
64-petalled 8-petalled 16-petalled 52-petalled 4 lorus flowers (u114Ta)and four kinds of right effort. More significant for present consideration
variety development consummation blank 4 moments Jj i
:::p ~::~:n::.~::.tion ::!ttesjf~
are perhap1 the four stages toward perfection:
:a:::;ment : entering the stream a once-returner a non-returner an arhat
STota-a.p«nna sa/1,rdagamin anogamm arhat
self mantra divinity knowledge 4real1ues(tattva ).\ ,-i.,·
joy perfect joy joy of cessacion joy innate 4 joys .):f::_; 1t is also interesting to note that the four "schools" or religious orders named are
Srhavira Sarvutivada Sammitfya Mahasataghika4 schools .jt ,:. those under which all Buddhiat monks were traditionally grouped, m and not the
tH C~miag t~ four main groups , Smavira . Sarvistivada. Sunmitiya ,nd Mahasanghlb,
To theK we may add: one may refer to l ·tsmg. A Record of the Budd/ii# Religion, pp. xxiil-v and pp. 1-20. The HeJJGjra
250 Jll: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
four phil06opbical schools aa later formulated, namely, Vaibh~ika. Sautrlnt.ika/ · remains a threefold one. In the tantras thia is conaciously increased to four with
Cittamatra and Madhyamaka. 216 .}
Another well-established fourfold aet is the one baaed on the waking state, the,~;.
dream state, deep sleep and an unnamed fourth, which is described as "incog:·'
nizant internally, incognizant externally, inc:ognizant both waY3, not eve
cognition itself, not cognitive, not noncognitive, unseen, inexpressible, ungr
able, uncharac:terized, inconceivable, unnamable, the aingle essence of sd{
realization where aU diffu.seness is resolved, tranquil, peaceful. free of duality,.·
thus they conllider the Fourth to be. It i1 the Self which should be recognized ." In:i
so far as Buddhist tantras display no inhibitions in even ming the term Sc~'
(citman) for the absolute, this passage might well come from them. Apart fTOlll
the word Self it describes quite adequately the goal of final enlightenment a.·
conceived by more traditionally minded Buddhists. It comes in fact from ~;,
Md~c;iillyo Upani~d, and apart from the appo,;tCJlCSIof the actual wording, the:
use of the term Fourth for die otherwise unnamable final state is significant.iii,,
The tantric yogina have transferred the &ymboliamfrom the act of falling asleep'.
to the sexual act. · The Three Bodies, transformation, glorious and dharma, and the Body of
All these set5 of four so far considered belong to pre-Mahayana conc:eptiont
and in Mahayana doctrinal formulations no special interest seems to be giVffl to·
fourfold panema. Indeed all the other &ets of four lilted appear to be delibera1t·,
taruric Buddhist creations, developed either from MahAyana groupings that·
were not previously fourfold or from parallel Hindu tantric conceptioJU. Thus if:
one asks why Buddhist tantras have a predilection for fourfold arrangements,;
one might answer that they have been based either consciouslyor unconscio1.11Jyi,
on the earlier Buddhist fourfold schemes when the number was atill felt to be"i
especially significant. Alternatively they might have developed from the wish ol
the need to auen an even higher 1tate of perfection than the one already:
formulated in traditional Mabay~ teachings. This could well be so in the case_':
of the Bodies of Buddhahood. I have already referred in eection 11.4.f to the way,
in which the earlier concept of two Buddha-bodies, in effect the human Conn in;
which he appean o.n earth (nirm~kciJG = "transformation body") and the
form in which be exists absolutely (dhaTmakctya), was extended to three or even'.'.
occasiooalty four Buddha-bodies. However, when four are mentioned, two o(
them are different kinds of Glorious Body (sa,ribhogaluiya = "enjo~nt body'');
and the Ohanna-body. also referred to as the Self-Exi11tentBody, remains ·
supreme. In general it is clear that the generally accepted Mahayana conception
Timtm records s..,,.vidi , but the Tibetan vt'nion coafirms that Sammitiya (lvn·gyu bkar-ba) ii·;
inrend~. ·
II& For II dacription of Li- one may refer co ee.he Lhundrup Sopa and jtt&ey Hopkin•, ::
Practiu and Th~? of Tio.tan Btui,lhism, pp. 6MI,
m 01'1t may rc:ftt to ltadbakri$hnan. Tiu Principal Upa~ads. pp. 6~·705, These four srap. ::
waking. dreaming, etc. are noc luted in H.T .. but - Ux.19. Naropa uses lhnn in his com··."
mffltafJ on !he .Kalacakra Tantra (&koddda/lk4, p, 27 lop) in order 10 1hcori2con a Rt of wr,!Cffl:
Joys, produced by combioing lhesf!'four scaga with Body. Speech, Mind and Wisdom (jnano) . Such.
arr the invt'ntcd complexities with whic.h OM_. mthis eac,scrical literature.
)11.14,b Furthei- Cimslcratioru 251
,he so-called Self-Existent ~dy placed above the dharmalcaya. It is also referred
to 86 the \nnate Body (sahaj4·ka:,a) or as the Body of Greu Bfus (mahasulcha·
kdya) with reference to the experience or the Four Joys as realized through the
fourfold conaea'ation. The conception of thil tantric fourth Body seems to be
the special preaerve of Supreme Yoga Tantras, although the way b prepared for
it in Yoga Tantras, which often refer to the gaining of a Vajra-Body without
ho~r diarupting the accepted Mahayana theory of thr~ Buddha, bodies.
As we see from the above table (p. 248) it is .u Buddha-bodies that the four
main nerve centers within the yogin'1body are named. but they are not arranged
in the normally ascending order in that the Dharma-Body is placed below the
Glorioua Body. Some reason for this, of doubtful value it seema, is given in the
Heva.fraTantTa, where the set of Buddha-bodies is significantly still referred to
a• three, although four are in fact named:
The Three Bodies arc said to be inaide the body in the form of"wheels,"
and the perfect knowledge of them .iscaJled the "wheel" of Great Blw.
Great Bliu too are situated at the perineum. the heart, the throat, the head.
The Transformation Body (nwm~a-luiya) is at the place where the birth of
all beings coma about; one is formed (nfrmiyote) there, and so it i8 called
ninna~·4:dya.
Dharma is expressed u thought, so the Dhanna-Body is at the heart.
Sa'T!'tbhoga
is said to be the enjoyment of the six kinds of flavor. and 10 the
Enjoyment-Body is in the throat, while Great Bliu TC1idesin the head. 118
The presence of these four wheels or nerve•centen within the body, identified
experimentally, could be another reason for the invention of so many other
fourfold patterns to fit this fundamental OIM!. However. the allocation is so
arbitrary and displays so many variations that this can scarcely be the case.
Firstly the lowest center ii sometimea placed at the genitals and sometimes at the
naveL According to Hindu tantric theory they are found at both places and the
total number may be as many as &C'Ven:the top of the head, between the eye•
brows, at the throat, the heart, the navel. the root of the penis and the peri·
ncum. When it suits a partkular argument, locating the .Five Buddbas within
the body, or even all six, five or six wheels are specified. m
However, despite such variatiofis, four nerve-cemcrs may be regarded as
normal in Buddhist tantra& of the Supreme Yoga class. They arc de&cribed as
lotus flowers with differing numbers of petals and a Buddha-Goddess is allocated
to each center. One may note that Hindu goddaaes are likewise allocated to the
seven nerve-centers of Hindu tradition together with the differentiated lotus
flowera. ztoThe controlling element in this Buddhist tantri<: arran(ffllent would
m H.T ., U .iv.!>1,5. w., may note at on« a Cf/rtaiJlvap...,.. conce111uigtl,e polltion of tbt' ,
lowstlll!IW•cmte-r: th<!11a...,I.tlw g,,ni1al1 and
here the perinrum,
2 19 ForexamplcueeH.T. voll, fnuodoction, p, 58.
no See fun.her on this S. B, Dasgupta. ,-fn lntrocuctum to 'JamncBvddlti.rm, pp. UH.ff,
252 lll: TANTRJC BUDDHISM
seem to be the Four Buddha-bodies. fixed at four for the rea10os suggested··
earlier, namely the prevalence of fourfold sets in earlier Buddhism and the.
impled claim to a higher 11tateof achievement than could be gained by the more .
conventional Mahay1na practice. A similar sugg~tion is implied by the placing·
of a final (fourth) grade above the three mod.ea of existence postulated by the ·.
followers of the Mind Only school, namely the imagined one ( pan'lcalpita),the ·.'
relative or conditioned one (paratantra) and the perfected one (panni1panna),.':
where thi• third item i• the equivalent of buddhahood (see 11.4.c). As we shal(
see below (lll .l&.d) even the "perfected one" has to be transcended in°
omniscience.
The above discussion may explain why there are four consecrations. and since,
tbe:re are these four, why there should allo be four joyt and four momenta/.
although as we shall see. these do not in practice correspond with the four con<
aec:ration1. It is felt that there ahould alao be four grades of mudra, but when the '.i
flevafra Tantra was compiled the only terms of this kind employed are mudri/
and mahamudra . Later commentators introduce a dharma-mudra and a)
sttma,a-mudrd, but there is so much disagrttment on bow this panicular act o(
four mould be arranged that its arbitrary natlttC is clearly revealed. UI The "four..
requisites" and the "four realities" are consistent aeu arranged to fit the fourfold::;
scheme and require no special comment. The ~four attitudes" go together wit1';
the Four Joys, aa experienced in the ooune of the fourfold consecration. To th\
we may now return.
First a shon pusage on the general theory may be quoted:
The union of all Buddhas consists in the sound EVAl'!f and by consecration the ::
Great Bliss, the sound EVA~ is known. ;;
That beautifully shaped E adorned at its center with VA~ ia the abode of all
delights, the casut of Buddha-gems.
It is there that the Four Joys ari.&edistinguished by the Moimnts and from
knowledge of the Momenta there is bli81ful knowledge in EVA¥.
So yoginsknow that this !VA~ is attainable through Four Moments,
Variety, Development, Consummation (known as "rubbing") and Blank
(for it lacks all characteristics).
It is called Variety, because it involvea different things, the embrace, the
kissand so forth.
Development is different from this for it is the experiencing of blisaful
knowledge.
Consummation is the reflection: "I ha~ enjoyed this bliss."
Blankis quite other than these three, knowing neither pasaion nor absence
of passion.
The fint Joy is in Variety, Perfect Joy in Development, Joy of Cessation in
Conmmmation and Innate Joy in Blank.
These four Joys should be experienced in due otder in accordance with the
fourfold c:onaecration, Master, Secret, Wisdom, Founb.
m A .etoffourm..dni16alreadyn!fffttdtointhrSTI'S; KC below pp. 26S-9.
)11.14.b FuTthn Consecratzims 253
The first is clarified by a Rllile, the Secret by a gaze. the Wisdom Conaecration
by an embrace, and the fourth by union.
This fourfold set. of consecrations is for the purpose of perfecting living
beings. The word coauecration or sprinkling is used beeauee one is sprinkled
and cleansed. 2.n
This shon paasagr contains all the essential elements of the main rite. and we
shall deal with it in more detail below, separating the fourfold aeries of con-
5e1:rations. Commenting on the experiencing of the F<KlrJoys in accordance with
,he fourfold consecration, Ka11harelates them in pain H they appear on the
above table. a.imply because the main text is interpretable in this manner. In
fact, as he makes quite clear in his following description of the comec:rations, the
master (pru) experiences the Four Joys in accordance with the Four Moments in
the Secret Consecration. and after he has initiated his pupil, the pupil in turn
experiences them in the Knowledge of Wildom Consecration. m Thus the
arrangement on the table ia an anificial one. & for "clarification" by a smile, a
gue etc .• the Sanskrit term means literally "purification" (vuuddhi), but in
Buddbiat tantric usage it comes to mean "to representM or "symboliie." The
meanings come together when it ia said for instance that the F1ve Buddhas
"purify" the Five Evils, but it can equaJly well be said that they "purify" the Five
Wisdoms, which they effectively symbolize. Once again we note that this set of
four, whlcb relates cl01ely to the Four J0yt,is artificially ananged to correspond
with the set of four consecrations, which is scarcely possible in practice. Even
more artificially, it ia paired by commentators with the four groupings of tantras
(seep. 235, n. 190).
Taking the series of consecrations in due order, we deal first with the Master
Consecration, otherwise called the Jar or the Vidya (Knowledge) Consecration.
As was noted above this corresponds in its general form to the whole seriet of
contecrations, which malt~ up the main consecration ceremony in Action,
Performance and Yoga Tantras, where the aim is the consubstantiation of the
one consecrated with the choeen divinity. By this means he can not only be
empowered as a powerful divinity, but even as we have seen as Vajrasattva
himaelf (in Yoga Tantras), 10 that be is thereby preordained for buddhahood.
Thus the full rite in the ma1}4ala completes the intended process . In tantras of
the Supreme Yoga cla• aU this is but the first consecration, preparing the
neophyte for the two further ones, the Secret and the Knowledge of Wisdom, the
last reaulting in the spontaMous realization of the Fourth Consecration, which
like the final Buddhist goal according to the whole MaMyana tradition, is
altogether beyond the descripcivc power of words. In descriptions of the set of
four consecrations, commentators UJUallydeal with the first one in great detail,
as can be seen from the shon work of Advayavajra quoted above. Its form clearly
varied in accordance with the tradition into which the neophyte was to be
ru H.T.11.iii.2. •-1!.
iii~ The rdevaot e-act of Kinha's commentary haa been tr11nalatedby both Per &vzme a,ad
ll'lJffi{, aeereferenceainn. 204 .1bo111e.
%54 Ill: T ANTRIC BUDDHISM
re~ived. Thus in the caR of the Hevajra tradition he would be initiated into t
m~4ala of Hevajra and the attendant goddesses, whose meaning would
explained to him by hia teacher, acting the part of Hevajra, effected by means
self•con,ecration. Our tantra contains a short chapter on thus consubstantiati
oneself with one's chosen divinity and th~ general process as described by ~
notable Tibetan ,cholars is already available in English translation. u 4
c. The Higher Consec'lalioru AccMding to the Tradition of Hevtljra
As for a description of the whole consecration ceremony we can do no bettel
than follow that given in a shon work entitled "The Rite of Conaecration" (A bhi;;
~kavidhi) written by one of the scholarly tantric yogins, named as Prajiiairi.~i
Having no knowled~ concerning any pouible surviving Sanskrit version, l arn
translating it from the Tibetan version as available in the Tibetan Canon. tK hi
its elaboration of the Rt of consecrations leading to the Master Consecration
helps to clarify the short work by Advayavajra already quoted above. It setvei
too as a useful commentary on the Hewjra Tantra II.xii likewise quoted above;'
The means of comecration ue fWOfold, external and internal; externally'
there are eleven and they will be listed. The pupil should ask like this: ·:
Justa1 Vajruattva has consecrued former conquerors, ,:.,
Do thou, well qualified, feel love for me and bestow the Vidyl consecrations{·
Then the master collects water from the Jar of Victory and the other jani
pouring it into a scoop made ofsheJl. He directs his thought toward Aqobhya,·
worships and praises him and then envisages him dissolved in light. Then from'..
the three places (fotthead, throat and hean) of Hevajra he envisage, mani~::
fe.stations coming from lightrays and filling the sky, and the (eight) goddmc1r
thus manifest hold a jewelled jar and they consecrate the pupil on the top of'!
the head with a stream of bodhicitta. Thus he envisages it, as he takes the;
water in the acoop and bestows the Water Consecration, reciting the mantra:'.
o~ Vajra,Jar consecrate HUltflHe envisages A.lqobhya on the pupil's head. ·',;_
Then with water from the general-purpoee jar he sprinkles the crown made'.
of gold or other material. and he meditates upon it as void. This void becomcsi.
the seed-syllable TKA¥, yellow in color, and this turns into Ratnasambhava
with three faces and six arm,, and from him the crown ~gea. So he.
!N s« mKhu-gruh-rj<-', Fvn@mfftt~ of the Bvddhi.rt TamrtJS,ed. LasiAg alld Wayman,,
pp. 1&9ff.. and Tsong·kha·pa uinterpi'("ll:d b1JeffreyHoptj11&,Yoga ofTilm, pp. l0Sff .
~15 It is difficolt to auggnt a plausible ~nonal inden1ification 10<'a ~lig\ou, namr quit~ as ste:rP.o-·
typed .. thil.
2llll T.T., vol. 67, pp. 19-Z-.S 1026-2-2, the passage uaNlated being from p. H·S·7 onward. Un:
aatisfa<:te)(y aod illrgibk 'lf<>Mhave been checked 1111ainS& the Nanhang Yfflioo. Tenjur . rGJt,4.
vol.22 (.:4), fo. 49a. II. 6ff. A ,imi.lar work entitled llnGj,4S6'4praJn.,a ("Pmc:cdurc0£ConKcralM,lll:
in Hcvajra") hu been edited in the Sanakric original with • French translation by Loul• Finoc iJi;
"Ma11111Cri111anKriu duodlaana ret!Wffl ffl Chine," Joum4l ,foatiqtu (19!14). pp. 1-85. Thiucllt'.:
has many orniuioiM and in the abemee of a Tibetan rransl•tion in u.efulnr• is limited to dir.'·
compllrillOm that it affonls with tlw one MY1!.elected.
UJ.14.c Further Consecrations 255
bestows the Crown Consecration ttciting the mantra: or,t I bestow the Cr-own
Consecration! He envisages Ratnuambhava emerging from behind the right
ear of the pupil.
Then he sprinkles the vajra with water of general purpose and meditate$
upon it u void. From this there emerges the seed-syllable J.Rlft{, red in color,
and this turns into Amitibha with three faces and ,ix arm1, and from him the
vajra reemergea. Thus envisaging it, he saysthis verse:
Conaecration with the vajra, the Vajra Comecration of aU Buddhas,
Today you receive this consecration, so take this vajra for the purpose of
the achievemenu of all Buddhas!
So saying he touches the pupil with it three times at the hean and then gives it
into his right hand, thus consecrating him u he pronounces this mantra:
0¥ I bestow the Vajra C01llleCrationl He envilages Amittbha emerging from
it: the back of the pupil'& neck.
Then he sprinklCllthe bell with water of general purpose and meditates
upon it as void. From this there emerge, the seed-syllable KHA?!',green in
color, and this turns into Amoghasiddhi with three faces and six arms. Thw
envisaging things, he recites this verse:
The nondual reality of Wisdom and Means pouessing the nature of the
Dharma-Sphere,
Taite it with your left hand, embracing it, uniting with it,
Such is the reality of the Vajra-Holdcrl
So 1aying, he giva the bell into the pupil's left hand, thua conaecrating him as
he pronounces this mantra: m:4 I con&ecrate you with Vajra Sovereignty, thou
forem05t one! He envilages Amoghaaiddhi emerging from behind the pupil'•
leftear.m
Then he sprinkles both the vajra and the bell with water of general purpose
and meditates upon them as void. There emerga then the &ee'd-syt)able HU¥,
white in color, and this turns into Vairocana with tbrtt faces and six. arms. He
envisages the vajra and bell as emerging from Vairocana and he holds them
on the pupil's head as he intones this mantra: O'rf I consecrate you with this
glorioua name! So saying. he gives him the name of the family-divinity where
the Rower had fallen. us He envisages V airocana emerging from the copof the
pupil's head.
Then he sprinkle, the vajra with water of general purpose and meditatea
upon it as void. Thence there emerges the attd·syllable HOr,t. dark blue in
color. He envisages this as transformed into a blazing vajra. Taking the vajra
in his hand, the master recites this vene:
.:·
This (vajra) pertains to all Buddbas and iueposes in the hand of Vajruattva.
:· You mU.stalwaysranain firmly holding to the vow ofVajrapl~I
21:i TM Tibetan text apecifaea1hr right ear. perhapa a copyilt"• error.
zza The flower has already ~ thl'OWl'Iaa pan of the ~ rite of the ~la; "Tbrn from
the "'"th aroond the Karf' whteh c:-n the pupil's e,a. he talu!:sa ~rand place. ii in the pupirs
hand.Saying 'R.ccei\oe,0 Vajra, ho!' he throw, it imo the ma\14ala. Then the maaer rakes it up and
fbing it oo the pupil's head, saying'Talre it, 0 mighty one!' eic. (pp. H-2-7ff.}.
':"
2&6 JU: TANTRJC BUDDHlSM UJ, 14.c Further ConsecrotiottJ 257

Then the pupil should hold the vajra at its tip as the master intones thia .
mantra : Otif Abide in the vajra-pledge (samaya) , which is the success of All :
Tathigatu. It is I who bold you to it . SVAHAHI HI H1 HJ HU~! Then giving
the vajra into his hand, be •ays : "That Being without beginning or end, •
Vajrasattva , great rejoicer, Samantabhadra (All Good), Universal Self, Vajf<l.
garbha (Vajra -Embryo) ,219 Lord oflordll"
Then be sprinJtles the bell with water of general purpose and meditates :·
upon it as void. Thence there emerges the seed-syllable All, w.hich turns again .
into the bell. Giving it into the pupil', left hand, he recite• this veree:
Thi$ is the supreme reality, wisdom in the form of illusion ,
You ahould always cleave to it , this primeval enlightenment cleaved to
by conquerors.
It is the knowledge of the supreme vajra , indivisible in form like space .u o
So saying, he gives it into the pupil 's left hand.
Then holding the vajra at his heart and resting the bell agaill$t hi$ $ide, he,
1hould meditate in all cl a rity on Vajraaattva (Pl. J6) . Then he makes this ··
request: "Granting me the consecration of the irreversible whttl, gran t me the
substance of the gods of the maoc;lala and the action of a guru , that 1 may
always operate as a gurur· Then the master explains to him the substance of·•
the ma\\4ala, the sub1tance of its divinities and the action of a master (guru) . .
Having undemood aU this, the pupil envisages himself as not paaing beyond :
the phenomenal world (aa~aara) . So thia is the irrevff8ible comecntion. 251 •..
Then placing the whttl in the pupiJ's hand, the master recites this verse: ·
Tum the Wheel of the Doctrine in whichever way suits your converts,
Thus benefiting living-beings throughout all the threefo ld worJdf
Thua giving into the pupil's hands a vajra , a gem, a l0tut flower and a croaaed .:,
vajra, he recites the above verse. Such is the Consecration of Authorization. ,,
Then with his pupil placed before him, he should envisage a glistening · ;
drop, cleamcd of impurity by the movement of breath, entering the pupil's ·;;
right n01tril and emerging again by the left one. Envisaging it before him, be :.
ma.kea the prophetic pronouncement. He conceives of himself as Sakyamuni, .
holding the edge of his religious garb with his left hand at the level of the heart :;
and with his right ha nd making the all-sacrificing gesture, 1st as he pronounces ··•
these verses: · Then clothes and food and drink of different kinds should be placed before
I prophesy concerning you as the Tathlgata Vajraaattva. "-'
1ft In hll ed . or the Hu,ajraululjWaltri:,fl. L. Finot rnd 1111jl'll{I/I ) Gamf!&pol~ po,il;,.for what '
mut be l'•jroga•bha!J.ptuipo,i', (op. iit ., pp. U and •t ). Onoemay note that in hlstest lhla whole :·
wene is wrongly applied to the bell lnstc-.adof to the vajra. For the~ relationship between Vajn·
sattva alw Vajrapa~. Samantabhadra and Vajraprbba, -STTS . Facsimile LI. , p. 21.
t:S0Thisvene iu variantofdieonein L. F"moc'itcst . op. cit. , p. !6 . wberei1111eadofHiothcfonn '.
of illusion'' there is a phrase meaning usaid to p,occed from eouncl," thu, clarifying 1he rdacioa,hip ·
becwcenwildom and the lly!Ubol of the bell.
UI With thla account of the uiTreftnible <'.cmaecntion" o~ 111aycontra:1t L . Pinot 's rath« dif•
l'eTentversion, op. tit., pp. t!lfJ., noting that he h .. uiisread C1t11Ut111ftib (il"rnenible)for 4uzimr.1,li,lo
(homogeneo111). Ho-wer tlm dou not affttt hit translatioo of die following pusage.
r.'12 "AU-sacrificing pore" : Tib. nu:hod·lb}in (akr. 'YdJ4fo/tCI: see M•hiw;utpotti 2847) .
tn The opening line oldie prophay occun in L: Fiuoc'a tac , op. cil ., p. 27, I. 1 and p. tl ·.
Draw forth thOIM!who have fallen into unhappy rebirths
thus effecting the salvation of living beings.
You shall be a perfect Tathagata: you shall be the Sage of the threefold
world.
With one voice the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas , the noble ones, propheay
perfect enlightenment for you, 0 worthy one.
The fruit of the Great Symbol you shall attain .
Receive this spoken word!
Such is the Consecration of the Prophetic Announcemen t .
Next one gives the Consecration of Encouragement:
As disciples who enter the ma~la are cleansed of defilements at the
1igbt ofit ,
So today there i1 no doubt that you are reborn in the family of the Buddhu.
By entering this secret fflal}(Jala whereall ddi~mcnt is gone.
Hereafter there is no death and rebirth in this Way (,ana) of Great Blia .
Exiatence is the Perfect Achinement, where both existence and nirvana
are rejected, for you have attained that nirv• of no basis at all. ·
Such ii the Conaecrarion of Encouragement. "O thou who art already con -
substantiated with the Vajra, talte up the great vajra and the great bell, and
perform today for your pupil the benefacent act of a Vajra-Muter ," it is '°
aaid in the H•w.fra Tant1'a (see above pp . 246 , 7).
Afterwards be endows him with the pledge (somaya) :
This vow of the achievement-pledge (siddlai·MJma:,a)must always be
observed by you.
You must never let go the Vajra, the Bell, the Symbol, the Thought of
Enlightenment.
Have feelings of love toward thoee who would hann you and treat with
respect your Vajra·bretbren .
Do not deapile simple believers and do not speak ill of your teacher.
Do not practice austerities and (self-inflicted) suffering, rejecting your
own body .
Take bappine11 •• happina1 comea, for here is a future Buddha. zu
Thus is he proclaimed and this is the pledge of the external conaec:ratiom.
the pupil. The clothes should be blessed to represent divine garments, us and
the food and drink bleseed as ambrolia . Desiring good fortune for hia pupil,
the guru ahould intone a hymn of bleuing. Such arc the external con·
secrations.
As for the internal conaecrations , there are three of them, Secret, Knowledge
(translation) followed by the words 61,w bltuU41t.rwr ( "'· camh, mid -atffl<lSpbr.reand hP.avcn} b u,
the teat is broken at this ~ry point . Howeffr , their p1'elellCehere confinna that t~ relate to the
prophetic na-N of meBodhisatt va'• activity. See abow!, pp. i 80· 1 whcr~ Advayavajr a includa
tltem in hil brief account.
Zk For thisYCTsuce L. Finot, t>p.cit., p. 27. 11. !1-4.
. t» The divine garments are 'l)Ceificd u paiicilJilw.etc .• rhe Sanskm mm being traOlliterale'd and
nocttanalared in Tibeta11.
258 JII : TANTRlC BUDDHISM
of Wisdom and the Fourth.
On the northern side of the main rna~la one prcparee a ma~ala, four-
cornered and one fathom across, sprinkling it and dotting it with blood . In
each of the four comers one sets an arrow covering it with cloth . On it one
spreads a white blanket or a white cotton sheet, scauering flowers inside and
outside (the circle). Then the pupil makes hi, ttquest :
Aa great honor is bestowed upon Buddhu by the Vajra of Enlightenment,
0 You, Celestial Vajra, bestow it today on me for thesakeofSalvation .216
Great Hero, Vajra of Enlightenment , grant me the Secret Consecration.
Grant me the elixir of wildom, grant me the emis&ionof the vajral
Then one places in t!K centcr of the maq.Qala the Wisdom-maiden, sixteen .
years old, who bas all the marks of perfection, who has been bathed with :
water containing aandalwood extract, uffron and camphor, in immaculate ·
gannenis and adorned with all kinds of jewelry. She is conaec:rated as :
Nairatmya (the feminine partner of Hcvajra) . Her eyes and other organa of ,..
sense are comecrated as tr,yavajra and the others, 1' 1 her body. speech and .
mind are consecrated as Khcc:ari and the otben ,•• her five limbs arc con· :
eecrated to the F'JVCFamilies, the Secret of Space is consecrated . Then i
envisaging the Family-Head ( = Aktobhya)as resting on hia crown, the muter )
honon her with worship, external , internal and secret, praising her with ;
acclamationa, and thus he should unite in her embrace . Then he should recite i
the anurdga ( enamoring) mantra. and as to0n as there is excitation he intona .•
the refrain ofHOl\t: as bliss descends, he recites puja(worship) mantra. Then :
with an elephant tusk he coll«u the bodlu'citta from her pudenda and :.
pouring it into a ahcU-receptacle, with a gesture of the ring -finge r and the :
thumb, he drops it into the pupil 's mouth . The pupil &a}'$: "0 Blial " and :.
drinb it without hesitation .
just as Bodhisattvas are consecrated by Buddhas, so in this Secret
Cons«ration you are consecrated by me with the flow of "Thought ,"
as is taught in the Hevajra Tantra (see above , pp. 246-7). Such is the Secret ·,
Conaecration . ··
Then on the southern side of the main maJ;l4ala one prepares a ma~ala for·/
the Consecration of the Knowledge of Wisdom, four-cornered and one fathom ?
acrou, anointing it with sandalwood and other perfumes. On it one places a >
white blanket or a white sheet, ecattcring flowers inside and out~. Con· ·'
sccrating the Wisdom-maiden, the worship and so on are as before. The pupil /
make s his request in this way:
You who abide in blissful wisdom, all hail to you O lord,
POSICSSing the nature of ali and lr.tili, rejoicing ocean of blia , all ham:n
iso Foi thia vene 1tt L. Finot , 01>, cie ., p. SO,ll. 7-8, aod the Culi:,,e.scam<ifa TalSITG in meC'Xlrac, .:.
quoted ~low(IJl .14.1). • Concerning thl!!three knowlcdces
t:S7 Thee an! tbe ~deae# sy111bolizing th,, y,.,., l!.ttl1, rr1y,i~ing "navy ." See the Hft/OjN Tllfttnt, "
vol. J, p. 129 for dlagram, and the lt'.Xl, IJ.IY.16·19 ofrny edition. .·!
tl8 These three are Kbecad (speech). Nairaimyi (mind ) and Bhucari (body). See the Hevaj,4 :
Trm#a, vol. I, pp. 123-9. "Secret of Space" (na.Ua'·gsang) = pudenda .
ist Afi( = a etc .. viz.. the vowelsof the Sanlkrit alpba~t); lltili( = Ira e<c., vu., the comon.anll),
repnenring Wiadam and Mam; tee H.T. l.i.21 .
Ul.14.C FurllaeTConset·rations 259
All hail to you who diipOrt younelf between Perfection and CeuationJ 21G
Grant me, 0 excellent lord, the Wisdom -Knowl~eConaecration . ·
Then the master give, the right hand of the Wisdom -maiden into the left
hand of his pupil, addressing him thus:
You must take her ; the Buddhaa declare her auita ble in excellence, 1• 1
Experience the holy bliss by the stages of the three knowledges. m
For this i$ the place of the psychic nerve on the left -hand side of the
precious veael of buddhahood.
This is the Sky-goers' Mouth ( kha-ga·mu-lth4).
This is the Q.ueen of the Vaj ra·Sphere .
By no other mean, but this is enlightenment ever obtained.
Do not fail in cohabitation now and at all times.
Then the Wisdom-maiden apeab:
Boyl Can you eat my faeces and urine, blood and semen and human fleth?
Such is the vow with women. Can you suck the lotus of my pudenda?
Speak , boy, how is it?
He replies :
0 goddessl How should I not? I can eat blood and semen and all .
I will always penorm tbil vow with women, and your pudenda too I
shall suck .
Then she says:
My open lotus is the rct0rt of all bliss, hurrah!
You who take poslellSionof here, use the lotus as should bcl
Then he kiaes the lotus and unites in her embr ace. Aa the botlhi citta,
descends , he should hold it as instructed, and the knowledge that he experi-
ences is the Consecration of the Knowledge of Wisdom . Also quoting from the
Hevajra Tantra: "O thou great being, take, take to younelf thil beautiful and
delightful goddess , who bestows bliss, who gives the resort , and having taken
her, pay her full honor ." 141
Then on the western side of the main mal)!Jala one should prepare the
m&J'_l«Jala for the Fourth Consecration one fathom across, sprinkling it with
sandalwood scent and so on and with bodhicitta . On it one places a white
blanket and so on and then the Wiadom-maidcn, who is con1ecrated, adorned
and honored just as before. Then the pupil makes his request in this manner:
!40 Viz., in the Joylrmare bee- Perfect Joyand the JoJof Cc.atioo; how this comes aboot i1
e.plaincd in eecdon JII . 14.d .
UI I haw, IJ'amlated this line :u it occ:un in r.he Tibetan venion. but we probably bate hen a
variant, aeemingly inferior. of thl!!text as lt occun in the CMT , C. S. ~ ·sedition , p. U , I. .!8,
trallllaaon 011 p. 56. 11. 6 ·8. Other similarities with our preten1 ~xt may bi!! noted on this
pa~.
242
, - the emact from the Poii,;aA.ramotra!lllated in 111CWon
lll.l& .d. They correspond to the aluft modes of "1bougtn" ac:cordina 10 the Mind Only Khool ,
capped by qornnilcienc.c:" a 1hi, founh and lalll stage .
145 For this Yl!!ne 11tt ab<M, p. 247. One may J>Oletha t the word for "adiiewmenr " (siddhi) ~
~placed by '"tftOn" (11/lana). This ttrtainly goes back to some Sanskrit original . prcci ,e ly the o~
\llled by the TiMtan translators.~ the H.T . vol. 11, p. 100 and K.i~a ·s commentary on p. 1!>9 ,
~ be explaios the " mort" as the re.on of bodkiciua.
260 IIl: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
Salutation to you, the inward ,elf of the aensible world.
Salutation to you, inwardly gentle to ~nsible things
and inwardly released from the sen&ibleworld ,
inward bestower of sensib le things, salutation to you!
0 excellent lord, grant to me, the excellent Fourth Consecration.
Then the master speab thu.:
You must slay living beings . Y 011 must speak lying words.
You must take what is not given. You must frequent others' wives.
If you do these things, no evil is done; great merit is yours.
If these things you can do , I will give the Fourth Consecration.
The pupil replies:
Great protector, by your gracious favor, I can . _:;;t
Then he unites in the embrace, performs coition , and as the great bliss \ j
descends to the palace of knowledge, be rcvenes it upward to the level of non- !'ii
cognition, holding it there. This experiencing of noncognitive knowledge is\·
the Fourth in tenna of its (psychophyaica1) 1upport . The Fourth in terms of no }":
support is to be known from one 's master's mouth. ·· ·.
Such knowledge is ~ry subtle; it is the Vajra-sphere immaculate
like space , uanquil and salvation-giving. You aff. your own progenitor.
So it is said in the Hnojra Tamm. Such are the meam of consecration. . -~1
In the following chapter the actual consecrations are deaaibcd in some brevity:
A distinctive feature of this accou nt is the deliberate eeparation of the Fourth .'.:!
Consecration from the preceding one, each taking place at one of the four sides _ ;j,
of the main mandala , the Maater Consecration to the East, the Secret to the .7,
North , the Knm:.,kdge of Wisdom to the South and the Fourth to the West, /I.,.:·
There may be something artificial in this arrangement in accordance with the )i'i&' · The taste of universal sameness ia thereby brought witbin the pupil's range.
above discu11ed preoccupation with seu of four. El&ewhere it is clearly stated X j:
that the-Fourth state arises spontaneously from the Third Consecration and thus -/I
as a consecration rite they are inseparable. It may be noted that the above ff
description of the Fourth, despite a slightly changed terminology, adds nothing J~ t
to what was aaid of the Knowledge of Wisdom. '.11t :;·
As seems to be usual in such exegetical works the three final consecrations are /J; ;,,'
treated in a rather less explicit manner than the whole set that makes up the first ,;(fi ,..·
one, However, they are easily supplemented by extra cts from the Hevafra Tantra \; , (.
itself, and here it is noteworthy that the whole performance ia not described in a i(f: Y.
coherently cons«utive manner. For these three the fem inine panner, known as/ ~,.-.:':_
the mudra (symbol) ia required , assum ing as we are for the present that the rite is ·:;il,:·
actually performed. The yogin will already have received initiation into J;;
Hevajra's mal14ala and so will be empowered to medicate upon Hevajra, absorb, \~~
ing him as it were into him1elf by the process of "self-consecration ." Thus /.f~
\ and yet free of dual ity, the Lord whose nature is both being and non -being.
prepared he looks for a suitable girl between the age of twelve and twenty, who )ii
may be a relative or not or a girl of any class. ,;~i
1 (Thia is the Fourth Consecration.)
Keepingcontinually to his meditative practice, having achieved the power of '_:
_;
_~_ _1
_~.r.:_·
_;
concentration and altogether self-collected, he should practice for ,
{f
111.1-1.c 1-'urtherCo,isuTotion.s 261
one month in .ecrct while he still lacks a mudra .
This reciter of mantras receives an order: he is ordered by yoginl:s:
"Taking such and such a mi,dra, 0 Vajra -Holder , ~rve the cause of beings!"
Taking this girl with her wide-open anna, endowed with youth and bei1uty,
and who has come of age, be should prepare her with the Thought of
Enlighrenment ( = according to Kiu_\ha, taking the threefold Buddhi&t
··refuge" etc.) .
Beginning with the ten rules of virtuous conduct, he should expound to her
the Dharm a , how the mind is fixed on the divine form , concerning the
pledges (samaya, namely those of the ma " qala) and in one-pointedness
of mind.
Within one mouth she will be fit, of that there is no doubt .
So there is the girJ freed of all falac ideas and received a, though she were a
boon.
Else he may produce a mudrd by conjuring her fonh by his own power from
among the god,. the titans or men , or from local divinities{)'ak,llll)or
celestial attendants ( kin'14ra ).
Then taking her one should perform the practice for the realization of one'$
own composur e, for this practice which is alarming in appearance is not
taught for the sake of enjoyment, but with intentness on one's own thought,
whether the mind issteady or waving . {H.T . II.ii.16-22)
The sixteen year-old Wisdom ( prajna) he clasps within his arms and from the
union ofvajra and bell we understand the MasterConaecrarion.
She is fair-featured and wide-eyed and endow ed with youth and beauty.
With thumbs and fourth finger he leu(the drop) fall into the pupil's mouth .
(This is the Se<:retComccrarion .)
Theo having honored and worshipped the Wisdom, the master should consign
her to the pupil Sa}-ing:" O great one, take thou this mudrd who wiU bring
you blis&,"and knowing his pupil to be fully worthy and free of envy and
anger, he further commands him: "Unite, O Vajra •Holderl"
(This is the Consecration of the Knowledge of Wisdom .)
When the pupil has achieved the stat e of Perfect joy, that moment which is
free from all notions of diversity , th e master should say:
"O great one, this great bliss must be held to until enlightenment is won .
0 Vajra-Holder, aerve the cau.e ofliving-beingsl"
So speaks the vajra-master as he sees his pupil overwhelmed in compassion.
"This ia the great knowledge sub6isting in all bodily form, dual in appe-.trance
He abides pervading all things, moving and motion!~. and he appears in
illusive forms ."
(H.T. IJ.iii.13-17, 22-5)
262 Ill: TAN'I1UC BUDDHISM
The intei:vening verses (18 -21) describe the pupil', part and how he begs for
consecrauon: · ·
.. , how he pronounces words of praise and worship, when he beholds his)~
master with the mudra: · thirdly with the stole, fourthly with the vajra and bell,
O Lord of great tranquility, singly intent on this vajra•yoga,
Thou perfector of the mudra, now manifest in the indiviaibk vajra-yoga,
As you now do for yourself, may you also do for me. ..
Sunk as I am in the thick mud of sa~slra, save me who am helpless. ..
Then with pleasing food and drink, w_ithliquor and meat of ~ quali~, -~~--
with incense, oblatiom and garland&, with bells and bannen and louons, with ..'k,'.
all these he should honor hia lord. ,,,
d. Consecrationas a Psyckopk,sical process )~
These later conaecrations involving the union of the teacher with the female.:}~.'
partner, his consecrating of his pupil with the drop of semen that he exudes in C:· \!,
this union, and then presiding over hia pupil's union with the same partner, are;:=~~ :,.,.
manifestly of an entirely different kind from the earlier set of consecrations ai)J~
described in section 15 above. Since they are now referred to aa a l!Ct of four, .,(~.
there seems to have developed a separate tradition according to which the ~rm\~
MascerConsecration, which should include all aix or ,even earlier comeaauom, :}ff
Comes to be applied to the entirely ,.....arate acts of the teacher's union with the }l;,
--r ·1 b ··~•
mudni and the formal introduction of her, which he mak;es to the pups Y\if
allowing him to touch her breut. referred to in this particular context as thei J ::
"jar," thua justifying the alternative name of tnis first consecrati~ as _the Jar},j
Consecration. Such at least is the tradition reported by Ntropa m bit com- \I
mentary on the KaJacakra TantTa. 214 Despite other complications of interpre-
tation which it will inevitably involve, I quote from a passage in his work tbat;;f;f~
liits all the consecrations and clearly distinguishes the overall set of eleven{i 1,
( according to his tradition} from the special set of four . It will be noticed that the·.;~(
Four Joys are here brought into parallel relationship with the four ~onsecratio":5•·)W:,
although during the actual rite, both masccr and pupil must experience them J.D: :;[:,;
turn. The extract may aJso be of interest in that an attempt is made to relate tht/lt
four consecratiolll with the gradual movement of the Thought of Enlightenment_ ;~,
(bodhicitta, whether conceived in its absolute or ttlative form 146 ) from the topof( ~ ~-
the head to the orifice of the penis, where it must remain stationary at the final_·i t
moment of the Innate Joy. The description is all the more curiou• in that more: {;,
nerve -centera, consisting of variously petalled lol\1sa, are introduced than might:
seem to be strictly logical, namely the basic four which as noted above are typical.J ;,
of m06t Buddhist tantras, but not of the Kalacalm.1. ·;:~Et
- s« M. £. Cuelli', ed.. orS•llodileS.{iJl11,p. Z2. D. 2211. and Per Kvaeme, ''TM Coocepc
Sahaja " p 96
t~ ~ ~ .; , II. vi.30:
"as aris<!5:i
relative, wbl1t as white jasminr. as abloluU!etsmtially blissful, lr J
in the Iona-paradise, which isaymbolizcd by the word tv,u.t.''
.w~ 111.14.d 265
~l:
.~b
Also in the Tantra known as Vajra-Cage of Pikin1s (.Pdkmlvajrapaiijara)
the eleven coDSecrations are listed thua :
First the coruecration with water, ,econdly with the crown,
fifthly with self-lord.ship and 1ixtbly with the name,
.seventhlywith sanction and eighthly with the jar,
ninthly with the secret consecration and tenthly with wisdom.
By applying the vajra of reality he should give all vajra•VOWI.
The teacher himaelf should proclaim this u the actual conaecration-rite.
One's teacher must not be maligned and the word of the Blessed Ones never
cransgressed.
These arc the eleven consecrations, which are primary. As for the words "by
}t applying the vajra of reality," meaning by the dear teaching of the Lord, the
set of four consecrations and the set of eleven comecratiom should be recog·
nized as quite separate by those who an: wise. So it is said. Here is the nomen·
clature in order {or these four, (the comec:ration of) the Jar and the others,
together with their associations, changing, unchanging, moving and
motionless. Body etc. (viz., Speech, Mind, Wisdom) are easily understood.
Then there are also the appellations, childlike, fully grown, mature and lord
of creation ( praj4pati).
As for the Wisdom-maiden ( prajna), she is from sixteen to twenty years old.
By touching the brcut of such a one who is worthy for this coneecration and
who delights one's mind thett is said to be a flow of bodhicitta. The bliss that
is experienced by this flow of shining nectar (.fukra-amrta) from the four-
petalled lotus at the top of the head to the sixteen -petalled lotus in the fore-
head ha• the nature of Joy of Body,Joy of Speech, Joy of Mind, Joy of Wisdom
(fili1na), and tbu is childlike. Since it is obtained in the First Consecration the
Ji yogin is consecrated (as it were) with a receptacle of milk, and thus it is called
childlike.
Again by a slight up and down motion of the vajra in her pudenda there is
said to be a flow of bodhicitta, namely from the thirty -two-petalled lot111in
the throat to the eight-petalled lotus at the heart. The blurs that is experienced
bas the nature of the Perfect Joy of Body, Perfect Joy of Speech, Perfect Joy of
Mind and Perfect Joy of Wisdom. Since it e:xcelsthat which preceded it, it ia
known as fully grown. Such ia the Secret Comecration.
Then by a strong up and down motion there ia said to be palpitation
(spanda), and this refen to the. drop of shining fluid (.sukra) a1 it advances
from the sixty-four-petalled lotus at the navel to the thiny -two-petaUed loua
.r, in the secret paru. The exceedingly blissful state (produced) by the advance to
the orifice of the vajra-gem of that pure flow of the moon-fluid (Literally: the
foremost one of the fifteen parts), t 4 ttferred to u "palpitation" (spand4). has
the natutt of the joy of Cessation of Body, Speech, Mind and Wisdom. This is
:\~'f mature and such is the Conseq-ation of the Knowledge of Wisdom.
:;1Jf As for the meaning of the Great Symbol (ffl(l/t4mu.drd), it i1 the non-
«\~¥
·/t, A frequent epithet of !he moon , which from early times in India is identified with memale
14'
tkmrnt. The cditd Santkrit text N:q\liffli amendment froa1 P,,k•doia -le•mo/oto -Aalo.viz.• from
:Jt "fiftttn lotl.ltft~ w 'iiflffll puu .''
11-
264 TII: TANTRIC BUDDHISM.
palpitation (nil)spanda) that is born of enamonnent (i:inur~a) cha~acterized :
· as the atemaJ experiencing of the sa.von of the one who 1s celesnal. Non- :
palpitation refera to the chf:cking oft~. outward flow from _the vajra-gem, and ·
the bliss that results from the nonem1ss1on of the moon-fluid has the nature of·
the Innate Joy of Body, of Speech, of Mind, of_Wi.sdom. So it is ~n:own aa :
Great Wiadom and such ii the Fourth COD1ecrauon. Then furthtt It •• to be .
explained. He who has attai_ned to this sup~mundane ~om that is free of ;
all oblcurarions (du.ira~) is lord of aeanon. and that u because of ~he.
perfection achieved by his having the created nature (prajdhhdm) of the Five :
Tath~atas, the Five Buddha-Goddesses etc. as a transformation of the (fi~) .
aggregatea of personality, the 1pheres of tense etc. N 7
To cranslatc a passage such aa this is very much a tour de force, but it aerva to
illustrate how the Four Joys, paralleled by four consecrations, may be interpreted ;·
as an internal psychophysical process. Externally the pattern of event1 is thus .
rather different, when a maste\" in the an is actually initiating his pupil by means•;
of the requisite consecrations. But can the internal process of the descent of the .
bodhicitta really be intended as an actual one] This question may well be asked
doubtingly, when one notes th.at its descent from the forehead to the throat and ·:
again from the heart to the navel remai111 unaccounted for. The Tibetan venion:
seems to be partly aware of this discrepancy, for in the case of the second con-·•
aecration it refen incongruously to "the eight-petalled heart-lotus at the navel," .'
thus covering both ncrve-centers in one. The mott normal set of four nerve- .·
cent.en would ,olve the problem, but the Kalacakro Tantra appears to remain .
more cloely attached to recogniiable Hindu terminology than other tantras. ·
One may note that the u1e of the term "lord of creation" (j,rajapati) and the _:
related term "created nature" ( praj4bh.4tu) might appear slightly awkward in a.:·
Buddhist context where all notion of a creating divinity and created beingsis..:
anathema, but such is inevitably the connotation of such terms from Vedic times ;
onward, and only deliberate reinterpretation can make them suitable for ·:·
Buddhilt wafl of thought. But we have already noted above that Supreme Yoga··
Tantras are not overconcerned with this problem.
The Hevaj,a Tanl,a is reuonably consistent in its application of fourfold (
patterns. The most noteworthy discrepancy concerns the ordering of _the ~our-.);
Joys, for in certain contexts (II .ii.40 and ll.v .66, 70) the Innate Joy II said t~)
come betWttn Perfect Joyand the Joy of Cessation. 1 sugguted long ago that tbi&=;:
reordering conforms with the ritualistic embrace and a return to normal experi- -::
ence. Thut this arrangement could apply to their actual experience as dis~nc:t;
from their rather more artificial order in parallel with the four consccrat10M, .
where the Joy Innate is inevitably linked with the Fourth Consecration. w_e ·:
cannot expect complete consistency in matters of dm kind. and dogmauc .·
ki For the Sanskrit text, - M. E. Cardli, Sdioddda/d,a , p. 27, U. l!Off.: for the Tibetan teat ,ce ..
TT vol. 47, pp. I 16·5-Sff. Compare a similar p.ua•c {ron, tbe ume work 1ramlalt!d by Per Kvzm,e, ·f
op. cil., pp . lll!·IS.
Ul,14 .d 265
assertions on such subjects are quite out of place. 1•• Even greater heaitation
affecu the ordering of the aet of four mudra, once these were introduced. In this
context the Heva.jra Tantra wies only the terms mudrd in the aensc of feminine
partner and mahamudra (Great Symbol) as an expression for the absolute truth
as realized through her. However, she ia also refctred to as Mahdmudrd,
presumably with the result in mind, and she is alto the Avadhuti, the central
artery, of which we shall say more below. The two other mudra. which are intro-
duced to make up an evolved set of foul' are the samaya-mudTti and the jifana-
or dharma -mudra, We have already met these trnm in disru•ing the manner in
which the divinity is absorbed into oneself or into its right position in a ma,:iqala,
where .sama)III(pledge) refers to the external npraaion or "guarantee" of the
i divine p~en<:e, and this has to be fulfilled by the descent of "wisdom" (.fai4na}
from above . When brought into parallel relationship with the four consecrations
and joys, the artificiality of any suggested arrangement would seem to be
apparent.jnana- or dhanna-mudra can only refer to the aame ultimate reality aa
does the term mak4mudn2 already in UIC, but they are placed below it much as
the dharma-lul,a comes to be placed below the "Self-Existent" or the lonate
Body in another 1et of four. They are thus explained aa the truth that is realized
as a result of the union with the mudro (now referred to as karma-mudra,
"Action -Mudra") either at the second or the third stage. The .so,maya-mudr4 can
logically only come lase and then only in relatiombip with the "Joy of Cessation"
when that too is placed lut . It can then be explained as the exprenion or
supreme wisdom, which emerging from the absolute state ( = mahamudrd here
as third stage) becomes manifest in the ma~la in the form of the Five
Buddbaa, as Vairoc.ana or one's chosen divinity.r•t Efforts to place it third or
fourth do not &eemto be very satisfactory.
As already stated, tbeae disagreements and apparent contradictions in the
ordering of the Four Joys, Moments and Four Symbol, arise from theiJ' artificial
arrangement in parallel with the four consecrations as shown above. In fact they
apply to the rite of sexual union, whether practiced by the master in the second
. consecration or by the pupil in the third one. It must be auumed that if the
master is proficient, u is dearly intended, he is capable of realizing the whole
series of Joya etc. in the course of the second consecration, which is performed on
behalf of his pupil. Properly prepattd, the pupil in tum should experience the
whole seria of Joys in the third comecration, resulting in hi1 realization of the
fourth state of Great Bliss. But even if this final state is achieved as "fourth,"
there has to be a return to the world of everyday experience, including the
realization that "he ha.s enjoyed such bliSI,'' and his continuing activity, or
Z48 I hav., in mind rhe aarruons of 1:antric exeoget~ to be found in tl~ lldw:,avu.jrOJtlf!IRTOha,
pp. l!8 and Sl!. For more Ne«.m discussion tee my Introduction 10 the Hemjra Tantra, pp. S4·~. and
Ollpe,::blly op. cit. pp. 109ff., wb<,rrthe wholr mauer ls argued in gn,at detail.
Per Kvar1'IM!,
to This is how th<: taruric exegete Nigarjuna explains i1 in a short worl C,,tvrmudraniic4,c1 (in
lbe ddw,aw}rt1Sa'?'graha , p. S4 fo.-1hi1panic:ular paaage) . For farther dmt-ussioa11tt tilt" H11w.jra
.,. 1',n11ra.vol. J, pp. IS6-7 arid Per K"1r11lC!,
op. cil •• pp, ll5ff .
266 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
supposed activity, on behalf of other living beings. 250 He then lives ideally in the ·
state of the free -roving yogin who is freed of all worldly conventions, aa so often·
described in our texta and celebrated in tantric songs. Seen from this point of .
view the Four Joys, Moments and Symbols might logically be arranged thus: · gainedtend to be listed according to the groupings of the four ( or five) Buddha -
joy perfect joy joy innate joy of ceuation 4 joya
variety development blank consummation 4 moments
mutlro dharma-mud-ra malui-mudia samaya-mud-ra 4 symbols
With this order eatablishcd aa valid in a psychophysical senR we may refer back'.
to the verses concerning "reversals" u quoted from ao important work of the.:
great Asanga (Rep. 128):
Supreme self-conu-ol ia obtained in the reversal of sexual intercoune
in the blissful Buddha-poise and the untrammelled vision of one's apouse.
Supreme self-control is obtained in the revenal of spacial perceptions
resulting in the supernatural production of thought-forms and in material
manifestation in phenomenal spherea.
The realization of this proce11 where "material manife1tation" ( vibhtlvana) in the·
variow spheres of existence follows upon the attaining of blissful knowledge ,:
1eems to correspond with the later argumenu of thae tantric cxegetes who place.
the Joy Innate, alia.s the Gttat Symbol (ma/14-mud-rd), third and the mani· .;
festation in divine form (sama_)'a•mudrci) La1t. Sexual yoga appears to be more
firmly established in Indian Buddhist practice than has been generally
conceded.m
c. References to Higher Consecratioruin Yoga Tantras :.
While it appears to be only in the tantras of the Supreme Yoga clus that the:
theories and symbolism auodated with sexual yoga are elaborately developed. it
is wrong to assume. as done by most later Tibetan interpreters, tha t sexual yog~:
was unknown in other tantral, precilely in those that can be related with::.
orthodox Mahayana sutras. Thus in the Durgatiparilodhana Tantra all eleve~ :
comecrations are specifically listed, including the Secret Consecration and what i.
is here known as the Consecration of the Union of Wisdom and Means. Vajra· :'.
varman's commentary explain, these in terms which accord completely with d~i
interpretations of Supreme Yoga Tantras. 151 The only noticeable difference in_
emphasis in this tantra, normally claued as a Yoga Tantra although some WOQld,,
auign it to the Performance class, is the overriding conttrn for achieving "long.;,:
life" and the state of a "universal monarch" (cokravartin) , The main Yop /
iso See H,T, ,o). I , lonoductio11, p. S5 and Per Kvaeme, op. cu., p. 114; lltt abo-..c Mar md of\
tec:tlonJII .H.b fott~ phnae"CONWNnation i11he rdlecDon: ·1 ha-..cea~ this blla.· ••Thus the:·;
yogln echolar Mait!l)& a11JUft: "How cao it t~n ~ durdr' (AdvayaMj,Gsal!lpalta. p. 28 , I. 5). ··
m For ttf~~e, to the Four Symbols(111..dl'li)in w Yoga Tanua. "SymposiumoJ Truth." ,ee·,
immediately below. '/::
2$2 Sec SDPS, Skoni~·, ed., pp . ff,8 , 78-80. It ia in1e.-ing 10 note that the great Tsong,kh~:_
pa who wr°' e a com111en1ary on lhil iantra (aott Slr.orui-)ti"•ttfen:"") ap~ina du. as die M1;51cr;:-
Ccmaecra1ion and no more. So nsily it clear "iclenc:e ignored, if ii does not fu °'her preconcei"4 ::,
theOl'ia,
fll.H.e 267
Tantra ,"Symposium of Truth," contains references throughout the several para
into which it ia arranged to "aecret yoga," although there appears to be no
specific reference to the so-called ''higher consecrations'' and the achl~ents
familiea, which underlie the whole arrangement of this voluminou1 tantra . Thus
in the founh chapcer, which lists the achievements gained according to the
different kinda of wonhipfuJ offerings made, the benefits of "secret worshipH
find their place:
The self-producing blilllful worship where the whole body is embraced,
offering this, he should quickly become the equal of Vajrasattva.
The bliss of holding her hair in the state of fuvent enamonnent.
offering up thil to the Buddha,, one should be the equal of Vajra-Gem.
The greater bliss of kissing clung tO in fervent joy and bli:ss,
offering up trus to the Buddhas, one should be the equal of Vajra-Dharma.
The bliaful joys of the yoga of the union of the two organs, always
offering up this as one wonhips, one should be the equal of Vajra-Action.
One need not therefore be surpraed to read a few folios later:
There is no sin in the threefold world such as absence of passion,
so you mould never practice the nonimpusioniog of desire. 2u
Or again from the twentieth chapter, which belong, to the Part IV dealing with
the maJ?4alas of the combined Gem-Action Family (see section 111.Jl last para-
graph), one may quote the "secret knowledge of the Pledge-Symbol of the Gem
Family" :
Positioning the great vajra•gem. one places the gem in the woman's pudenda
and meditating upon the Great Symbol one achievenuccess (siddhi).
Positioning the gem of the forelD<IStPledge in the woman's pudenda,
by the positioning of this foremost Pledge there is always success in the
consec:rations.
P0&itioning the great vajra-gem and meditating on the Dharma-Symbol,
inserting the gem in the woman's pudenda, the highest success is achieved .
Inserting the Action-Symbol gem in the woman's pudenda, by the positioning
of the Action-Symbol there is supttme success in all one's action.
For these the mantras are: 0~ Great Succeul 0¥ Pll:dge Consecration Succeal
0~ Dharma Success! 01,1 Action Success!tr••
I observed jo section 111.8 that the tantras of the Supreme Yoga class are not the
3
t5 S~ S'n'S, Yamad11."1 rd., pp, 159 and 150 for theSa.narit; Tibeun, TT YO!,4, pp. %37-f>-8.ff.
andp. 239-1-7. The leadingBodhlaatt:Yuoll.heFour Families,asnamed bett. a~on p. 210.
n., STI'S, Yamada's ed., p. 4U. TT vol. 4 . p . 264-2-4 . Jt may be ™*d that time Yenet are
arranged to correspond with the fo11rsymbols(m"4ra), whk-b W\'R' diacuaed abo\te. Hen: -•ppear
~ have Maltil:-m11dra, Samc.)111(-mvd,i), Dhanna -m.utra and KaNM·fflUdriz all tpeCificaily lllleti·
~ and ordeffl! in acrordance with the four fainilin of Tathap'-/Vaj.-. , Gem , Dhann:a and
Acnon, which are all 111b11emeo, in dtia p,1rt of rhe Sl"'I'S to 1he Gt-m Family. The ... ra1ber complex
arrangemm1111n,explained by my Introduction to rhe S1TS, 1'i&elir1t11• Edition,
268 lll: TANTIUC BUDDHISM
1
only ones which preach perverse teachings as suitable for those who ha~
achieved the highest spiritual attainments as understood by tantric yogins. T~
ex&mplegiven there from the "Symp06iu m of Truth" (pp . 175-6) is typical
many more and it is within thia contex.t that so many rrierenccs to sexual
gratification u a means toward enlightenment occur. On e more should suffice;
Then Vajrapa.µ the Great BodhiNnva ttcited the Secret Tantra of thi:.
Pledge·Perfection orAll the Tathagatu: · ,.~,
"Now this is the Secre t Tantra or the Pled~ ·Perlection of All Tathagataa: -:\~
Saying you are the Pledge, you should graufy all women. Do not tum awafii
from the affain of Jiving beings. Thus one IOOD gratifies the Budd has." So aa~}
the Lord , the Great Vairocana. .·
"Th is ia the Secret Tantra of the Pledge -Perfection of the Tathaga :
Family: Gratilication should not be despised ; one should gratify all women·.
Holding to the Seact Pledgeof the Adama.nti~ One (oajrin), one succeeda . .
Sosaya the Lord Vairocana. !
"This is the Secret Tantra or the Pledge -Perfection of the Vajn Famil1,:.:
Slaying, one slays the world for the purposeof purifying it. Witb bcncfi~~
actions of body and 1peech and with the sound. of HO~ the Pledge achieves i ·
objective, " So says the Lord "Victor over the Threefold World" (viz., Vajra;,
pll)i). ...
"This is the Sec;ret Ta ntra of the Pledge -Perfection of the Lotus Family.'
Gratification is pure for those of a pure dispo1ition, but is imp ure in the c ·
of heretic yogins. Holding to the Pledge of the pure -minded , one obta' ·.
pttfection." So aays the Lwd Avalolciteivara . .·.
"This is the Secret Tantra of the Pledge -Perfection of the Gem Family;
PO&itioning the Vajra -Gem in concentration (sa17UJ ,dhi) on Vaj-ragarb
(Vaj ra-Embryo) and seizing the pouessiona of evil folk , this Pledge best
perfection," So saysthe Lord Vajra-Gem.~~
The arrangement or the teachings in this last part of the "Sympoeium of Truth "'..
according to five families of All Tathagat.as, Tathagata , Vajra , Lotus and~
(this one including Action) hu been mentioned above, but the actual teac:hillP,
may not alwa)'I appear to be so logically arranged, unless one bears continuall _:..
in mind a variety of aaociated idea1. Clearly the whole pre1ent let of versea ii:
concerned either with sexual yoga or the innocence of sexual bliss for the right :
minded. Thus the referen ce to alaying in the third vcne and to sci:.t.ingothers'
property in the last one might seem irrelevant unless one rememben tha('
convening by terrible meam ia an attribute of the VajTa Family and acquiring'
wealth is one of the maio succesaes p.romi1ed to mcmben of the Gem FamilY,i
The wealth acquired, however, may be the treasure of enlightenment : · u ~ Set~~
With the two organs joined together one should aeelr.for treuure, for
meditating upoo the Great Symbol one obtains the treasure by
interpenet ration.
Politioning the forcmoet Pledge, cauling del ight to woma n , there where
lt
:•:
':.,
·:,;
w Forcbilocerpueesrn . FaC#IIUhF•.d,hon, p. 6S; limilar eumplaoapp , .57, "6 1 51. 59d ~
Furthn- Conse~otions 269
the symbol is firm, one obtains the treasure.
With the two organ. joined together one 1hould IIClCk
for treasure for
meditating on the Knowledge,Symbol , one gets the tttuure -~owledgc .
Positioning the Action.Symbol with concentration on the two organs
there where the Symbol is manifest, one 1lwuld find the treuure. ~
Coming upon such passages as these, which occur throughout this forem01t of
Yoga Tantras, one may well woodcr to what ntent one may be justified in
diltinguishing betw~n this class of tantras and those of the Sup reme Yoga claaa,
and even how far ~1betan exegete. are right in insisting that the three }1igbcr(or
internal) coosecrauona att taught only in tantras of the Supreme Yoga da•. It
may be truer to say that while they arc taught Cl(pJiddy (al~t with implicit
meanings according to tome interpreters) in tantras of the Sup nme Yoga clasa,
there is an implicit undenitanding of them according co a Yoga Tantra
tradition. related to the very practices mentioned in Asal'lga's treatise. There is
nothing particularly secret about sexual yoga in Supreme Yoga Tantras ; one
merely h.u to read the texts. 1t is possible that they continue to refer to it as
though it were secret, simply becau,e it was really so in more orthodox Buddhut
circles, while the tantric yogins have brought ttmure upon themtelves by the
flamboyant manner in which they parade their teachings. Their "enigmatic
~an~agc" (san'!-k4bl&IJ/4)_to which we have referred above conceal• nothing from
mteUagent ouwdcrs and 1t was probably never intended that it should, while at
the same time their carefree way of Jife was plain for all to tee.
At the same time all the di3rinctioru that I have made betwttn ,ome tantras of
the Supreme Yoga clau and the many other tantras that ue relatable to Mahi-
ylna sutraa tee~ to ~ valid : T~ fc:mner group had thefr origin amongst
groupa of tantnc yogios p0111e111ng hmued Buddhiat aMociatiom, while the
others form an mrirrly ac~ptable part or Mahtyuia Buddhist practice and were
compoeed in well-established Buddhist centen. But it is not an interest in ,exual
yoga that distinguishes them , and the ,o-called ..higher consttratiom" need not
be regarded ai a speciality of followers of Supreme Yoga Tantras. The ease with
wh~ch theee tantras, which lttl1l to have shocked many non-Indian Buddhists,
Chi~, Japa.~ and ~ the Tibetans, became accepted as a valid pa.rt of
lnd1~ Bu~dhilm , susgesu that their teachingt brought nothing eteentially new.
but simply improved methods and a wealth of ayrnbolic expression aiming at the
aame land of goal . One notes chat wherea, the tantras, grouped u Action,
Performance and Yoga Tantras , consist largely of instructions for the per ·
· Yamad1"1 ~ -. ~- 598; Tibetan, TI ml . 4, p. Mlt·4 •7. The Sanlll.rit word ttanllated
"ii manifat in cbe lase line II sp/t1,fft, which meana "it bur11, open comet mao 91ew • or 1
0 •
Rparaca. ~ Tu Tibecan tt arlllatior, hu : "When. !he Symbol becomn ,-_ (pyiJ ID'-" ~ ,u \
thffl! ~~-ii ~ word tnNlat.Nl u the wert."to """idoA" 1-....._.
au«,u · , • --'--'·found.
..__"..... . ,.... ... ~·- 1 all·........ ""
u""""rec:mt
.. - 01111" -,a,_,.. - lllralllllg "to bind. fix.·· etc. It is 1.-d of "ftltiJlg" (viz •• "maldns") a
::~r~n,
.baod-g~Utt (11atutri). Hence t~lt may be a.mbiguiciesof meaning thu ca., 1110( be c:xprcsied I
whecherTibetao ,or English. Tibetan rranslaie, the u:nn rlgldly wlch a word meaning ..;
while l have sougbt dcliberaleiy an ambiguous inlffpn:tatioo. Har we havr ytt on,r lllOtt good
u11r1p1rof the problmis thac ten& present to 1 11)' traml&to\',
 :~;
270 lll : T ANTRIC BUDDHISM ·' .
:i~
,:'s!
·..:
fonnance of rituals with little or no phil06ophical and speculative intrusiona. :; ,
tantras of the Supttme Yoga clus att filled with epecularioru of all kind,. phito: IW!
aophiol , myd10logkal. cosmological, psychophysical - an interesting subject in! ·
itself. which must be treated separately in the next aection. The rc:aaon foT thi.'
difference between them can only be that those other tantras were the ritual.
counterparts of the Mahayana 1uuu ; there ii no need for them to deal with
Buddhist philosophical teachings , fully taken for granted and euily available to:
them. But thcte Supreme Yoga Tantras introduce certain basic theories and.
patterns of thought that are clearly extraneous to traditional Mahaylna :
teachings and thnc require explanation and juaification, if the identity of the=
one goal is to be maintained .
f. TM Problem of T~tt,al Obscurity · ...
It thus comn about that com~ntaries and exegetical worb of all kinds play ;'
an essential part in any atudy of tantraa of the Supreme Yoga clue . By contra11;:
MahAytna sutraa and all the o<her tantras (Action, Perfonnance, Yoga), which~
as we have attempted to show att related to them, arc for the mOlt put dear ~·
enough in meaning without the ~d of commentariea . With Yoga Tantrai .
problem& of interpretation begin to arise and with Supreme Yoga Tantras the;:
uat of commentaries becomes CS11ential,not only to earablish meanings but all(i·
to obtain preferable versions of an otherwile corrupt teXt . ~ 7 Al distinct from the
tantras theml!dvcs, the co~taries and exegetical word• are usually clear· '
meaning and coherently written. They are normally attributed, at lc.ut in theit .
Tibetan translations (for the Tibetans were careful to check on .Ml.ehmatt.er~
with the help of their Indian masten ). to a rutmed author . But the tantras, beinl
supJ)OledJy "Buddha-Word, " are altogether anonymoua ; one may 1urmiae thaf
their contenu comprise the direct teachingg of tantric masten, either as learned;
by bean or maybe recorded immediately in writing, and ailo what pupils recalf
of their ma&tcr's teaching , a.sthey ha~ learned it , well or ~haps not so well , at'
their master's feet. To end thil aection on co111Ccratioml traru.late a .hort sectio :
from an exc~tkal work entitled Pra.jik,paya.vmilca-yasiddlai ("The Attainm · Eliminator of the folly of the world, rCYealerof the pure truth,
of the Realization of Wildom and Means") by AnangaYajra, well written an~
Judd, followed by a contruting pa.,eage concerning conaecration extracted from.J.
the G-uh:,asamOjiiTanlro as an example of the problems that confront an( ~ k..
would-be interpreter of such a work. Tibetans have always insi•ied that on~)j - {;',
v·· i :.
;,_
u , In 1hr introduction of hll admirably producrd wott to which I haw alrady rewrred (Tiu :. '.'~:.
S.~-Tanlra) ShinlchiTtuda appears coquibble abocit lhr vlrwes ol ntabliJhlng a teXt bt,W. f.i;.'·
malti.nJ primary ux of what the Tibetan ua081atorshave ptt.11enioed . Perh.apot should tab~ \ ! ;}~.:
for 111
opportunity of stating mor<:dearly 1bepoin11mack in my "Note on tM re,us" at thr b~nning of mJ{~J it· ·
ediuoa pan II . M08 Buddhist tana'as haw: 11everalcornmrmarics by Jndl~ ':~, :f ·.
of tM Hn,,,jrt, T11111ro,
interprecrn , oftai JOR in rbeir Samkrit oricinak , but happily ~~ in Tibetan tnDSlatlona," >t '\ ;.:
TheR cornmmtarift often quote tbr oou -.u fo£ word, rmi, providing '-- with valuable paralld, 4\ :.
Vffliomof the aaual un1n u theyhad it before rhem when writing any aimoebetwtt11the: cighlh •~ 1 ' J-;'..:.
the rwlfth centuries 11.n.Such venio!W, albclit in Tibetan translation, thu1 have greater authority/. ··· f/ :
than a comtpt nine-nth CfflWIJ MS; copied and eopi,ed qain in Nepal , In IIOllle eu5 (e.J .. tlif:f?.~' li:·:. Sa!18 ~ ~al
STI'S) w do ha-.ean early Indian MS available , and 1ba1fact OM takff Ml y inio ..-n1 . \~· · ·.~;.'.. bi.me b98• P"~ab)y correct for thil come1tt,
\; ;,: ,%.[:
271
cannot hopeto undentand thae texts except under the direction of a quaJi.tled
lama, and indttd ~t it is sacrilegious and a sure way to hell even to attempt .to
do so. However, aolYlng textual problema and experiencing the Great Bliaa are
not quite the same things. although it might be foolish to deny all coMection
between the two, The Great Tranalator Rin•chen biang·po had to wre1de with
,he forme~, and although Atila may have taken him to taak for dealing with
unuas aa if they were sq,arace works (see. p. iOi). one hu no choice in a work
,uch u this but to follow rathe7 feebly in hil footstep,. So here follows the lint of
the two above-mentioned extracts,
For the benefit of upiranu (sddlioAa) wboee objective is the rank of Vajra-
sat~va, t~ rite of cODJecration will be explained. firm-set (Tibetan : pre-
emme~t) an the thrttfold w~rld. When an inte!Jigent man i, conaecrat.ed
according to the Mantra Path m the maq4ala which i, the resort of the Bleued
Ones and in the presence of all the Buddha, , then w
Lord of the sphere of
limidesa ~rids is comprchende~ by him, as he reaches the grade of eel(.
comecrat!°n, thoughtfu_l and anxaoua that he should not violat.e the pledge, In
all tru th It has been 1a1.dby thoee who are fully enlightened in the Mantra
Pa th • that t~ pie~ of Vajrasattva and like divinities is hardly transgreuible .
So th e offspnng of the Buddbu (vu .. the ttudent ) for the ,a.ke of thil COD·
eec:ration ~rvea hiJ Vajra Teacher, that ocean of good qualitiea, both in the
correct_manner aa d with all hie d'fon. Having obtained a fair -eyed Symbol
(mudna), pcmeued of youth and beauty. he adorn, her with fine clothes . with
garland.a and sandalwood 1eent, and makes a pre1entation of her . Then
zealously he adores and ·worships his Teacher together with the Symbol
hono~ing t~ wit~ perfume, and garlands and so on, and making offerin~
of mill ('!abetan : liqu?r) and other things. Placing one knee on the ground
and muing a beseeching ~sture. he makea his request of his Teacher with
the.tie wor<b of praile:
Salutation to yoo, who free of all falac imagini.og1 encompau the Void!
Salutation to you the omnilcient , the totality of wiadom the yery form
of wiedoml '
Salutation to you, Vajra•Being, born of the nonaelfhood of dhaf'ffl4SI
From you tbere a~ Buddhas and Bodhisattvu, J)OJICSSCd of perfections
a nd Yirtuc:s,salutation to you, 0 Thought of Enlightenment!
From you are the Threejewel,, .cbe Mahlyana and this whole threefold
world, all that ia stable and all that moves. salutation to you.
the 5eed of the worJdlN
Al wonderful u a wish-granting gem for achiCYing what is detired by the
world. glorious performer of the ordinances of tht' Blcased Ones,
S
. on of the Buddhas , salutation to you!
It II by ~r favor that I may know the supreme reality , O Ocean of good
qualitte. ; do me the faYor now, 0 Omniscient One , of the Va~a-
Consecration. ~-
.
Satl$lu-lttelel reads "hero" {tml> af tbe world. The Tibetan 11ersioorepresenting
272 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
Favor me, 0 Lord, with the secre« of all Buddhas, even as it was revealed
by the Glorious Thought-Vajra to the Dhanna-Vajra.
If I leave your lotus-feet there is no other ~ou.ne for me, so have
compassion on me, O.Lord, you who have vanquished holtile s~lra. 2"-1.
Then the glorious Vajra Teacher, sympathetic and intent on good,
Feels compassion for the pupil and summons him ro the circle of offerings. Jl·
It is filled with the five kinds of desirable things, resplendent with the canopy
spread above, the place for union with the yogjni, resounding with ~Us ]j
and tinkling chimes.
It is a delightful place filled with flowers and intell$e, blislful with garlands
and divine perfume1, the resort of Vajruattva and other divinities, \ :·
wonderful indeed.
Then the blissful Teacher, having united with the Symbol, lets fall into
the lotus-vessel, the raort of the Buddha&, bis Thought of Enlightenment .
Then as lord of the world he should conaecrate bis pupil who (in turn) is
united with the Symbol. while chowries are waved, paraaols held high tt: (
and auspicious hymna are sung. .i~. , :
Having batowcd the excellent gem of consecration, the Teacher as supreme :}f. ::.:·
lord should give him the sacrament, delightful, divine and pure by nature, .ff ~ ::
the great gem consisting of "camphor" joined with "red sandal," .·?i., 'i ·
prepared of vajra-water, having its origin in the fifth prncription. uo
"This is your sacrament, dear one, u taught by all Buddhas: bold to it }(.f ;t·
alwaya, my friend , aod attend now to the vow. Do not harm living being:s. fj.~
DonotabandontheThreejewels. NeverfonakeyourTeacher. Such a iil (
vow is hardly transgressible." !.-f,
" '.·
Then he should give this admonition to his pupil, who having received the
consecration of the Thought of Enlightenment, is freed of sin and is
, be~e a foremost son of the Buddh~: . }\; /
• Unul you finally reach the Place of Enlightenment, tum the supreme Wheel :'/"' ~
of the Doctrine e\'Crywhere throughout the whole world. Penonally formed ·.:;~;\ ·
of Wisdom aod Means. magnificent lilte a wish-granting gem, 161 If; ;
unwearying and free from all anachments, work now for the good of · )~ {
living beings." 'f:i;i;,~
j,
Having received the consecration and the admonitions, joyful in that he
hu completed all that had to be done, he (the pupil) pronounces these
pleasing words which cau,e everyone to rejoice:
"Today my birth has become fruitful. Today my life is fruitful. Today I have
been born int0 the Buddha-Family. Now I am a t0n of the Bud.dhu. I
haYCbeen reecued by you, 0 Lord, from the terrible ocean of the aeons,
so hard to cross because of the mud of the emotions and where one is ,:,!.~ ;,
overwhelmed with continual rcbinhs. I know myself to be u perfect thank, i Yr
to your gracious favor, and I am free from all latent tendencies, }t ~-.
since my bean is set on enlightenment. "JM
Slit Saruili.rit reads not d~so,psin,-enemy. u dor1 libetan, but d..tinia of rrbirth (gati)
which doe, not fie'°
.. 111sar11, we.IIwith ''vai,'t"ishill,r."
NO The fifth tanuic prescription ia mait"-4 (copcalation).
:1161This follows the Tibetan venion with rr,a-clie( = udara) imt~d of u.t:,ate.
8'! Following the Tibctau, thu1 coiffcting thr Samlr.rit 10 bodA,r :,e- ea me Aasu. For die_
Jil .14,f 271
In contraSt to the above and as an example of how very allusive the description
of consecrations may be, l now quote fTom the sixteenth chapter of the Guhya-
,:,
samaja TanlN ("Secret Union"). A choice of interpretations is available.
whether relating to an actual performance or a mcditational exercise, where the
~
!( whole proeess ia envisaged. or again as a combination of both.
J Then the Lord Tathagata Vajrap~i relapsing into the state of concentration
known as Origin of All Ma~ala·Cirdea, announced the Sacred Vajra of the
l Body, Speech and Mind of all ma~4,alaa from his own adamantine Body,
1t Speech and Mind:
''These are the fundamen~I syllables for laying down the threads, the
essential mantra, for a vajra ma~la: 0¥ Al;l H~.
The laying of the vajra · threads and the application of the col ors should not
be done by the mantra-being. M) If he does this , enlightenment is hard to
obtain.
So one wbo undentands the system of pledges (.samaya) should introduce
the mantra-divinities, and concentrating upon th.i&place of empowennent , he
enviaageathe mystic circles (for the various divinities).
He should introduce the Great King Vairocana and the (Buddha-Goddess)
Locana. Their delightful resort is the mai;,4ala of Body and it bestows the
if ·:.:· qualities of the Vajra of Body.
He should introduce the Great King Vajradharma ( = Amitlbha) together
with his Dharma-consort ( = Pai;iqaravasini). Th.is is the secret place of an
mantras in all eternity.
He should introduce the Great King Vajrasattva ( = Aqobbya) together
with (the Buddha-Goddess) Mamakf. This is the secret place of all mantras,
altogether amazing.
By acting thus one secures their presence, and being themselves possessors
of the gem (of consecration). they approach joyfully and reveal the supreme
aecret."
He said too:
''The wonderful vajra-aecret ( = the ma~4,ala ritual) shouJd bt' performed
by one who is accomplished in mantras. As King of Wrath he coerces all the
Buddhas and worships them.
These pure adamantine beings of the Thrttfold Vajra require sacramental
worship during the three time-perioda and by the union of the Threefold
Vajra succaa in mantras is achie:ved."
He said too:
"One should make a wondrous offering to aD these mantra(-divinitie)s,
thought-produced urine and faeces, flesh and oil and the fifth item, for with
semen an maDtras are delighted, they say. This is tbe very ~t sacrament,
or:,\:; _;. Sullr.rit Yenion of the whole excerpt Stt B. Bhat!acbaryya, Tr,,o JloJ'r«ya WOFks , pp. I lff; for the
j:£{
·. Tlbecan, TT. YO! . 68, pp. ts9-5-,ff.
!
·.:\~. 265 The term "'tnanua-bci.Dg"might have several interpre1a1iona , but here it 1Cel'll6 10 refer to the
}jj i,:.· pupil. Candra'klrti'a commcni.uy interpttts aa "ooe who is intent on rrumua and attached to
:\~/ dualisticknow~:· pcrbaP" a rather belabomi interpretation.
:ii}
27< Ill, TANTIUC BUDDHISM I
:~~J.,
hnlur Conm;ratio1LS 275

perfecting a Buddha's enlightenment. }J Conceiving of his disciple, who is always firm-minded, the knower .of
One should proceed to the laying down of the threads, envisaging oneself~') , rnantru should comecrate him with them, the one who is adamantine in
Vairocana and the neophyte a1 Vajr.1$1lttva or he is known as Amftavajri ( Body,Speech and Mind. 216
(Elixir-Vajra) of adamantine brilliance. One should Jay the adamanti~\ • Now this is the secret of all consecrations, the Speecb-Vajra pronouncement
thread of the Great Kings, the Five Buddhas. This is the s~preme secret of aiti of all teac:hen:
Buddha1. As for the application of the coJor with it5 twenty-five disrincti · ·1 bestow (upon you) the Consecration of the Great Vajra, bom of the three-
this is the 11eeretof all adamantine ones, the highest enlightenment . ..i In fold secret Vajra, honored throughout the threefold world.'
case of all these mantra(-divinitie}a one evokes Vajra-HOP,1-kara (a fierce f, Now this is the secret rite for all dilcipla requestjng the Great Vajra: 'As
of VajrapaJ)i), evoking this divine Jacrament, bodily and vocally, in the fi great honor ii bestowed upon Buddhu by the Vajra of Enlightenment, 0
sections (of the maJ].cµla). . You, Celestial Vajra, bestow it today on me for the sake of salvation. '
By effecting their presence in this way, the Vajra-Bom of the unbrealtab · Then he 1hould joyfully give him the con11CCrationand in union with his
vajTa (viz., the main divinities of the ma"'4ala) act with fear toward t : cholen divinity, he should deposit the Lord (adlaipati) in hi&heart. Rewaling
attentive Vajruattva (viz., the pupil). the ma~la to his attentive duciple, he should recite to him the secret pledge
The placing of the vajra-jars is done as recorded by the masters of mantr announced by all Buddhas:
and tantras, and ao he should envisage thing1, firm in mind, as he abides· 'You mu1« slay living beings; you must 1peaklying words; take what is not
the concentration ofVajrasattva. · given; be available to women.'
The knower of mantras, desiring the fruits of all achievement (siddJu He 1hould incite all bei1J81 with this Vajra Way, foT this is the supreme
mould make the sacrificial offering (homa); he 1hould praent the saaifici , t"temal pledge of all Buddhas.
offering of urine and faeces, flesh and oil and the rest . ·· With words which urge the USC! of mantra., he should then gi~ him the
He should give the full vajra-offering to the kings (cakrin) of the unbreak ". mantra, and having bestowed upon him the mental composure of that king of
able threefold Vajra, and concentrating upon his own choeen divinity in t · mantra&, he should proceed with the Secret (Conaecration).
centre he should put it into the mouth (of the pupil), 166 Having cons«rated in _accordance with the rite semen or faeces, the vajra-
teacher should make him eat it, and so success i$ without difficulty
These arc- the vajra-syllablcs for entering the great ma~la: Al;I KHA¥ attained. um
vlRA HUJiilThia is the Mantra -Vajra which is the euence of w Body, S ·
I have already referred above to the di.jointed nature of much of the material
and Mind of all sacraments (samaya).
Now this i1 the aecret of the hidden knowledge of the Great Vajra Comecra, of which some tantras of the Supreme Yoga class are composed. This may be
tion, One who belongs to the Va jra lineage (gotra) should envisage the celestial _ unintentional, simply ae a result of the rather haphazard manner in which the.e
sphere filled with all the Buddhas, worshipping them with music and cloudi; teachings were put together from earlier oral ttansmi•ions, and I suspect this is
of perfume ." · the cue . It could conceivably be intentional, if°the object was to conceal the
He said too: sequence of events from noninitiates. One may note that the intruding words "he
said too" may change the context in many cues, thua suggesting that what we
"The one firm in his vow ( = the teacher) should inflict them (the Buddhas ·
with mustard-reeds, which have been infmed with the mantra& of the three- now have is the later written record made by a disciple or group of disciples of
fold vajra body; then they will bestow of d~u- own accord the comecratioii theiT master's words. This could easily have resulted in cenain venn being
upon him (the pupil). ·· omitted because they were forgotten, or worcling changed becaute the original
Or with the concentration of V ajra1anva he should envisage the Buddhas;/ wording became confused in transmi&&ion. It may be of interat to analyze such
the wise one ahould envilage the jars borne by the foremost of pledges (again pouibilitil!I in regard to the extract just quoted, a• an example of the vut
the Buddhas or their consorts). · amount of critical work of a literary nature stall required before such works can
'./·!ri."
The number twl!tl4y-flve preeumably men IO fiw divinitiN in each af d~ five circles dw;f be adequately tnnalated. Aa it well known, traditional religious acholanhip
*
Kt o(

ma~~-
!6$ I follow Francesca Fn:mantle (A Critu:4' Study of th11Guh;yosamijo Tantns, p. 366) m';';~ ;- !Ni&Tbepbrue Madamaminein Body. Speech and Miner' ia ~ rrien-ed to thr pupil if one follows
auaching thi, half vnw of tbe Saosl<rit(in English: "and concen1ratillg etc.") ar thil juncnm:,}~ · the ratM.r doubtful Sanekrit grammatical coMIIUCtlon, but the Tibetan translatk,o, I suspttt
although any NCh RafTil!llffllelll of rlx text mu• he regarded • centative . Thill ID9111that ...u111 B:j."j· rightly,rcfen it 10 the u:acher ,
Bhattacharyya'ndition from p. 115. II. 3ff-. one jumpt 6-ocn p . 117, I. 5 (cor=ting cbe last pan al'. ,·;?, 26' lure we bave a dear eJ11mpleof the choicesopen to a translator or imc:rpretcr of 1hia tcx.1.We
thi, line IOtniiofra&hNt,aeo,im,kim} cop . 119, I. ll. One contiDUa from hen: 10 the foot ofp , 120 and::{ji,
then ttturna top. 117, II. 6ff. I take thil opportunity of ack~dging the great help reo1n,<!dfrolll:'[f;: can choo.c "vajra-teachei-'' (,..jnicor.J'(I), ..,ajr&·YOJ•" or "vajn-muid," all of which are ivpponed
Francesca FttmaruJe 's work in dealing wllh thl& lnuutable tat. Her tbetis contah111a greatt;\~[i': textually in one way or anod..,.-. From 1ru , point cm, we are infonned of the rites in which the pupil
lm~d edition of the Sanmil prc.rnted .side by ade with t~ Ti~tan translaliQD. :_-\~1 •hould now be •killed; they are of the ltiod already deacribecl ill exuacu qnoted abuve in tee:don
111.8
.

)1:
276 T ANTRIC BUDDHISM
tends to be uncritical in a modem literary sense, becal.l9e the main inte~
centers upon the religious content of a text that is already regarded as sacred
so inviolate, Thus the Indian commentators and their Tibetan 1uccete0rs were lit
pains to interpret the text as they bad received it, and although they we~f.
sometimes aware of alternative readings and inade choices between them, an,!.
although they could be critical of one another's interpretations, o~ can hardly~
expect them to declare a canonical text actually defective. A meaning must
found for it somehow. and in texts such as these, where interpretations are
fluid , there is little difficulty in finding a suitable one.
At the atart of the above quotation Vajrap~ announces the "Sacred Vajra
the Body, Speech and Mind of all mal}qala,." But before announcing them , t ·
text refen to the laying out of the maf.14alawith threads. and it must
remembered that the mal}qala is fivefold (see above) and not threefold as is the:
''Sacred Vajra of Body, Speech and Mind," which is about to be announ~d.::
This Threefold Vajra as now announced corresponds as we have already seen:·
ab~ with the three Buddha-Famili~ of the Tathigata, the Dharma or Lotua ;
and the Vajra. The first bestows the qualities of the Vajra of Body, the second ·
Speech (thus it is called the secret place of all mantraa) and the third surely · .
Mind , but here we have the almost identical repetition of the verse just abOYC
Was this the original wording, one may well wonder . Difficulty is also caused ·
the uninitiated reader by substitute names, e.g .. Vajradharma for the Bud~
presiding over the Dharrna-£amily, so that dtt more regular pattern of names · ·
slightly disrupted. It is well established that the teacher must fint be self./
constituted as a· Vajra-Being ( l'ajrasattva). and for coercing the divinities he'
should display a fierce aspect; tbua he ia referred to as King of Wrath, or again-.
Vajra-H0¥-kara, both of which are titles of Vajrapal}i in wrathful fonn.
Guhyasamaja TantTa refen frcquffltly to the coercing of Buddhas and forcing
them to do one's will as though in a state of subjection, so one should not be
surprised at the act of hurling mustard -teeds at them, a rite that is more:,
frequently performed to reduce ~il spirits to subjection. One may note in:·
passing that in Candrakirti's commentary mustard -seed is interpreted as the'
sacrificial llffllen, the Thought of Enlightenment in its relative/ absolute fonii·
which is in a sense superior to all Buddhas. for it is their essence .161
The list of five itema of which the offering is aajd to comiat may appear doubt ·.
ful. Oil occurs where blood would be expected and the fifth item is surely semen.
Yet the Tibetan translation, which must have been based upon an ea rly Sanskrit
text, has: "faeces and urine, flesh and oil and self-produced sandalwood. 1119Such_:
variations need cauae no problem to the tr.tditional scholar, Indian or Tibetan; ,
for whatever the items, they can be interpreted as "enigmatic languagt!, ~'.
actually meaning symbolically offerings representing the five &ense-spberes.
rte For w n:ferem-e:t 10 Candnkini'• commentary, the Pradlpod:,otu,sa,,..,,...flltc. _I •~--
lnddt~ coFranceeca Fftfflaade.
Ht Here "oil" would refer to semen fnd "fdf·prod~ed sandalwood" to blood. One may compa~:'
the parallel ux of "camphor" and "l'l!d sandalwood" wilb tbo.e m~ning:s in tM previous extract:
· Further Cons,cralW11S 277
Ji.v
-~<':;
: As for the general relationship of the extracts translated, the second clearly
an~b ~rlaps with the first. They appear to be separate accounts of the same event,
:hich have been simply placed more or less together. What is being described
is the Secret Consecration, as well known from other Supreme Yoga Tantras,
but here the account ill arranged a, a kind of meditational c:xercite, and little
or no account is taken of a precise order of events. My two extracts are in fact
,eparated or linked , depending upon one's overall interpretation , by three
verses, which contain a general comment on the whole proceeding:
And he said: With the two orgam united the wise one should m_alr..e
offerillgl
onehundred and eight times. This indeed is the pledgeof all Buddhas, which
. lo union with Vairocana and meditating upon one's
is hard to transgrc::11
disciple, who is born of the Threefold Vajra, with the sttd-syllable Al:I in
Body, Speech and Mind. he is grasped by the vajra.m The Great King Vajra·
aattva and the illustrious V airocana grant the empowerment which is the
pledge of(their) Body, Speech and Mind.
I have dealt in some detail with this paaage as an example of the difficulties
confronting anyone who writes about the tantras. making U8C of original sources.
.', Apart from irregularities in the texts which often allow variant interpretations,
one has the problem of keeping in mind a wide range of overaU interpretations
and conventionalized sets, whether of Buddha-families, of Buddhas , of their
related Bodhisauvas and female parblen if any, of sacrificial items, of philo -
sophical conceptions, etc ., so that one can identify a whole context before
beginning to interpret a particular pa11age. It i, for this reason that so few
tantric texts have been translated into any European language and that the
· ,lightly more Sanakrit editions of 1Uchtexts that are available find so few n:aden
amongst those scholars, worldwide, who are proficient in Samkrit. Brahmanical
literature and the more regular Mahayana stitru and their commentaries ,
despite their particular difficulties, present nothing like the same problems,
Combined with this there is an understandable distaste for much of the subject·
mauer. It is thus likely that for a long time to come the tantras will ttmain
chiefly the preser~ of traditional Tibetan interpreters, and since they claim to
be the only true interpreters . we may perhaps rest content with this situation . At
the same time we probably have a s_ufficiently dear idea of what was involved in
these "higher" tan1ric con,ecrations and what kind of achievement, were
claimed by their adepts. What the Tibetans have made of them since may in
some respects be something different, and their claims can be tested by anyone
who is seriously interested in joining their following, wherever obliging lamas
may be found in these unhappy days of their exile.
·
1701 am aware that dlil • meo.ie Is Wll'"•mma tical in £11f!liah,but t uch ia d 'leSaou.rit 1uucture,
and if OC'le cha,... it, ooe enfattn a particular 1J1ttning.T~ Tibetan trantlatinn, u recorded in tbe
Der~ c.- u oppo,edto the NIU'thang, 1ra11tlates aa wbc pspt with the w:ajn," which would at
leaat ~ a gnmmalical Englilh construction, For the Saruktlt, - Bhauacharyya 's edition,
p. 119. u.,.,,
 278 III: TANTRJC BUDDHISM
15. SPECIAL CONCEPTS OF TANTIUC YOGINS
a. Buddhahood as Twofold Rather than Fiwfold , creation in any cate) as "ritualistic." It is certainly not intended to attempt to
I observed above that tantras of the Supreme Yoga class are filled with',
speculations of all kinds, philosophical, psychophysical. cosmological an(l
mythological. while by contrast other tantras that are more easily relatable tci
Mahayma mtras are concerned almoat exclusively with prescriptions for rites;
usually in the appropriate ma,;a4alas, details of the requisite mantras and the ;
various pronouncemenca to be made by the mas~r and his pupiJa, descripti~-
and hymns of praise of the special divinities, etc . Much of this material might bei
described as mythological, npecially the fivefold set of Buddhas , the attendant :
Buddha-Goddeaea, carefully specified sei. of Bodblsattvas, and the misceJ~;
Jan.coos groups of minor divimtie• who are pressed into ,ervice. I have also:
referred to the act of Fi~ Buddhu u a c01111ologicalone, relating it to the more:
general Mahaylna conception of innumerable Buddhas presiding over Buddha: ·
fields in all the directions of space. How~er, aD t.hae mythological and coemo-
logical ideas are to be found already in Mahaytna S'lltras, and the tantras that -.
ue claaed as Action , Performance and Yoga merely take them for granted as;:
the basis for their ritual provisions.
In dealing with tantras of the Supreme Yoga clan, one bas the impression tha(
aU thil more ~neral mythological and cosmological material is relegated to the~
background of their interests, except where it can be reinterpreted in accord- \
anee with their own ,pecial theories of ex.iatence, and at the aame time other .-'
concepts are frttly introduced. which are in direct conflict with ttadidonaf
Buddhist teachings . Attention has already been drawn to aeveral of these, and ;
certainly the most notable is the blatant manner in which the existence of a Self:!
is proclaimed with names that are as much Hindu aa Buddhist (aee, e.g., sect.ion{
111.6.b). At the same time Madbyamalta teachings concerning truth of the Void-?
are upheld, and the special theories of the Mind Only school are used and ::_
developed. This will be illustrated below, but fim one nttds to clarify those :
pattem5 of thought that are special to tantric yogins, thus distinguishing their •·
form of Buddhism 'from all that had gone before and which continued to go on ·
around them so long as Buddhism survived in India. A form of amalgamation ._
wu subtequently achieved in Tibet with the result that it is very difficult for a :
preamt-day Tibetan religiom teacher, who lives fully within the Tibetan
Buddhist tradition thal he has received, to distinguish between tantric and oon-
tantric Buddhism in the way in which an attempt will be made in this preaent
section.
Having n.amed these general categories of Buddhism as tantric: and non- '
tantric out of deference to a terminology well established in use, I have to qualify
t.hae tenns almoat to the e.xtent of rejecting them altogether. In a literal seme
tantt'a !'Mans more or less the same as sfllra, namely a "thread'' of di5Cou.rse,and ·:
it is thus the 1pecial application of the word and not iu literal meaning that
matten. Distinguished in the most general terms, one may say that s#ltra.satt · ·.
~~·
111.1&
.a Speci'al.Conceptsof Tamric Yogins 279
concerned with doctrine and tant,as with rituals, and thus one might f~ly
interpret "tantric" (the adjectival form of the word seems to be a Western
ruatinguish in this section between ritualistic and · nonritualistic Buddhism ,
especially as it may fairly be claimed that there has scarcely ever been any form
of Buddhism that has not involved rituals of some kind, even if one thinks only of
the cult that surrounded the early stnpas. Certainly no one would dispute the
great increase in ritual which took place in MaMyma Buddhi$m with its cult of
the Buddhas and Bodhisattva, and other great beings, not to mention the
attention that was still paid by faithful Buddhists to local essentially non-
Buddhist divinities . All this the Mahayana s-otras take for granted, and the
tantras classed as Action, Performantt and (to some extent) those known as
Yoga Tantras fit quite ea,ily into general Mahlyana phil0&ophical theory and
religious practice. Thus it comes about that we are really trying to di1tinguish
becWeen Mahayana Buddhism including th~ tantras that are closely relatable
on the one hand and the form of tantric Buddhiam, which may accurately be
described as Vajnytna, on the other. Such a distinction has not previously been
made to my knowledge in acholarly works on the subject, and the diatinction,
. real as it may be, is obscured in traditional works by the use of the term Mantra-
yana.which covers a11tantras, as distinct from Paromrianaya (System of the
Perfections), which covers tbe slltras with their philosophical teachings and their
preaching of the Bodlmattva ideal (see section 111.1 ). These traditional dis·
tinetiom, regarded u the two wings as it were of the MahlyAna, remain perfectly
valid, but they obscure cenain other distinction that can be drawn between
Mantrayma and the other term Vaj11lyana. "The Vajra Way'' has its origins in
Yoga Tantras and becomes fully developed in tantras of the Supreme Yoga class.
It is thus a IJ>Ccial Conn of Mantrayana, and it can be misleading when the two
terms are used as synonyms.as is often the case. I would scout altogether the
~ntirely untraditional use of the term "The Tantra" as used by several modem
writers to cover vaguely what is included under the traditional term Mantra,
yana, usually praented with special reference to sexual implications .
If one is to be as precise as p011ible. one may claim to be auempting to
distinguish between the form of Buddhism represented by tantric yogins, as
typified by the Eighty -Four Great Adepts (mahosiddha) on the one band and the
Mahiyma and related Mantraytna on the other. At the same time we note that
the latter already introduce certain novel ideas that are developed still funher in
Supreme Yoga Tantras. The primary idea that is novel so far as the rest of
Mahayana Buddhism is concerned is the primacy given to the Vajra as symbol
and the resulting preeminenee of the Vajra Family of divinities. As we have also
noted, secret consecratiom involving sexual yoga are refened to , although often
only implicitly, in Yoga tantras, and these become one of the main subjects of
tanu-as of the Supreme Yoga daa. Tantras of this class provide a speculative
basis of a quaaiphiJosophical kind for their sexual yoga, whether practiced as an
actual ritual or as a form of solitary internal yoga. This introduces us at once to
.. .
~'!f.....
280 Ill: T ANTRIC BUDDHISM JJI,15.b Special Concepts of Tantric Yogins 281

the most imponant of their special patterns of thought. ·}A
· Yoga Tantras are based upon a theory of buddhahood as fivefold in the':ii
manner already de.eribed in some detail. The ma~la is primarily the expres.:'
~;. ,,.
sion of the euential identity of saqaslra and nirw~ . where die one is interprete( .~· f.._: ··
lU the cosmos (composed of five main elements , space, air, fire , water, eanhr if
and the microcomios as represented by the human person (comp06ed again of\'I~ ·./
five aggregates aa defined in itection 1.8.b), and the other ia expreued aa the Fi~;j,{ (·:
Buddhas and the five aspects of wisdom. Now the tantras of tbe Supreme Yoga)r · (~
daa accept this fivefold arrange01Cnt in a general way, hut it has ceued to be/!'.'
i
panicularly relevant to their changed patterns of thought. A! Hevajra saye~- \
(p . 204) , the families can be three or five or six, and so far as he is concerned :;{~/:
tbett is really only one, and that is Abobhya 's Family of Wrath, which is thel j:{
family of all the great tanuic divinities. The final truth may be expreS11ed Ji,, /
symbolically by any of these numbers, but the favored expression now is twofold,{~~ (:
for the absolute is the union of two. These are normally known as Wisdom anl il (:
Means, term, often used in our discuaion above but without any careful\ ;;; ).
examination of their significance and origin. In that they may be identified with'_, ~;;. \ :
the old terms nirvaJ>a and •~ara, their need be nothing new except perhapa)~;. /
the strangeness of their use. Hevajra assures us that the ·"identity of Wisdom and :~. }· ..
\'~~
Means remaim unharmed by the twofold proceas of origination and diAolution, .J ':) ;:-
for Means is the origination and Wisdom the dissolution and end of existence''.i J,.~'::
(H.T ., ll. ii.27). Defining the final eacnce or quiddity (tattva) of existence , hei~i''
says that "passion and wrath, envy, delusion and pride (viz., the Five Evils}';j 1:,
cannot prevail one sixteenth pan against this blislful central point. "It i.;t;
Wisdom, where spac:elike, the elementa have their origin , thus comprising ;.~C
Means. It is there that the threefold world arises possessing the nature of}~:
Wisdom and Means.·• Thu, bis own mai,4ala, which is his own means of aelf-:J .tl _:i
expression, arises from this same basic duality, whether expressed as Wisdom j [ r_
and Means , Sun and Moon, ali (voweb) and JwJi(consonants). ;\j~ \
This de$Cription of the origin of Hevajra 's ma~la is significant in that not only
is the origin twofold, but also the more conventi onal fivefold pattern is reinter -
preted to represent the process of the original unity of two becoming manifold.
instead of b~ng itself the primary ex:preaion of a fundamental nonduality .
t With reference to the Four Joys as experienced through the set of four
conseaationa, this fundamental duality is expresaedas male and female:
Therefore twofold is the Innate , for W isdom is the woman and Means is the
Man. Thereafter theae both become twofold, distinguished as absol u te (vit,r,i )
and relativ e (sa'!'vrti). In man there is this twofold nature, the life-force
(sukra) and the bliss arising from it; in woman too it is the same. the life-force
and the bli11 arisingfrom it. 17t
Before treating this important aspect of the Wisdom-Means combination, we
should perhaps investigate its an tecedents in early Mahlylna teachings.
b. W.:Stlomand Means
The term wisdom (prajnd) is so old in Buddhism and so much has already
been written about the Perfection of Wisdom (Praj~Aplramitl) that nothing
more needs to be said about this in th e presen t context. The other term "skilful-
ness in means" (upaya -Junualya) occurs aev.!ral times in the "Perfection of
Wisdom in Eight Thousand Verses," which is one of the earliest of Mahlytna
philot0phical works, datable as was n0ted above to perhapt the fim century B.C .
It occun thm in combination with the Perfection of Wisdom, already forming in
effect a pair of necessary qualities for a Bodhisatt\'a , in that they should qualify
all the other great perfections, which at this stage of the doc t rine are six, namely
generosity , morality , patience, heroism, meditation and wildom . When the list
is later extended to ten, "skill in means" becomes the seventh, bu t it continues to
hold a special place , pervading all the others. as does its companion . wisdom.
Some earlier quotati ons are already available (especially in aection II .3.c), and
so here one or two other short example$ should suffice. Thm, the Lord Buddha
explains to the chief of the gods. whom he addreua with the brahmanical name

~i:-:-; .:::::::..~::-.::
From thisminglingofMoon
:t1 ::1.
.:-.;.: ·=
and Sun . Gauri and hercompanions(whoform
:II
'lJ.(
ofKau!ika:
When there are no Worthy Tathagatas, Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas in
the world, then Kauiika those Great Beings , the Bodhisattva, who are poe-
seMC<iof skill in means from the flow of the perfec tion of wiadom previously

i;E;=:.:E.:...
Seed -syllablca and symbols of the choeen divinity are Discriminating Wisdom:
T he merging of all into one is Active Wisdom ;
._-_; :·-~

_,.-,
----,~_·_l,_:,;
.i._•;·. r heard , feel compassion for living beings. and arousing this compassion, they
come to this world 1md foster the ten vinuoua ways of behavior , the four ecatea
of meditation but without the factors of enlightenmen t , the four "pure
abodes" ( brahmaviMra), again without the factors of enlightenment. the four
.:~~~
The manifestation is the Wisdom of the Pure Absolute. formless attainments and the five magicaJ accompluhmenta, all without the
The wiae man should conceive of phenomenal forms in terms of these five factors of enlightenment. So Kautika, just a&planta and bright stones reflect
modes here listed. the light of the moon and the lunar mansions reflect its light , so in the absence
With feature& and symbolic implements as before . and brilliant as 'the of Worthy Tathagatu, Perfectly Enlightened Buddhaa, when there is no holy
magic moon-a to ne , they all become manifeatwith th e nature ofWiadom religion of a Wonhy TathAgata. a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha, whatever
andMeans .zn holy conduct, good conduct, virtuous conduct is manifested and recognized
m H.T., J.•iii.5-8. 10. ff t H .T ., 1.viii.27-9.
 282 Ill: TANTillC BUDDHISM
in this world, all that comes about through rM Bodh.iaattvas, is produced
the Bodhisattvas and becomes manifest by their sir.illin means.2n
In the above pa111age skill in means is effectively identified with comp~-.
(M~lli), with the result that the pair Wisdom and Means become synonym ····
in Mahlytna usage with Wisdom and Compassion.
Another shon extnct aeaena the equal and primary importance of Wild
and Means:
Ev~n if a Bodhisattva, a G.r~t Being. having raiaed hls thought&to perfe
enhghtenment~ should pracoce gener01iay for world-ages aa many u are
~nd1 of the. River Ganges: should_ pr~tice morality, operate with patienc
display heroism and pracuce meditation-however great may be his reao
aud however great may be the uplifting of hia thought for the realization
perfect enlightenment - if he is not encompa•ed by the Perfection of Wisd~
~d ,if he ia deprived of skill in means, he will fall to the state of an Earlj.
Disciple or a Lone Buddha .211 l than may be the case. 11' At all events it must be emphasized that here Means
The importance of Wisdom and Meam is increasingly urged throughout th _ ,.
Mahlylna period and quotations might be culled from very many sutru on · concept be construed as an end in itself, as is certainly the cue with the Per ·
subject. For our immediate purpoea it i4 enough to refer to one of the writi
attributed to w Indian monlt Kamalallla, who represented the case for India ·
Buddhism and specifically the teachings concerning the conventional career of
Bodhiaattva against the case for a kind of Chinese Buddhism, involving a quietis
approach to buddhahood, at a general council that may have been held in'.
Lhua or bSam-yu Monastery toward the end of the eighth century (see teetion:
V.2.a). In order to argue his case Kamala&fla quoted from a large number o(
Mahayana Mitras in which the importance of Wisdom and Meana is mentioned ;
several times: · general context of Indian Buddhism, this latest one might claim to be a restate-
,.
In. short the practice of a Bodhisattva consists of Wisdom and Means,
Wisdom alone and not Means alone . As it is said in the Yimalalclrtinirdda- :
S&t"a:"Wudom _without Me~ns or ~eans without Wisdom is the thwarting of
Bodhssattvas; Wisdom combmed with Means, Means combined with Wisdom ,'
thla is the prescription for salvation." Again it is •aid in the Gaydfft'.saSutra; (.
"Expressed in concise terms, 1he way of a Bodhisattva is twofold. Bodhisattvas ;
~ho follow this twofold way, quickly achieve the supreme and highest en· .
b.ghtenment. What ue these two? Meana and Witdoml" · quoced (111.10 & 14.f). He and Kamalaiila may well have been comemporarie,,
Or again:
Even so is achieved the nirvif,UIof the Buddhaa, where there is no reliance on :,;
anything. By the means of their generoeiay and the other perfections they do';
. 17s For the Sam!Lrit - _ASP. Vaidya'• t'd., p. S'7, U. 21ff. Compatt E. Coc111,,ASP (tr.UIS·_'
lauon), P•%8.The corrapondmg passageJn bis Tiu IArgt Sutra of P~,fut Wisdom will be found an ·.
pp. !S'7,8. I inay be wrong in u:amlatiftg tm u ''bright SU>neS," as Mstan " would~ a JMrt' ob9.lous ::
translation. Wl/t'ennt t~ tenn linked hen Mch "planlsM(•u,adhi} which wt:tt supt)OO!dco Ooarl$h '
u~ulw llgb1ofw IIIOOII. See S. 8. Duppta, ObM:i,reReligiot&S Cults, pp. 250-1.
!74 Set-ASP, ed . Vaidya, p. 1&5,I. 26; E. Conze. p . 116, and also bia I.arr- Slilra , p . 380.
I
·_:;
;-~
Special Conceptsof Tantric Yogirts 283
b~i not repose in niryll}&, for they accept the magnificent results (of their effort.a)
~1
..,,:,., in the enjoyment of their manifestation-body (rij)4-k4'a), their Buddha-field,
their entourage etc. But becauee of their witdom they do not rcpo,e in
saquu-a. for they have renounced all fabe notions, and false notiona att the
ba,is of saquara. According to a proceu that consists of Wisdom and Means,
they eechew over emphuil and undervaluation, thus evincing a medial
process, and so avoiding overemphuis on Wudom and undervaluation of
Means. So ii is said in the Dharmasa,tgiti: "He delights in the perfection of a
rnaoifutation-body with the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of per·
fection, and be does not delight only in the realization of his Ablohue Body
(Dh.arma·ktiya) ." Furthermore it is said: "The arising ofBuddbasoccun when
Wiedom and Means are produced in mutual dependence, "i'J$
These last few extracts illustrate the ,pecial significance of Wiadom and
.Means in traditional Mahlyua doctrine, although the mere making of such a
selection may suggest that u a pair they are more prominent in such teaching
remain a doctrinal concept, serving as me&ns to an end, and in no aeme can dw
fection of Wisdom, which is identified with the Void(ffm,at4) as a metaphysical
absolute. However, in terms of the evolving thought patterns of Buddhist tantric
yogina,Means as a concept is elevated to this high position, thus providing them
with the du.al form of metaphyaical ablolute which is nquired if their whole
theory of existence as the state of "two-in-one" is to be philosophically justified.
The previo1.11extracts from the Hevcj1'0 Tantni have already ilhutrated how this
"two-in-one" concept is taken for granted. As in the case of other developments
or theory and practice that have been deaaibed aa taking place within the
ment of what was already asserted in Madhyamaka teaching, namely the
no;
:; ~.ntial identity of nirv~ and s~lra u equally void (.furrya). Indeed, the
extract from K.amalaifla quoted just above suggests a parallel between nirvll}&/
saqialra and Wisdom/Means, but this certainly does not raw the latter pair to
the state of metaphysical absolute. For this we must turn to another Buddhist
scholar, who i, also a renowned tantric yogin, namely Anangavajra, from whoee
work "The Auaimru:nt of the Realization of Wisdom and Means" I have already
and one may take this occasion to observe that the older and the newer inter ·
pretacions of Buddhist doctrine continued to exist side by side throughout the
history of Indian Buddhism, and thus references to t&fttric Buddhism a, the last
phase of Buddhism in India should not suggest that this phase eclipsed all that
17~ ~ G. Tutti. Minor Batlrlhilt 1'ul&, U, for the .llliiwni.lrramaol Kamaldlla , pp. 155ff. The
Sanskrit wnloo of the abme a.ttacta occ11n on p . 194. n.6ff. u,d p . 197, II. lff. (Tl~tan : p. 238,
II.!6ff. and p. H5, D. 1!ff.). Thett is no English ttualadon but only a r&ume.
t?i See e.g., Har Dayal, Tile Bod1aisaltvoDoctrme. pp. 248-79, wheic he disc1Wcs a.ill in meant
. a, dte seYffllh of dll! set of ten Perfection,, but without any refeffnce to ita sp«ial rdatiomhip with
Wisdom.
!84 III: T ANTRJC BUDDHISM
had gone before.'" Anangavajra's interpretation of Wisdom/Means is int~rt:St-
ing in that it deliberately links the m0tt traditional version with the enhanced
tantric one:
The nomubstantiality of things which ia realized br reflectim: and by dia- ;:
criminating between the act of knowing and what II known, 11 called the ,
eaence of Wisdom. . ;
Becauee one 11pa11ionately devoted to all bei~ w~o have faile~ to extric~te _:
themselves from a whole Hood of suffering, this pa•ionate devotion of w~1ch:
their suffering is the cause is known as Compassion. In ~at one thereby ~nngs .:_;
a man to the desired end by a combination of appropriate measures; 1t JS also :,
called the Means. ·.
The mingling of both, which is like t_hat of _water and milk, is known as.:
Wisdom-Means in a union free of dualny . h 1s the etSence of Dharma, t~:
which nothing may be added and from which ?othing may be wi~hdrawn. It 11;;
free from the two notions of subject and obJcct, free from betng and non- :
being, from characterizing and characteristi~; it is pure and im~culate. in·_
its own nature. Neither duality nor nondualtty, calm and tranqwl it consisu:
in all things. motionlC$$ and unflurricd; such is Wudom·Meam, which may be_:
known intuitively. It ia thia that is called the aupreme and won~ous a~de of
all Buddhas, the Dhanna-sphere, the divine cause of the perfection of bl111.k:_
is NirvlJJa Indeterminate (aprati',fhitanirv41J4) and is frequented by the,'
Buddhaa of the Pait, Pre.ent and Future; it i:s the blissful "":ge of sel£·.:,
empowerment (sv4dh~~h,ma,), the beatitude of the Perfectio~ of W_i~m, The:
three Buddha-bodies, the three Buddhist vehicles, mantras 1n their innumer ·:.:
able thousands, mudras and ma"4ala-circles, phenomenal m~tence and that_::
which transcend, it, all ariae from the same source; gods and tllana and men ~:,
disembodied spirits and w~teVCr else ~ista, ~ spri'_lg fron_t here a~ retu~i
here to their c:easation. It abides always in all things like a w1sh·grantmg gem,:_
it is the final stage of Enjoyment and R.eleaae . It is-~ that the 81.ased Ones'.
met in ti~ pa~ and so became Buddbaa, ·and n ~ here that t~ intent::
on the good of the world become Buddhas now and wtll always do so in future ::
It is called the Great Blia, for it conaiats of bliss unending; it ia the Supreme:
One, the Universal Good, the producer of Perfect Enlightenment. The great_
sages define thi& truth, w~ch is t~ s~~reme bliss of telf and othe~. as the:
union of limitless Compua1on, whach II mtent alone on the deatruc:t1on of all-
the world's suffering, and of perfect Wisdom, which is free from all attach•, ..
ment and is an accumulation of knowledge that may not be reckoned, so grca" ::
is its diveraity. 271 ..
The Hevajra Ta.ntro might be regarded as the wcw cla.ssicusfor refercn~ to(
Wisdom and Means as the fundamental pair of coefficients, whose wuoit:
211 B. Bhana.cltaryya a.nd I seem to agree in placing Anang~vajra ro~d about the e.igmh ceorury;}
see ihe introduction w bis Two Jlajra,ima Wor.ls. pp. xl-idi and my mtroduction to the H11.,,
Tamra, ,'01.I. p. 15. · f Iii/
'71 For the Saneltrit aiz B. Bbanacharyya. Two Vajra,ano WoTi.,, p. 4, vene 14 10 the elld o t .
fint chapcer. for the Tib~an, Re TI . vol. 68, pp. 239 -1-lf(. l tn11111lated
die whok chapter maD1:,
yean ago in Buddilist Tats through IM lfg11, PP· U0-2 . ··;
111.15.b Spec-ialCO'llcepts
of Tantric Yogins 285
produce the state of Great Bliss which is essentially innate to the whole. of
exiatence. With the,e tenm the tantric yogins are able to link their theoriea and
practicea directly with the more conventional Mahlylna teachings while
endowing them with interpretations of a rather different kind. Furthermore, by
identifying their union with the Void of the Perfection of Wisdom teachings they
achieve an appearance of orthodoxy which has been readily accepted by their
Tibetan succeaeon, whatevrr namca with more positive or even tbeiatic impli·
cation they may use whenever it suits them.
Then the quiddity (tattva) iadedared as a form of knowledge purified,
where there is no aeparation between aa~a and nif'Yll}a,
Nothing is mentaUy produced in the highest bli• and no one produca it.
There is no bodily form, neither object nor subject,
Neither fleeh nor blood, neither dung nor urine,
No sickness, no deluaion, no purification,
No paseion, no wrath, no delueion, no envy,
No malignity, no conceit of adf, no vieible object,
Nothing mentally produced and no producer,
No friend is there, no enemy,
Calm is the Innate and undifferentiate<f.n»
This central truth of the Mahayana ie expreseed in more .cholaatic terms in
Naropa's commentary on the Kdlacakra Tantra:
..--romthe absence of self·nature a thing is void and the state of wmething thus
void is voidneas (.ivnycata),Knowledge of paet and future ia void . The vision of
dm is a etate which ia voidness profound and vut. In that put and future are
void, it is profound. In that there is thi5 vision of past and future, it isvast. The
purification resulting from it ie the Great Bli• which is changele• becauae of
the inviolate Fourth State. Of this bliss it is said "it arrests," its mark being
compassion, while it is the adamanrine state of knowledge. It is truly the Body
of the Innate penonified u Wisdom and Means and it ia described a, Yoga
Purified.*
The technical term used to express this notion which I have translated a&
"two-in-one" i, Sanskrit yuganaddha, meaning literally "bound to a yoke,·' and
the uaa~ by tantric yogins doubtleu derive& from the sight of two oxen bound to
a yoke. The Tibetan translators deviaed the term ztmg• 'jug meaning "combine as
a pair," and "two-in-one" 1eem& an
acceptable English tranalarion. The last
chapter of a shon work entided Pancakrama (Fivefold Series) written by a
certain Nlgarjuna, whom Tibetan tradition identuie& with the renowned
Madhyamaka teacher. is devoted entirely to defmidons of the ''two-in-one", and
the opening ver1e may be quo&ed:
Bowing before the Lord who penonifies both cause and effect
and isytt free of all duality, I write this final section on "two-in-one."
t'9 H. T., l.x.32-4.
tao M. E. Carelli, S,l&odd4iati"4, p. 6, II. l9ff .; IT. ~I. 47, pp . l07-!·5ff.
286 UI: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
Where there is frttdom from the dual conception of s~aara and oirvtr,a,
in the state where they are one, this then is called the "two-in-one,"
Knowing emotional disturbance (saqil&Wa)and iu aasuaging in tentl4 of
absolute truth, whoever thus recognizes their unified state, be knows
the "two-in-one."
The yogin who goes his way unifying the concepts of things with fonn
and yet as formless, he knows the "two-in-one,"
The wise man does not think of subject and object as distinct,
and where there is no such diatinction, this is the "two-in-one,,. I say.
The one who has cast aside thoughts of eternity and noneteroity,
who knows this truth we call as "series two-in-one," be is a pa,µ!ita indeed.
Where there ii the knowledge of the unity of Wisdom and Cornpa•ion,
that is proclaimed as "two-in-one" and this series is the Buddha-sphere.
Knowing Wiadom and Mean&as altogether joined in union, there where
a great yogin takes hia place, that ii the "two-in-one. •,ui
This dual concept of "two-in-one" expresaed u Wiadom/Mean.s, Voidneal _.,.
Compassion, Female/Male, Lotu.s/Vajra, is fundamental to the though(
patterns of tantric yogins. ln their 10ngaof the kind quoted above (see Songs in:
the Index) other paira, such as Sun and Moon, the Riven Ganges and Jumna, .
are ftt:quent, and we have abo encountered the pair tili (vowel1)/kali (con-:
sonarus) used with the same general muning, but with particular reference to,,
the aeries of letters envisaged u moving with the control of breath to the two~
sides of the practicing yogin'&body. 281 The use of the namea of the two riven, :!-
Gangea and Jumna, may be regarded as confirming the general area, namely the;,
central and lower GangesValley, where many tancru of the Supreme Yoga clali
were probably compiled, We may note in passing that at least one famous
tantra, the Guhyasam4ja, does not make uae of this fundamental dual concept..
but continues to u.scthe threefold concept of Body, Speech and Mind or of th~
Three Buddha-families., and the fivefold one of the Five Buddha-families, as
already illustrated by aeveral quotations already available. The basic ma~ala o~
thi&tantta ii aJao the regular Five-Buddha maJ>CJalawith Aqobhya to the center ..
and all subsumed by the supreme (sixth) Buddha, the Great Vairocana. Jn thls::
too it diffcn subtly from the tantras which center on Herulta in one of ~
horrific form&, Hevajra, Cakraaa~vara, Car,4&mahl~J.l& etc. Theae divinitiea:
have their more personal circle of attendant divinities and are themselves ·
Ul See L. ck la V,dlte Pomlin's ed. ohhe l'dcohrca""', p. 46, vv. 1-8. Tbia ii in fact the Gfth ::
chapter akbolll'h •~ lw i1 u sixth, having publiabcd a 1hort 11ep•ratcwork of the 1amc Ni(iljum a,.•·
a ... ppou,d Ii.- chap..,,.. See allO S. B. Dalppta. Obscvtt R.tigioMS Culls, pp. 29-90 for a loolc:·
translarion al the same .-enea and aome - ~-1 ull!fu• obaenatiom. See abo Per Kweme. op.:·
eit .• pp. 1!2-S where man, IIMlff of the wne• are cranabred. The Tibe1:an truulation of the WOl'k:
(TI. vol. 61. pp. !88-5-?ff.) was doo.e by the great Rin-dien bung-po and bis Kashmir! leadler :.
bmakamanti around A.D. 1000. h ia generally agittd by non-Tibetan tcbolan that the tw0 ·
Nigarjunu, Madhyam.aka (?fint ttntUJ}' A.D.) and taotric yogin (?nintb-muh century). canno1 be<
c~. , taminology in use tbro1.1ghout the piese-nt book ; e.g .• he n:feu to '1our bli.u ," in itself an
tu FoT an example cl w, see &a&iD•w• Samdup'a irallll&tion of the relcvam pa.,.e in W. Y.. :,
Evana-Weaa, T'"'411 YopandS,cnt~w.pP.180-1.
f)I .15.b SpeciaJConcepts o/Tantric Yo,im 287
represented as embraced at the center of their mai;iC,.alaby their particularized
feminine partner, thus aymholizing the Wiadom/Mean1 concept as the eeaence of
existence. As is weUknown, this concept ia carried over in Buddhist iconography
in the form of a pair of such divinities, usually horrific in appearance, shown in
dose embrace. Few such images have aurvived in India, but they are well
represented in Nepal and Tibet. Their mai;i4ala continues to be identified with
the more regular Five-Buddha mal)C,.ala,but may claim to tranacend it in that
all the earlier family distinctions are united in the one Vajra family. Thus at the
beginning of lbe Catt<l,amahurolf'IJIJ Tantra the "Fierce and Wrathful One" and
his spouse "Q.uccn of the Vajra-Spbere" announce themaelvcs thus:
Then the Lord Vajra-Being, entering the state of composure of the Black
Imperturbable One (Acala "' Aqobhya) proclaimed this:
Intent only on the Four Joys I am freed Cromexistence and nonexistence.
Mynueform ianondiversified( nil)prapanca) avoiding an conceptualiiatiom.
Deluded men do not recognize me as present in all males
and it is for their benefit that I appear in fivefold form.
Then the Lady Q.ucen of the Vajra-sphere, entering the state of composure
known as Black Adamantine, proclaimed this:
I am undifferentiated Void and Compassion, manifest as the bliss of
divine desire.
I am free of all concepts. nonevolving and unencumbered.
Foolish men do not recognize me as present in all females
and it is for their benefit that I appear in fivefold fonn. m
As may have been noted from the quotation from the Hew.fra Tantra just above,
not only does this pair repre.ent a unity, but each one of the pair compriles the
fundamental duality within itself. Since all these tantric texts now under con-
sideration have clearly been produced primarily for the benefit of male prac-
titioners, the transference of the whole sexual ~bolism to the human body
ia regularly deacribed i.n terms of the male, although in theory at least it should
also be appHc.ablc to the female. In the descriptions of the "Further Con-
secrations" given above, the feminine partner known u the Wisdom-Maiden
(prajful) and supposedly embodying this great perfection of wisdom, ii in effect
used as a means to an end, which ii experienced by the yogin him&elf. Moreover,
once he has mastered the requisite yoga techniques he has no need of a feminine
panner, £or the whole process is recnacted within his own body. The revene
situation is acarcely suggeated, namely that a woman requirea a male partner in
order to experience the Four Joys and that having maatered the technique, she
can do it alone. Thu• despite the eulogies of woman in thete tantras and her high
symbolic statua, the whole theory and practice is given for the benefit of males.
m s~ C. S. George. Th• C81}4amohirr*1)a T.mtra, p. 18, ll. lOff. for the Sanslnic cen. For his
tTa11$lationsee p. 4r». I haYeretrambted the pasta~ in order 10 ke'l) as close as ~ible 10 tlw
acc:eptable tranalation, wbereu l and OlheTS refer to "four joys," retaining "blill'. for '11lha. which he
1ta11al•caperhaps too fttbly u ~happiPCIII.~
288 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM UJ.l&.c Special Concepts of Tanh'ic Yogms 289

While the relative neglect of woman's intereeta in pursuing a higher religious life . so dreadful to see when thrown into the cemetery.
is typical of Buddhism of all periods, simply because her ability to do so is :_ When the skin is torn apart, one has a feeling of great horror.
doubted ao Jong as she ie encumbered with a female body, this form of tantric .·· Once you know chat, how can you thereafter take delight in that objcct? 216
Buddhism appears to offer her hope at last, but in the actual event seems to fail : All such morbid thoughts are totally nrange to tantric yogins, since for them the
to do so.~ As should already be clear from the above quotations, her body : human body is a means of delight and the source of all bliss. Thw Saraha can
compriaes Wisdom and Means as well as the expression of their unity known as :
sing:
bodhicitta ("thought of enlightenment'') ju.st as much as does the male, but aa :
might well be expected, when one takes account of the time and place of their ·· Don't. concentrate on yourself, restricting your breath.
origin, the practical descriptions normally assume that the aaual practitioner is · Fie, yogin, don't squint at the end of your nose.
male. This must already be clear from all the quotatioru throughout thil long : O fool, hold fast to the Innate,
And abandon the clinging bonds of existence.
chapter on the tantras. However, it is sufficiently clearly stated that the human :
Bring together in thought the restless wavesof breath.
body, whether male or female, comprises the essential elementa for the realiza- · Then know the true nature of the Innate,
tion of enlightenment. as understood by these tantric yogins. And this becomes still of itself.
When the mind goes to rest
c. The Cult of th, Human Bod1 And the bonds of the body are destroyed,
Care of the human body u the means for the practice of meditation need no,· . Then the one flavor of the Innate pour1 forth
be anything new in Buddhism, but the oven cult of the body that now finch · And there is neither outcaste nor brahmin.
expression during the later tantric period ia certainly ,oemthing new. Early ··. Here is the sacredJumna and here the River Ganges,
Buddhist teachings insist upon the need for carefully controlled use of the body. -: Here arc Prayaga and Benarca, here are Sun and Moon .
but these arc accompanied by vivid descriptions of the foul aspects of the living. I ha~ visited in my wanderings shrines and other places of pilgrimage
organiam in order to inculcate a sense of detachment from one's seH and affnion But I have not seen another shrine blissful like my own body.,..,
to contact with others, especially with women. This tradition continues right Hevajra proclaims even more clearly:
through the Mahlylna period, and for the later examples one need only tum to :
In the absence of the body bow could there be bliss?
the eighth chapter of Slotideva's famous work "Entering upon the Career '; Of bli.a one could not speak.The world is pervaded by bliM,
toward Enlightenment" (Bodhicarytill(Ucira) or the thirteenth chapter of his · which is itself both the pervader and the pervaded.
"Compendium of Instruction" (S~JOmucca,a). For easier reference one may ,3 Just as t.be perfume of a flower depends upon the flower
tum to a shon work attributed to the great Nagirjuna entitled "The Precious .::. and without the flower becomes impossible,
Garland of Advice for the King." u recently translated by Jeffrey Hopkim:"'t Likewise without form and so on bliss could not be perceived.
lam what exists, yet I am not what exists; I am the Enlightened One
Lust for a woman mostly comes becaure I know things for what they aJ"C.
From thinking that her body is clean, But those fools who are afflicted with indolence do not know me.
But there is nothing clean in a woman's body. I dwell in that Paradise of Bliss (sukhaV4tf; in the bhaga
The mouth is a vessel filled with foul saliva and filth between the teeth, of the Vajra •Maiden, in the casket of Buddha-gems
The no,e with fluids, mot and mucus, with the form of the letter E. 1811
The eyes with their own filth and tears. . ..
The identity of the world of phenomenal fonns (saqislra) with the abaolute truth
A favorite theme is to compare live bodies with dead ones, especially thme which transcends them and yet is involved in them is an essential part of Maha-
rotting in cemeteries: yana teaching. What ia new therefore ie the ezplicit identifying of this duality
If you still harbor doubts about t.benature of such filth within the human body, whether of the male and female in union as practiced in
even when before your own eyee, the "higher" consecrations, or within the single human body, envieaged aa com-
Then go and look at the bodies of others tM Bodllit:oryavotara.VIII. w. 6$-4. .
u, See BIUUliist Te,its tliro~k tk, Agu, ed . E. Conze , p. 230.
IS+ A ran cue of 1peciAIpnwislon ro~ kmale disciple. being cited occurt in C. S. George-,op._,:ii., WI H.T .. U.ii.55,8. The tmn bliqa , which I leaw. unc,anslated in accordance with the tradition
pp. 54-!I (Sanskrit p. l!l, ll. 41ff.). but this ia only for the finr con.ecradon, as already catered l'or in of cl~ early Tibetan t'l'&nsla.ton,meam not OA!yvagloa, but aho bS-ed- or good fonune (uoually
the- MK; see pp. 22!'1·6above. •pelt u bftap in this aemr with a lo03 o ,ouod) and it i& o&tn inettpretm u this by cunmrntaton
185 See hi$ 1'fte 1'recio11S Gadand and th, Son«of the Four MindfvJ1Utsse.1 , p. 39. wbrn e11plaio.i03II In the ptttenl context. See allo p. 248.
 290 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
prising within itself the two vital coefficients, Wisdom/Means and female/ma)c
expressed most succinctly in the term EVA~ (thus). As we have &een, £ (tb.
Sanakrit letter is shaped aa a narrow triangle 'tl) indicates the female orga
(lotus) and VA~ the male (vajra). Within the single body of a practi<:ing yogin '
represents the general area of the genitals up to the navel and v AJifis the bead
The same thought-pattern is also represented by the word AHAlt'f, meaning
myself, whereA is below the navel and HA¥ ia in the bead. Their reunion may b
represented in Jungian terms perhaps as the reintegration of the self, but i ·
Buddhist terms it is final truth, devoid of self, referred to technicaUy as t
"Proeea of Realization" (sampannakrama). ..
The expression of their union is the bodhicitta ("thought of enlighte.iunentj,
which in the more conventional Mahayana setting depends upon the WisdOll\
and Means of a Bodhisattva for its effective existence. In snch a comext it me ·
literally the aspiration toward enlightenment, which is the driving force for ·
heroic activities throughout so many rebirths in all spheres of sa~ara. Whi ·
coutinuing to retain this meaning throughout t~ remaining period left
Buddhism in India, it was used by tantric yogim to refer to that vital fon: ·
resulting from the union of Wisdom and Mea111,undentood as the perfect unio~
of the male and the female elements. Thus in terms of consecration rita
described in the last section it refer, to .semen virile and especially the drop
retaken from the vagina of the feminine partner. with which the pupil receives
the Secret Consecration. It is likewise the drop that reaches the "vajra-gem" in.
the Coneecration of the Knowledge of Wisdom, and of which there mu.at then 1,c·
no emission. Vajragarbha, who i5 Hevajra's main interlocutor in the Hevafra
Tantra, says: · tongue. The central channel, which unites the other two, is known as AvadbllU,
So one must nor eject this "camphor," which arises from all the yoginls.
Its nature is the Joy Innate, indestructible and luscious. pervasive as the sky.
The Lord repliea: "It is even as you say." .,
Vajragarbha asks: "By what means should one arouse this 'thought of.:~
enlightenment?" . '°i
The Lord replies: "One should arouse the 'thought of enlightenment' in iu-{
relative and absolute aspects by means of the max,cjala-circle and $0 on and by\
means of the process of self-empowerment. As relative white as white jumine, ?
as absolute ~ntially bliuful, it ari.es in the Paradise of Blisa (sukhdvatl) in)
woman's kaltkola as &ymbolizedby the word EVA~. We call it Paradise of Bli.ss/
because of bliss it is the keeper, being the resort of aJI Buddhaa, Bodhi,utvu ::
and Vajra-holders ."llll9 ··
Regarded under the-.e relative and abaolute aspects, this "thought of enlighten· }
m H .T .. fl.iv .25-31. "camphor" ill enigmatic langva~ (•lld.uM11J<1) for .fukra <-t.· ··
"4.Ut>lcmeant thi, female organ, pairing with bolo, the ma~ OM. The y,gi..ts, whence the "cam· '
pitor" arilts, mun here the "nerves" 01' poyclucchannel, (nil!li), which will b,e discussed.immediarrly.
As funher explai.-:1 by Ka~ha (H. V.. \·ol. 11. p. 147), the bodliiaitJJi$ arouRd in iis ~lative fon11.
by the ma~ab and so on (vit,. the Pi:oc:eu of l!'.manation) and in iis a.bsolutr form by the pr«- of
self~mpo~tmem (viz., the Proc.eu of Realization). Thw despite die SClllW symbolism there is no··.'
actual li6ual inrolvellleD.t.
291
1.11ent"becomes yet one more name for the "two-in-one," and so regarded, it
exisu as much in woman as in man (H .T., l.viii.27·9). Thus the pair Wildom/
Means is alao comprised within the human body with the result that we have a
doubling of the imagery, and one may well ask what may be the sense of
"thought of enlightenment" when enviaaged as the union of Wisdom/Means
within a female body. It can no longer be semen vin'l, it its relative form. Once
tM' imagery is tramferred within the body, we are clearly concerned with the
control of breath regarded as the carrier of fragmemed thought. When the
breath, passing as envisaged up and down the two sida of the body, is brought
under control, then d#cursivc thoughts are stilled, thus entering the state
referred to as "thought of enlightenment," which still retains however its &eXual
as5ociation. The breath u gradually controlled is envisaged as traversing two
psychic channels situated to the sides of the body, which come together near the
sexual organ where the "thought of enlightenment" in its relative senae is
produced . From here there rises the centTa) channel , which connects the four
"oerve-centers" (cakni, i.e ., wheels represented by lotus flowers, Stt above
pp. 2S1-2) at the navel, bean, throat and head, named, as we have seen, after the
four Buddha-bodiea. The "thought of enlightenment" aecends this channel, thus
assuming its absolute aspect and so pervading the whole body with bliss. The
thought pattern of Wisdom/Mean, and all the equivalent pairs are tranafem!d
into the body by identifying the channel on the kft side as Wisdom and so as
feminine, and the one on the right aide as male and so as Meam. They are
known by d~ strange names of Lalana and Rasanl, of which the literal
meanings arc perhape "wanton woman" and "organ of t.ute," specifically the
meaning literally "anchoress." However, all these terms may be accepted as
enigmatic language (sandktibh~a) whatever their literal meanings. Continuing
tM sexual symbolism, the two other channels are said to carry the uterine blood
and semen, which unifies as the thought of enlightenment. which in this context
becomes a mingling of the two. One may note that likewise vafra ma.yrefer to the
ab,olute itself, thu.s being identical with t~ two-iu•one, or paired with "lotus," it
may refer to the male coefficient alone. One must be prepared for a certain
capriciousness in all the,e identifications and cr011-identifications. The central
channel is abo identified with the Wisdom-Maiden. Thus it is known on the one
hand as the Great Symbol (mahamudni) and on the other nicknamed as J;)ombi.
Again she is known as Car,tµII (Outcute), which the Tibetans have translated as
gTum-mo. meaning "raging" with the notion of raging heat. She i$so named in
the concluding ver1e of the fin, chapter of the Heva.fra Tantra with direct
reference to the other identifications within the body that we are now con-
sidering:
Cai;i(Jal1blazes at the navel .
Six- burns the Five Tath~tas.
She burns Locan1 and the ethers.
· ffA¥ is burnt and the Moon diuolves.
292 III: TANTlt.lC BUDDHISM
Various interpretations may be given, but the mo&t dh~ct identifies the Fiw ·
Tathagatas with d.1efive aggregates (skandha) of peraonaJity, viz.• the human•
being a, microcosm, while Locanl and the other three goddeues atand for the.
elements of eanh. water, fire and air, namely the macrocosm. Caa;icµUblazing: ,
at the navel correaponds to the Sun aa distinguished from the Moon in the head, ::
the fusion of the two resulting in the bliss of the two-in-one. The same polarity .
identifies her with the syllable A correaponding with HAll/f in the hud, thus :
producing together AHA¥ (I myself) as yet another term for the two-in-one. It
may be noted that the commentaries often interpret CQ.tJt/411 as a composition of ·
ea~ meaning "fierce" and identified with Wisdom in that it cuts away an.
emotional disturbances, and till corresponding with Means. Thus Ca~4'11 ·=.
corresponds with the thought of enlightenment produced by the union of :~
Wisdom in the left channel and Me.am in the right. Here one may note a further :i
example of innocent capriciousness, for when the two-in-one is exprcaed as a i·
union of ali (vowels) and 1cali(consonants), a.Iicorresponds with Wi&dom and
ktlli with Meana. It may aho be noted that the tenn Mystic Heat has come into
vogue in some English versions of Tibetan works, where gTum.-mo ( = Ca~)
i, under cwcusaion, and thil form of yoga ha, been de1cribed u though iaa main
purpose were to produce actual physical warmth. It is described quite explicitly
in these term, by Alexandra David-Neil, probably representing popular Tibetan
ideas on the subject.no W. Y. Evans-Wentz describes gTum-mo as "meaning
Psychic (or Vital or Secret) Heat (or Warmth), which is the nece.ary driving
force for tbe devotees seeking spiritual development, and the means for tM
solitary hermit, in the very severe cold of the snowy ranges of Tibet, to be com -
fortable without fare." Tbe following treatiae on the subject makes it quite dear
that the sensation of heat is only one of the many factors involved, and that this
is not primarily a warmth•producing exercise. m
m
t90 Hct book Willi MysticsOAdMt.wicifJns TiiHt coot.ailltla chap~r on "Yogi<:Spor11."where
compctitioN in licepillf the body warm by tantric meibod6 att ctc.cribed. While I remain rather
or her ROrie., there .iii no doubt dw Tibetans gnerally belle¥e that che body can be
•ltcptica1 of 10111e
kept warm by tuch methoda.
ttl See W. Y. Evam-Wenu, Tibaton Yap and Secret Doct'lffU$, pp. 17!ff. Stt also H. V,
Guenther, Tlui Life cmd TeaCM!f of Nilft>pq.,pp. SSIJ. where there is a clewled dt:scripoon oC
symbols and sigm involoed in thi, Cai;wµI ,op, which be follows the otner5in referring to as the
~mystic beat ," thua Oftl'ffllpbasizingagain die sipificantt of heat in accordance with lam Tibetan
tramtion. ln tbii nspcct one might mer to a ahon an:ide in the Times of l"4ia, 8 Feb. 1982, p. !>,
entitled "M.ookaCan llaiiit-Body Tcmpnature" and where we are informed that "A team of .cient»ts
wbo recently wi~ for the lim lime Tibetan 'heat meditation' ritual,i, bave rep«led that the
claims are true-the moub c.an will char bodies to beat up by a1 much as 8.5 degua C in le11than
an hour. . , . The team monil~ed •il:al 1ip and temperalu~ of thl't'Clama. u tbqr practittd yoga
meditation known u •rum,mo' or 'beat meditation'. Small cemperature-Jenaing wire Weft taped to
the lkin of the monb In a number of locatiom - the spine. calf, navel, palm, toe and finger.
Measurement mcmko~d throughout tht: one hour of meditation revealed that the tcmpmuure deep
in the body remained normal whik skin tc,npcrawre of the lam.u rose all over by 1 to l .!'>dqpces C.
Said ~- Benson, leader of the group and also a TUcarcher at the Harvud Medi<:atSchool in the
U.S.: 'The meditation ii ~rt of a ritual in which the lama&J>foduc:eheat in the body t() burn away
the i:motional defilements that incerfc:rewith a proper outlook on life.' " One may comment 1h.i1at
least the C011Cl11dinJworda place cbc matter in a proper context and chat the avgatcd heat inc:reu:
111,1!,.C Spt1cia1CtmceptsoJTa.mricYogms 295
The whole concept of heat and fire, suggested by the name Ca')(Jali, is surely
jUtlt figurative, for Cai,~lf, like .()ombl, is one of Hevajra's circle of eight
goddesses,This ~ clear from several references all couched in poetic atyle. Thi.ls
when Hevajra remains entranced in the embrace of his Jeading lady Nairitmyl
("Selfless"), four of his entourage arO\Ue him with thae vel"IIC$:
Arise, 0 Lord, whose mind is compassion, and save me Pukka1i.
F..mbrace me in the union of Great Bliss and leave this state of voidness.
Withouc you I die, Arise O HevajraJ Leave thisatateofvoidneaa
and bring me Savari to fruition.
0 Lord of Bliss who are at the service oft~ world, why remain in the void?
J CaixfAJlent~at you, for without you I cannot burn the (four) quarters.
0 Wonder-worker arise, for I k.nowyour thought.
I ~ombf am quick-witted. Do not interrupt your compassion. m
She appears with the same attribute in one of the songs of the tamric yogina:
She ariges between the Lotus and the Vajra.
Ca~Ji blazes through the union of sameness.
J)ombi puts fire to the ho111eand bume it.
Taking moon -water I sprinkle it.
No flaring thatch or smoke is seen.
Reuhing the top of Mount Meru, it goesinto ,pace.
The Lords Vi~u, Siva and Bralunt are all burned.
The nine qualities and the dominion ( of the senses) are con,umed.
I Dhama say, receive thia and understand dearly.
Through the five channds water has risen. 299
Despite detailed problems of interpretation, the general meaning is dear . The
fire of passion resulting from the union of Lotus and Vajra (Wiadom and Means)
produces the thought of enlightenment (in ita relative aspect) :referred to here as
"moon" or "water." Thi& is conceived of as ucending the central channel
through the variOU1nerve•centers (referred to here seemingly as nfuµ", which we
translate normally as "channel") and becoming ttammuted into the absolute
thought of enlightenment at the top of the head (Mount Meru) producing the
transcendent state of Great Blia. Thus the fire is extinguished in ao far as it ever
really exiats. It should be noted thaa.,C&')~ali and the figurative suggestion of her
consuming fire ia the tantric Buddhist equivalent of Ku,.ujalini, the coiled
serpent-goddess, who lies dormant in the lowest nerve-centt':l' (cak1'11)of the
human body, waiting to be raised into activity by the vital breaths passing along
of 8.5 dcgn:,u C. leCmintrlYpcrely lflCC\llatwc, i• far in ~ of that rec~ in thi& exU"IIOrdinuy
ezperimcnt.
212
Stt H.T., IJ.v.20-3. These Vt'l'ICS are in thesame Middle Indian diakct of ea-m India asthe
$Or1pquoted above aPd the one that now folloW$.
ffl Ae b~on,, my rranat.lion is baaed apon P.r K•zrne·, edition ol An Antltolot:, of Buddlti.st
TomiuSo,ws, no. 47 (pp. H!lff.). One rnaynw, that Mtt aainno, 18, Candall' and DombJ attone
and the same. ·• ·
294 In: TANT.RIC BUDDHISM
the two channels, Pingall ( corresponding to Rasanl) and 141 (corresponding tu
Lalana of the Buddhisis) and meeting in the central channel, known as SUfum :.
( corruponding to Avadhl'iti). 1184The "aetpent-power" of the goddee., that uce
the central channel to unite finaJly with Siva in the head, corresponds to
comuming power of Ca,;i<J,lllwhich diuolves the "moon-fluid" in the head
per,ading the whole body with bliss. Although Buddhists may ur~ the super ;,
iority of their theories and practices, no detached obterver can detect anr-.
essential difference between the Buddhist techniques of "supreme yoga'' and thC:
exactly correaponding practices of avowedly non-Buddhist tantric yogins.t911 An:
artificial difference is achieved simply by the u~ of different terminologies. but\
as has already hem noted, a basic terminology common to all tantric yogins snn,
remains.
d. The Coo.lescence of AU Concepu through the Practice of Tantn'c Yoga ..
In the exegetkal works of Buddhist scholars we expect to find a predominantly.°
Buddhist terminology, and as an example of this we may quote the second
chapter of the sbon work known as the "Fivefold Series" ( Pancakrama), Here the
two coefficients of enlightenment, Wisdom and Meana, together with their union,
(bodhicitta) taken as the third item, are brought to~therin the fourfold schemJ:
outlinrd in detail above (lll.14.b), thus emphasizing the abaolute tranacendent
state of the fourth 5lage. This is not a matter of ascending stages, but rather the'..
union of three resulting in the final fourth. Thi• may be clarified by extractinf
one verse (no. 5) and commenting upon it in advance:
From the union of Wisdom and Means perfection is accomplished
and from this accomplished perfection comes the radiance of the
Universal Void.
Here three parallel seu of four att brought into play, introducing an item froa(
each act, thus making it eMential that the reader should be acquainted with the~
parallelism of all the items that make up the sets. One notes too how easily th~\ .
neceuary clues may be further concealed in tramlation. Thus the word trans-.:
lated as "perfection" above represents Sanskrit n~pa.nna (for the fuller form_·
pa.ri~na), which ill the third item in the foarfo)d aet: relative thought/,
imagined thought, perfected thought and omniscience. as listed above.}
Radiance (JmJbhosvaro) belongs to another set of four, exprcsaed u light, its.:.
manifestation, ita per~ption and fourthly its overwhelming radiance. The -:
concept of enlightenment as thought purified of all its accidental defilements
29* Like the tertnf Lalaoa and llaani, 19i and Pingali must b4:tnllted as iwn names. The fint .
i&an ancient Vcclic tenn rrien-ing to a lind of libation; the ICaind means mldilh·brown or tawny :
with• b-. of derived meaninga to be {ounclCMilymMonier•Williarm, So:ll.sl1-4 Di'1ionary. p. 6H, .
Sutumni ii a feminine form(-. an the oche,otwo) al a name for• 1un,ny. ,.,, ~ whole theory <Jl .:
thae JIIYChic channelt - S. B. Oa'l\lp~. An I11trodu'1ion to Tantric Btultllism, pp. 169ff. and·.
abo hit Ob$n,,.. R,iip>w Cult$, pp. 88ft'.
115 For the aame subj«t·matter in a Hindu conrnt one may rmr to G. W. Briggs. Goni.Unotl· ;
and the K.anpAala Yogi,, chapter 14, pp. 2H-S04. consisdllf rA.the tcct and tranelation of ..The _·:,
Huncl.l'ed Vaw5 of Goraqa ... who liJc£hia t~cher Mioanith or Mattymdranim wu numbered·:
amongtheEighty·FoW'Gtat Adepu. . and Fricdmanll as "noNubstantialiries."
fll,lb ,d Speci9i Ctm.cc<pts
of Tantric Yopi.s 295
and manif~t as pure radiance can be traced back to the earliest Buddhist
period, and it became a favoritc theme of the Mind Only Khoo), 1ince their
whole theory of existence was bucd upon thought interpreted at graded le\lels of
experience (see section 11.4.c), Many quotations could be given, but one will
soffice:
Being free of aU defilement and all conceptuali.iation,
It is pure radiance of the aelf-nature of the Dharma-sphere
and so withln the reach of yogins.¥!16
We may recall too that in the "Symposium of Truth" the Bodhisattva Samrtha·
siddhi, who is going through the proceu of self-consecration, envisages a lunar
diak in his heart. All the Tathagatas say to him: ''That, 0 son of good family, is
Thought whlch is naturally radiant. As one works upon it, thus it becomes, like
stains (ditappearing) on a white garment" (aec section 111.lS.f). U,ing thia four•
fold terminology of light, verse 5, as quoted above, could be restated thus:
From the union of Light and its manifestation, the perception of
Light ii accomplished. and from this accompliahed perception
comes the radiance of the Universal Void.
Parallel with the other fourfold sets, we are given a rather arbitrarily named set
of foUl' voids, namely void (.sun,a),e,ttreme void (oti.iun,a), great void (ma/ui-
Jmi,a) and universal void (3mwiilnya). whlc:h provide the framework for the
structure of this rather complicated chapter.t9 1 Verses 7-14 describe the Void,
identified with relative thought. with Wisdom and all its aseociations. Verses
15-22 describe the Extreme Void, identified with imagined thought, with Means
and anits associations. Vena 2S -S5 describe the Great Void, identified implicitly
with the union of Wisdom and Means, and with perfected thought. Verees S6-4S
identify this third state explicitly a1 the union of lotus and vajra (i.e., Wisdom
and Means) interpreted within the context of sexoal yoga, where the third state
paues directly into the fourth (compare section Ill. 14.c). Venca 44-52 continue
with an analysis of the first three, regarded as meditationaJ yoga aiming at
producing the form of one's chosen divinity, i.e., as a Process of Emanation
(wpa.ttiA1'0ma). Venes 55-68 describe the fourth state, as the radiance that
purifies the other three in a state of "perfected yoga," taking Sikyamuoi a&the
prime example. Contrasted with··.the other three, the fourth state may be
identified as the Process of Rulization (sampannakrama). It is said in the
H~vajra Tantra (U.ii.29-81 ):
19' From thr Rllln«got1'0-.ibhcigo,Salllkrit lext, eel. E. H. Jobnaton, p. 87, It. 1·2. ~e .i.o
Taa,aki'• uansla,ion . p. 827, and note a ,imilllr canac::1flOlll ~ ,ame wortoa p. 144 above. For
the wholesubj«t of thia kradiance" cw huninollity, aee D. S. R~gg, I.A tllttm dv Tat/t«gatlllfll'l'bho
rt di, GotM, par! 4, pp. 409ff. t'ntitkd "La luminmilf Ntunlle de Jape.rllh!,"
'*7 The concept ol a plurali1y of aapttlS of the Vold {.fun,at,i) is also found in more convemiooal
Mahayana worb, auribu1ed 10 1he great AAl\ga. See e.g., Stcherbaulty, Diu:ouTsc on Di.icrimi-
rttllian,pp. 186ff. oc D. L. Fri(dmann, .4n.l:~is of tlu Middle Path al&dthe Extrnnff, pp. 72ff. ,
0
where sixteen "void, ue listed. OM should note lhat Stcherilawy 1ramlata a. -mode, of rd&tivity,.
296 III: TANTRIC BUDDHISM 111.t!i.d Special Concepts of Tantri c Yogin., 297

The yogin conceives of the diversity of ~~nee. as the P~ss _ofF~ana~ion, '; by means of a new list various other items which now are named :
and realizing the dreamlike nature of this .dive~t!, he rc.nden. 1~.~nd1v~1ed:
by meana of its diversity. Like a dream, li~ a mirage,_hit~ the mtermed~ate _,: void extreme void great void universal void
(iunya) (attmn,a) (maluilun.,a) (so'l'P'.i.funyci)
state," so the maJ).<Jalaappcara from continuous appl1cat1on to the pracucc .._:
The Great Blia is known in the consecrations of the Great Symbol (ma/a4i -; light manifestation of perception of light radiance
mudnt) : of that the maQ4ala ia the true expl"Clllionand nowhere else does it · (4loko) light (tlloluibh4sa) (tllolcopalabdhi) (yrabha.n.ara)
have its origin. relative thought imaginedthought perfected thought omniscience
(paratantra) (parik4lpita) (parini,JHmna) (sar~twf/1)
As Kanha explains elsewhere in his commentary: "The process is one ofmedi ta-.
Wisdom(p,ajrnt) Means(updyo) Wisdom/Means
tion. Emanation refen to the manifestation of the forms of the divinities. The-.
meditation in which this consists is the Proceu of Emanation. Realiiation .man{ night day night / day
being subatantiated in the very CMe11CC icaelf, and the practice by which the yogin, woman man woman/man union
meditates , who is intent only on this, is called the Proeftl of Realization. "* ·: left side right side center
It should be observed that the same tenninology ia applied, whether theae : moon sun
processes are achieved by means of sexual yoga as practiced ~ accordan~ wi~~- lotus flower vajra
the four higher consec:rarions, or by means of self-consecration as practtced in: gentleness fierceness impuaivity & other
accordance with the visualization of the ma~la of one'• chosen divinity and the · & other atata &:other states "moments of nonknowledge "
consequent self.identification with him, or by means of the yoga of breath- :. For some of thae sets no fourth atate need be named ,imply because it is the
control where the sexual symboliam ia tranaferred within the yogin's body . As we,. e&tCntiallynameless "founh ." Where no third state is named one might imert
have seen, the body is then envisaged as a structure maintained by psychic_:; the union of the two already named . If the abeence of a fourth state as well aa a
channela . These are said to be as many as ,eventy -two thousand, of which thirty ·'.· third appears at all anomalous, one must bear in mind that several concepts that
two are specially named in the Hevajra Tttntra. In order _to emphasize the\ are fundamentalJy threefold (e.g . , Wildom, Means and their union, which is the
eseential identity of the outer world (the macrocosm) and the mner world of che:.: thought of enlightenment) arc here brought into relationship with a trans·
yogin'• body (the microcoam) these veins are ~uated with. the twenty-four .o~/ cendent unnamed fourth u in the set of the four higher comc:c:rations. Thus the
thirty -two meeting-places scattered over the Indian subconunent . where yogmai uaion of sun and moon or the union of lotus and vajra already CXpres$ the
and yoginls came together (see section Ill. 7). By the very nature of the caae the;: finality of enlightenment.'°°
cross-identifications are arbitrary, for it is the overall identification that matters ::. The so-caHed "natural states" (pra.4r#) and · "moments of non.knowledge"
and not the detaiJs. n, For practical purpoees only three aeem to come into play (;; (avidyct~). which it would be superfluous to Ii" , correspond in many respects
Lalana to the left, Raani to the right and Avadhati in the middle. with which\ to the traditional Buddhist c.-onception of dharmas as "elements" of existence
we have already dealt in aome detail. For the put'J>O'Cof the yoga of breath -.: or perhaps more specifically to the saf/lSkdras ("impulses"), which repre-
control now unde r consideration these channels are treated as the transmitters of sent one of the main aggregates of personality (1.3. b), but a non -Buddhist
thought -bearing breath. Breath carries with it di11eunivethought, and u the_ ; conception i9 also involved and this accounts for other apparent anoma lies.
breath is stilled so thought becomes tranquiliz.ed, aMUming its pure priatin( : Pmkrti, which I have tramlated here as ''natural state," is used in the Slnkya
,tare. achool of Indian philosophy to refer to the universal cosmic substance, thus
Thought is her e expressed in terms of eighty "natural states" (P,akrti), thi~Y: i: effectively corresponding to the totality of "elements of existence" (dharnt4s) of
three of which are aS10Ciatedwith Void and iu varioua equivalents, forty with: the early Buddhist achoob. 101 But whereas the Buddhists envisaged existence as
Extreme Void etc., and seven "moments of nonknowledge," .uaociated with-.· an ever-fluctuated plurality , the Sankhya achool conccivea it a, a unity under the
Creat Void , adding up to a total of eighty, a figure that is arbitrarily doubled to:;
one hundred and siiuy since these natural states are said to be operative both day .MIOSee e.g., H.T ., l .iii.ll: '"Thl!tt ii Moon and Sun and between them the~; this iatbr True
arid night. While referring back to the sets of four, we should attempt ro clarify, Being, theyny, wbcm naru~ iaJoySupranr.·· Or againll!lr tbemettnnttoSun and Moon, lr.ft aPd
riglu, in dw 10ng quoted abott Oil p. 1!19. At the same lime thr ~rourt!u t ate ~ rnay br suggcited by
au Stt H.T., IIOI . I. p. 7!,, n.4 forth~ 1-efu-...,. ·. ';-: the aboeftoe ol lWI and moon. or wbrre there ia no right , no left, no centtt , thw emphasizing iu total
2!19Stt H.T., vol. I, pp. 69-70 for a dis~'WSioflon the problems Involved in making thee er~ _' cransc:endmce.In paaaingone may note that Sun and Moon aR re~ned in the chapter or the Pail-
identifJCariQUJ;
. See alaoS. Tsuda. Tiu Sa'1'1A:1rodaya Tantra, eh. 7. Hett eeve-my• two thout.and·vt1ni·. ~ffama that is now be:lnganalyzed. since usu.ally Moon correspond., with the right and tbr mm
are mentioned , of whic:h OIK' hundred and twenty are said to be main ones. '"The Hundred Venes of; tide, and Sun with the ld't and die female side.
50
Gora.kta" (see Brigs in Bibliogr.aphy)refer 10 three bu»dml thousand veins af which IC:9CDltt"'° arc; 1 S. Dugupu ~ tlUI same ~haptff fnmi the Pancamima t~ t we are now cor,,idaing in
main ones. The H. T. iscontent with thiny•twO (l .i. lSff .); but all agree that three ar e -ntaal , · ·.. hi, Ohsn,,c R.tigiow Cultz, pp . 451£. Rather oddly he tr analatea Jmt,lcrti u "impure fu,u:tion ,"
298 Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
thrtt modalities of nttw (goodness). rajaJ (activity) and tamaJ (inertia). Tb
three modalitiea correspond in a general way to the "natural atates" a& alloa . · t_nowledge- all the~ are aid to be threefold, corrnponding to the categories of
to the Void (equated with woman), Extreme Void (equated with man) and Great
Void (equated with their union), ln the first category gentleness predominate ·.
and other supposedly feminine characteristics; in the aecond manly virtues and
vices are listed, while in the third category all seven iterm arc clearly relatable t :
the general concept of inertia. We thus have an application of these three non:
Buddhist concepts to the tantric Buddhist conception of the absolute as th ·
union of Wisdom and Means, of female and male and all the other pairs, o
which the union results in the state of two.in-one. Thus it comes about that th~
third atatc i4 already the abeolute with the result that the "momenu of non, 7
knowledge. " forgetfulness, vagary etc. are alao "the moment between passion~
and nonpassion.'' "There is no seed·syllable with its dot; no air issues from the]
exits. Such perception of the Light is the marl of perfected (thought)" (verse z5. -:
below). Such ambivalence between the third and the founh stages is inevitabl~'.
when the terminology used can &uggcat nothing else but the absolute state £01". '.
followers of the Mind Only school. Thought once perfected (parin4J>anna) is:;
already for them the supreme goal. As has already been noted, the distinction ;
between the third and fourth stages in many of these sets of four is very difficult
to draw, whether it is between the "aelf-ex.istcnt" (.svabhaiika) Buddha-Body and ,:'
the Dhanna-Body of a Buddha, or the third consecration, known as "Know.\
ledge of Wisdom,~ and the fourth consecration. which is all part of the\
same process. Here the third stage, named Great Void, is described as com-/
prehending all the "natural states" of the previous two stages , while it has no·-::.
actual "natural states" of its own, but rather the seven "momencs of non-·:·:
knowledge." However since these seven are mental states they are added to the_:;
"natural ttatca" to give a total of eighty and then doubled £or day and night :.
presumably to emphasize the third stage as the union of the other two. This may:;
not attm very logical, but we have already met with so many anomalies in the :i
thought pauerns of these tantric yogins, that there need be no cause for surprise . .'.
Aa well as helping to clarify so much complex terminology, thia one chapter ::
illustrates two other aspects of the essential tantric conception of the final goal as ·:
two-in•o.ne, Tl\e8e att the relationship between 1exual yoga and the yoga of .':'
breath-control and once again the close relationship that exists between ;:
Buddhilt and more general Hindu concepts in theories and practicea as ·.:
expounded in tanuas of the Supreme Yoga class. Thus the text passes at verse 56 ·..,
direct from the subject of breath·control, where the control of breath coincides .f
adding tbt San&krit term do!4 ( ,. d«,fe<:t) in brackel6 as 1hough thia -re thr 1rrm used and not ·..:
prokrti, and aowhae throughout bis discus.\ioD is pralt;[ti mentioned . .El&ewhere(es)lf'clally iD ' .
chapter XIV) the mO&thelpful refe~nct'S to /mikrti in its more gmerally accepted llenst' will be ·:
fou.nd. Per K.-me also discuSlle&the same chapter in A11Antl11,Joo of Buddlwt 1'amric Son&s,·
pp. 8tff. , translatilljf ,-kfti » "oparuy" while r«ogniling iu Swhya associariom. By uaipg 1be
&crm in the plural the author of the Paiicoknzma deliberatdy dctacha it from the normal Saia1r.bya
usa~. yet utai111 , • •e shall notr.. aomethi11gof the th~ modalities. auociated with the Sinkbya
concept of /Jf'a/t(fi as lhe"1t11ff llf the11nivene .ft For a brief accoom ofthel)'arem, 11111e
M. Hiriyanoa ,
Tiu &sfflliol.s ~{ Indian Plailoioph'J, pp. 106·1~.
299
· with the control of thought, to that of llt'llual yoga. Thought, consciousness,
the Mind Only school u relative, imaginffl and perfected, or again as subject
and object and the realization that there ia neither subject nor object. These arc
· now expressed as the male (vajra) and the female (lotus flower) and their union,
and it is said that this need not be experienced in a relative (meaning here
physical) scnae, 1ince the deaired objective can be obtained by skill in yoga, if
only one has experienced the physical union just once. This mrely implies that
when a pupil has been fully comecrated by his teacher by means of the fourfold
consecration, as described in the last aection, he may continue to practice as a
solitary yogin, of which there are ao many examples in later Indian and Tibetan
Buddhism. That is one aspect of the matter.
The other revealing statement occurs in verse 41, where it i, said that "the
yoginshould always identify her aa pertaining to nature." Literally translated
the text says "identify her as Jwalirti," where tbia term is clearly ueed in iu more
regular Slnkhya sense of the fundamental "atuff of the universe," which exist, in
dose relationship with "universal 5Pirit" ( PUf'Wa). Previously it was uled in thia
chapter in the plural as "natural states" CorrftpODding to &ome extent to the
Buddhist concept of dharmas in the acnsc of "elements of existence ." Once the
full Sankhya acme is restored to the term and it is identifed with the feminine
partner in her relatiomhip with the yogin, then we have an interpretation of the
tw0•in-one exacdy equivalent to the thought pattcms of the Hindu tantru where
the pair of Siva and Sakti are identified with puru,cand p,alt,ti. '°' In short, the
tantric Buddhist concept of Wiadom (feminine) and Means(male) ia deliberately
revened, thm effectively separating thla fundamental thought patkm of some
Buddhist yogins from the philolophical ooncepu of gcQel'allyaccepted Mahl·
yina teachings. If the feminine aspect of the two-in-one is no longer prajM
(wisdom), but sakti (power), one ii no longer operating with Buddhist thought
patterns but with Hindu ones, and it must be quite clear from which aide the
borrowing has taken place . There can be no doubt of the considerable extent to
which Buddhist tantru of the Supreme Yoga clua are imbued n0t only with
Hindu terminology but also with the corresponding non.Buddhist ways of
thought . Then: have already been so many examples of thl., but one more from
the Hevajra Tantr11 on the tbCll)Cimmediately under disc:uasion will not be
amia:
From self-experiencing comes this knowledge, which is free from ideu of self
and other .
Like the sky it is pure and void. the supreme state of being and nonbeing.
h is a mingling of Wisdom and Means, a mingling of pa•ion and the ab1ence
of passion.
It is the breath of living beings, the Supreme Unchanging Om:.
It pervades all things, abiding in all bodily form,.
,oi This baa altndy been clearly 1hown by Sbaahibhulan Daqupta in the chapu:r ,,.rred III in
11. SCH.espcc;iallypp . SS7·942.
SOO Ill: TANTRIC BUDDHISM
It is the Great Spirit (mah4Jml~); it is what the world is made of.
Being and nonbeing have their origin there and whatever else may be.
It is the AU. It bu the form of consciousneas. It is primeval pU1'~a.
It is the Lord (f.fvt1ra = Siva). lt is the Seif (dtman), the life.force (jiva),
TM true being(.sattva), time (kdla) and the Person (frudga/a).
It is the self-nature of all being and illusory in iu fomu. ,os
Aftel' this introduction to the venea that an: now about to be quoted, an intro/
duction that has become rather longer than originally conceived, ending with ~-
quotation of a rather non-Buddhist flavor, readers may be surprised to find that
the whole proceas of yogaat present under discussion iJ foisted upon the Buddh _'
Sakyamuni by means of a supposed quotation from one of his earlie9t;
"biographies,'' the Mahlylna sQtra entitled Lalitawtara (meaning literaIIJ;
"Extended Version of his Display"). so.
1. Praise be to you! Praise be to you! Praise, praise to you!
Thus praising: praise to you, who is the praiser and what the pt'aiaed?
!. As water merges into water and melted butter into butter,
where knowledge sees the self as self, that indeed is worship.
5. But without reco11ne to omniscience this ii not to be realized,
for it is covered with a veil of darknes.. and it is through grace that one
obtaim the light.
4. Void and Extreme Void (ati.f<m,a) and Great Void (mohd.fun,a), theae
three, as well as Universal Void (san.tntm,a) aa founh, are distinguishable
by effect and by cause. :_
5. From the union of Wisdom and Means realization is accomplished and from>
such accomplished realization comes the radiance of the Universal Void. ··
6. Purified of causal process the highest stage is gained by application of the
three states of comciouaneu and from the union of the three (other) Voids.
7. The Void is Light, Wisdom, Thought in its relative aspect ( paratantra ),
and I shall now explain cka.rly the manifestations of its natural state.
8. lt is free from pasaion, whether light, medium or advanced, and likewiae
free of regrets of the sam~ three gradations, both with regard to the past and
the future.
9. It ia gentle, hesitating, timorous, whether slightly. moderately o, extremely.
It is desirous, whether slightly, moderately or extremely, and thus grasping.
10. It is nonvirtu.e, hunger, thirst, slight feeling. moderate feeling,
extreme feeling, knowing in a moment the basis of a topic.
11. It is attentiveness, bashfulness, compassion and three grades of affection,
and it is known too as fear, doub~ and envy.
11!. Such are the thirty-three natural atates recognizable in human beinga,
'°'H. T .. l.x.8-12. Primeval (/*1W!IO)PlnVfG i&aleo a tide of Vi111uand 10 <:OUlclrefer to him.
S4l4 Reference IO the I.aliu.wttm1, haa been mad .. already in tec:tion f.ll. Thett i• a Fn,n1;h
trantlarion by Foucaux (aee 8tl>liograpby) but no Ellglilh oae to datr. ~ account of Sakyamuni's
enligbCA!nmen,.wtllch haa been drllberately ttworded in the .Pcll.ct,aamc quotation, wiDbe rolll!din
Foucau1'1tranaluion. pp. n• ud 287-8. Tbe paasag-es have been quoted ralaelyin the Paltcalmima
so that the unwary reader may be milled Into believing that Suyamuni waa accomplishrd in tanu!c
pra~ as indicated by Rich comparativdy early biographical material.
Sj>1Jcial
Cun"ptJ ofTantric Yogins 301
and because of their manife.st form as relative truth, they are explained
as a concept of night,
IS or again as the concept of woman, or again as gentle in form,
· or again as the concept of the left or as the lotus flower on a lunar disk.
l 4. Because it is the cawe of stabilization it is the first letter ( of the Sanskrit
alphabet) with a dot on it ("' the syllable A~).
and it is the source of the knowledge of Light like the (cool) rays of the moon.
15, The Extreme Void is explained as the Manife1tation of Light, as the Means,
aa what is imagined (pariialpita). as mental activity.
16. It is passion, attachment, the three grades of pleasure, mild, moderate
and extreme. It is happiness and joy, wonderment and laughter.
17. It is the satiafying embrace and kirsingand sucking.
It is valor and strength and pride and the power of the doer and taker.
18. It is energy and force, whether slight, extreme or moderate. 90~
It is fierceneas, sportivcnaa and antagonism.
19. It is acquisition, clear speech, truth, untruth, and also conviction,
h is the urge to give where there is no receiving, &oit ia heroism too.
20. It knows no ,bame, for it is crafty, violent and cunning.
Such are the forty natural states, which arise in a moment from the
Extteme Void.
21. It is repraented by the concepts of day and of male. of 1everity and of
the right, and again those of the solar disk and of the vajra.
22. It is to be known as the digit with the two dots("' A:) 916 and being born
of the Manifestation of Light it resembles the rays of the sun.
25. Being both the perception of Light as well as what is perceived,
it is perfected (parint,panna) and so is known as nonknowledge.
24. Such are the categories of the Great Void as explained by the Buddhas.
It is the moment betWttn passion and nonpauion, thus forgetfulnees
and vagary.
2S. It is the state where silence faUa; it isexhaustion, sloth and idlene11.
It is known by the practitioners of subtle yogaas the seven moments of
nonknowledge.
26. There ii no seed-syllable with iu dot; no air irsues from the exita.
Such perception of the Light is the mark of perfected (thought).
27. One hundred and sixty natural states are in motion day and night with
air ( = breath) as their vehicle.
28. In a moment, a trice. a second, an eye-twinkle, or an inatant-
wherc a moment equals a snap of the fingen, a trice the turning of
29. a mustard seed, a second the intake of breath, an eye-twinkle the moment
of the eye, and an instant the clapping of the hands-
SO. Such knowledge is mere conscioumess, uncharacterized like space,
but its division is like the twilight aeparating day and night.
SI. Thought is said to he threefold as Light, the manifestation of Light
and as its perception, and so its basis is explained.
!OS For "fortt" (Jaha.stl)the Tibetan w,enionbu "innate" (sollaja) which ia non1eme.
306 The wtwo dots" shown here » a colon refer to the Samkrit l'W'f4, a lig.maspiration added to
VO'lffl$.
In ua118litenlion we u111:ally show ir a, ·~ but lhown thu, hetc, die refei-= co two dois
becomesuninielligjble.
502 Ill: TANTRlC BUDDHISM
52. By means of breath in its subtle form knowledge becomes commingled;
wuing from the paths of the sense-organs it relates with the spheres of sense. ·
55. When it is linked with Light, breath becomes the vehicle,
carrying all those natural states here and there.
34. Wherever the breath happens to stay , it carries that kind of nanm1l state .
Jn so far as breath does not arise, the Light is motionless.
55. The imaginary idea of a sel(has as its cause the two aspects o f Light
(viz .• Light itself and its manifestation) and the perception of the
Light ~ part of both of them . · But it is from this pure radiance (prabhclswTa) that the th ree
36. Of all illusions the illusion of woman is a special case ,
for the distinction between the three kinda of knowledge is here most
clearly marud.
57 . Pusion and the absence of passion and the state between them
make a set of three . By the coming together of the two organs
58. and from thit union of vajra and lotua die resu.lting encounter is
known as the 11nionof the twO kinda of knowledge. By this union of the
two kinds of knowledge , for the reason as explained, that
59 . knowledge which is carefully acquired ill the perception of Light (viz .,
the third kind of knowledge). The one for whom the union of vajra
=
and lotus is not available in the relative ( phygkal) sen&c:,can
4-0. succeed by his skill in yoga, having experienced it (physically ) just once .
Understanding the operation of ( the three kinds of} knowledge
41 . according to their differenca, the yogin should always identify her ( the
female partner) as pertaining to nature. Just aa clouds with their different
42. hues and shapes arise in the expanse of the sky and relapse thett
again, so aU thex qualities which have as their cause the three
48. aspects of Light, diaappear into the spheres of aenae and are
resolved in the radiance (of the Universal Void).
44. Not recongizing t heir true nature and so immersed in the mire of ignorance
peopl e do good and evil deeds, transmigrating through the five realma
45. of rebirth. Having done virtuous deeds such as gift -gi ving and 10 on, a man
rejoices in heaven, and then having committed one of the heinous sins,
46. he buma in bell . So he obtains endlela thousands of rebirths, and in
his folly laments his fate saying: "Thia ia the ripening of former karma."
4 7. Living beings suffer because of their attachment to the manifestations
of m1tural state& and it is preci1ely by knowing these that wile men
become freed from the cage of existence.
48. The lunar disk that one imagines has the self-natutt of wisdom,
and one should envisage thought itself as having the form of the moon.
49. Then concentrating on the moon one should produce the sign of the vajra.
This is identified as means for yogins who practice this production of
the vajra etc .
50. From the union ofl11nar vajra etc. and the amalgamating of thinker and
thought and the union of Wisdom and Means the divine form is born .
51. Signed with the four symbols (mudTli) and adopting the confidence of hi•
(chosen) divinity , so the yogin who is intent on the proceu of emanation ·
(utpattiltrama) proceeds.
52. As it is often stated in the SriSamaja.an d ehewherc, so long as
Special Concepts of Tantric Yogins 30S
there is still meditational yoga, one is still a beginner.
55, Now I shall describe perfected yoga.
which is here defined as the radian~ 1hat purifies the (other)
three Voids. By purifying the th ree aspects of knowledge there
54. comes this stage of the Universal Void, which is suprem e omniscience,
the quiddity which is the state of know)edge purified. h is the peTf«t
state of tranquility, frtt of all duality. changeless, nonmanifest.
55. It neither is nor is not. for words cannot apply to it .
56. aspec:11 of knowledge arise in the form of one who posseswsthe
thirty-two major marks and the eighty minor mark& (of buddhahood) and
thus is born the Omniscient One in all his perfect manifestations.
57. So it iuaid in the Mahayanasiltra Lalitavistora:
The Tathagata SMcyamunidesirom of supreme enJightt'nment and
58. in the conceit that he would obtain buddhahood by meam of the Grea t
Void. went to the bank of the Nairafljana River and relapsed into
immobile concentration. ao,
59. Then the middJe atmosphere wu filled with Buddhaa the size of
1CS&me ·.seeds, and snapping thei r fingers they addressed with one
voice that best of conquerors.
60. "Impure is such meditation; it will not bring what you desire.
One must be in touch with the supreme radiance which is like the
61. celestial expanse , and having gained that stage you may prevail in any
fonn you will. Thus obtaining universal lordship , you will rejoice in
a Vajra ,body."
62. Hearing this , the best of conqueron abandoned bis immobile
c~nce~tration, a_ndat !he h~~ of midnight touched the truth ( quiddity)
63. with his body bemg neither ngid nor ,Jack, neither breathing
64. nor bruthJns, neither mute nor vocal, with eyesneither closed
65. nor open, and so by the grace of a teacher he saw dearly the
wonderful Universal Void, the Great Knowledge .
66. As a purified comprehender of radiance he behdd in that moment the
whole of existence in the threefold form of past , present and future,
and he was graced with those illusive vi1ions of the moon in water and
sparks and so on .
67. Then at dawn he took his seat at the place of enlightenment in a
state of adamantine rep0$e and 50 destroyed the Evil One (Mara) .
68. Having obtained this supreme knowledge of the truth, the Slkya Lord
has taught it here for the good of the threefold world.'°'
w Til)j:un:. mi-g->-o;ba'~
ti111-11g,-'thift; San>kric: ilspl,irialunp .. iJS/)Ju,l'tl'l;la
(Edgff ton·a
Buddlmt Jlylmd Sanslmt DJC11onary , p . 111). The same ll'ffll will be found in lhe paANgeqv.01NIin
111.15.f.Stt above p . 241, n. l!OO.
sae For 1bt Saru.kri1 tex1. ttt L. dr la Valltt Poumn·, ed . ol t~ Policak rama, pp. 27 -51. This ls in
fac1 chaptn JI, although marl<tcl a, Ill. Th~ corrrspond.ing Tibetan venion will~ foutld on n ·61
pp. 289-~-2fJ. .
 IV
BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES
IN INDIA AND BEYOND

I. TRACES OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

a. Continuit1 in Buddhist Monastic Li/•

The previouschapteZ'I, which describethe later .Mahtylnadevelopments and
which seek to elucidate a whole variety of belief• and practices aaociated with
the Vajrayina, may readily give thc impression of extraordinary changes in the
life of Indian Buddhist mona1teriel, and one of the purpme1 of this present
chapter is to attempt to give a more accurate impression. Any history of Indian
Buddhism is bound co deal in tum with the three main phases of the so-called
Hlnaylna, the Mahlyina and the Vajraylna, and thus it ia easily aaumed that
monasteries would likewise fall into one of these three categoriC$. Certainly the
Chi~ pilgrim-scholan who visi~ India from the end of the fourth «ntury
1\.0. onward often refer to the monaateri.es that they vis.it as either Hlnaylna or
Mahayana and they are also well aware of the contentions that arose on doctrinal
matters between opposing factions, but at the aame time these visitors talte for
granted certain csaential aspects of monastic life which were common ground to
all the various sects. lt must be remembered that the basis of all Buddhist
mona,tic life is adherence to the Mona,tic Rule (Vinaya), the earliest form of
\vbicb may be reasonably attnl>uted to Sakyamuni Buddha himself. It
underwent considerable elaboration sublequently and each of the early sects,
traditionally numbered as dghleen, poSICaed ita own version of an approw:d
Monastic Rule. Although few of these have survived, there is sufficient evidence
10 show that they contained in substance very similar material. 1 The Chinese
i: ~r.holar I-tsing, who arrived in India by sea in A.D. 67! with the special intention
of studying the practice·or Monastic Rule so that standardi might be raised in his
Padmaaambhava ':':own country, has anal~ for us the eightttn 11ect1under four main grouping•,
(tlnlwn b, Rob,n &ff)
'.:'known as the Malwa~ghika (Great Assembly), the Sthavira (Elders), the
;. $.trvutivlda (Univenal Existence School) and the Sammatiya (Universally
:{_1::Stccmed).AU monasteries could be allocated to one or other of these four
\ I Jo"ora brief d=ripdon of the six surviviog ona; see ttienne Lamotte, Histoire du. BautU/dsme
pp. 18lff.
,:_/111Ma,
~ ·.

506 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES JN INDIA AND BEYOND
grouping, depending upon the patticula<fonn o! Monutic Rule ohat
followed. The famous Hsuan-tsang, who made the considerable journey acr ·
Central Alia to India and back by the same route between the yean 629 and 645~
alloqttes the monasteries visited to the same four general groups. and it wou ·'_·
seem dear thar these were tbe main ones then k.nown. There was never ari ·
,peel.al Monastic Rule for Mahlylna monks, and thua the Mahtylna
munities to which Hsiian-tsang refers adhere to one or other of the four ma( ·
schools already named. Whatever new developments there rnay have b«n . ,:
philosophical theories and in the cult of new divinities, a& descn"bed in previ · ..
chapters, the actual community of monks continued to adhere to a form
monastic practice that belonp to the earlier period. This aituation continu ·.·
throughout the whole hiatory of Indian Buddhism, a.swell as everywhere else
Asia where Buddhism became an established religion. Tibetan Buddhism •. .
often deecribed u though it might gmerally be claued aa Vajraylna, but the Ii__
of all Tibetan monasteries has been regulated OYff the centuries on the ancici-i'
Monastic Rule of the Mwa-Sanastivada school, adopted by the Tibetans f:· ·
the eighth century onward, becauae it happened to be the one chieflyfaW>red
central and nonhwest India.
It i, well known that the survival of Buddhiam haa alway, depended upon tr'.
health and strength of its monasteries. Ahhough it $00n developed at a religi ': ·
ihe practice of which was available to Jayfolk, the layfolk have always depend ·
heavily 1;1ponmonastic communities for the performance of rites and
monies, and even more important to note, it i.sthe monuterics that preterVC·
doctrine in a traditionaJly acceptable form. With the destr11ction .of dt'
monasteries Buddhi&m cieated to be a dittinct form of religious life in north Indi
after the thirteenth century. Similarly with the destruction of the monasteries ......
Tibet during the present century, Buddhism has ceased to be a li'ring force th
land, despite the efforca of tM older generation to bold on to their faiti
Hinduism and Buddhism, the two main "religions" of India, at least as
fat.:'
their influence on other Asian countries is concerned, are very different phei(
mena. Hinduiun ill a many-headed creawre, and as many heads that have btii'.
cut, just as many have grown again. It~ no single binding "discipline'':J
is the whole religious life of India for the last two thousand years and ni_off
Despite the cult of other Buddbaa, Buddhism has effectively just one head;i,~(
that is Sikyamuni Buddha, to whom the Monastic Rule in its slightly vadf'·
forms is attributed, and to whom all later phibophical achool&and ever(~
followers of the tantras attempted, as we have already noticed. ro attach ·tl{_
teachmp. While these later attributions of philosophical views and ·ta11ti
practices are only significant became of the aspiration toward tradit1,,_r1
acceptance to which they bear witness, the general attribution of the Monaiiif
Rule and the remarkable manner in which is was preserved down the centi.t('
represent a very real continuity in Buddhi&t practice-, which can only go ba~'·'
the original founder of that first group of moderate ascetia, known . in
earliett period as the "religious followers of the scion of the Sakyas" (Saltyapittf
' ...:::.\-.
·:(.:.:
·:'/_; IV.I.a Tracas of BuddJ,,ismiri lnd,r"a 807
.Ji sama~s). If one were askedto distinguish between valid and degenerate forms
of Buddhism. one might safely take as one's guiding principle the extent to
which any self-styled Buddbilt community accepts as binding upon iu monks the
practice of the ancient Monastic Rule.
The Mahayana sutras praise ceaselessly the career of a Bodhisauva and often
com
~; treac with a cenain contempt the practice of the Early Disciplea (.mtww),
wh011eupirations are regarded as a lesser way (Hlnaylna). but they never decry
the Monastic Rule (Vinaya) as such. ln so far as the term Early Disciple has been
equated with the idea of monkhood and the term Bodhisattva auociated with
o activities for the good of others in the e,,eryday world, there is a tendency for
thmc who write on the history of Buddhism to connect the one with the practice
I: of monutic life and the othff with its gradual b?Ultdown. There ii no evidence
that this was so at all either from the writings of Mahapna enthusiasts, such as
.. Santideva, or from the reports of Buddhist practices in India · during the
Mahiylna period or from what is known about Tibetan and Japanese monas-
ticism rig'ht up to the present times. The monasteries accommodated the
'( Mahaylna, and to a large extent the Vajraylna also, without giving up the
· ··· ancient Monastic Rule. Mona21teriesin India and beyond belonged to one of the
four main e$tablished orders named above. They did not belong as monastic
communities to the later philoaophkal schools of the Mahlylna, the Madhya-
maka and the Mind Only schools, as described in Chapter II. The chief
·ce aiuhority on the subject of which of the four main orden were favored in any
tf particular region, at least for the end of the seventh century, is undoubtedly the
Chinese scholar-traveler 1-tsing, and his geoeral comments and detailed
_.r. c1bservatiomon the way life was OTganizedin Buddhist monasteries is of the
greatest value. The term translarm here as "religious order" is Samkrit nikaya
in meaning a group or assembly. It is worthwhile quoting J-tsing's general
M.immaryon the situation in India:
Throughout the five divisions of India, as well as in the islands of the Southern
Sea, people speak of the four Ni.Uyas. But the number of votaries in each
school is unequal in different places. In Magadha (Central India) the
doctrines of the four Nikayas are generally in practice. yet the SarvastMtda-
nika.ya flouri,hes the most, In U\a and Sindhu--the namea of the countries
in Western India-the Sammiti-nik1ya has the greatest number of followers,
and there are some few members of the other three schools. In the northern
region (N. India) all belong to the Sarvlstivlda-nikaya. though we sometimes
meet the followen of the Mah~ghika-nlkllya. Toward the south (S. India)
all follow the Sthavira-nikaya, though there exist a few adherents of the other
Nikayas. Jn the eastern frontier countries (E. India) the four Nikiyas are
j found side by side. 1
The differences between the traditions of these four orden, funher subdivided
·. into eigha.eensects, may be manifold but I·tsing tends to regardthem a, petry:
: l•ISing. Tli,BudilluslRelipn, p. 8.
:
S08 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
There are small points of difference such as where the skirt of the lower )f:
garment is cut &traight in one, and irregular in another, and the fold• of the. \t
upper robe are, in size, narrow in one and wide in another. When monks ~:.'
lodge together, there is a quc&tion whether tlw.yare to be In separate rooms o( <;
to be separated by partitiom made of ropes, though both are permitted in the ',}
Law. There are other cases: when receiving food, one will take it in hie hand;' )
while another will mart the ground where the giver should place food, and \,
both arc in the right. Each school has traditions handed down from teacher to }
pupil, each perfectly defined and distinct from the other.' :·);_
He makes the wise observations of one who stands apart from all factlonai:'-/
disagreement: <':
On examining carefully the distinctions between these schools and the,;_;.
differences of their discipline, we see that they repre1ent very many points of>\
disagreement: that what is important in one school is not 10 in another, and ·j
that what is allowed by one is prohibited by another. But monks should follow\'
the customs of their respective schools, and not interchange the strict rules of::
their doctrine for the more lenient teaching of another. At the same time they.\
should not de1pise others' prohibitions, because they themaelvea are un~:/
restricted in their own schools: otherwise the differences between the schools.
will be indistinct, and the regulations as to permission and prohibition wi11:
become obscure. How can a single person practice the prec:epu of the fous\:
schools together?" · exclaimed, "What unhappinesll What suffering! Today this master of stlstra.s
I have quoted these paaeagcs in order to give some notion of what separates these(
four orden from one another . lt is quite clear that it is the traditional interpre;,.
tation of the Monastic: Rule (Vinaya) and this has nothing directly to do with the\
distinction of Hinayana and Mahayana. 1-tsing is in fact quite explicit on this\
very point: "Which of the four schools should be grouped with the Mahlylna c,f}
the Hinaylna is not determined. "S In a passage already quoted above (H. 5. b) he\
makes the very simple diatinction: "Those who worship the Bodbisauvu and, ?
read the Mahayana sutru are called the Mahaylnists , while those who do no( ,
perform these are called the Hinayanists." It would appear from his whole \
narrative that 1-tsing, who was interested precisely in matters connected with the{~
Monastic Rule, felt equally at ease in Buddhist communities whether they were.
\ work as the Mahlvastu, which is one of the earliest attempts to produce a form of
of HlnayAna or Mahlyflna tendenci~. In this respect he was in a very different }
penonal situation from that of HsCian•taang, who&eextensive tour of Central /
Asia and the Indian ,ubcontinent earlier during the ume century brought him}
into direct contact with the inmates of monasteries of the four main ord~/:
However. H.suan·tsang came with a primary interest in the teachings of the Mind,'.
Only school and thus with an overwhelming respect for the gttat teachers'/
Asanga and Vasubandhu, whom he refers to as BodhJsattvas, and the celdtia(
Bodhiaauva Maitreya, who was believed to have revealed to them the doctrine.-/
.·:::· ·
s lbi'd. , p, 6 .
4 Ibid., p. IS.
s Ibid, , p. 14.
IV.La nvm,of Buddhism mIndia 309
of this particular Mahlylna school. It could theTefore be scarcely expected -that
Hsflan·tsang should feel at eue in any community where Mablytna suttas were
regarded as heretical and especially where his favorite doctrines came under
attack. His biographer H\9Ui-li recounts a particularly acrimonious debate that
he had with a revered teacher of the older school, named M~agupta, at a
monastery near Kucha. and according to Hwui-li, HsCian-tsang wu completely
triumphant, an outcome that can hardly have been noticed locally.• It must be
remembered that Hso.an-uaog for all hie charming urbanity was himself a
partisan and so carried the seeds of potential dispute with him. How universally
true can it have been, one wonders, when he writes: "The different schools are
constantly at variance, and their contending utterances rise up like surging
waves." But be adda: "The different secu have their special teachings and in
various ways aim at one end. '' 7 He holds in respect scholars of renown who
adhered to the older Sarvutivada doctrine, such as a certain Sanghabhadra who
was a contemporary of Vasubandhu, but he may not be so sure of fate me
awaiting those who attack the Mahayana merely out of prejudice. Thus he tells
the story of a boaatful teacher Vimatamitra who regretted his errors too late.
Hsilan-tsang tells the whole sad tale of this recalcitrant HtnayAnist ending with
the final scene:
At this time there was an Arhat who, having witnessed his death, sighed and
yielding to his feelings and maintaining his own views, abusing the Great
Vebi~. has fallen into the deepest hell (Awci). '"
Referring again to l•tsing's comment that it remained an undetermined
matter which of the four main schools or orders might be classed as Hinaylna or
Mahlyma, one may note that the full implications of this have seldom been
iu:cepted in descriptions of later Indian Buddhism. It is generally aaumed that
Mahlyma tendencies in the sense of a greater freedom in the interpretation of
Sakyamuni'a teaching, go bad 10 an early split between the Sthaviras (the self-
styled "Elden") and the Mah.asaqigha (the "Great Aucmbly'') and thus efforts
.1re sometimes made to trace the beginnings of Mahayana tendencies in such a
1,iographyof Sll:yamuni Buddha by a sect of the Mahlsa~ghikas known as the
Lokottara·vldim (the 'Tramcendentialists") .9 One can well suppose that
~ Stt Hwui•li and S. Beal , Tiu uJ•of Hsiilm·tsong, pp. 58-40, and for Ren~ Grooswt's excellent
1Ndling of thiscvcnt i11bis accOUDtof H1bn•tsang's lifieand travels, gee In 1/u Step.,
of tlu Btuldlw..
l'P· 64-6,
1 Stt $, Beal, Bwldlrist R•corcfs of the Watffll HIOTld,vol. I, p, 80. The translation h• bec11
111,telllied.
with the he)p of Dr. Kalherlnt Wbi~kcr.
• Ibid., pp. 192-7 .
• For tiwle who know no Sa.Dlkritit may be helpful to point out mat wid4 mcaN HdiKoum:"or
.. "~rgmncnt. • and uidin "one who adbet-es to any such argwncru."Thus for eitamplc sarwsti m cam
·' ·. "f'vr.1-y\hlngchac exbu"'; .uil"lllftilllido ~w argument (or 1choolof ci:-ghc) that C'Yerydring
c:xilQ,".o
_-. :. ihat .u,mi.stiwdinmcamonewhoa~reuo tbi$ particularschool orordc:i-.
SIO IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
different interpretations of SMtyamuni's pel'IOn soon developed within ·
Buddhist community. There were doubtless many monks who, while never(
negating the tran1cendent aspeet of buddhahood that he had achieved<
continued to regard his per.sonas transient as all other phenomenal things and).
for whom his passing into nirva1,1arepresented in a real sense the total absence _~!'{
a greatly revered teacher. There were certainly others who tended to penonaliui?;
certainly in a highly abstract manner. his state of buddhahood, with the result;'
that the st'l\pa became the continuing symbol of his presence aa hi& Dharma(
Body, thus distinguished from the human body (r!IJ>a-k4}'a)revealed in ·th~
world of mm (sec section 11.4.f). However, these ambivalent attitudes to hi~
person bad their representatives in all the main four orders as they spread ovet,".
the whole Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Sthavirav1dins, who cstablishedi
themselves in Ceylon, were as much affected by these early tendencies as all
other various orders, although they were panly cut off from later doctrinal.
development, i.n their island stronghold. Moreover , those of their order · wh .1:
remained on the mainland are frequently identified by Hman-tsang as Maha\
yanists. w The Sarvasrivildins, who separated in the early period from t~-~'.
Sthaviravadins on poinu of doctrine concerning the theory of tlharwt4.t'.
(elements), which they treated as really exi,ting as much in the past as in the'.
present, might have been seen then as the staunchest of HiDaylnists, if suc~·.a:~
term had been in use at that rime. Yet it was probably their pieoccupaciom witlf.
the whole dhanna-theory that prepared the way for many of their adherents _ ui,;
$Ubscribc to the Mind Only (Yogacara) school. This does not mean that
such as Vasubandhu abandoned his Sarvbtiv~in community. He continued.«(
remain a Sarvutividin just as before, but as OIM! with convened "idealist" vie~/
Now it is possible that such aeriou, disputes could arise that a particular
munity would split , but '°
far as their Monutic Rule wu concerned , they woul~t_
all remain Sarvastivadins or whatever their original order had been. We have ·n~f
~y of knowing to what extent Mahayana views gained ground throughout di(
,-arious communities, but we may safely assume that monu who adhered _·tc:t
Htnayana views continued to be well represented up to the last days of Buddhii.n;i}
in India. whether living apart from their Mahaytnist brethren or not. 11 . . . /\ :,
While it is not at all difficult to draw clear distinctions betwe~o Hlnayilniitf
and Mabliyanists on the basis of thrir conflicting philosophical views, it is
means so easy to distinguish between them in matters relating to their ino(
general religious background. Thus HsOan-tsang traveled the length a_il<
breadth of the Indian subcontinent as a self•decJared Mahaytnist, but the
traditional accounts relating to the Buddhist aites that he deac:ribes in such det'a.i~:
10 E.g., a1 Bodhgayi a comm11nityof ,ome thousand Sthaviravidins •~ described as
yanim; Recor.ts, vol. II, p. l SS. For similar ~rerences see also pp. 229. 247. 260. ··: :i;·
Stt B11tidltis1
H T~ Tibetan uaMlalOTChoHje·dpal who v1$icedMltgadha(«ncra~ Ganga •~•) ~ the
thinttnth century o~ that : "In general the~ an: many non-BuddhJSU(tfrlh,wr.s)m India_.
the Early Disciples(viz., Hiinayanisu) art few, but w Collowers of the M1hiyini$11are even rewe:-:
Sec:C. Roerich, Biogr•Jlh.7of .DllarmAA'limin , beginning ol chapccrVlll.
IV . I.a TTace.sof Buddhism in India Sil
thci'
:j~ belong almost entirely to the general stock of popular beliefs that one associates
with a far earlier Buddhist phaJe. He is greatly interested in aJI the historical and
legendary sites connected with Slkyamuni 's life and he is just as enthusiutic
about the sites supposedly connected with many of the well-known tales of hia
great acts in previous Jives. Thus he mentions the stupa supposedly marking the
place where Sakyamuni in a previous life as a solitary ascetic in the foicst allowed
himself to be cut to pieces by tb~ sword of a vicious ruler without any weakening
of his forbearance. He visit, the srl}pa where lo a previous life as a young prince
Slkyamuni gave his body as food to a atarving tigress so that she and her cubt
should not 1Uffer. A previous life as the beneficent Prince Vcssantara was com-
memorated by several stupas . one to mark the spot where he has left his father's
city, banished for having given away a wonderful elephant, yet another to mark
the\ the place five or six miles further on, where he had given away his son and
daughter u slaves to a demanding Brahman (really lndra in disguise according
to the story, come to test him), and beyond this spot the cave where the over-
zealous prince bad continued to live as an ascetic. 11 It is noteWonhy that most of
these sites associated with Stayamuni's former lives were located in Gandbara,
where the faithful could not claim the possession of actual historical sites
connected with his final life on earth, firmly located in the central Ganges
Valley.
Hsfian•tsang, like othtt Chinese pilgrims of earlier times, shows great interest
in relics of the Buddha and of variou11Arhats. Thus he saw at a monastery in
scholiif Balkb a tooth of Sikyamuni as well as his basin for washing and the brush used
for sweeping his cell. In Kapisa he was told the miraculow story of how a casket
of Buddha relics had been obtained and enshrined in a local stupa. At Ha(J4a he
cmif visited a towerlike shrine that enclosed a sti).pa in which was pre,erved the skull·
bone of Slkyamuni. Some six miles distant was a cave. where the Buddha's
shadow manifested itself miraculously if one prayed with devotion. Hsiian-tsang
was overjoyed to witness such an occurrence. Nearby was a stupa said to contain
some ofSAkyamuni's hair and nail-parings. 15 He notes a particular ruined shrine
at Pcshawar, which he was told had once enshrined the Great Teacher's
begging-bowl. "After the nim98 of Buddha, his p4t'Tacoming to this country,
was wonhipped during many centuries. ln traversing different countries it has
by·~it come now to Per&ia," so be records. This was an especially holy relic , to which as
many traditions seem to have been attached as to Christ's holy grail. An earlier
1>ilgrim-&Cholar, Fa· hsien. claimed to have seen it in Peshawar when he was there
man.
· in A.D. 400.H
Both Fa-hsicn and Hsllan-uang some two centuries later visited the ,ropa near
_:::\~} Vai&lli where half of Ananda'a relics were enshrined, and Hsuan-tsang also
1'.-1~#,~{ mentions another stupa on the banb of the Ganges where the diviaion of those
.ea., •¥ E..g.. 11:eButUhat Ruonls, pp. 121, 145•6, 112•S.
,, u For thcM:variou,cxampleaoflegendarysitcs. ,ee Buddhr,t .R,carth, vol. I, pp. 4li·i , 60-1, l>t-6.
14 Concerning the begging·bowl, see Butldhut R•corlb, 1, pp. 98-9 and Trawh of F«-lts/Qn,
·. ~_-:.:. r11, 32,ll. For furcher rd'e.renc:eueeAuN!ISJeni,A,ic,.,_,Khot1111,
pp. 67,9.
312 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
last remains of Sik.yamuni's favorite disciple wu arranged for the benefit of
Ajata&atru of Magadha and the Lkchavis of VaiUli. 1S These are but a very few..·\
e,camplea of the many pilgrim-sites that were still famous in the seventh century \
and to which Hsilan-taang's detailed travelog bean witnesa.Nearly all the places:\'
mentioned refer to traditions that relate to the earliest Buddhist period and ,:,;
there can be no boubt that these lived on throughout the whole later history of'/
Indian Buddhism. It is true that a few sites of interest only to a Mahayanist are/(
~entioned, sucb as those associated with the great philosophers, Nlglrjuna, } ·
Aryadeva. Asanga and Vasubandhu. from all of whom quotations have been '/
drawn in our Chapter IJ. It is also interesting to note the existence of a stopa at)
Vaiiali. which was said to mark the spot of the Bodhisauva Vimalakirti's house//
where the Mahayana sutra entitled VimalakirtiniTdesawas supposed to have\:
been first recorded. ."\/
The only ~le1tial Bodhisattva,. whose cult impressed Hsilan-tsang in any waf/:
throughout all hi.atravcla, are Maacreya and Avalokitdvara. Toward the first of\'
these, who is not excluded in any way from the devotion of the early di5ciplei :i
Hsuan-tsang himself is especially attached. He notes the existence of images of\
Avalokitdvara in many places, but Tara is mentioned only twice, while a single:\
shrine in honor of Manju!ri Wa5 noticed by him at Mathuri. It ia perhap& note-r'.
worthy tbat he refers to this great Bodhisattva, who occupies so important a:::'.:
place in the Mah!ylna and Vajraylna, almost u though he were one of Sakya~ );::'
muni'a immediate followers, and although he refers to shrines of othcr/:-
Bodhisattvas at this particular site in Mathur:., he mentions none by name?}
However, he observes that the Bodhisattvas were worshipped by followers of the(\
MahlyAna, while those who adhered to the earlier teachings worshipped the}'
variom Gtt.at Arhata, namely ~lriputra, Maudgalylyana. Ananda, Upili and}\
the rest. 11 Hsilan•taang appeara to be far more interested in Arhau than in,\
Bodhisattvas in that hi11travelog is filled with $toties about them, real Arhats
well as legendary ones. While he is certainly a Mahayanist in his pbilosophica'a!:/
views. his whole background remains rooted in the earlier Buddhl,t period\'\;
Since he is usually retelling traditions which he heud wherever he traveled, oni{
may reasonably auume that this general background docs not represen({;
necesnrily hia own personal preferences for all those early Buddhist traditions//
but rather that those same traditions continued to live on amongst all Buddhist~}
in India, thua creating an overall continuity in Buddhist faith and
whether monks declared themselves MahAylnist or not. · '.·:··
We seem to be led to the conclusion that the exaggerated distinctions that a'11:)
often drawn between HJnaylna and Mahlytna are manifestly false. The on!':'.
noticeable differences. as our unbiased Chinese wimesse, teacify, were th~);
reading of Mahayana si:nra$ rather than the older slltras by monks o(~/;
1~ See Bwldhw R~ortb. woL JI, pp. 'TS. 76-7, and Traw!s of Pca-hsion.
,ccaon 1.4.b.
pp. S2 and U. See
l6 Sec Bruldltisl Recortb. vol. I. p, 180, and for a more det11ileddiscussionof dH!pas.,age :ii"
Thomu Watten. On Yuan Cb,mg'1 Trawl.r, pp. 30lff.
IV.La Traces of B"ddlwm in lttdia Sl3
King;} Mahlylnist tendency and by a growing c:ult of celestial Bodhisattvas, of whom
Avaloltitdvara and probably Manjuirf were the most popular. To judge by
Hatlan•tsang's pasaing references, Vajrapi.r,u, the third of this great trio, whote
rise to preeminencc has been traced in the previous chapter , wu still generally
regarded as a mere yak/a or local sprite, remembered mainly for his devotion to
the person of Sflltyamuni. 17 He thus appears in the rt>Jewhich he plays in the very
earliest of the "Perfection 0£ Wisdom" literature, datable po6Siblyto the first
century B.C .• and not at all a, the all•powerful Bodhisattva of the "Symposium of
Truth," the promulgation of which might be dated quite confidently to the
seventh century at the latest, the very century during which Hsuan,wng and
1-tsing were visiting Buddhist monasteries and other sites all over India.
One of the main features that is supposed to distinguish the J:Unay1na from
the Mahlylna is the attitude of the believer toward the person of Sik.yamuni: in
the earJier period he is treated as a historical religious teacher, albeit of supra·
mundane powers and accomplishments, while in the later period he becomes a
tranKendent cosmic being, manifesting himself in Buddha-forms throughout
the infinite reaches of all conceivable universes. Such distinctions can certainly
be drawn between the earlier sO.tras and the later Mahlylna ones, as already
illustrated by many quotations in Chapter II. But in what period, one may ask,
should one begin to draw a clear distinction between thcac earlier and later
attitudes and to what extent were they exprer;sed in the arrangements made in
different monasteries and the ceremonies performed there? Judging by the latest
possible dates one can reasonably give to the more extravagant Malayma
sfltras, one might well expect to find the new conceptions expressed in icono-
graphic form by the fifth or sixth century A.D. at the latest. l t seems however that
the large amount of archaeological research done in India and the lands beyond
since the last century fully confirms the impressions gained from reading Hsi.ian-
ii/ tsang's travelog. namely that the earlier concepts continued to hold sway almost
everywhere. and that despite what we may read of the cult of other Buddhas and
of Great Bodhisattvas in the Mahlylna ~tras, there was still very little changed
iconography that might have shocked a ataunch Hlnaytnist on entering any
ahrine-room of a religioua community where Mahayanist views predominated.
Not only did they practice the same Monastic Rule (Vinaya) hut it is also likely
that they continued to accept the same iconographic expressions of Buddhas and
practice/: Rodhisattvas at least up to the seventh century.
While early sites, such as Karla, Bhaja and Bedsa, may be confidently
declared Hlnaylnilt if one so wishes (although the term is an anachronism in
that the corresponding term Mahayana was not yet in use), and some very much
l.ttcr Buddhist sites, such as Nalanda and Ramagiri (see below) can safely be
declared Mahlyanist, there is a long intermediate period, say between the
i;.tet:ondand seventh centuries when no such firm attn"bution can be made.
nM/f
. ·::,,::
Ndther at Ajantl nor at Nlsik can one designate one set of caves Hlnaytnist and
see
11 s~ 811.ddAistR1«1rds, vol. II, pp. 22, 86-7, 22!i·6.
·
Sl4 IV: BUDDlUST COMMlJNITIES IN INDIA AJ\'D BEYOND
another set as Mahlylnist, just because some show earlier features thari\ < suggests that his representation would cause no offence to those who declined to
another." It is certainly true that a structural change took place in the layout of':{
a shrine, when the Buddha-image replaced the 1tupa as the main object of<
worship, 19 but thil is a quite separate wue from the change of a Hlnayaniit/f:
community inlo a Mahayana one. Al&the Buddha,image gained in popularity,_ so;/
it was adopted by all communities. The same surely applies to the multiplica/);
tions of Buddha-imaga and Bodhisattva·imap at least up to the scvinth'/ ·
century and even beyond. Thus there is nothing in any of the cave-temples of
Ajantl or Nuil< which would he unacceptable to a HJnaylni&t. · .· ·
The bat evidence for this is provided by the Ajanta caves, the only ones in/.
India. where wall-paintings of the kind which mast have decon.ted Buddhist/ .
temples everywhere, have sumvcd, • The scenes chiefly depicted relate to the ·;
former legendary lives of Sakyamuni Buddha of precisely the kind that fill t~S
pagesof Hsiian-tsang's travelog. He never describes paindngs, but he visited io./
many placu of pilgrimage, where such heroic actions were supposed to have;·
taken place. Again, he frequently mentions images of Maitreya and Avaloki<
tcivara and very rarely indeed of Maiijusri or any other Bodhisattva; this can /
hardly be because he was ignorant of their individual konographic feauires, a;
we may know them from their later representations, but more likely because thef
Wtte not distinguished iconograpbically unril w:ry much later than the.:.
appearance of the stktras which already attest to their popularity in certaitl::
circles , There is no identifiable image of Maiijum anywhere in Candbara or\
elaewhere in India before possibly the sixth century, and he is unknown at/
Ajanta where creative work continued into the same century. It is to this}
comparatively lare period that the magnificent murals of AvaJokiteivara in Ca~\
I at Ajanta. are u,ually dated, although this great Bodhisattva may be identified);
with fair certainty in the earlier Gandhlran period. Here, however, Maitn::yaf(
who beatrides Hinayilna and Mahiyana developments, remains by far the most:
popular, and hi& cult retnai11$ an important one in the later propagation o(
Buddhism, ccntering seemingly especially in nonh\ttSt India and beyond. At d1t(
same time Avalokite&vara, conceived of a& the lord who loolcs down in\
compassion from the heavens, and thus euily identified with the Bodhisattvi~:J
who also looked down from meTusita Heaven on the world with similar c:om?;
paS$ion before finally taking birth as· the future Buddha Sakyamuni, need not ~/
regarded as a scpaTate creation of Mahayana theorists. Hi& euly populari~;;'
11 Madanjtte Singh in his admirably produ«d boolt, Tiu CIWIIPaintings of lfjonta, makes, wba'{
'°
aeems me, these rather misleading dietlnctions. So '°° docs Sheila Wein~r in her far - aeriout',
sru.dy,Ajantiz: Its.Placein Buddhist ,frt. ., ;;,'
It Se,: Dehala Miera, Bud4hf.ll M1>11u1Hnts,for by far the best general studyof Buddhist mon:ii';
1eria aod wines in the Indian aubcoolinem. For the chan,e that iakes pi- in bask smacture, 11(.
the Buddha-image replaces the wipa in the shrine-room. s~ pp. 50ff. ·.-.'i:,
zo The Olhereaves falllOUIfor their paintings are at Bagh In the touthwat e:ttttmlty of Madhya
/,
pradnh, bat umommatt:ly dw: colon ha~ disappnred bec&useof te<:mf mistaken treatmcM. For.:,
some culler reprod11ctions see The Bagh. Caws in thtr Gwalior Slate, 1ein by Sir JohnManhaU aiicl:
othen, pu!,11,hedbythelodlaSoaety . Loitdon, 19t'7. :·.-:·.
IV.La TNca <>/
Budahism in India
read Mabiytna sO.tras and worship Bodhisatcvas. It is certain rhar a cult of
Saltyamuni as much Bodhisattva as Buddha attaches to the early Buddha-images
of Machurl, and so there is nothing surprir;ing in the logical. iconographic
separation of the two related ideals, the .Buddha-ideal continuing as the
Buddha-image, and the Bodhisattva-ideal represented by a princely figure,
such as Slkyamuni was believed to have been before he abandoned his royal
household. It would seem that there is nothing necessarily Mahlyanist in the
multiplication of Buddha and Bodhiaattva images which adorn the entrances to
the later caves at Ajantl and occupy many of the caves at Nasik. It is not until
one visits the later cavc-templea, dating from the seventh until pehaf$ as late as
the tenth century, that one can safely assume that they belonged exclusively to a
Mahay!nist community. A good example is provided by the impressive Cave 10
at Ellora with its images of Tara and Sarasvatl, Bhruku,i and Mahama -
yuri, ae well as Maitreya, Avalokitdvara and Mai\jwri. 21 Other o:arnpla are
provided by some of the later cava at Kanhcri and by some of the Aurangabad
caves. The cave-temples are a fairly sure guide of the way in which Maha-
yanist cults developed in Buddhist communities, since the whole structure, being
c:ut out of rock, retains its former layout with main and lesser divinities more or
less in position. The very many more monasteries built of stone or of brid
,·· :seldom survive much higher than their foundations. But certainly the images
found on these sites, of which Nalandil may acrve u a good example, relate
mainly to the peraon of Sakyamuni Buddha, occasionally to the great Bodhi-
sauvas, especially Avalokitesvara, and Tara. and very rarely does one find, at
least in stone, images of the great tantric gods. One of the more impressive
monastic ruins is that of Ratn.agiri in Orissa, for it includes buildings and stone
images, many of them still in position, dating gcn4:!rallyfrom the sixth co the
twelfth centuries, thus covering the Vajrayana period as well as tbe developed
Mahayana. The most popular are as always Maitreya, Avalokiteivara. Tara, and
Maiijusri, but Vajrapaqi appears in his full rights as a great Bodhisattva, while
being also represented by divinities such as Vajrariga and Vajradharma, who
hr.long to the eet of sixteen Vajrasattvas on the great Vajradhatu-ma~ala .
There are also imagca of Heruka and Sambara, who belong to the lut phase of
l,mlric developments in lndia. 22
b. The Apparent Lllteness of Iconographic Representation in Relalion$/tip
witJ, the Relevant Tuts
TMre appears to be an appreciable time lag between the data attributed to
M:1hayanasiltras and to tantras u literature and the periods that may be actri·
\· h111edwith some confidence to the earliest known images associated with these
\' n.i111c sutras and tantras. As texts, many important Mahayana si.ttras, apart from
f_ 1he Perfection of Wisdom s'Cltras,can scarcely be dated earlier than the second
.. · " fora detailed description see ~bala M!ua, op.cil .. pp. 181-8.
· 7Y llu'd., pp. 225,!!, and alao Charles Fabri. 1-listo,y of tlle Art of Orwa, pp, 46·6' .
516 IV: BUDDHlST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOl\'D
century A.O.. but although we learn the names of several great BodhiaattVas atid:i
a whole variety of Buddhas in their various paradises, it is not until some four or·::,
five centuries later that any except Avalokite!n.ra and more occasionally:}
Maftju§rt are represented iconographically, while Buddha-images usually repre·{
sent Stkyamuni except for occasional previous Buddhaa , especially Oipalikan.(
(seep. 52), Similarly in Chap. Ill tantric developments are dated generally froni;?
the seventh century, while allowing that some early tantns may have gone(;
into circulation even earlier, but there is little surviving iconographic materiaf
that can be firmly classed as tantric earlier than the ninth century. In many cases':
iconographic forms have little or nothing t0 do with doctrinal view., but aruei
from attendant causes. A rather obvious example of this bst uaertion : is.i,
provided by the couples of human figures, mostlymale and female, seated upon}
elephants, which surmount the two rows of pillars in the magnificent roclt-cutj
mlpa-hall at KarJA. If this whole structure wett not firmly datable to the\
beginning of the Christian era, but some five or six centuries later, some ar(
historians might be tempted to discover here the beginnings of Buddhist tantric::
developments. But like the large standing couples of hearty appearance, carved:(
to the sides of the entrance, they were probably conceived in accordance with th(
dictates of the wealthy donors, mainly merchants, wh01e names are recorded~;
occasionally here and there. The many animals, whose canings decorate t:M. ·.,
atOpas of Slfl.d as well as what remains of Bharhut, are mostly there as pu~ ,
decoration, although it may be of interest to note that these v~ same animali;_;
lions, elephants, hones and peacocb, were very much later chosen a&''vehicles~\
of the cosmic Buddhas of the directions. The sensuous female figures who hang'
from the gateways. courtesans (i4labhatijikti) of a kind, likewise have nothingto·
do with the doctrinal views of the second to first centuries 8.C. The yak,t.u and'.
aerpent-divinities (~a) who appear may be interpreted u representing ~ '.
subservience of all local divinities to the person of Buddha, whether thought of
as human or supramundane. As directly relating to doctrine, we have alrea~y;;
noted (section 1.4.a) the many carvings depicting bis previous lives as well as th~f
great events of his last life on earth .. These represent the early quite dogmatic!;
beliefs concerning the person and the natutt of the great enlightened being, wb' ·
appears often as Bodhisattva and finally u Buddha, These same belief.aand·t .· ·
many popular stories in which they were cxpreased form, as observed just aboY'ei
much of the sub&tance of Hsiian-tsang's seventh-century travelog, and the
certainly remain valid so long as Buddhism su1vived in India. Since the earliel
known representations of these beliefs in art form date from the second centu · ....
B.C., one might even in this case argue that there has been a time lag of rwo · century on and maybe even earlier Buddha-images were often placed in niches
centurie& or more between the formulation of the beliefs and their iconograplu~
exprctsion.
The earliest anthropomorphic image of a Buddha must be more or les:.
contemporary with the appearance of the earliest Perfection of Wisdom sdt ::
which may be conveniently regarded as marking the beginning of the Malit;
yana as a self-consciou1 movement, concerned to juttify itself againatearlie :>
IV.La TTaccsof Buddhism i'n India $17
philosophical views. I have sometimes seen it suggested that there is a connection
between the two events, as though a frcth impulse of devotion ushered in by the
Mahaylna should have resulted in the peychological need of an image in human
form to which the new upaurge of feeling might be directed. One needs merely to
read a few pages of any Perfection of Wisdom i'Cltra with their dogmatic
:wertions of the emptineu of all concepts, of the nonacceml>ility of any notion
of a Buddha, their insistence on the need £or total self-detachment in the
practice of the six perfections, to realize the incongruity 0£ such a suggestion. It
is true that other slightly later Mahayana sotraa begin to preach the benefits of
devotion to other Buddhas u well as Sakyamuni and to certain celestial Bodhi-
sattvas, but what is then remarkable is the long time lag of two to three centuries
before any of these other Buddhas are dearly identifiable iconographically and
before any of their attendant Bodhisattvas can be directly associated with those
named in Mahlylna siltras. It wouJd seem that up to the fifth or even the sixth
century A.D. the only Buddha and Bodhisattva i.magCJ that are clearly dis·
tinguished are Sikyamuni in various poet:$, the previous Buddha Dipankara in
whose presence the Brahman boy Megha (or Sumegha) vowed to become a
future Buddha (namely Sakyamuni, so this is but one more ..previous life" story),
and the princely Bodhisattvas Maitreya and Avalokitehara, the latter possibly
identifiable as the future Sakyamuni before he descended to earth. Vajra~i
was also represented during thil early period, but as an attendant yakpand not
yet as a Bodhisattva." Manjuiri appears toward the end of that period and
probably Tari as well. The only identifiable minor divinities in human fonn
were Mahakala and HlriU, who were the fa.orite protectors of monastic
establishments. A comparable time lag also occurs between the promulgation of
the various tantru and the first known iconographic repreaentation of the
divinities concerned. Tantric image,y 0ourwhes from the tenth century onward,
and its beginning may be a century or two earlier. Here we are confronted with
the difficulty that much tantric imagery is represented by whole gets of divinities,
usually arranged as ma~cµlas. Thus it Ismore easily expressed as paintings, and
iin~ no wall paintings have survived in India later than maybe seventh-century
ones at Ajant*, we have an almost total blank so far aa this very important
section of'lndian Buddhist an is concerned . Our only guidelines are provided by
miniature paintings on manuscripts, but there is nothing known earlier than
about A.O. 1000.
The pattern of Five Buddhas with Vairocan.a to the center affected the
~ymbolism of the foremost of all Buddhist monuments, the &tilpa. From the third
around the base of a stQpa (Pl. J8a) and once the theory of buddhahood as
z, See pp. ~-60 and 'flu/ Image of the Budd"4. pls. SO, 40, IS!, In the Aunngabad Ca._ be is
1•rnscnt-rat times. on one side ofSakyamuni, wl1llePadm~l la on the Ofher. This workbelong5
,., the sii.th 1oseventh centu~ie5. and o.v: may pra11me that byth~ time hcwowd be fully aec,epted as
" llcdhisanva. cercai nly by Mahlyinl4ts; but any follower of the earlier scllools, visiting thtse ea._,
· 1-nuldequally well accept him in his own guiR of protective ,oAfc.
518 IV ; BUDDHIST COMMUNITIF.5 [N !NOIA AND BE.YONO IV.Lb Twmrsof Buddhism in mdia 519

fivefold was fonnulat.ed philosophically, as for enmple in th e Sumrrµsprabhfba .<i difference which of the available id.entifiations one uses. But it would have
Sutra ($Ce section 111.11), becoming thu s a main basis of tantric speculation, it .\ made a difference for any faithful believer who wu viaiting shrine. on
must Juve been a quite logical step to arrange the Buddha-images around the_.<: pilgrimage during the later centuries in India, when Mahlytna and Vajraylna
st(lpa, ao u to give expreaion to ita cosmic 1ignificance.Thu, the four Buddh.as /. conttpriona were expressed iconographically. For a Mahlyinist the Buddha·
of the four directiona, each making hie chuac teriatic hand-gesture, came to be ·:/ image that might be worshipped as Alqobhya or Amitabha or Vairocana, might
placed one on each of the four sides of the dome. Despite the ruinons state of.-_i",-· equally well recc-ive the homage of a Htnaylnist a1 SlltyamUDi in one of bis
everything Buddhist which stands above ground in India , examples of this can) perfectly familiar poatures. In any cut ttlatively few monks can have been
be found , e.g., at Nllandl, and so univerul is the tradition in Nepal , where it .:/ sb11ed in the inti-icacies of later Buddhillt iconography, and~ fewer of the
can only have been received direct from nonhem India, presumably from the // faithful layfolk . Thus there need be no cause for surprile to ,ce small stupas of
eighth or mOl'C likely Crom the ninth century onward (Pls. J9, ,9) . A closely .:f: comparatively late date with a Buddha-image on each of the fO\l.r1ida, which
related problem is that of the identif',cadon of Buddha-imaga, which are not ) do llOt correspond with the regu.Luized pattern ; members of communities who
arranged in sets, and where no other clear indication of intended identity is:::.: had no interest in Vajraylna theory would have continued to construct stupasas
available . This need be no problem at all for a believing Buddhist, since a choice _-._.\ they had done in the pa.at, adorning them with the Buddha -images just as they
of interpretation patly assists in resolving differences between monks of .,:;~ pleued. Hslin-taang describes many au:apas and towerlike attuctum that often
Htnayeist and Mahlylnist tendency, thua ensuring a eenaeof continuity. All the··i} cnclOled than, observing how they were inlet with Buddha -images, which he
hand-gestures used to differentiate the Five Buddha. as a set occur u well::-./: neve.- attempts to identify. In the seventh century this may well have still been a
known hand-gestures on far ear lier Buddha-imag es, i.denrifiable as Sakyamuni. :';· quite gratuitous proceeding, for it is unlikely that any 11p«ial symbolism was
Only when the appropriate color is applied , as would normally be the c~ when :_-_ involved. However, one cannot be altogether sure of this, for there is just ~
painting on a flat surface and when treating wooden or stucco images, is the ":,. obtcrv!ltion in hi1 whole tta..-elog ~ting that some of hi$ informants were
identification of any single image altogether beyond dispute. . -;:\ aware of the concept of a fivefold Body of Buddhahood. Thus, on the outskirts
Hand-gesture Col.or Vehicle of Patna (Pita liputra) hia attention wu drawn to a group of five stapas and he
Direction Buddha
was informed :
Centre Vairocana preaching white lion
East A~bhya earth-witness blue elephant In old tunea, when the Emperor AJoka corunucted eighty·four thousand
South Ratnaaambhava generoeity yellow horse stfipu, there remained over five measures of relics. Therefore he erected with
West Amitlbh.a meditation red peacock exceptional grandeur five other s~pas, remarkable for their spiritual portents
Nonh Amoghasiddhi reassurance dark green mythical bird' 4 . ,· with a view to indicate the fivefold spiritual Body of the TathAgata .

The rno,t favored Buddha-image in eastern India was certain ly the one se~tea
), The actua l sir.e of this set of five snip.a,, which we can no longer identify, is
and making the earth-witlle$S gesture, namely touch ing the ground with the/ irrelevant to our immediate interest that just auch a group of five should have
fingers of the right hand in order to call the Earth ·Goddess to wimess (see II.2.a) \ been explained already in ibc aeventh century •• repmenting the "fivefold
as Sakyamuni was uid to have done at the time orhis enlightenment u a eign of)r 11piritualBody" of the Buddha. Whatever prccieely his informanu may have
his defeat of Ml.ta, the Evil One. Since this event took place at Bodbgayl iri-.2', understood by lhis, the idea waa clearly current (Pl. J8b). ts One may· also note
eutero India , it was adopted logically as the appropriate hand -gesture o_i_ ."' that throughout his account there are numerous references to ~ "four past
Ak4obhya, the c:o1mic Buddha of the eaatem direction. Numerous examples of Buddhaa" usually in connection, although not always, with a particular stupa.
this image are to be seen in museums in India and throughout the world}.;. Thw, by the side of a monastery in Ayodhya he repom the existence of "a stapa
wherever collections of Buddhist art have been accumulaced (Pl. 81)'., _:· ·· to commemorate the place where sre traces o£the four put Buddhas, who eat
Depending upon the date and the location such an image can be identifiec.l. _ and wallted here .'' Again he nores on ihc outakiru of the city of Samatata in
either u Sikyamuni at the moment of his enlightenment, or as the Buddh~ f ra.~tem Bengal a similar st\)pa "to the side of which are traces where the four
Aqobhya. We may know from our reading of certain Mablyana s-utras (~ {. lluddhas sat and walked for exercise." This phra se occurs so many times that one
JI.S.e) that since all five coamic Buddhas are eac:ntia.lly identifiable in buddha}j, wonders if Hsilan-tsang may sometimes be referring to Buddha-figures inset into
· hood, as repre1ented in our world age by Slk.yamuni, it really makes ~1
.,.::\
.··. .',:\',
H Thi$ may be a ga,vcjo (Tibetan : gNom--mltAti'
winged C\'ftlUtt with hllffi&llhead, ..-baa
.f411\f•~
-lding) or• jlt14'!fi/M (Tibftan: /i.t
raemblirtg&manikin 1* \lJllike I daafkal putW;{
· ·:.•
320 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITJ.F.SIN INDIA AND BEYOND
the side of stupas .26 However, on one occas ion at Jeast he ma ke$ quite clear that a · · ) {
kind of promenade is intended . r, ·.
It seems quite cenain from hi, travelog that while Ha<lan-csang wu a _../
convinced Mahlyilnist so far as bia philOIOpbic:alviewswere concerned, his more_:(
general Buddhitt background mnai.ned that of the earlier period, when the·/
tradition of previous Buddhas was current rather than the Mahiylna coo- .\
ception of cosmic Buddhas of the various directions, and when the Buddhist -? ; very seriously. and that even so. they would normally int erpret them within the
ideal was the Arhat and the term Bodhisattva applied mainly to Slkyamuni '}'
hirruelf in his previous Uva or bis last one up to the ~ of the enlightenment. , }
The only celestial Bodhisattva• that have any personal significance for him aR {
Maiucya and Avalok.iteivara, and Buddha -images are usually just ..Buddha" or .\
an assumed "previous Buddha." He visited all the stupas in the vicinity of}
Kapila vastn, where, like Slkyamuni himself. the previous Buddhas Kra1r.u ~·x
chanda, Kanabmuni and K.Hyapa were believed to have been bom, an ancient:\
tradition that goa back at leut to the rime Qi Atoka (tee section 1.2) . He also}
saw a 1tCtpaat Slrnlth marking the spot where Kiiyapa Buddha had prophesied -\
that the disciple Sumqfha would be the future Sakyamuni; it was here too that /
Sakyamuni in tum had announ~ that Maitreya would come next . For Hsi\an: /
tsang all these reference« are acce~d as quasi-historical ao.d he often refers t< (:
events , usually of an extraordinary and wonderful kind, which supposedly) ..
occurred during the loo.g lifeapan of KMyapa Buddha . Only once does he\/
specifically mention an image of him, which be was shown in a temple at),
Bodhgaya. n Belief in the exisu:nce of previous Budd has, which is a coheren (:'
part of the cosmology of ~ earliest known Buddhism with its assumption of,af
single universe oper aring on a time-,equence, as distinct from the cult of cosmic-}·
Buddhas who transcend the whole conception of time and space, marlc.s th e{
essential philoeophical difference between earlier and lat~r Indian Buddhism / _
However, the earlier concept was never entirely effaced by the later one and die\
mOSl usual phrase to expttss the universality of Buddhas is precisely ·"th~/,
Buddhas of the Three Times'' (viz. , put , present and future); they are ~ ( :-
sented iconographically to this day in Tibetan monuteriea as a trio of unap ·of/
the Buddhas KUyapa. Slkyamuni and Maitreya. One may obeerve that as ai(
inevitable conceuion to the later viewpoint Maitttya ia already cooceived of
Buddha. It ia interesting to note that Hsiian ·tsang, doubtless like most of hi,}
2li For these two rtkrcotts -
cump!esoftbephr aseDC1:U
Bodd.ltw Records. •ol . I , p. 225 aod voL ll , p. 199. Many
rinvol. I, pp . 178. 204, !IS, 136,t<IG:voL II, pp . Jl, 61. lSt , 181, l~ ;,~
In vol. 11,pp. 7~ and 184 thereare ~riowlly wonied.mcrenocs to "lhtu p.ut Buddha,. ~
21 /1,itl ., vol. U, p. 4 . Tlw pn,mmade (nmknuna) reprcsentli the!place whffc Saly :ununi walkt:f<\:
llp a.nd down aflff bis eclightenmem . P« tn "originalooe'' at Bodhgayi, which Jh<lan·ttahi
vificed,-vol. 11, p, 128.
2f For rcfcn-nca to chc stupasofpre.ious Rwklhu , sec Bvddllist RecOFdJ , U. pp . JS, 18-19; r,,i"
the propbeci!/$ llDlltemi11g Sakp11111ni and Maitreya, ibiG., pp. 47·8, and £Of1he huge II G11
p . 1~ . The re a~ teftl'al known cumples in Gandhliran art of lhc sc;enc of the youngdcvot :
Sumqha (d1e fuuarc IDyamu.ni ) offermg flowen and falling at the feet of an OVt'T«-mg Kilya · ·
Buddha . HsOan-uang mUMwrely have p111Cc1 by 11&Ch KUlp«W'CI , For an e,ramplt, tee pl. 11. :.,5,';{-
IV .l.b Trac,s of Butltll11:m1111
t11dio, S21
\
· .·, i,:
contemporaries in India and elsewhere, continued to conceive of hi11rdigion in
·.x quui-lmtorical rather than all-traoscending idealistic terms . Such . an .1uilude ,
which is still normal nowadays among Tibetan monks, provide$ a continu ity in
Buddhist developments, which ii seldom taken account of. Many Mah:!.yrana
suttas are so destructive in their wording of the older ways o( thought that one
needs to remind oneself that only a minority of mollk, would ha Ye read them 10
older traditions which contin1.1ed,as we have noted, to maintain their full force
all around. In theory $ODlC Mahayina teachings and certainly ma.ny of the lCS$CI'
tantric ona could have undermined the whole order of. monastic life. In effect
they made possible fom11 of Buddhist practice outside moo.a.de life, while
leaving the mon.utic communities largely intact . Where these were in decay,
especially in the northwestern paru of the Indian subcontinent, when Hsiian ·
uang pused through these districta, the blame may be laid fairly on the
destructive onslaughu of che Ephtbalite Huns a century earlier . Elsewhere,
monasteries were still generally flourishing , numbering usually anything from
fifty to two hundr ed inmates. The only really vast monastic centtt wu Ntlandl
with its three thousand and more monks, which wu visited boch by Hltlan-taang
and 1-tsing." The other !amom monastic centen of learning such u Vikrama·
ilia and OdantapQri, were founded under the Pila dynasty of eutem India
during the following century . DC$J>iteits losses in some areas and the challenges
t}Qt it faced from Brabmanical opponcnt3. Buddhism had several centuries of
prosperity in Ind ia 1till to come. 30 It is worthwhile repeating Hs1lan•uang'a oft
quoted description of Nilandl:
In this way six kings in succession added to it more and more . A brick wall wu
then constructed around these (builmnp) in order to make them int o one
monastery. In the wall a main gate wu built and tlw opened int0 a ,erie1; of
~parate counyuds. There were eight main halls in th e monastery . Orna -
mental towcn were ranged around like stars and the decorated turrets faced
one another like peaks. The temples loomed high in the milts (of dawn) and
the main hallt seemed to rile above the colored cloud.a (of the evewng) . Winds
and clouds r01e by the door.s and windows. while the balconies and eaves
u·~) (seemed to n:acb} between the aun and the moon. There was also a clear
stream winding here and there. Blue lotus t1owen bloomed in it and the trees
. \::.~. of red Kan.aka Dowen (Btll•a frondo3a) revealed their aplendor all around .
«lti
f
Further beyond, the groves of mango trees spread their acaucred shade. All
the main halls , in which were the monks' quarters, wett four storys high. The
storys had main beama with projections of dngon design, supporting beams
.:·:/
of variegated pattel"ne, pillan ornamented with painted vermilion and
(
· _";;: > z, Foe 1-tslll('s account of the ffligiou.5lifc:thete . s« Tlw Bddllill R•Jip,n. pp . &&ff. and lMft
,o For an 1.orowit of 111CbBnihmanlclll atcffb - Lalmanl Joehl. Stwdiu in lit, htUl&id#
Cwlti,n of /,u/ia, pp. 204-34, "KIIDlirila and Sariuara on Bw:ldhism.n For t~ many useful
n-krences one:may no~ abo his c:hapter XII. "'Beginnings of tht ~din.- of Buddhiarn In India ."
although it - to the praem wrkft tbat ~ paiata n~ too J1oom7a pu-tuni by his panieular
,·hake of mel'«:flcn .
<'W
}t
322 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES lN JNDIA AND BEYOND
carving. richly adorned baluatrades, jade (colored) plinths and painted cross-.
pieces, decorated with brightly colored hanginp. In India monasteries were
numbered in thoUAnds and myriada, but none compared with thi1 one in
grandeur, beauty and size. 51
Apart from the many ruined and abandoned monasteries, mainly in the
north-west but also in the south, Hsiian•tsang bas seldom any adverse comments · \
to make on the manners of monks. He refers briefly to a community in Sindh, ··-:-i
where the inmates shaved their beads and wore the robes of monks, but engaged ·
in the ordinary affairs of Jay life. Moreover, they were not followen of the
Mahayana, wbicb they attacked io a prejudiced manner, but belonged to the
Sammhiya order.St Occasional laxity in monastic life is not a surprising pheno:
menon and one does not nttd the introduction of tantric theories to induce it; ·•
Hsuan-tsang's observation concerning the people of U<J4iyua (Swtt) in the :)j
nonhwest bas already been quoted several times u suggesting the preaencc -of · \
tantric practices. He eaya that they love learning, yet lack application, and that /(
they practice the art of mantras. Few monks remain of the large number :/
(eighteen thousand is given) that used to be there, and most of the monasteries·<
arc desolate. However, be comments favorably on existing communitie.s, who ·:::
are all Mahl~nists of the Malwaqighika and Sarvasdvkla orden." Apparently}
they pnctked quiet meditation. took pleasure in reading (presumably ')
Mahayana sutns) but had no great ,.mdemanding of what they read. They led a-_::,
pure life and forbade the u.e of mantras as charms. Probably many other :/
Buddhist monasteries might have been described in this straightforward way:.\
One surely gains the overall impression from his remarkable travelog thaf \
Mablylna developments had changed. very little the Hfe of the monasteries anc:l/
that as yet tantrk theories and practices had touched them not at all. ·:
However, chaogn seem to have been taking place of which luiian-uang :;\
remained unaware. Iconography was surely developing so as to distinguish a~)/
least some of the other Buddha- and Bodhisattva-names met with in Mahayina-'.{
Slitras. Thus his general references to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas may ofteiij'
conceal significant dil'fettnces. He mentions, £or examp~. a certain image·o~}
Avalokitdvara at the monaate,y of Kapota in Magadha ... In iu hand it hold.a
lotw flower; on ita head is a figure of Buddha." 54 This particular wetBuddhi(;_
can scarcely be other than Amitabha, so often placed on Avalokimvara's h~d~ :j/
dress u a sign of his Buddha-family, as is well known from many examples to b~/1
s1 For the g1:11Cral coou!xl of this paaage - Hwui-li and S. Beal, Th•Lif• of HsOa·uaniJ;
pp, 111-12. Dr. Kalheciuc Whitaker hu -mranslated t~ ~ for me. The un111Ual ctiffiallt>:
of translation arises from che deliberate use of poellc allus10PSarranged by tbt monk-author In the }
panllel uyle.
,a See Bvddhist R•~rd.s. IJ, p. 278. and L. Joshi, op. cil., p. 505, a fllnher intere$tingmelfflCe;.(
" See Bll4dhist R"rJrds. 11, pp. 120-1. Five order$ - lbccd. but thitt of them may be grou~(;
tocether with the Sal'\'istlvidlns, of which they are aubdlvisloN. Both Beal and Watten (On Y~ ?
Traw4, II. p. 227) ezprcss ,11rpritc that Mahiyina monk$ sboo1d follow a Hinayana.:
Ch11111ng'1
Monastic Rule. but this hu been aplaincd abovt-, pp. ~If.
>• Stt Buddh'ill Record&, 11.p. 18S,
IV.l.b TraceJ of Buddhism in /ndio. 523
seen in our museums. Taking into account his many references to four Buddhas
on the sides of stupas, one may well surmise that the process of distinguishing the
Five Buddhas bad at leaat begun. Even more than Mahlyllna siltras, tantras
require pictorial presentation because of the complexitie. of their mar;t4,ala. The
extract from the Maiij1mim-ulakalpa quoted in the last chapter (Ill.II) is
intended pictorially. The Yoga Tantras, centering on the Supreme Buddha
Vairocana, which reached China in the early eighth century, were doubtless
accompanied by diagrams, if not by actual paintings. One of the early Indian
missionaries of these teachings, Subhaltarasiqiha, who arrived at the Chinese
capital of Ch'ang·an in 716, had studied them previously at Nalanda under a
teacher named Dharmagupta.ss The same Yoga Tantra teachinS5 were made
readily available to qualified Tibetans, when a serious effort was made in the
second half of the eighth century to import Buddhist doctrine from India (see
V.2.c). Thus there can be no doubt that within a century of Hs<lan-tsang's
Indian tour tantric teachings of the Yoga clU9 were well established in Indian
monastic establishments. As we have observed above, other tantric traditions
(mainly those later classed as Supreme Yoga) doubtless flourished outside the
monasteries among yogins whose ways of living retembled more thote of laymen.
Painting1 in tbia category were certainly known, u the Hevajra Tantra contains
a chapter (Il. vi) specifically on the subject of painting scrolls (pa/a) which could
be carried. Although great secrecy is urged in these matters, the painting of
such scrolls waa cenainly already a general practice, and they must have reached
Tibet in the baggage of the earliest propagators of .Buddhism. The comparative
lateness of the appearance of tantric iconography may be explained to some
extent by the need that wu alwaysfelt for keeping such traditions secret. Tantric
divinities wett probably kept in ,epuate temples to which only the initiated were
allowed entry, as in Nepal to this day. Here the Nepalese must be following an
earlier Indian tradition, which the Tibetans with their far greater open~ in all
religious matters have since come to disregard. Thus in India, as in Nepal and to
a very large extent in the whole Mahayana world, including Tibet, the divinities
in the main shrines continued to ttpttsent the more convcndona! Buddhist
.-x, images, of whom Slkyamuni in one of his poses continued to be the most
popular, whether appearing in his later aspect of Alqobhya or Vairocana
;according to Mahiyina interpretations. A far greater variety of divine beings
would have appeared as waJJ-painrings, just as in Tibetan temples nowadays,
·?\: and one may note that mal}4.alas are best represented by paintings, although
/ there are a few examples of images arranged around a temple in the form of a
.~ mar}4ala. The absence of all Buddhist wall-painting in India apart from the
. ._ ·.·. i\.janti. Cava represenu an enormous loss for the history of Jndian art, Some
deductions can be drawn from fragmentary remains in Central Asia and
especially from the earliest surviving Tibetan murals from about A.O. 1OOO
onward, and from miniawrc paintings on PAia manuscripts of about chat date.
,
· ·.__.,_,;< . ,1, I deal with tM nansmil;&ionof tantrlc uiachlngs to China in slightly more ~ail below; see
.:._ luwnrd thund ohec:tions IV.2 .a 1tldlV.2.d.
 lV : BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
2. TRACES OF BUDDHISM IN CENTRAL ASIA
a. The Historical Bac"8round
Some rather more detailed diac1111ionof dw area ii required, for it provided .
not only the routes by which Buddhism r-eacbed Chi.oa and thence the whole Far : .?-
East from the fint century A.O. onward, but it -.as also here that the T~ns . ·._:;
fim encountered this religion, whi<:h they were gradually to make their own so ·:...
thoroughly, from the seventh century onward . Despite iu lmporta01:e in the :->
general history of Buddhism , it ui lddom if ever treated within this larger :\
context, and there is no tingle study to date on Central Asian Buddhism to which · >{:
the reader may be helpfully referred. Good reasons for this ha"e been stat ed in. ::
the opening paragraph of an important article by JohnBrough. He writes: ·-:
A detailed and connected narrative of this remarkable expans.ion of the : .
teligion would form one of the most fascinating cbapten in the early history · ::
of Asia. Such a narrative , ne-ll!rtheless, cannot be written ; the surviving .·:":
information is fragmentary, interpretation is often uncertain, the problems ) .
numerous and intractable.!, · .
True u thu may be , it shouJd not prove impossal>le to produce aome fairly )'
coherent account sufficient for the o-verall needs o{ this present book, and this i& \
all the more ueceaary ainc:cso little is known about the whol e area. Traced from .'j
wea to east it embra«s northern Afghanistan and the adjacent territoriel .\
occupred by the Rusaiam in the latter half of the nineteenth century, comprising ;_\
nowadays the Soviet Socialilt Republics of Turtmeniatan . Uzbekistan and:}
Taaikistan , and thence beyond the Pamirs and the Tim Shan range to the-(
Chinete "Alltonomous Rcg,i.on'' of Sinkiang-Uighur, No other such vast area; /
which became very largely Buddhist in religion during the first .millennium A.D;; \
has suffered such n.dical changes si~c then - ncial , linguistic, cultural ;.\
religious and economic. The only more or less continuing factor (Mlr the Ian tw0
thousand yeara bas been Chinese interett in w whole region at ka~ aa farwest -A:
u the Parnin , where nowadays the boundary lie5 with the far more recently'/ ·
occupied Russian territories further west . The main presen t-day unifying f.acto( (;
for the whole area result s from its gradual conversion to Islam, which began h( )
the far west in the eighth century and was more or Jess completed in the eut bj';t
the fourtttnth century , when the last traces of Buddhlam aa well H Manichei1tr( ';
and Nestorian Christianity were finally wiped out, Owing to the continuaJ J
incuniom of peoplesof Turkic origin , thi1 area with which we are now cori•j_}
cemed has been known u Turkestan, a general name that obscures the earli~f f
ethni c compl exities of its vario us pans . Some of these peopresare only known.{
from the names given them in early Chinese histories, while other,, which ~ ( :
appear to a Western readeraa more likely. are named in acc01"dance with aoni~ C lllgnifkance for the history of Buddhwn and which wu made pouib le by the
eponymous hero, in accordance with some popularconfusion, or more accurate~;,:;.
perhapsas the result of the recent finding of an informative inscription . ·.:
'4John Brough , ''Commencs on Third- century Smiq-shui and th~ Hisu,ry of Buddh is~:\
BuU. S,hool ofO ri...to.ll!I Aftictm. Studiu xxvm (196!>),pp . r.82-612.
IV.2 .a
325
The pans of this la:rgearea with which we are primarily concerned are tbo!le
that are enclosed on the north by the T ien Shan range and on the south by the
> Kun -lun, beyond which extend ner further south the lnhospitable wastes of
north .em Tibet. Th~ two main ranga ,erge together, more or le,a meeting in
lhe high plateaus of the Pamira, which have to be croued in order to reacb the
western parts of Central Asia. The paru thus end01ed conaiat largely of a nit
desert , the Tak.la Makan , along the northern and southern edges of which have
paased 1ince ancient times important t~de rou tes linkin g the west.ttn rather
tenuou.alywith the eastern world . The.ae routes. by means of which Chineae silk
and other highly prized Oriental commoditiea reached the Roman and
Byuntin~ Empires in earJ~ times, have come to be known popularly as the Silk
Rout e, Sutee the p~penty of the communities settled along these routes haa
depended almost cnurely on trade, the eventual destruction, caused mainly by
the terrible excesses of Cenghiz Kha.n's followers, and the final loss of any such
trade , occasioned by tlM!opening up of ~a routes between Europe and Aaia,
resulted in the impO\'erishment of most of the area. Some markets continued to
t~ve on more local trade, but the great gloria of the first millennium A.D.
dISappea~ for ever . The earlier considerable weahh deriving from trade
re~ted in the fonnadon of a number of city-states, which depended for their
a~cultural needs ~n e~e~v~ and wcll-~aintained systems of irrigation. Very
high levels of m atenal ctviluaaon were achieved while much of their wealth went
to the development of literature, the arta and religion . A large part must alao
have been spe~t _on ~ilitary preparednes1 , for despite their •haring of many
cultural and r~ltgious interest! , they were often in an incip ient state of war, if not
actu.al war, with their neighbors, which is sadly an all too common human
condition, as much in the past as nowaday&. Such endemic disunity laid them
open at all t.imes to {~reign occupation, which becawe of the general layout of
? the land, u Just deacnbed, came mainly from the eut or the weat.
During the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.·A .D. 221) the Chinese made their 6m
in~rsioru into Cen~ l Alia as a result of the neceaity of defending themselvei
agaum 10D1e. aggrem ve northern neighbors known as the Haiung-nu . Having
eventually dnven them back, they wrested from their hold the city-states to the
north of ~e T~a Mahn, and thereafter · by mean, of punitive campaign,
SUC(."ffdedm keepingthe whole area more or lets under their control until the
fal.t of th~ dynasty . Even thereafter embaa.aies that arrived in Ch'ang•an from the
ne1ghbormg states suggest some form of continuing influence . Cenainly this
rapid expansion westward of Chinese power open ed up the routes between th e
great empires of East and West-China, Persia and Rome . In the same period ,
~o~ver, another empire was in the process of formation , an event or great
temporary eclip se of Penia as a great power . The earlier Achacmenid Empire
'J whoseeastern bOW1dariea extended to the Indus, was brought to an end by th~
conquests of Alexander of Macedon in 381 B.C. and the Macedonian inhe rito rs
-~'i orhia vast Asian empire . namely tbe former general Seleucua and his successors,
·:·\:r.

326 lV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
brought Hellenistic influences to the confines of northern India. The Seleucid
Empire gradually broke up mainly owing to attacks from Rome in the west and
to successful attempts at independence in the more eastern parts, a&well as to
the incursions of invaders from the northeut. The most important of these ue a ·. .
people known by the Chinese u the Yileh-chih, who had been displaced and
forced to emigrate we1tward by the more powerful Hsiung-nu, mentioned above;
These Yueh-chih tend to be confused with the people known by the Greeks as
Scythians, and in northern India, where they soon forced their way, as Sakas ..
The main opponents of these Sc:ythians were not, however, the declining •.•
Seleucid.a, but the Parthians, who under their Arsacid Dynasty restored a rather·.)
diminiahed form of Persian Empire. Since the Parthians were comparatively ; =:{
weak at this period, the Scythians wen: able to vie successfully with them for :·./
conttol of the eastern pans of the old Persian Empire- parts that had become · };
quasi-Hellenized after Alexander's conquests. Thus, the peoples who occupied ,:'/
these areas were all of Indo-European origin, ,peaking languap of the Iranian -.\=;
group, and using acript• which were all of eastern Mediterranean origin. They·,_ ·/:
remained strongly imbued with Hellenistic and even Roman culture, as is j;
indicated best of an on their Hellenistic-style coins.'' ' cm:rland from China to India in 599/400. It was certainly used by the Tibetans
Into this region, then, and more specifically the area known as Bactria, wc:st .:;')}
of the Patnirs and north of modem Afghanistan, the people known by the ·_,:'\ .:
Chinese as the YO.eh-chih arrived in rhe second century B,C. If the Chinese ..-. / daffic:ulues,more 1peeddy to Khotan, the neare!t important city-$t&teof Central
account1 of their having been forced westward by the Hsiung-nu are correct, :<(
then they may possibly have been of Mongol origin. However, having established .:•:_;
themeelves in their new homeland, they rapidly became imbued with the /'
eclectic culture that surrounded them to such an extent that they might welt°:)
have been yet another race of Indo-Europcans. About the beginning of the ::·.:;
Christian era they established a powerful dynasty known on their own inacrip; :)
lions as Kuahlna. In Indian sources they are known as Tushltara or Tukhara. andY,i
in other variatiom of a name that com:aponds to the Tokharoi of the Greeks.\. '
But the use of this name in iu modern form of Tokharian would merely add io/ ;
the problems of explanation.• The third king of this dynasty is the great
\:
K.anishka, who ls as important in the Buddhist traditions of nonhern India as a/:
great promoter of Buddhi1maa is the Emperor Aioka aome four centuries earlier .:)
for the whole Buddhist tradition. His dates remain uncertain but it i1likely that/
he reigned during the fint half of the second century A.D. It is therefore no({
.· . ·.": •,
s, See John M. Rosenfield, n, Dy,w.s#&Ar~ ojtlac Kllo$haN, chap. V, NSakasand Partbia~" f:/
am ~cacly indebted to this whole study for all that concans the ltu,hinas. and rather than iNcrt 'ii·:/
mCtt»ion of l'ooalotes, I ffllllal the intere:attd reader to nm- to thia work, making suitabJc '*
of '.-}
the index. Thi! come, a now mentioned. are Ull*taftd io a serie, of tiatftn plata. .::·./ 7,
34 Like ao many other names of pmplta in the ancient world ia use tended to be vague•. hf: -:'
claaaical (G~k and Lat.ift) ,oureef h la applied to • people living notth of the Hindu Kush; ;..:;
corrapcmd.lng more or lea ui Baciria. ln India it teemi to ha¥C been used of llny invading /;
peopleswho came !rom the far notthwest. In m:cnt time.1it 1w be-esiapplkd to the languap·o( J
IK.ucha{K11chean) 1111d of Kara-•hahr (Apean. derived from the Chinae name of this city: seif::J
Beal, B1UldliiltRci;t1riu, vol. l, p. 17), which wne situated on the nortbffn pan or the SIik).
R011tr. .··)·,,,..,
JV.2.a Traces of B1iddhism in Central Jisit1 .327
surprising tbat he remains unknown in the Sthaviravadin (Tberavtdin) tradition
as preserved in Ceylon. His empire, estimated at its moat modest extent,
stretched from Bactria in the north to Mathurl and beyond in the SO\lth, thus
embracing to the north of the Hindu Kllih the region that led over the Pamin
toward th~ Centtal Asian city-states, over which the Chinese had already
staked a claam, and to the south all the lands watered by the great tributaries of
the Ind.us as well as the upper reacba of the Jumna and Cange,. It thus
embraced the usual routes that linked northwesr India (Gandhm) with the land
of Bactria, whence one travded westward into Persian (Partlwm) territory or
~astward across the Pamirs toward China. A glance a the map will show that this
1sa long and roundabout way, but long and difficult as it certainly was, political
circumstances permitting, it was the surest of ways and it was by this route that
Hsiian-tsang reached India in the seventh century. A far more mountainous
route paases southeut of the Hindu Kwh, traverses the western enda of the main
Himalayan range and of the Karakonmu. An even more diffacult trail leads
across the Himalayas into Ladakh and thenc:e across the KaraJtonuns and the
Kun-lun. 59 The Gilgit route was probably used by Fa-hsien when he traveled
when they attac.lted Chincae poaitions in Central Asia in the seventh century, and
a _route ~rough Lada~ was doubtla.1 well known to them, aa it led, dapite its
Asia and one with which they maintained close connectiona (see below IV.2.b).
It would, however, be useless to any traveler, wiabing to visit the Buddhist lands
of GandhAra and beyond. Later on, when the Tibetans became the major
~ntra) Asian power, they controlled also the routes that led from Nepal into
Tabet and thence to China. but in the earlier period, with which we are now
concerned, both Tibet and Nepal are quite unknown quantities.
At its greatest extent in the early centuriea A.O. the Kusha.na Empire stretched
t'?m the plains of nort~em India in the south acrOllithe Paropamisadae and the
Hindu Kush mountams to embrace not only Bactria, but also Khorasan,
Sogdiana and Ferghana, extending even beyond toward the Aral Sea. 40 As a
reault of the weakening of the Chinese hold on the Takla Makan area east of the
Pamirs after the fall of the Han Dynasty (A.D. 221). Kushlna influence and
probably actual Kushana administration extended eastward, certainly along the
southern routes as far as the ancient land ofShan-shan, which was practically on
the borders of China. For a short while it must have represented the greatest
Central .Asian empire that hu ever exiated, if greatness is not to be measured
merely by conquest, but by cultural penetration and the promotion of the arts,
<>fliterawre and religion and the general wellbeing of all the peoples held
,t Conttrn!og the cxp)oratlon of thae rouca In more rttent limCf see John Keay, Whm Man and
M1111"'•l,isMul, Locidon, 1977. ·
ol r«ml 'Russiu ~!oration ln the more nortmm reaches of the Kwhw empin:,
.o _Fora $UTVCJ'
Mw ,n the USSR, one may refer to G. M. Bongud-Lcvin, &udia ir&Jfncunt India aJtd Centro/
,foa, pp. 175ff.
328 IV; BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
together within such an empire. Its complete_ contrast is the terri.ble Mongol
empire of the thinecnth and fourteenth cenumes, ~ ~on br~n~tt Khan, f~r
greater in extent, but effacing end~ly the flouri&h.,ngcavihzauona t!u:t
still
survived, despite earlier M011lemincursions, throughout eastern ~cntral Alia . · ·
The cultural hi6tory of Central Asia, at leut so far as Buddhist developments ·
are concerned, might therefore be divided into three general periods. The first
one coincides with the development of an eclectic civiliiation in western Central .
Asia which achieved its greatest success undtt the Kushlnu ( Pl. 40). The second .
coincides with the gradual cunailment of Kushlna power, cawed in the firsc·
instance by the new Penian empire of the SaS&anid dynasty (A.D. 224 onward)"_
and by the incursions of fresh nomad peoples from the north, especially the".::_
Ephthalite Huns , who laid waste Ga~~ in the early sixth ce~tury. However; ·::.
communications, although now politically as well as physically extremely:';
hazardous, often remained open between nortbwcst India and eastern Central_:;!
Asia, until the eighth century. In the aeventh «ntury, Hs'1an-tsang .traveled),
from Kucha, which was still largely Buddhist in religion, across the Tien Shan :,:;
into Ferghana and Sogdiana, thus travening the territories of the Western :',..
Turks, before traveling south through Bactria, and then into Gandhara. He ./
reports the existence of many desolate monasteries and occ.asiooally small:)
surviving communities of monks throughout all the1e western reglons. The fall {j(_\
the Susanid empire to the Arabs in 651 brought fervent MO$lernS to the bord_e~,:?
of Central Asia, and their conversion of the Western Turks, who were preamgy i
into the western oases of the Takla Makan, led to the establishment of Islam iri:)/
theae areas by the mid-eighth century, and thereafter cultural contacts between/
China and India overland soon came to an end. The third period might b_~
described as including Chineae attempts, not always sutteaful, undeT the T'ang· .:
Dynasty (618-906) to regain control of the whole Talda Makan area, and ~h~:
emergence of the Tibetans as a major Central Aaianpower, often in league wit~ ~
the: Arabs agaimt the Chmesc, who were thus eventually unable t.o h~ld th~~\:
own. From the last decades of the eighth century until the m1d-runth t~?
Tibetans were the effective masters of all the main strongholds, becoming\
converted to the practlce of Buddhiam in the very process of their warlik.1}.
actlvitles. The collapse of the Tibetan empire after the usuaiution of the last of.?-
the line of Lhasa Jtinp in 842 was of no help to the Chinese, for they we~ :}
already suffering at the hands of a new foe, the Uighur Turks, on their north(
western frontiers. This interesting people, who wue already followers of thfl
religion of Mani, gained control of the northern oases of t~ Takla. Maka~\.
centering on present-day Turfan, subsequently adopted Buddhwn, which they;
resolutely defended against the triumphs of Islam ekewhere, until the omlaug~c;
of Genghi:z. Khan brought universal destruction throughout the whole are,.~.(
whatever the religious allegiance might be. . : : .\\
Any such divisions into periods of shifting historical situa~ions, furtl~ .
complicated by the introduction of different peoples, often with no clej'~ :
definable homeland. is bound to be more or las arbitrary, but some. ·1·:;\t'~,r
. :,;:,:\
IV.2.a Tracf.sof Buddhism in Central A.sus 329
framework is necessary if a coherent impRSSion of the fluctuating fonunes of
Buddhism jo Central Asia is to be given. Of chief importance in the first period
is the de!W!lopmentof eclectic civilization in western Centnl Alia following upon
Alexander's conquest of the Penian empire to its very limits in the plains of
northern India. From then onward forma of Hellemstic, Persian and Indian
religion and culture were open to one another. Moreover, the wa)'I were
prepared for later Roman. Christian and Manichean influences from the second
century A.D. onward. Such _was the extraordinary power of these cultunl
influences that all these peoples of leas highly developed cultures who arrived in
this general area from the steppe-Jamb of che northeaat tended to auccumb to
their benefic;ial civilizing power, deapite the wan that continued to be fought
between one people and another. This relatively happy situation scem1 to have
continued up to the arrival of the Ephthalitc Huns in the early sixth century.
That Buddhism was already being propagated in the far reaches of the Indian
subcontinent in the third century &.C. ia proved by the existence of some of the
Emperor A&ob's inscribed rocks near Kandahar in praent•day southern
Afghanistan and in the uppervalley of the Indus well north ofTaxila. The uae of
Greek and Aramaic for the Kandahar inscription well makes the point con-
cerning cultural interpenetration. The other two northern inscriptions are
written in a saipt known as KharoHbi, derived from the Aramaic fonn of
writing that had been wed throughout the Persian Empire(Pi. 4Ja). 41 Aramaic,
the language of Syria and Palestine, became the lingua Jranca for merclianta
and travelers throughout the whole extent of Persian domains , but under the
Greek dynuty of the Seleucids it was replaced by Greek for all government
::. purposes. The name KharOfthl, of uncertain origin, applies to an Aramaic
llCJ'ipt,as distinct from the actual language, adapted to suit Indian dialects. In
Lhe case of thele two diacovered northern inscriptions of Atoka, the language
thus transcribed is a nonhwestffn Indian dialect (Prak.rit). Tllese same two
script&, Greek and KharoHhi , were normally in use by the Panhian and Scythian
r>redecessorsof the Kushinas. One of the last of these, known from his coins as
possibly reigning.toward the middle of the first century A.D., is the King Gondo-
t>hares,who according to the apocryphal Acts of Thomas is the Indian king who
: was converted to Christianity by St. Thomae. 0 There is no known evidence for
1hc exi,tmce of Christianity in the Ku5hana empire, but it ia interesting that the
name of this pre-Kushana ruler should have· been known in early popular
Christian tradition, and it is certain that Christianity was established in Persia by
the second century; thus there is nothing inherently unlikely in the arrival of
Christian converts there and even further ea1t in the previous century. o Because
ii Sc<!.Ro1nllaThapar, Alo/c11,andtheDcclmc ofth•M4Vl')'OS, pp. 7, !S!I, 2,6, 260-l.
-1, SeeJ.M. Ro1mfleld, op. cil., pp. 129-SOandforcbeActsofTbomu refertoM. R.James.Tlit
.lp,.cryplud NIIUITCSlafM11t,especially pp. 371 ·7.
•~ TIie most re~c and informative dlscusaion of the problem of bow and when Christianity
c.istwa.rd will be found in an anicle byJ. B. Sepl, "Wbca Oid ChriatlanhyCome LOEdeaaRr",
lj01r..1cl
~liMlc Easl Sht.d1'esond l.il,,ari,ts, a Fefu:itacion Volume for J. D. Pearson. ed. B. C. Bloomfield,
,_·:&h111-t"II,1980, pp. 179 -91.
5SO IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN lNDlA AND BEYOND
of the earlier dependence of theae eastern Chrittian communities on the sees of ./
Antioch , Edeaa and Nisibis, it later beamc Jabe~ as Nestorian , following : · =,.
upon a schism of the Pc::rsian Church, and thus the form of Christianity that ·\
gradually ma~ its way, like Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Manicheilm, across . -.:, ; have also been found in Ladakh, and it is not impossible that the Kushanaa may
the Pam irs and along the northern oues of the Takla Maun t0ward China, is ··:)
alwaya referred to as Neatorian .44 .:.~'~
It 1hould be emphaai-zed that Buddhi5m could not easily pasa direct from -/
lnd.iA in to ea1tem Central Asia. It passed fi.nt , already in pre-Kwhlna times ;_?
into the general area of Bacuia. and Sogdian.a, to the west of the Parnin , and ;::
once established on the main route between Penia imd China, it followed by..::
1tages the same long journey at the other great religion,. Buddhism wa1 not )
taken from India to China by Indian mmionari e,, aa ia 10metimes suggested; /
there were so many other trantmitten involved in the whole ardu00$ process•. '
Thus according to a reliabl e 1ource quoted in Professor Brough '• article , to \.
which reference wu made above, up to the end of the Wettem Chin dynuty ::
(A.D. 516) only six tnnslaton of Buddhilt texts into Chineae may pc>MibJyhave :::·.
been Indiana while tixteeen others who are named , are all Central Asiana,. \
namely Parthiana, Sogdiam, Kuch9na, Kbotaneae and mainly Yiieh-chih .•\ {
Also in 5UCh a context as thls the term "Indian" is likely to refer ro people of the \
northwest of the subcontinent , such as the lndo -Scythians , who preceded the ~,;
Yileh -chih (Kushanas ) into the atta. The actuality of Kuahlna influence , and/
prob ably for a ahon while direc t administrative responsibility , in the far eutern \
reaches of the Takla Makan region it proved conclusively by the discovery·~ \
whole collections of documenu at various sitC$ along the ,outhern rouu:s fro m/
cut of Khotan a& far as the Lop Nor. Some are in Chinese and the rest are in the/
language of northwest Indian prtlqt (Gindhirt) written in the Kha~~hl ac:ript(
TM! documen ta are largely administrame , and it la parti cularly aignificant that \
an admlrmtrative language of the Kushlnas should have been in UIC far '° £roa
9 this too succumbed under the attacka of the Hum, who thus cawed havoc
their ccnter of government. The only really intelligible explanation is that they.)1,
were in occupation of tbu land of Shan-shan (thus known from Chine¥,].
references) for a short period toward the end of the th ird c:rntury, and if . thet ·,
were in contr ol so far east, they must surely have controlled othe r interVeni'nif
areas. Frequ ent refcrenca to Budd hist monb and Buddhist ettablisbmeri~
make it quite clear that Buddhism wu well atablisbed in the land, It it a~ ;
equally certain that the earliffl Buddhiat text11 to reach Central Asia we~ \
ncei vcd via Bactria and Sogdiana from Gandh t.ra , not in Sanskrit, which ~ ;:
~ Nestorius died in exile In Egypt about 450 . For a sympathetic account ol hit life aee O. :Ii?
Pffldse , Polllffl Md H-1lu, SPCK. Londoo , 1968, pp. l ~~ · Ooe may alao noccthe comment:~
Henri Mamlll in J. Daoi8ou. and H . Jihnou . Tu Clrri.ll- Cmlvn u . vol. l. Lcmdon , 1964,.
p. S70; "Tbe tum N-i•n baa to be uated u a ttad!t1Gn1llabel llted in hillory with a mea ·
10 join iv condonininJ Nest ~ 1..
that cannoc alwayt be parantccd. In fac:<,apart from cheir ref1&Sal
thc nwi , the heresy of tht$C Christian cbarcha is difficult to dilcower."
.a Secjobn llrOQfh, op . cil ., p. S87: i.. aJUde ia COIICffMd primarllr ~ ~ iropticad ons
may be dnwll. from 1bea-nee of the 11.h•'Ofthl dOC\ll'llCll
U m~ d to 1m,n cdia cdy below. FOC:
accou nt olthcir dilc:ovcrybr Sit' Auw Stein in 1900-1 tee bis A1u:1fJIIKhota•, pp. Sl6ff. . . .'':'-:':.
IV.2 .b in Cmtral Ano
7rocu of BsuU/1,ism 551
only then ~ginning to come into u.e for Buddhist produ ctions in India, but in
the Gandhl _ran dialect , written , a, are the adminiatrativc documenu jaat
mentioned, in K.harot, hl script . 41 Kharonh1 imcriptiom of the Kushlna period
have reached the S011the-moases of the Takla Makan by the short er but mor e
diffic ult rout e tb ough Gilgit, though this is sheer speculation .~
b. K/aotan
I_twas by thi& ~y _tha t Fa,hlicn, one of the fmt Buddhiat pilgrims from
Chma, reached India m A.O. 400, thua passing through the land of Shan-, ban
and after a detour northward to Kara-shahr traveling southwestward to Kbotan .
OfShan -shan ~ report s:
This land is rugged and barren . The clothing of the ordinary people is like
that of the Ch ~ ; only they differ in the use of serge and felt . The king of
the coun try honors the Dharma. There a.re10me four thowand monks all
foll°'!ing the t:fi?ayina . ~he laity and the monk, of this CQ\lntry wholly
pracuce the relagion of Incila, but some practic e it well and some practice it
bad ly. From here toward the wctt the various countries att alike in this respect
but they differ in their local (lit . "barbarian " , viz., non -Chinese) languages.
The monks, however, all uae the Indian 1eript and the Jndi4n language...
By the time Pa ,hsien made his overland journey the Kuahlna empi re was at an
end , having been fint pressed souch of che Hindu Ku,h aa the new Persian
em~ir c of. the SaS6anid5wid~ned its bound aries, and later finally dearoyed by
the rncufSIOni.of the Ephthab te Hu n$. With the weakening of the Kush.a.nasand
the continuing turmoil in the far nonhwe at the nex t Indian empire to take slap e
was that of the Guptu from the fourth century onward: this was cmtered in the
Gange. VaUey as Atoka 's empire had been aome five centuries earlier . However,
throughout the whole an:a of the one-tim e Kuihana empi re. The Hum were
disposed of in western Central Asia by a coalition of Peruan forces from the west
and the Turks from th e nonheut , who each took a share of the lands north of
the-Hindu Kush and west of the Parnin . During more or !as the same period,
the tecond half of the lixth century , a new Gupta empire was cttabliahed in
central India, the grcatc:st of who,e kings was Harsh.a , who befriended Hsuan-
1nng on his Indian travels during the first half of the seventh century . In orde r
10 reach India Hsiian -tsang followed the northern route across Centr al Asia ,
: ::f!·
16
· Only o~ tc.xt ol any aubaa n1ial le1111h (rad!Cr m OJc than half tbr total) ,ul"Viwel
of what mu st
lwvc been • complece Buddhist canon. See The Gintlltiltf Dhcn nopau. , edited with an introductio n
and com mentary by John.Brovgb .
7
• For refen n~ to thcx ~h~ iliscript.ionsaec Luciano Petccb. Tiu Kin(tlo m of Lll ddh ,
...· 1'1'· 6-? . CollCCl'nlng nrly lnscr1poons and rod: -cuv lnp la Gi'cit, one m1.11t
rekr to t~ r~n t
·. :::_:;, :: 1~.,; carchct of Karljcumar ; 1e11. e.g., his artic:11t1, ~Bolor- A Cootribulion 101be Poliiical ind E1bnic
w~t \. (,cogn pby ofNo nh P akistan ," Z•ntt~la#aliu-11.Stlldien 11 {1977), pp . 41! -4.8. and "Fcbb ildcr un d
,',• l1udui (cen 1m Karak ont m Hlghmy ." Cmt n, i Asiaticjo lmUJl XXIV ( 19e0), pp. 1S ,2?1.
·.,.
~: ·lH Stt"T~Trave- lsofFa ,hsian," BtuUhi# R«ordl oflh W11lffll w~,u, p. 14.
 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNmF.S JN INDIA AND BEYOND
passing through Kara -shahr and Kucha, thence crossing the Tien Shan into the
empire of the Turb which then stretched from the boundaries of Persia to thote
of China. He passed through Samukand , which although subject ro the Turb
wu ,uoogly influenced by Peraian religion ("fire-worship") and the fonner .
importance of Buddhism. wu indicated by de$:rtcd and ruined monasteries. It
wat not until be reached Bactria to the north of the Hindu Kush that he met
with practicing Buddhists again detpite the destruction caused by the earlier · · /
Hun invasiom . It is ttmarkable that despite the chaotic conditiona that mmt ·;}
have ex.isted in India and beyond, following upon the breakup of the Kushma · :_'.'\
empire , and despite the ever widening physical gap separating the Buddhists of . . }-
India from the Buddhisu of eastern Central Asia, their religiow traditions
continued to pass along such incredibly difficult routes in ever increasing
quantity . In Kushlna times thett had b~n chains of tranamiaion all the way .
from India to China with the nonhwest Indian diakct of Gandhara and the . ...•
Kha~t,hl script , which was favored by the Kushlna , lf:l'Ving as the chief literary ·/
media. B11t from the aec:ond century A,D . onward the use of Sanskrit greatly :_.::.
increased and the script in which the manuscripts tha t reached Central Asia.··/
were written was the typically Ind ian script known as Brlhml (Pi. 41b); Its origin :·.':
is obscure, but it develops from the third century B.C. onward as a peculiarly . -.J
Indian script specially adapted to the sounds of the Sanskrit syllabary. This :)
script prevails in Central Asia from perhaps the fourth century onward, and ii\\
wa, a form of this M:ript that was adapted by the Tibetans in the early sevent~·:/
century, if not before, for the writing of their own very different language. I.t ) :
suited well the language5 of Central Asia during the first millennium A.O. since.::\
they belonged ~nly to the Iranian group of Indo-European languages a~d )2:,
thU$ were close ttlatives of Sanskrit . 49 . ..· .:..:
The m01L important collecriom of such Central Asian Buddhiit writings .;)
consist ofmanu 1cripu written in the language of Khotan and salvaged early this '(
century from excavated sitC5 within the vicinity of present-day K.hotan and from}
the Tun -huang caves, of which .more will be said below. From the fragmentary }_
information available Khotan appears as the most actively Buddhitt and/
certainly amongst the more highly cultured of all the city-states of Central Aaia.<,
Situated on the eouthem route to the west of ancient Shan-shan, it was visited::~.
both by Fa-hsien on his way to India in A.O. 400 and by Hsiian•tsang on ~i{/
return journey about A.D . 64.4. They describe the people of Khotan whh\ J
unaffected approbation; thus according to Fa-hsien: · ::.:}(
The country is prosperous and happy and the people are numer00$ ; withoui' {
exception all have faith in the Dhanna and they entertain one another wit~\
religious music:. The community of monks numbers several tens of thousand(
and they belong mostly to the Mahayana, food beini provided for all of the~ /
The people live io houses situated apart and in from of their ma.in doors srna!l
.., A succinct dcscripdon of lnclbn scripu it co be found in A. L. Batham. T/11 Wond,r T"-1
'""°'
·pp. $94-9 .
IV.!.b
stllpas are erected to a height of at Jeaat twenty feet. There are monutic
houaet for c~ :recepcioo of visiting monJta (literally: monks from the four
quarten) wh~ are $Upplicd with whatever is needed . The king of the country
lodged Fa-Hsi~ ~d ~is companions in the monastery (sanghctTama)which is
called Gomau. Tius 1s a Mah•yina monastery with three thousand monks.
They ~~ble for meal, at ~ sound ~ a gong and their bearing ii seri0ut
a.nd dignified; they go to theu places in proper order and there ia general
silence. There _is no noise from their bowls and when the attcndant1 offer more
food, no one 15 allowed to •peal: to anyone ~. but only to make si ort.: with
che hand." 0 -
HsQan-aang'a account mentions other religious foundation., that are alsomown
from Tibetan accounts of Kbotan, but the source of all auch material derives
from l~cal legendary tales and no precise historical information is forthcoming .
T here 1S ho~er no doubt that Khotan was a major <:enter of Buddhist studies
especially relating to the Mahlyana, and that there were numerous monasteries'
· several of which arc not only known by name from the various available litera~
s~rces, but ~~~ also been tentatively identified on t~ ground following upon
~rr Aurel _Stet?, excavations. Thw the Gomati Monauery whereFa-htien ttaycd
1
1 known m T1betan texu u 'Gu·ma·ri or 'Cum-tir and it may have been aituatcd
near th~ base of the more famous "Ox-horn" (Goiroga) Hill. 5 1 Both places are
named m the legendary account of how the Buddha Sikyamuni first consecrated
t ~ l~nd of Khotan (known as the Land of Li; Li-yul in Tibetan) to the Buddhist
rchgion.
The Lord ~imself together with a fourfold retinue (monies, nuns, male and
female n0vtces) . ma_oy hundreds of thousands came flying through the sky to
Khotan . He took has &eat on a lotus-throne in the sky at a height of seven
pal~·tr et;5above t~e Jake where now stands the great 'Gum-ti stupa. Then he
emitted light-rays 1n all directions so as to get the Tathagata.s from all the
Buddha-field& in the ten directions to conaecrate the land of Khotan . Thus all
die Tathqaw who reaide in the um directiom 1mt forth from their Buddha-
fields assemblies of Bodhisattva.s, who should worship the Buddha Saityamuni
and es,cntial spc_llsfor the protection of the country. as well as light-rays. all
' for the CODSt'Cfatlon of the Land of Li. Com ing toget.her on Slkyamuni's bead
t~ey all bestowed the conRCTation, and the great cry of Hurrah wa heard'.
1 hen the Lord Sakyamuni encornpasied with rays the Land of U, whlch wu
then a lake , and from those rays there appeared on the surface of the water
three hundred and sixty-three lotus flowers, and on each of th~ lotua flowers
there appeared a lamp. Then the rays united at one, which encircled the
water three times in a clockwise direction and afterwards disappeared into the
ccnter . Then the Lord commanded the Noble Sariputra and Vai!ravaT_la :
/. "" Stt BiuJdllut R"ords. "The Tra~I& of Fa -Hllian," pp. 2Hi: foT H.een•u•- ·s account ibid
' ;• rul. 11.pp , 509·24, --.. ' .,
:·:\~:
Litnary Tat., ,mtl DOQUn.ats Conumiftt CAin- T:. /u$l
,~f .}/ 1.i Stt F. W. lharna&, Tr°Htar&
·it ~nl. ~· PP· S·8. Thit w~. in two vohuna, contain, En11iah n-11l111tiooaol •eYCralTl~:n ,e°;;
·:<.~ ;·t'111111gto Khoa o, and wtll ~ rckrred to hereaf cu a, FWT op. cit.
·:\t?·
834 JV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES 1N INDIA AND BEYOND
"Break up that mountain called FJah -CoJor in this ink-colored lake." Thus
the lake waa disp01ed of by means of Slriputra's mendicant '• staff and Vaiira·
vaQa's spear -point . For the sake of the good of living bein~ the Lord stayed
one week on the Ox-horn Hill at the place where there 1$ now a small stOpa
inside a temple to the left of which atand1 a large image ..i
Vaisrava~ . whose name mean s "offs pring of the famous ," is a protecting /;':
divinity, who was supposedly appointed u guardian of Khotan by Sakyamuni ::
himaelf . In origin he teems to be a ,aiilaand is identified with Kuvera , the god of .:_~.
wealth. Jn Hindu tradition Kuven is the 100 of a sage named Vi!ravas. so that \
Vaisravai,a should be interpreted as a patronymic meaning "son of Viiravas"· :;:
(hen~ the Tibetan translation : rNam-thos ltyi mu) . The kings of Khotan were ·-::.:
supposed to have descended from him and his special connection with this ::;
northern city•State may have been the reuon for his being regarded as the king _::;
of the North in lndo-Tibetan tradition (PL 42). Following upon Sikyamuni's /
consecration of the land, Buddhi$1Dis said to have been introduced by a celestial:'-_
being named Vairocana who came from Ka.shmir. In lbuan•tsang's account be-.)~
appears as an Arhat or perfected monk capable of miraculous powers, while in >i.°
the Tibeu.n accounta he is recognizedas an apparition of Maiijuln. Whether of{
not a monk thus named arrivedin Khouin from Kashmir, the name Vairoc:arui-:-; : ab~ut one hundred mi~ towud the nonh and cast ofYotlan at places referred
1uggcsu at onec:a connection with the Buddha Vairocana of the Yoga Tamra /:~
tradition, discussed in the last chapter, and these may well have reached Khotan ;'f
from Kashmir by the Gilgit route. From the fifth century onward and probabij /
even earlier, although physically more difficult, this route mutt have ~ : h16_Jo1nney1 of_~:,c:plorataonan the1e difficult and inh05pitable regions . The
preferable to the longer one through Bactria and Gandhlra, which Buddhism _:
had followed during the period of the Kwihlna empire and which Hsuan·tsang),;
by happy combinations of circumstance was able to navel once more arouncf :;
A.D . 630. After such destruction as the Ephtbalite Huns has caused in north~',
western India, the main source of Buddhist teachings for the Central Asian dif :;.
states is likely to have been the upper Ganges Valley, whenct they would pus)
through Kashmir ac1051mountainous trade-~utes more or less dinctly .:ti>{
Khotan. Two ,uch different periods and routes of ttammission presumably a ·:·.
relate to the earlier use of the Kharotfhi script and the later use of Brahml, t~
earlier tran.rm.i.ssion of Buddhist texts written . in northwat Indian dbite&
(Gandhlrf) and their later transmission on Sanskrit, to which ttfettnce ··~
already been m.ade above. · ··
The surviving Buddhist literature of Khotan, written in Brahmi script-
belongs to the later period, namely the .cvcnth to the tenth century, whereas _t;l(
documents in Kharonhi script found further east and relating to the ancieii .
neighbouring kingdom of Shan-shan, belong to the earlier period of the seco ·'
to the third century. Th is contrast serves to illwltTate the accidental a··
fragmentary nature orwhat hu survived throughout the whole region.
» Stt fWT op. cit•• "'The Annus of the Li Country , M pp. !H-5 and R. E. !mmerick, Tlhriil
Tuts Connmirtg 1Cllota11, "Prophesy of the Li Co11mry,•pp. ~it. 1 ?i.tt modified the uantlat'_ . ."
makinJ \UC of EtTUMrid.'5ctccllenrly ~d Tibetan text. · ···-'·
TV.2.b
Tt'accs of Btul.d.Jwm mC•ntTal Asia 555
Buddhist cuJture of Shan-shan sttrns to hali'Ccome to and end with the earlier
period . pro~~~ly :or climatic reasons, while Khocan mnained a flourishing
Buddhist c1v1lizauon up to its final 1ubjection to blam in the early eleventh
century. Toocforc what survives in each cue is mainly the latest of the type of
current literature, such as might be expect ed on any excavated site. That the uac
of Kba~t~ must ha:c ~ q~ ite as general throughout the kingdom of
Khotan durmg the earlier penod as proved by inscriptions here and there 00 the
1CVeralmonaatic sites excavated mainly by Sir Aurel Stein and his companion,
between 1900 and 1915. Not only the earlier use of Kharotthl script but also
fragments of ancient murals unearthed from the sands of the deser~ or from
uam ble-down shrine$, bear witness to the close cultural relations that esi4c~ in
the earliest Buddhist period between Khotan and the Kushana empire with its
ecJ':tic links r~c::hi~g to the Roman world (Pl. 44a) . The actual capital of
a~cient Khotan was anuated some IC9en miles northweat of the present town at a
village oamed Yotbn , a variant form of Khoun, which comes nearer to the
a"':ient Tibetan name for the capital city, namely Hu·ten OT Hu-than, and the
Chinese name, Yu-t'ien . The sites excavated lie generally within a range of
to m wor~ _on the- subject by their present -day Mol.lem names, such as Rawak.
Danda _n ·od~ and Balawaa_e . The.e were all impoNant monastic aitea during the
fi~t _millennium A.D. of ~h1c~ practicall! nothing was known before Stein began
Chinese authonues who had been more or less in control of the whole Takla
Makan area, now known as Sin.kiang-Uighur. since the thirteenth century when
its ~pu_lation was already largely MosJem, had done nothing to pr<>ttet t.be
earlier sue• from the depredation and wanton dearucdon to which they ha~
been subje~ted by ~l treuu~-hun«:11 and dtspoilen. Having 00 intereat
t~~va 1~ t~ ancent Buddhast rernanu, local ChiDC1eofficial$ at first placed
~o. difficult~ m the way of Sir Aurel Stein and the several other European
discoverers, to whom we a~ indebted for all present knowledge of the hiltory
~f the remarkable Central Aaian civilization that flourished in pre •MoeJem
tunes. Alttady be~ore 1920 poJitial difficulties began to arise , aod nowadays the
p.auent ~nun~mst ~nunent of China, having bel.Atedly claimed control of
thae ancu:nt s~tes. ca,ngates the earlier European archaeologisra, who were in
fact the real ducovcren of China's ancient Central Asian heritage 35 robbers
:ind dcaec:rators.H While the Chinese authorities had long since ce~d to take
·.· u Tiie rQJ ~ a!ld dekcraton hue dearly been tl,e loal Modem popwa.donwhOR
;,r.iwltleauntil crzitc ltealt times ,.~ t011lly unchecked. For conimenu on thia Nd titutlon o,w.
. rna! refer to ~bcn: de b Coq, &rwd 1\-e"-Alr, of Clam- n.Tliuta11, pp. 60-1: "The Chinese,
.. .-.cung• offic:1_1• ln the ~nuy. pay no amndon to thla cia(ructlon; they arc aD C-focians, a!ld
dapue Buddh1111111 the rclipn of che ·•mall folk.· The btama of the doonctc:., were al10" "alfJ
.;: ~oiqchtafter in the old temples, u fuel end wood for buildirig ii a:ua: in the lowland a.round ~an.
-.~: I~ _t-udlul fired _die&whlcb CO\lered the floors of many terap1a were much ~ 11 well. Jn
,,1,: ~~r~r days the nauves used to loolc.for trcallllff, aod they ate aw to hne ofun ma~ valuabte
t\," d1KOverietof cams, ,old and sliver statuette. etc." More lCring,,,tit ill hil cornmentais Albert Gnln-
'}" ~I In bb a,ncltt QHraeAloloeisdu 4rbtlttn l'x lllilvtldarltffl4 tf"V•~(Miincben, 190fi),
f
336 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN L"JDIA AND BEYOND
any imercst in the pre -MosJem civi)izatio11$of Cc:nttal Asia, the Tibecans , whose
cultural debt to them has only recently been so clearly demonstrated , .eem to
have forgotten almost entirely their early Central A.nan contacts and continue to .:
write of the history of Buddhism in their country u though it were an entirely · _::
Indian importation. Thus the Land of Li became a land of legend or was ; :'.:
confused with Nepal, and only the vaguest of historical as.sociatiom have ·,'.;:
persisted with the ancient city -state of Khotan. · i..
The s~ral an:haeological sites relating to this important Buddhist kingdom ·.\
have been buried for centuries under the sands of the desert, and there must be ·..,
many more awaiting eventual excavation. Apart from the scanty nmaim
brolten images and paintings , some of which go back to the earlies- period, moa ·_;-'
of what survives, ctpecially literary remains, ref ers to the rather later period. ::·}
Several volumes of such edited Buddhist texts and fragments have been:'.)~
published by Sir Harold Bailey over the last f'ony years, but although euent.lal_·_,t
material for any would-be student of the Khotanae language, there is unhappily ·:\
liule that any other Buddhiet ,cholar can glean from them. 11 All the more U8eful.'.'/
tberefotc is a booklet by Profeaor R . E. EmmeTick.,a former pupil like myself of .:i·
Sir Harold Bailey, entitled A Guide to the Litmuuf'e of Khotan, as this provides ·:::,
a complete survey of Khotaoese .Buddhist literature now available . Equally /;;
illuminating in its own particular way is his edition t0gether with English \
translation of The Bool of Zambast.a; A Khotan•11 Po•m on Biuldhism, a& thui/,.
helps to reveal the kind of Buddhism curttnt in Khotan in the later period ." · ,-
The Buddhinn of Khotan, so far u doctrine and monastic practice arc :::..
concerned, reproduces well enough the later Indian developments, as described,-.,:_
in our Chapter II above , to which were added in due course, presumably
the seventh to eighth cencury onward, tantric traditions of the kind that" are.{
relatable to Mahtlylna si'ltras (sec section 111.5.a). This would have included too .:,:
Yoga Tantras, centering on the Omnilcient Lord Vairocana, but there is: nc(
tra ce of the so-called Supreme Yoga Tanmu with their markedly un -Buddhis!; ',:
prodiviria. Fragments of texrs belong to many of the popular Mahiyina sutrli5. _,:·
from which quotations have been drawn in Chapter II, capecially from · tht\
VimaWttrtinircWa Sutra, the $urangomasom4dhi S<mo, the 5atldharma :r
/nn:it!af'IM., the SukMtMU"""ha , the Suvonµ,prabh4sa and the vari~ :., -
Perfection of Wiadom afltras. 86 To the.se must be added a continuing interest i~(.
t.he quuihutorical life of Sllr.yamuni Buddha and the 5tories of his previ°';' {
pp . 171-9. For ao Eaglilh tran$1atcd CllUa<:l Re A lo"I Iii. dncttttt SilA.-ROUlt:$.Tiw: Mffl"opolia! f
Mme,amalAn, NewYork, 1982.p . 51.
H Publilhed asJC/sotan,u TQts, vol,. 1-V and IChOlll.MU B"4dlli# TfltU. Vol. IV ofthe fo~ h
c:onmna a -.ful introduction, HGauacana:The Kingdom of the Sak.as in Khotan. ~
ss Out ora likelytotalofl98 folio&19! arc in LenlQgTad.ro,.hidt Emmerldt buadded a furtli
lS scutettd In i:oBemoN u far aflcld aa Calc11u1, London, Yale, Bcrlio and Tokyo. Silcb iKtbi!:
fa~ of a MS which wu prest1mably comp!- when found by a local ·trea.su tt-hui, rcr'" and t~ (::
broken up by him and hll companions lor ule . The remaini.ng third of rhis t~:u may be.11'tiil,;
W1id.entifri in aome muteum or prl-te coll~tion.
56 For a con,plete list to da~ of the identified Buddhist texu see R.. E. Emmaick, A Guid~ t~'t~ ·
IA,~rwof Kltotsn , pp . tsfi.
IV.2.b
337
rebirths (jdtda), which never lost their popularity , such u the tale of the young
prince, who gave hi& life to save a starving tigrea and her cubs, or the heir-
apparent who gave everything away, beginning with his father'1 magic elephant
and ending with hi, own wife and children , and in ,ome aCC<>untthis own eyes as
well. Very little tantric material seems to have survived and it is lll0$tly in the
form of spells (mantra)-of the kind already found in Mahayana s{itras, but it ia
clear from a«ounu surviving in Tibetan that ma~las and mantru were used
for the coercing of various divinities within the context of th01e daues of WllTU
defined above aa Action (Ar,jact)and Performance (carya)Y The cult of Yoga
of}~ Tantras is clearly wggc5ted by such alight .-emains u a remarkable mural of
Great V airocana discovered at one ruined Khounese ate (P L 44b) and a textual
fragment that names the Four Guardians of his ma~ala. The Book of Zambosta
reprcaent.s scholarly Mahaylna teachings together with the generally accepted
traditions of a more popular kind. A single quotation i1 sufficient to iOustrate
the unquestioning acceptance of the tbeory of the voidneu (Jun,at4) u taught in
all Pcdcction ofWildom literature:
In reality a dha'f'ma does not actually exilt in fact. Things are without sub-
stance , such merely as a dream . In a dream, one doa not perceiv e "This is
mCTelyan empty dream." When one wakes up . a thing does not exist there. So
through ignorance do all things appear a& objects. Through wisdom a thing
doca not actually exist really. Wiadom is aucb as a fire : when it arose in it, it
·_>\: consumed the grate at once . Ignorance does not in fact really exiat objectively.
How then ain wWom really exist objectively? All the dharma.sare only such as
a dream or a thing created by magic, partial blindneas, a mirage. 11
fr~? As in the Perfection of Wisdom literature, thi s form of highest wisdom is
counterbalanced by the preaching of the need for boundless compusion
(Juaru~):
Compu.9ion , the p<uamil.41 (Perfections). maaf'd (Loving kindness ), very
noble bodhicittu (Thought of Enlightenment) , tM u:iliul upitJas(Means)-
may 1 not now be far away from thia goodneA, Fint of all for a Bodhiattva is
compaasion alike for all beings, unhindered, great, noble, because it is all the
favour of compassion tha t they have been able to 0\/cttome on~ as Bodhi -
sattvas ao that they have realned thi, best bodlu" (Enlightenment) . Anyone
who hu been born amonr men who has no compusion in his mind is not
called even a man . Do not ask whe ther he should be ca~d a Bodhisattva!
Compassion is $Uch as the mother of all goodness in 5aJllSlra , becau se all
<·.: ;'.: Buddha-virtues have been born from great compaaion . Compassion ia
.-'.}/.
unhindered, equal. Compa11ion is always the same toward aomeone who doca
not low: one as toward someone who does love one . 59
i ('
, ~, ~ e.g., FWT PJ,. cil . • -rol. I , pp . 205-16, whc rt: ~rahmi and the other thirty-two gods. d~
Jlc,ur Kana, of cbe (&1rtffl , the Bodhbatt-,u A"alolm:dvua, VajnP'QI. Vajndm,aja ere. all
proda~ 1iwn.(dho~i) for protection against enemies and diteMCs.
/},; ~ See R . £. Emmerick, TM Book of Zambo.rta, p. 159.
¥.I Tbic.• p. l~l. l baYCadded the terms ii bradcru . L.iclting Emmerid, '1 rare co~ i n t~
_::~;~ 11howlae la~. I clo noc ptCMll'Jleto incerfue with hif more liceral tra119hltion
.
·:.\{{{·
5!8 IV: BUDDHIST COMMtlNlTIF.S IN INDlA AND BEYOND
·.:;1
Chaptei-12 is concerned with the Bodhi&attva vows that should be kept by monks ·}
and wougbout the tenn Bodhisattva means any monk who hu accepted the §
Mahlytna tradition. 'rhua he can en u easily as any other human being . · Mahiylna tendcnc:ies. By the end of the fourth century when Fa-bsien arrived
If a :Sodhiaama exhibits merriment , la.ughs, argues, jesu without ~uon. is\ ;' he
guilty. If again he makes beings worried , perplexed. then again be it guiltlm; _:
_-~:
Here such worrying and perplexing can only rmr to disturbing the normai. \
complacency of people in the midst of their worldly activities. Or again: .·._i:{
If a being abuses a Bodhisattva, he (the Bodhilattn) is guilty if he cauaa a":j
quarrel. If the Bodhisattva realizes this: "It so appears to him, 1 have angered: :-
him," he ahould then ask forgiveness . Should he not ask him for forgivene., ..;;:
then he commits a fault. He i, guiltlcsa only if heretics are confouocled by him: /
This use of the term Bodhisauva ii entirely suitable in accordance with orthodo~ /
MabAylna them:y, and we ha-vedrawn attc-ntion to this same usage in one of die);
earliest of Perfection of Wisdom Slltras (stt section 11.S.b), but it remains iri)
marked contrast with the more popular application of the term. to a celestial-'/
being or perhaps to one such as Vimalaklrti who hu already achieved the highest ~;
perfection in our pretent world . In this reapect one may note that the texts/
relating to Khotan uae the older term Arhat to refer to a celestial being in exacdf ::
the $E11.Cway that Hsilan-taang uses me term. _·_·.-
::
Thus as be approached Kbotan from the west on his tttum journey be either.
:/
saw or was told of some rock caves supposedly frequented by Arhau who llew'i :
there from India to find peace . ··
The cliffs have niches and caves, some of them between the rocks and the\:
trtts. In winter and throughout the year mountain torrents ru1h down on al.t"
sida . Arhata, diaplayiog their spiritual power,. come all the way from In~ii;'.
and remain here at peace . There are 5tilpas for all t~ Arhats who ha~(
.attained niTV19ahere. At present there are thrtt Arhata living in deep rettsse~
'.E
in these mountains , who have entrred t~ state of equipoise (sam4dhi) kn~il ,'.
as "extinction of mind. " Their aJ>l)Ql'aoce ia emaciated, but as their be•~'. ~
and their hair continue to grow, monks go from time to time to aha~ the~ _.f;
The Arhat or Bodhilattva (both tcnna arc used) Vairocana, who ia suppoaecf l'q
have firn brought Buddhism to Khotan from Xashmir, may presumably :=: !#.
thought of as the same kind of quasicclcstial being. 61 Howcvet", as alreaa . thousand years: there will be no thieves and robbcn , no famine and no hostile
observed, it is likely that Buddhism first reached Khotan from acr0111
the Pami_
during the Kuahlna period, and that it wu only later when that route beca _~
to<> difficuh for political reasons, tb.at Buddhi1m was introduced in iu Mah~
ylna form across the Karakorum from Kuhmu- . The two Buddhist ord~i:
.· ·/::.?
60 For this pa.age, heff ,tightly amended, 1tt Bui, R•cords of tht1 Wcstffll World, wot
JI
p. SOS. The Chinese cluirac:ten craNlated stranply by hal • ''lh•-N~ ffPT'C!lt'Dt Sa~ ·
inmana = monk . ·:··.'.';
61 For Hsuan-tsang's aocoum, Sl!C l',ul , ., . d! . , p. , 12. For thr aceou.nt p~ hl Tibemn' : ..:
FWT op. tit, vol. I, pp, 105ft. and Em-ridt, TibtlMI 1°flcUCt11Ut11'7W11 Khoton, pp. Uff . . ··.:.:\f:,
·->
?
"::.'~ JV.2.b Traces of Buddlusm in Cfflmll ~sui
SS9
·>
represented in Khotan from the earlier period Wtte me SarvlKivlda and the
Mahuait1ghila, both of whom, u we have obec:rved above, were open to
there the community of monb numbered "teveral tens of tbouqnds belonging
~dy to the Mahayana ." • The figure may be an exaggeration, &implysuggest ·
1~ very tar~ numbers, for in the early JCVen.thcentury Hailan •tsang reports the
CXlltenceof about one hundred mona&tmea and some five thousand monks."
Because of the implicatiom for iconography throughout Central Asia
generally, it is not without interest to note the various Buddhas. Bodhisattvas
and other exalted personages, whose cult was clearly popular in Khotan. Justu
the doctrine of the emptiness or vanity of all concepts whatsoever is never inter -
preted aa negating the essential need for univenal compusion, so it is not
interpreted u undermining religious faith or the value of worship. HCTewe may
quote again from Th, Boot of Za.mbasta:
Buddha called faith the dud of all goodneas. Whatna those noble
poaseaions arc:, he has placed faith supreme then, There are five balas
(powers! : '!1c chief is fai~h- There arc nine kiru:16 of moral restraint : among
~ faith lS supreme , chief. The sense of fai.tb is the supreme~~. Through
faith one CTOtaef> me sea of Ju.Ja (affliction) . Thus it is prodaimed in the sutra :
"Faith is just like t~ mother of all goodness in ••l:!l•tra." Therefore did the
all-knowing Buddhas speak thus in the DaJ<UiJumnalt4J<ura : "Justaa a burnt
seed does not grow. so the goodnes.sof me unbeliever docs not .""
Al for the imponance of worship it is said:
J wonJ,jp all the Buddha, of the thtee times in the ten direction, the aJI.
knowing best teachers who arc the strongholds of the world . I wo~hip the
Mahf!.ylna Law, pure, best, true , by which all the Buddhas of the rimes mree
realized best bodhi (Enlightenment) . All the Bodhilattvu , who indeed for the
welfare of all beingsseekout the best bodlai-all these 1 wonhip , , .'°'
There would seem little doubt that the mou popular Bodhisattva remaina
Mait.reya.Not only is be frequently mentioned in the available literature but
.. nlso in Tlte Book of Zambasto a whole long chapter (no, H) i, devoted• 10 a
detailed descriptio-n of the blissful and peaceful state of the world when Maitreya
ap~ars at last as presiding Buddha . The life tpan of men will be eighty
army, no diaeaseand no danger of fire. Rain will come in due season: cropa will
he plentiful; the gardcm will be beau tiful with variegated flowers and birds of all
kinds, etc . Maitteya will turn the Wheel of the Doctrine, jwt as it has been done
hy the four former Buddh as. namely Krakuccbanda, Kanaltamuni, KUyapa
{ t.t For rriffcnc~ cot~ rcligiou, on.ten, 1111,pccificdby Hsuan-wng, see FWT op, m., vol. 1,
op. tit. pp . •t a.nd f5 .
·;_'.l'l'· I Ii and 117 a.nd vol. JI, pp . 510 ,11; abo P.mmttick.
'.:_. ., Sft ~k. Th• llool of~ p. ffl .
-.. t-i lbi" . , pp, 161ft',
 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDJA AND B.EYOND
and ~~kyamuni. but he will £ace no opposition at all, not even from the Evil ·":_
. became a main center for the pursuit of th06C interests."
One, Mlra. :\
Mara wil be Slrthvaha by name , wise, m eritorious. faithful, very com-.:/
pusionate, upright, devottd to the Three Jewel&. He will bow down to the···i
ground in a pancam~ (fivefold ma*la) at the Buddha', feet, Then '!·:
with very reverend mind Mara will utter a praise of the Buddha: "I worship '}
the all -knowing Buddha. You have now, Buddha, drawn out th e arrow of-'.i
pusion from rhe heart of verymany .·• ·/
It may be observed (compare section 11.4.d) that the.re nevertheless remain som/ ~
who are cxclu~ from the ga,eral aa~ of universal salvation which will then~ / }
proclaimed, namely those who have been guilty of "deadly siua'' (ancanlan)O), :./
which are listed in The Book of lombasta as: refusing to acknowledge th < :
Mahayana as the Buddha-Word, finding fault with the noble ones (4rya) who :.~
follow it, robbing a religious commumty. obstl'\lcting the taking of religiou ·, :<
vows, accepting a false teac~r. harming tha5e who wear red (religious) robee;/
depriving nuns of their celibacy, and depriving monb of their celibacy by_\
playing the part of a woman who eerves them ." Despite the golden age that he(
will usher in, such "h ard catet " arc beyond the reach of Maitteya'ssaving grace:/
Other favorite Bodhi&attvas who are frequently mentioned in the legendary :'.'
accouna; of monastic foundations arc Manju!ri, Avalokiteivara, Samanta ~)
bhadra, Ak.Uagarbha, Kfitigarba and Bha~ajyaguru. We have met with most o(
these frequently before, but the lut two named may appear as ~comers. In·:·
name at least Kfitigarbha ("Earth-Embryo") might seem to pair with Akiila /
garbha ("Sky-Embryo"), but there i& no apparent iconographic connection
between the two. In lndo- Tibetan tradition he appears in various mal.l4alas in.
minor capacity, and it i& only in Cffltral Asia and the Far East that he achieve~
personal distinction as the Lord of rhe underworld, namely of the dead, a r6fo
which may have been suggeated limply because of his name. Bhaifajyagur .
(alio.s: Bhaitajyanja), "Master (al,o,r; King) of Medicine, " appears as the specia
·:
manifcatarion of buddhahood responsible for the Indian medical tradition'.,{
which wer-e exported as a useful part of Buddhist culture in general. Medic~! ;
texts have been found in Central Aaia in Sanskrit, Khotanese and Tibetan, ah 1
such WOl'U m.wt have been among some of the earliest Tibetan translations fro····
the eighth century onward. Tibetan medicine 1ubaequently developed ~~­ as
amalgamationof Indian and Chinese rhcorie1, and it is not unlikely that Khot~_\l'
. '.}{
.;:\~
65 Ibid., p. 829. Here .. ebewhc~ ,h<:author is chawinr upoa maccul that JIIQ$ t be originalf ·
Indian. Por references given by Emmcrick, Rt ,'bid., p. 501. · . ·_'{:
siiu (limally meaulng thoae wblc'bbrl-agimmedlar:er.:lribuiki·
ea Ibid., p. 557. The «IICJ11t•l'l)W
were u-adidwlally find D fr-. patricide, -tricidl:, kiflinr u Axhat, wounding a Buddlia •l!
provoking acbim. in die: Buddhlrt order . PmfftlOr ~rid poinc.aout to me that the Kbota·
intnpmecl onolltoTi,- (lmmediue) as lhoup It wen: CPNr,e«,nonj« (endlcaa hell) and applmf · ·
term to any beinou. offence. Finding (Aultwi1h the noble ones hu the qualification In die text ii
"he bu been born foe- the •ke of oonbinh .M This Rl&f pem&J>Ibe lnterprectd a1 a fonn- ;i
tnodlcryof Mahit,anuc-achinpof chc kind quoud above in scc:ticndl.4.b. . . /:~
·-:_::~;
IV.2.b Triues of Buddhism in Central Asia 341
Deepi_te. the plurality of Bud~has and Bodhisanvas named in Mahlylna
SOtru, u 11 ~learl~ the ~ -lt o~ sn:yamuni Buddha. reinforced by the many
leg~• of which hia quuahlllOncal life on earth is composed. which continues to
remam central to all Buddhist practice, as sponsored by monastic: communities .
The Book of Zambasta. contains a chapter (no. 24) describing in the usual
legendary style, u much typical of the early (Hinaylna) schools u of the later
Mahlylna. hit descent from the Tu,ita heaven in the form of a young white
elephant,_ bis mirac:uloulS binh, his prowess u a young man and malife in the
pala~e, hl5 chance encounten with the aged, the lick and the dead, and finally
t~e stght of one who has ttnounced th e world , followed by hii own renunciation ,
his defeat of_M1ra un~er the Tree of Enlightenment, his realization of enlighten -
ment and his preachmg of the doctrine. Thereafter several folios arc missing ,
but o~e may pr~rne that_ the story is completed. ElleWbere (chapter no . 5)
the~ " a dcacnpnon of his return to his native city, Kapilawutu. afteT hi,
enh~t~eot, and the Javi1h honor with which he was received, even his father
worshipping at his son's feet. This is deliberately expanded into a succinc t
~tatcment of Buddhist doctrine, for as the author explains at the outiet : "I
mt~nd now to rxplain to you in Khotanese the pc-ram4':rtlu, (absolutt cnab),
which the Buddha out of great compusion told hia father, King Suddhodana .
Whatever ,uch a great 80n tells 1uch a gt'Cat father, one mould not have any
~oub t atall_abo~t; assuredly this is the best Law." This short doctrinal statemen t
is a tather S1mphfied version of the theories of the Mind Only sch<iol. There is of
course no such thing as a self or any other aelf,conta.ined entity (such is the
a: universal Buddhist th_eory), nor are there any clftnent 1 (dlutrffl4J) au.eh u the
early 1chool1 had enYJSaged them; but all is like a dream or the falae vision of
!IO~~ne with defective sight, the mere production of deluded conaciouanac
(~J1l4t~a)affected by the matur.ation of previous actions (karma). "So in vijnana
( consc1owness) there are waves m the great ocean of objects until the great sun of
~,odhi ~enl!gh~enmmt) rises for you. Just as one could think of distance as wa~
·~~ conu .~uuy 1~ the _ocean, there is no end for them until the 4alpa(aeon) enda .
S111ce vifotma II their seed, their wjncmoi, sown u pralyaya (attendant circuJn.
~•,-mces). F~rther , it rcsulu in objecrs. It is the mother and (they) her SOD$,
l hcreforc JS saqisira said to be beginningless and its limit so great. When one's
thoughts cease, it is at once found empty."" We rnay thus observe here the
1~,rm~I Mahlyln.a practice of preserving the whole legendary and quui -
!•:
s~oncal framework. of early Bucldhl$m, wbiJechanging the doctrinal content.
I Ins may wc:11affect the interpmation of the cvenu of Slk.yamuni'a life, but bb
11
\. ' Conceroing CM "Buddha« Medjcinc" Re die -rvJ JludJ bf R.ioul Bunbaum , n, H«iRllf
:;:-lli,,/dlt• . Boulckr. 19'19. Coocernlng Tibetan medicine the bat work available is that« 'E'em.abd
r:-,:·
M.-y'?· ~So,t,o ~-/14, 1- 1,uhM mUic.J rib~n. Paril, lt81 ; ecc eJ*iallf pp. !i?ff. For detailt of
..~i:·~·~
sc: n1edicalmeta see Emiacrick, If CIAide to lhe Lit.mtUTe of Khola.,i. pp. 46-9.
·<. 1110
&Ok 0/ ~111bcuta, P· 111; the brae~
·/ '"'~trflOT,UCO
illterprecaci- an my addition, and l haw
Emrncru:k'aamenctmencofdic last teneeocewhichbe hat-relegated co afootaose.
342 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
life-story and the stories of his previous lives continue to provide the main themes
for storytelling and mural paincings. Also the cult o{ previous Buddhas is by no ...
meana forgotten and several references to the relic:a and the stllpas of the . ):
previou• Buddha K»yapa are to be found in Khotanes e tradition as preserved in · ·'.'.;
their Tibetan versiona.69 He should not be confused with the Arhat Kaiyapa, also :
called Mahaka.§yapa, who beromes the effective leader of the first Buddhist /
community after SM:yamuni's decease, presiding over the funeral ceremonies ··'.
and over the first Buddhilt Council, supposedly held in RAijagrha. Wha~ver ·:
legends may attach to his person, his historical reality is quite as well attested aa ::":
that of hi& Master. He was believed not to have died, but to have entered an . -:
inacn&ible state of nitvaQa, enclosed within the n:cess of a mountain named {
Kukkutapada, where he would await the coming of Maitreya, who would /
summon him into action again.'° This future event is described in Th, Book of
Zambasta (p. 331) and it is one of those many traditions which help to maintain :}
the continuityof certain fundamental Buddhist bel~f1, whaicver changes there / Central Asia except for Tun-huang on the extreme oorthwe,t border of China
may have been in philosophical theories and whatever disagreements may ha~ .:::
been harked upon in the various doctrinal school&. Both Fa-hsien and Hsuan ~)
tsang visited this particular place of pilgrimage, which was a hill in the vicinity /
of Bodhgaya." Hsilan-uang. as is his wont, recounts the whole I•nd. There/ ;
was a stilpa on the summit of the hill and looking from a diatance on quiet \
evenings a bright light used to appear there, but if one climbed the hill, there \
wu nothing unu,ual to be seen. It is noteworthy that the: impression& that w~ .;\
gain of Buddhist beliefs and attitudes from his travelog correspond very weD;:,:
indeed with the impressions that one gains of Buddhism in Khotan from tb(
limited sources at our disposal: namely the continuing centrality of the cult o( ,
~akyamuni and continuing in~rest in his previoualives, a universal cult of &Ulpas?
and relics, living traditions concerning the activities of past Buddhas, especially)
the Buddha Kaiyapa. little trace of the fivefold C06micconception of budd~~}
hood , which was important in the Jater Mahayana and central to the Yo~\
Tantras, a cult of the favorite Bodhisattvas Maitreya, Maiiju!rf and Avaloki\ .
tdvara with occasional mention of othen, &lightmention or Vajrapll:\i except irr'
hia role of special guardian, colorful ceremonies and feativaJs, well-orde~:
monastic communities and occasionally some less well-ordered ones, but al_~.
claiming to follow one of the ancient monastic codes (wnaya). whether they w~
Mahiyanists or n0t. Hsiian-tsang is certainly describing the Buddhist religion ··..·
he saw it and as it was explained to him throughout Central Asia and India'
. . , ;,;:'
6!I c:on«ming Kilyapt.'1 stupa .ee FWT oJ,. cit,. vol. I, pp. 7, 15, 19, 24-7 and concerning~:
relics p. 109. The four pall Buddhaurc mentioned on pp. H and 90.
70 The Indian Buddhist tradition con«ming Kilyapa as the fint bead of the cmnmunk
(followed by Ananda, Siqavua, Upappta and Dhitika) belongs to the nortbwes( where it .·.
transmittl!d by the Suvastividin, in particular. 1·11emiraculous event&of the nim,;,a ol Kzya~ a
of >.nanda(1« section 1.4.b) are 1.1nknownin Thuavidln tradition.. 5ft t. Llmone, Htstt11r1. . ,
Boud4'hism11 imlie,i., pp . 226ff.
71 Se<:Beal, Records of Ike Western World, "The na...elso{Fa-hsian." pp. 66·7, and for
mng'1 account.t'bid. , vol. II. pp. 142·4.
lV.2.c Traus of B1"l,dhismin Csnt~alAsia S4S
during the first half of the seventh century. It is clearly impossible to date so
exactly our impressions of Khotanese Buddhism, derived from ttmnants of
Buddhist literature, the scanty archeological remain,, and the few largely
legendary accountl of Khotan preeerved in Tibetan. However, since the
Buddhism of Khotan, like the Buddhiam of seventh-century India, clearly
remains so rooted in earlier Buddrust traditions that go back well before the
propagation of Mahlylna philosophical theories and cults of favored Bod.hi•
sattvas, we may fairly safely assume that this conservative tendency continued to
persist gcneralJy in monastic and lay life, de,pite the later cult of the horrific
tantric divioitia of the Supreme Yoga Tantras within certain limited circles .
One may note that there i5 no indication that these later tantric cults affected
the Buddhism of Cenual Asia until the establishment of a Mongol (Yiian)
I Dynasty in China, when they were presumably introduced by the Tibetans. By
then (the thirteenth century) Buddhism had disappeared from the whole of
which had remained concealed. If the Vajrayana was so limited in scope in
Khotan and along the route south of the Takla Mak.an. it seems to have been
practically nonexistent along the northern route, where the Mahaytna was very
late in coming. To these northern oases of Tumshuk, Kucha and Turfan we
,nuat now turn.
c. Other Important Sites
Our survey of the Buddhism of Khotan up to the seventh century has been
gttatly assi~d by the various legendary works, aU of a later date, preserved in
T ibetan. To theac we 1hall have to turn again for the later period of actual
T ibeun occupation. Being ao much later in date, they tend to conceive of
Khotan's connections with India as passing mainly through Kashmir and acr061
tbc difficult routes of the Karakorum, and the earlier undoubtedly historical
,·oonection of Khotan with the Kuabtna empire stretching north and south of
1hc Hindu Kush and far to the west of the Pamirs la forgotten. Thi$ was well
1mcisted, H we have noted, by the earlier use of Kharot~hi and fragments of
:\ 11.&inting and aculpture found at varioua sites along the ancient southern route.
Turning to the northern route one gains far stronger impressions of continuing
niltural contacts linking western Central Asia (namely modem Afghanistan and
11«:southernmost Soviet Socialist Republics) with the various city-states, mainly
U11ddhist in religion , centering upon Tumshult, Kucha. Kara-1harh and
'rurfan. Along this route the cultural influences wtte many and various. During
· i?
tht· K.ushana period the forfUI of Buddhiam which reached Central Asia were
·:__1lw.1roughlyIndian, so far u doctrine and monutic organization were con·
·..: f~·111cd,but for the c11lt-imagu and the decoration of temples and stiipas non·
· :.!· :. } lnclian influences arc already apparent (PL 46b). The styles of representing a
asnan;: <)lmldha generally followed. aa may well be expected, lhc Hellenmlc modtls that
· • ,.. :/ ;;riJ!inated within the Kuahana empire (see section IJ.1 ); the princely figures of
S44 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
Bodhisattvas followed related styles while remaining liable to more overt Persian .·
influence. But the lesser figures of Buddhist iconography, attendant divinlties;.
ya~s (amongst whom at this early period Vajrapfu}i is Included) and demons; · .
having no conventionalized Indo-Buddhist {Mm, were readily expressed in styles .:)
that are either Persian or late Hellenistic (pcrhapa Roman Hellenistic is a better
term), while decorative motifs followc-d the same patterns. As for the repre-· · ·'
sentation of donors, usually royal persons 01' men and women of rank, their ·
representation was bound to be typical of the dttss and deportment of the. ..
period, and thus here again Kuahlna and Persian styles predominate in the _·::
earlier period with a marked incrcue in Chinese influence from the seventh.)
century onward (Pls. 45, 47a '1 b). The persecution of the follower& o! Mani; . ,:.
which was subsequent upon his torturous death in chains in 277 by · royal· :
command, led to their flight from Persia into Central Asia, bringing with them ·/
their ~cial Peruan traditions. Again the Arab conquest of Persia four centuries' :
later must have led to many exiles establishing themselves in those Central Asian .<-;
city,atates, especially Kucha and Turfan, which were then safe from
onslaughts. Also one must alwaysbear in mind that the indigenous population 0£:,i
these city-states was of lndo-Europcan (Iranian) origin , as is clear for us to see?
from the many paintings of local people that have sw-vived. Thus a deliberate/;
effort had to be made to produce a portrait which might be p3S$ably Indian~ })-
when it was a matter of painting one of the great Indian Buddhist "patriarchs,".":{
such u Kisyapa or Ananda, or the Indian brahmans, who inevitably figun: iii;:;·
some of the paintings (PL46a). ·;
Despite the ravaga of time and the wanton destruction to which all these sites}
have been subjected, far more remaiN, cenainly so far as paintings
concerned, than of the ancient city -states of Khotan. This is because of tht!>
existence of a number of rock-cut templea and shrine,, which are far more { numbered. These formed warring dyna.nies, becoming graduaUy affected by
durable than frtt-standing buildings. Moreover many of them had been blockedi:,
by falling stones and &and, thus preservjng in some ca,es more or less intact t~ )
remarkabk paintings that cover the walls. The best known from availabl~ ':
publications on Central Asian art are Kitil and Kumtura in the neigbborhood
Kucha, and Bezelik and Tuyok in the Turfan area. Elsewhere extemi~ \
monastic titea have been excavated, namely at Tumahuk between Kaahgar and :;'
Kucha, at Duldur•akhur and Suba1hi iu the Kucha area , at Shorchuk in ·th-~];
vicinity of Kara-shahr, and at Sangim and Tuyok in the Turfan area. n Som~i
monastic sites, such as the last two named, were combinations of oonstruc:tccl ' proscribed together with other foreign religio11$, Manicheiam, Christianity and
buildings and excavated caves, wherever they could be suitably situated along(
rocky gorge. Only in the Turfan area have some impressive ruins of the tw···'
ancient capitals survived. There are at Yar, some 1ix miles to the west of. t(
11 The best succinct account ol all these ~ites will be found in L 'Asle Cenhal~. ltisu,i"t-e
.zotion,ed. Lo11itHambi5, pp. 188,250 . F~ a detailed arcl!Hologic-alstudy, 1111c:Monlq\Je Mailtai.:
Grottes ,1 monvmellt.! d'ifsie Cemrak. especially pp. '17-189 which dcicribe Buddhist moaast~'i ·
shrines and tttnptts: eee abo Le Coqand Cr11nwedelin tbe Bibliognphy,
JV.2.c Traces of Buddhism in Central AJia !45
present-day town of Turfan, and at Kocho about sixteen miles to the east of it.
Both were strongly fortified cities and their massive ruined walls still stand .
Inside are ruins of palace&,hou.ses and monastic foundations, Of special interest
arc the towerlike stupu, sometimes constructed in a fivefold pattern with a
·? smaller "tower" at each of the comers, or as a singlesquare tower with sloping
sides, inset with niches for Buddha-images (Pls. 48a ~ b). The typical Indian
domed stupa certainly reached Afghanistan and there are Indications of mch
1tructures in the monastic ruins of Tumshuk, but throughout Central Aaia the
towerlike shrine seems to have gained in popularity and in China, Korea and
Ja pan this is generally the only kind of stupa known.'~ The well-known fonn that
it asiumes in the Far East is the pagoda or tiered roof shrine. Similar structures
in Ch ina appear to predatc t~ later Buddhist developments, but there arc also
traces of towerlilte shritle$ in northwest India going bad at leut to the Kushina
2 period, and we learn from Hailan-taang's travelog that there were many to be
seen in tM monasteries that he visited. The most famous one , surviving to this
Motlcm>.: day although often repaired, is the great square tapering shrine at Bodhgaya. 14
Buddhism was clearly flourishing throughout this whole area from the second
to the eighth ccntu rics despite continual wars bctWcen the various city•states and
frequent invasions from further afield. We have already mentioned the probable
K.uahana occupation, at least of the southern area11,Khotan and Shan-shan ,
following upon the collaJ>$Cof the Chincae Han dyna1ty in A.O. 221.r, This
occupation may ha~ lasted less than a centUJ}' because of the general weakening
of Kushana power with the consequent loss of territories west as well as ea&tof the
Pamirs. Also other invaders continued to press in from the east; these were the
are/ "barbarians" who occupied the whole of northern China, probably people of
Mongol and Turkish origin, amongst whom the earlier Hsiung-nu may be
Chinese manners and civilization.
During this confused period of Chinese history (221 -~89) known as that of the
Six Dynasties, the center of Chinese civilization moved south, leaving the
of: "barbarian" dynasties of the north to contend for power while they gradualJy
absorbed Chinese culture in the pTocesa.It is noteworthy that it was precisely
during this disturbed time that Buddhism made its gTeateat progress in this part
of the world. It continued to prosper under the Sui Dynasty ( 589-618) and under
the following T'ang Dynasty (618-906) until the mid-ninth century, when it was
i'.oroasu'ianism. After such a general confiscation of property and desecration of
u·mples Chine$C Buddhism Mver regained favor u a truly great religion.
. u <:'.ontemingthe earlier miniacurc6Cone1tiipa1which ccrrail\ly reac~ China, see che ankle by
. 11.1>11rt,Kriahna Riboud and Lai Tung lhmg. "A propos de stupa miniuurcs vociCsdu Vc aw.dc
· 11/..-ouvc,yuI Toolan a au Cansu, " Ara asialiqwu XL, 198!i, pp. 92,106.
ot d;i
u An e.uellcn, study of the parallel dnclopme~ of &uddhist cowerh1cclhrina In lndJa, China
·· ;011d Cmu-aJ Asia. is that of Heinrich C. Franz. PagOdc, Tunntemj,et Stvpa .
i' ·. 1\ Apart from the t!vi&nce of the Kha~hl docummi.. ttft!rttd 10 :above, Hsllan •tsal'l8 quotes a
· .:: 1••·111
1radltion on d1uu.bject. See_Bvddluit Ricord$ , vol. 1, pp. 56·8.
346 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNmES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
Buddhism was again fostered by the Yu.an (Mongol) Dynasty (1280-1S68}and by ·.)
the Ch'ing (Manchu) Dynasty, but significantly in its Tibetan form, whjch had /
little or no influence in China outside coun circlet . One gains a clear impression · -:.'
that Buddhism, u a foreign religion, waa accepted far more readily by -~. '.}
"barbarian" peoples of Central Asia tb.an by the Chinese themselves. Thus 1t 1&. \
not surpri$ing that the earlier popularity of Buddhism in China occurn:d :/
precisely when all the north, including the routes across Central Asia, were in
"barbarian" hands. ·\
It was during this politically troubled period that Fa•hsien made his overland ;'i
journey to India, returning by sea (899-414). Two decades earlier (in 366) the;\
first rock temple was made at Tun-huang , destined to become the most<
important repository of Chinese Buddhist painting for the whole period now :
under consideration. The most famous of early translators, the great Kumm- :'
jtva (S44-41!), was carried off from his native town of Kucha when he was about \
forty years old, as a highly valued rcholar, to Ku-c:h'eng (in present -day Kanau), .._'-:
and then tlfflve years later by another successful invader to Ch'ang-an (present < :
day Sian), where be spent the rest of his life, teaching and translating. Durinf :
the fifth century some 5tability was achieved in nonbern China under the Wei/
Dynasty, a Tungusk people (like the Manchus) who became strong supporters of .;
Buddhism while absorbing Chinese culture. Their domains reached Tun, huang;· ::·
intruding whenever circumacances allowed into the eastern paru of the Talda /
Mak.an area. Meanwhile the Hephthalite Huns were pres&ing in on the western :;.
pam and the Turks maintained ptt$Sure from the north. Such was the perio~ ·
during which monasteries and rock-cut temples were being constructed and,
painted and ~uipped at the main centers along the northern and sout~
Takla Makan routes. One is bound to imagine periods of destruction followed br
periods of rebuilding and redecoration, and the whole problem of dating on the=
baais ofw~t baa fomaitously &urvivedinto the early twentieth century when th.
first serious studies were made in the area, is clearly an imponderable one. <.
The layout of the monasteries excavated at Tumshuk and the relief image.
cast in clay would seem to link the aite, as might be expected, with &imil(_
Buddhist establishments, on which far more archaeological work bas been don_
in Afghanistan . 76 Occupied at least from the fourth until the s~ven~ ~ntury; w_
may imagine a tramition of an early school to Mahayana views, if mdecd ..
presence of remains of Bodhisattva images is in itself sufficient to suggest this,.
Hsuan•tsang did not pass this way, as he traveled from Kucha across the Tie _.
Shan into Turkish territory, and thus did not ~et again with any acHv
Buddhist community until he reached Ballth in Bacuia. One may note ..ir_.
passing that one monaatery here po61CS6ed an imag.: of Vaiiraval},&,which wa.
believed to have protected the community agaimt a Turkish on&laught) ,
11 An e:xoeflentgeneral account of Buddhist lit.eain Afghanisw:iia provided by Mauriiio T ..,
in Tliclmag•ofth,lhddha, pp. 178-204. ·>:
77 It may be TCCalledthat Vai!ravaiµi was the proteaing divinity of Kbotan, 10 hett too - ha-:
th~ suggacion (If• direct Buddhist imponaclon durini cbe earlier Kullhina period. ·,·\
IV.2.c Traces of Buddhum in Central Asitt 547
Hslian-uang docs not name the particular order of Buddhism followed in Ballth.
The next center of Buddhist devotion on his route was Buniyln. where he
commends the people for their religious faith and practice, making no problem
of the fact that they belonged to a sect of the Mahua~ghika order {Lokottara-
vadin) and had not been converted to Mahayana views. By thil time (the early
seventh century) it is difficult to imagine that there was any continuing contact
t between the far northwest of the Indian subcontinent (Bactria and Gandhua)
and the Buddhists of the Takla Makan region, and thus tbe basic structures of
Buddhist life, specifically the ordering of monastic life, must have been firmly
fftablished in the earlier Ku.shanaperiod and then continued to develop locally.
The whole idea of constructing cave-temples and cave-monasteries presumably
came from the west and Bamiytn with its rock-cut shrine:; and cells serves as an
obvious prototype (Pl. 4Ja). But &o much is bound to be mere surmise, when
evidence is misting OYersuch long periods. We learn from Hsilan-uang that the
many monb of Kucha and Kara•shahr belonged to the Sarvutivtdin order, and
while commending them for their waya of life, be notes that they were Hina•
yanists. As I have several times suggested there would still have been little
difference in the general conduct of affain, whether a monastery wu self-
declared HlnayA.nist or Mahayinist, as the same monastic discipJiue would hold
good, and MaM.ylnist iconography remained very rtstrained. This is proved by
the contents of the many mural paintings that happily survive in the Kucha and
Turfan areas. In the seventh century it is surely unlikely that Kucha was as
exclusively Hinayinist as Hsuan-tsang's account iuggests. Already in the late
fourth century Kumvajiva bad adopted Mahayanist philosophical principles,
and although he himself ended his life in China, there must haVf!been other
monks who followed suit. KumlrajlVa atudied in northwat India and in Kashgar
ut a time (1econd half of the fourth century) when Buddhist monasteries would
stilJ have been flourishing in Sogdiana and Ferghana to the west of the Pamirs,
where the Mahayana, still in its beginnings in India, does not appear to have
made much progress. He was converted to Mahayana philosophical theories in
Varkand, which muat have been much influenced by the neighboring 8uddhism
of Khotan, where according to Fa-hsien the Mahiyina was already well
78 Toward the mid-seventh century when lbilan-tsang recumed to
t".&tablishcd.
China, passing through Kashgar and Yarkand on 1w way to Khotan , Ka.shgar
,cill followed the Hinayana according to the Sarvastivadin order. According to
him there were still "several hundreds of monasteri.es with some ten thousand
monks" chett, but he dismissed them all probably rather unfairly as lacking
under.standing in the principles of their religion and ,pending their time in
_, ,·digiou.s ceremonies. 19 This b)and statement represents about all that is known
· ::. (•Inearly a thousand years of Buddhist history in Kasbgar. By the eighth century
:.·. hlum was weU ~stablished west of the Pamirs, where the Turkish kingdomi of
,~ for a brief accouut of l<.llDlarajilllt'5Ii&:see R. H. Robinson. Euly Mli:dla,omilla m Jn4ia end
PP- nrr.
1.:1,,,,,._
1, 5(.c &al. Buddhist R«or&, vol. JI, pp. 506•8,
548 lV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN JNDIA AND BEYOND
Sogdiana and Ferghana were being overrun by the Arabs.• However, it may not /
have been until the early tenth century that the Turkish rulers of Kashgar were ·'.'
finally converted to Islam . . belonged. mainly , if not entirely, to the Sarvlltivldin order . Fragmenta <>ftheir
The only reliable imprenion that one can gain of the kind of Buddhism ::.
practked in the various city-1tatea along the northern Taltla Makan route, . ·./
travding eattward from .Kashgar, namely Tumshuk, Kucha , Kara-shahr and /
Turfan, must be derived from the fragmentary literary remains, ,battered ::;
archaeological finds, and the impressive murals , damaged aa they usually are, ::1
which still decorate the waU. of the practically indestructible cave-temp~ :\
mainly in the Kucha and the Turfan areaa. It is remarkable that such :···
imptt.aioos corre,pond very well with the usumptions that we have already .}
made concerning Buddhism in India, as described in Hsilan -tsang's account: ., ~
There is no apparent sign of any highly developed Mah:tyana and not a trace o(. .
the Vajrayana . The favorite Bodhisattva.s continue 10 be Maitreya and probably :~
AvaloJtitdvara. Vajrapl!}i, who is often depicted., maintains his old r6le as • )
protective local divinity (yd~). and noweherc dOQ he appear a• the all· <
powerful BodhisattVaof the Yoga Tantra tradition (Pl. 11a). The general scenes .-
depict legendary and quasihistorical events, such as previous birth stones·.,.
(fotalui), the final nirvaI~ of .Sakyamuni as he Jiea on his right side surrounded ;::
by mourning disciples. or again the dividing of hia relica, or the first council at;-;
Rl~ha (Pl. 46a ) . Most popular of all are the acenes of Slkyamuni preaching ;:,:
aurrounded by his monks and by layfolk in local costume,. Up to the aevent~\'.
century at leut there can have been very little which might have offended
convinced Hlnayuiist, just u we observed in India. From this time onwar<l/
Chi~e influence in styles of painting become increasingly obvious, but' tl,ci.'
themes which arc typical of Mahlylna interests can only have been of Indian ;
origin. Kumtura in the Kucha region wu occupied by active Buddh.ii( .
communities until the ninth century and painrings of Bodhi5attvu, ,cldoiri .:
individually identifiable, become more frequent , while Buddha -pandise f
especially that of Amitabha , the Buddha of the Wesc, are clear ly popula ~
subjects . It is sometimes Sllggested that the cupolas forming the roof of some ·of:
the rock -temples in the Kucha area represent mar,(J.alas, in that they may bjf
divided into eight aectlom with a Buddha or Bodhisattva figure in each . Btt f·
such aymmetrical arrangemenu are found in early Mahayana !iltras, such as di" ··
Sa.ddharma~rtka (e .g. , Chapter VII, Kem' • translation pp. 177·8), and W_:
are still a long way from the complex symbolism of the ma~4ala as descri~
above (RCtion III.12). 81The remnants of Buddhist manuscripts found at thes,e _ /:: li1rtinir~a Setra was so popular, Manjtar1 and Vimalaklrti, who lead the
IIOPor •n IIC(:O\Ult of this cun{u.sed but clcatly quite ruino1u penod.onl' may ttferco W .
T1tTkuta11 do.n to tla~ Mongol Jnvuiott, pp. 180ff. lJi the mld-<-ighth ~ncury the ruler of ~han
had appll'ffldy sought n,l\agefrom meArabs in luahpr (p . 201 ).
11 A motl 111cfla l auney a! Cenual /\lian i00110graphyhas been compa'Jcdby Simone Gaur · ,.
Robert Jtta -Bezard and Monique Maillard,BwUhism in Afgli4n/Jlo.nmtd C11,u,-o.l AJia, in two •t_l.•
WI!~. grovped under tlw scneral · ~&din,p of lluddh .. , 8odhlaaetvat , minor dMniuc:, •.(~
aNifflilaced diYinifift , 'IIIOnUand ucetia. m:a#O L TJm wm .Jso sen'l!S to sbowbow TCIJ limit~,
canmc material is throughout thr region . '.=.?
IV.2.c Tf'/UeJ of Buddhism in. CtlUTal Asio. !49
sites along the northern route confirm the impressions gained from the
paintings, while ll'llo subs.tantiating Hsilan•tsang's report that theae monaateries
canonical worka have been clearly identified a. well u popular Ma~ylna sutraa.
An extraordinary pictorial imprcaion of the forms of Buddhism that reached
the nor tbwest boundary of China proper through these various Central .Asian
siw is provided by the vast collca:iom of murals surviving in the rod -hewn caves
ofTun -hua.ng, constructed from the fourth up to the tenth century at lea1t, aod
including paintings of even later date (Pl. /Jb) . The earliest of theae paintinga,
although clearly the work of Chinese artilu, belong to the UJUCttled period when
nor thern China was fought over by warring "barbarian" invadeB , who were
gradually converted to Buddhism and became its fervent mpponers . While they
may be interpreted as repre,enting an early phase of Chinese Buddhism, they
annot but be reproductions of themes already found in the various Central
Asian city•statca . Again we noti~ the prevalence of Je~ary and quui-
historical material ao typical of the earlier Buddhist period, namely scenes from
Sakyamuni's life and his final nirva~. stori.a of hit previous births, of which the
mosr popular sttm to be the sacrifice of his life as a young prince to the hungry
tigress and the over-zealous gift -giving of the Prince Vessantara . A whole
collection of similar stories wu compiled, perhaps in Kucha, under the general
title of "The Wile Man and the Fool, " and several of thae atories are frequently
depicted . Then there are the many Buddha-~ {Pls. 49 S JO) containing
a\ preaching Buddha.s, Buddhu in meditation, Buddhas maki ng the ear th-witness
gestur e and Budd.has raising the right hand in th e sign of confidence or fearless-
ness (dlta.)IICI). They are all, at least during the earlier period, i~ntifi able as
~kyamuni, ell:cept for the occalional rq,raentation of previous Buddha,.
Uodhilattvu and monk&, u1ually undifferentiated except in particular quasi-
historical scenes, ue arranged on eitheT side of the Buddha -figures. The earlies t
nonhi5torical Buddha& to appear are Amitlbha and Amitayus, the Budd.has of
Uoundlesa Light and Boundless Life: there occun a rare example (in Cave 428)
uf a coamic Vairocana relatable to the one dl,covered in the Khotan area
(Halawute) and then toward the end or the sixth century (Wlder the Sui
Oynuty) Bhalfajyaguru , the Master of Medicine appcan . The earliest 1utn to
It<•repreac:ntedi3 the Saddltaf7Tl.a/n.1,µ)arikafollowed by the A muayw Sutra, the
,.. l'imalalrlrtinirdeJa SutTa and the Suva.rfJajrrabhdsa. The most popular Bodhi -
:V.-: liaHvas are Maitrey a, Manjuirl and later Avalokitdvan . Since the Vima/4.
Bal'l~
6 r+
. •li~c:u.saions,are fr~uently painted as a pair, each under bis own canopy with hie
f .· 11wnentourage . Toward the end of the Tang period a more triumphant form of
·. ·J; ·-:·P.hojuhi on his lion throne pain with the Bodhisattva Samantabbadr a on bis
) /lr.phant throne , and fina.lly a thouand -armed Avalokitdvara appea n (in Cave
'} !(11),But it is notewonhy that through all these centuriea the earlier ~gendary
;;;i11ulquuihistorical scenca never cease to lose their popularity , and we note , u
) lftr.n before, that there la no dichotomy of Hinaytna and Mahtyana, but rather
 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITlES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
350
that the one gently merges into the other, 11
Apart from these many muraJ paintings that cover the walls of the caves a
veritable treasutt-trove of manuscripts and painted scrolls was also discovered ·
early this century, which had remained walled up in an inner cell for the laat
eight centuria or ao." Since the whole culblre of the original inmate1 oft~ ·. ··
Tun-huang communities was primarily Chinese, the bulk of the manuscripts, as .
might well be expected, are Chinese Buddhist teXts. But the far larger culturat_. ·
context within which Chinese Buddhism developed is well represented by
manuscripts written in many other language, and scripts, namely Sanskrit · ·,
Buddhist works written in Brlhmi script, texts in the languages of Khotan, of .i
Kucha (Kuchean) and ofK.ua-shahr (Agncan, derived from Chinese Yen-ch'i ~\
A-ch'i-ni, as the place was called), but also texts in Sogdian written in a script ).
derived from Aramaic, Manichean texts and texts in Turkish Uighur."' Of most:?':
imponance for our immediate purposes are the many Tibetan manuscripts/':".
some of Buddhist texts, others referring to pre-Buddhist religious and ricuil · /
observance,, yet othen dealing with historical evenis and administrative ) .;
matters. Still mcne fragmentary Tibetan material, mainly of an administrative)/ :
kind, was also e,ccavated by Sir Aurel Stein from the ruined forts of Mazar-tagh/\
north of Kh0tan and clearly the main Tibetan military ccnter for thie area, and'/'
of Miran in the Lop-nor region, halfway bet1tten Khotan and Tun-huang. 111 /.;
These discoveries have filled in an otherwue totally unknown period of early :\
Tibetan history, unknown not only to wacem scholan but also to later Tibetan\.
historians, who excellent u they are, have remained largely wiaware of the/
important part which Tibet played in Central Asian rivalries from the seventh
the ninth century, and to the very important part played by these CentraJ Asia~··
contacts in the convemon of Tibet to the Buddhist religion. To thia period; \'
which corresponds with renewed Chinese efforts to gain control of the whoic'
Takla Makan area in accordance with the agrellive policici of the ·recently
established T'ang Dynasty (A.D. 618), we must now turn, limiting our con~:
siderations, however, to matten relevant to the early history of Tibetaft
Buddhism."
d. The Tibetan Occupatiora
Like the "barbarian" peoples who invaded northern China following upon
ei Jam grateful to Mr. Kenneth Eastman for going through with me the maptficent liw:,wilia~·
work of illuatrarioM in these caVC6,as published by cbe Heibonsha Publialrin1Company, Japaiir/
1980·8!).
n They -re largely rescued co die inunenae 'benefit of Buddhlal and particelarly TibeliW
scbolanhip thaaki to the labon ot Sir Awd Stein. For a general account of their disco,,eq and thdf
M '°"
range, acehb On Ancient Cmtnal AJian Tract,, pp. l H·2S7 .
"A Sur,ey of Buddbi»t Sogdian SCudla," eee the bookl,ccby David A. Ou, publilhed by ·
Reiyubi La1muy, Tokyo. 1980. Conceminf the Uighun s.eebelow.
es For a description or the Miran fon see Aurel Stein, On Ancintt Central A.1ion
PP· 110ft'.
• For a n:cent eil«lknt hiltoric:al suney of thb period- C. L. Beckwith, "The 1tbetan lm '. ·
pp. !10·8.
in che Wl!K," in Tibaan Studi11 S..Honovr of Hu61tlbcAorc:lso,i,
IV.2.d 551
coJlapse of the Han Dynasty, the Tibetans first appeared in Central Asia as
"barbarian" Invaders, looting and destroying in the reg¼oa& of Kuhgar, Khotan
and Kucha from abo11t A.D. 660 onward, and in the procets of almost continual
warfare , mainly against the Chinese, they became gradually converted to the
religion of the people whose cities they occupied. From being destroyers of
Buddhist culture, they rapidly became its most ardent protectors, while still
operating primarily as an occupation army throughout this vaat region. In 76!
the Tibetans occupied briefly the Chinese capital of Ch'ang-an. and in the
following year they finally conquettd the 'A·zha. a people of the Kokonor
region, probably identifiable with the T'u-yii-hun of Chinese accounu. As a
result of this the whole Takla Makan fell generally under their control, despite
continuing conflicts with the Arabs to the west and various Turkish tribes in the
north. This situation seems to have continued even after the 109$of central
authority following upon the usallination of the last of the Varlung line of
Tibetan kings in Lhasa in 842, for it was not inril 866 that the last of the mmt
northemly Tibetan forts were captured by the Uighurs. As might well be
expected the Tibetans remained 5U'ongest along the southern route around
Khoun and through Miran toward Tun-huang, where the signs of their military
occupation as well as their consequent Buddhist interests are most marked.
The ambivalent attitude of the people of Khotan to their Tibetan conquerors
finds expreasion in scm:ral texts concerning Khotan that arc even available in the
Tibetan canon, being included there since they take the form of religious
p,ophecies, either attributed to Sikyamuni himself or to an Arhat natned
t~/ Sa~havardhana. The several references to the Tibetan invaders. nicknamed
the "Red Faces, " describe them sometime.s as iu actual defenders. This
presumably represents the gradual change in Tibetan attitudes to the conquered
people, Thus .in one such prophetic 1tatement Sakyamuni commits Khotan into
the hands of the godsVaiiravaqa and Saqijaya (the chief of a ya/qa host) with
these words:
I continually commit the Land of Li to your protection. When the Red Faces
seize the country, destroying and burning the monasteries, temples and great
smpas with the perverse aspiration of destroying my religion, chen the two
. armies will very 100n be at war with one another.
tl~f The actual prophecy , with which we need n0t be concerned, announces that a
remarkable lady named Vimalaprabha . who has deliberately come to Khotan to
help the pr.ople there, 1hould go to her brother , the king of Baltistan (sKar-mdo)
. .\ ~~-
.tnd get him to obtain a sufficient sum from the neighboring king of the "country
of the Gold Dynasty" to buy off the Tibetans. 81
ln another such text Vamavar:ia and others make a vow to protect the land,
. ·\{
which takes the form of a curse against destructive invaders, amongst whom the
n-.ie.': Tibetans are not immediately numbered; howe11er, they are aingled out for
.) :.i. ~pccial reference, aa are the Chinese, as likely reapectas of religion:
n See FWTop . ci1.• vol. I, p. 20!1; Tibcum wxcrr. vol. !IS.pp. %7!1-l?•Sff.
352 1V: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
Also let it be undentood by the armies of Tibet, that if they hold and protect · } '
this land in accordance with our religion, we too will protect them and grant
them victory. But if they destroy the religion of the Blcuc:d One and cause .
harm to the people of the land, may $icknCS$and dissension afflict their
armies. their commanden fail in power and not prosper as before!"
We should also quote from a prophecy attributed to the Arhat Saqigha·
vardhana, which refers to a later period when Buddhism is established in central
Tibet under the protection of religious kings, while it co~s under serious attack .
in Khotan and lands funher west. Fint the monb from the west seek refuge in .
Khoun, but they are later driven out by an ill-disposed king, and make their .
way to Tibet, where for a few years they are made welcome. Then again they are
driven out and eventually settle in Gandhara. The text clearly suggesrs that it is
the monks of Khotan who flee to Tibet, and while this may be so, it seems more
likely that the general expulsion that took pla~ both in Khotan and Lhasa was . :·.·
pr0110kedby the large numbers of refugee monks, who wo111dall have had to be
maintained from local mources. In any case the extract is interesting for the .·
light it throws on the difficulties that Buddhist communities were facing .-
probably 1oward the middle of the eighth century. 89 · foreign lands: in the country of the Red Faces many monasteries and stupas
At a time when six generations of kings had passed and thett was a seventh .
king named Vijayakirti, there was an Arhat named Sa~ghavardhana staying ·...
in the Dreadfu) Mountains near the monastery named Rejection of Dread. A."<
student who had studied the Vinaya with thia reYered teacher and was::_:
acquainted with Buddha's prophecy (conceming rhe duration of bis religion) . ~
according to the Candragarbha scripture, auked the Arhat: "How long will it/
be after the Buddha's nim~ that the images and stflpas in the three lands of-'}
Khotan (Li-,u.l), Kashgar (S/tu•l,g) and Tokharistan ('An-s1r)'° ue destroyedl ·./
Who will datroy them and how will it be at the end?" . .;
Thus he uked for a prophecy and lhe Arhat replied: "It is good that you·:<
have raised this qutstion. After the nirvl~ of the Buddha S11.kyamuni\ '}
religious lmagts and relics will remain for a thouaand yean ,nd then they wm._,Si,
come to an end. In these three kingdoms the Chinese and the "Red Faces," the ·"Yr
Sumpas and the Turks (Dru-1u) and the Uighur Turks (HOT)and others will'>!
be generally hostile to one another, fighting and quarreling. As a result the.\ '·
Buddha's reHgion will suffer, the st'Clpas will gradually fall into ruin and )
means of livelihood for the monasteries will cease. Of thex three countries :::.
88 See FWT op. cit., vol. l. p. 29; Tibetan wxt TT, vol. 40, p. ~5l·S·8. FWT'$ translation misses·_:·:
the negative In d~ la1t phrase(~ />ffsnpf r] mo 62hnN10).
a, This propbocy is 1nclu.ded in the Tibetan Canon in two different we-rsiON,one cntitkci /
"Prophecy of the Arhat Satpgbav.1rdhana" and tbe ocher "Prophecy o( the Land of Li.· The second-.~:
of these also wrvives In thrtt manuscripu retri-d from tlK' hoard a, T\ln •hl.lang, ~,., nm. 597, 599·:...
and 601(2} in L, de la Vallee l"oussin'~ Cotolopt of lhe Til>etanMSSfrom T-·hli4ng in the Jrtdio_:;
Office Library. Both version, have been translated by F. W. Thomas (op. dl., vol. 1, pp. 40-87). The- ·_.
Tibetan te:i1"willbi! found in lT, vol. 129, pp. t96·1-8ff. and pp. 299·5-ffl, ··:{ ·
90 'An-sc:is of 1mcertaia application. F. W. Thomas su~ Bukhafa, which mi&ht fK in anocher- ; ·
concnt (op. cil. , ml. 1, p. 61). Hen! it refers more vaguely to a land wur of the Pamln, and my I.lie:>
of Tokharisran implia no more than this. ··
JV.2.d Trace.sof Buddlwm. in C,nt~al Asl4
Tokharistan and Kashgar will be thrown into chaos by these many enemies
who know nothing of religion; there will be general fire and destruction and
desolation. Then the venerable inmates of those religious estabJishmems will
make a general exodus into Khotan. Now five hundred Bodhisattvas will be
residing in the monasteries and by the m.\pas and elsewhere in the Land of
Khoun; two hundred and fifty of these will have taken vows aa monks and two
hundred and fifty will be born there as householders. Moreover the 'Ox-horn'
Monutery, having been visited by one thousand and five Buddhas of the Good
Age, will be as a palace which abides continuously. Because of the greatness,
splendor and sanctifying power of these noble ones, the stllpas and the
practice of our holy religion in Khotan will proeper more than in other
countries and will Jast longer. Kings and commoners will fight and quarrel
because thq want the Land of Khot:an, and the king who gains it will be a
great benefactor to the country. There wiU be no dc&truction and no
diminution and full honorwill be paid.
"At that time the so-called 'King of the Red Faces' will become strong and
mighty, seiring and holding many other territories. Then a Bodhisattva will
be born as king of the Red Faces and holy religion will appear in the land of
Tibet. Teachen of religion will be invited and the scripture. brought from
will be built and a twofold religious community established. The king with his
mini1ners and their whole following will practice boly religion. Jn that king's
time Khocan wm come under his jurisdiction, and there will be no diminuition
of our holy religion or of the property of the Buddha, the Law, the Com-
numity, whether of stupas or anything else. They will be established widely
and worshipped. For seven generations the lineage of. the kings of the Red
Faces will practice Holy Religion and throughout these seven generations they
will not be ill-disposed or do harm co the stlipas of the Three Jewels which are
found in other lands. "91
Whichever kings of Tibet (p. $83) are included in these seven generations, the
respect supposedly shown by their fighting troops for Buddhist establishments
must surely be interpreted rather as a pious hope than actual fact, at least until
the time of Kbri Srong-lde-brtsan, when Buddhism was formally declared the
state religion (see below section V. l .d). The arrival of the Chinae princess Chin·
ch'eng in Lhasa in 710/l 1 may well have been an encouragement for the new
religion, making possible the welcome that was given to Buddhist monks who
110ughtrefuge there from later destruction cau$Cd in their own countries by
military campaigns. 92 Knotan in panicular seem, to have suffered at that rime.
. and the Tibetans appear to have been again involved in its troubles. n The
11:mporaryoffering of sanctuary to foreign Buddhi•ta in Central Tibet did not
111 FWT op. e1~
.• vol. I. pp. 7?·90; TT, vol. 129, pp. 299-5-ffl.
•1:1 They wc~ driven out again.following upon the ck:ub of Chin -ch'eng in 7S9.
•s A(con:\lng co chc teXt rrom wbkh we have jutt IH!ffl q1101i.11f, a pr.rcicular king of Khotan Is
1np1,nsiblc fewdriving out the Pl<lllb; he appeats 10 be a you11gprotqc of the oa:upying Tibeun
·:_. lnm ·, by whom his father was killed in 1hr pmrioua flgluing. See 1-"WTop. cu., vol. i. pp. 80·1
· ~,NIPP· 226-9.
 IV: BUDDKIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND IV.2.d Tracesof Buddhism m Cent,41Asia S55

neceasarily imply respect for Buddhist in&titutions abroad during the greater··. / forts which he was holding. When he went to war, he gathered in the Chinese
pan of the eighth century. From the end of the previow century the Tibetam · .: prisonen like sheep. When later O,,an Cung -kog, the minister of Kag
had been in contact with the Westem Turks, both east and west of the Pamirs, .. : La-bong, cam.e to pay respecu to the Mighty One K.hri lDe-guug-brtaan in the
thus keeping up a conrinual pressure on the Chinese positions on the western · Phang-dang Palace, the Mighty One and his subjecu sang a song with these
limits of the Taltla Makan area. During the first half of the eighth century they · words:
allied themselves with the Arabs who were bringing increasing pressure to bear The Divine Offspring, the lord of men,
on the Turkish tribes in that area. Despite vigorous Chinese attempts to hold Who has come from the realm of the gods
Baltiatan and Gilgit (Great and Little Bolor), seen as the western gaiewayto the ._:. \ By the seven stagea of cek1ri.ll blue,
territories held by them in Centtal Asia, these countries t~ther with other petty . :.' Has no equal, has no peer throughout the lands of men.
states, referred to generally in the Tibetan accounts of the period as the Upper:-; : As the land was high and the .soil was pure
He came to the vales of Tibet.
Region (sTod-phyogs), fell into Tibetan hands. No concern for religion (their \
Overlord of all these lands of men ,
allies were certainly not Buddhists) nor for religious establishments can have ··./ With good religion as his mighty crest
been shown throughout these continual military campaign,, and there is surely:> He makes agreements with his vassal-kings.
irony in the fact that JO many displaced Buddhi1t monb shouJdhave sought): Last year and the year before,
refuge around Lhasa -. where resided the source of so many of their u-oubles," · Not having been brought within our domain,
During the same period the Tibetans launched campaigns against the western ::_ La-bong. the ruler and his people
borders of China, both in the north and the south. Such events are referred to in :·;' Were clever, resourceful and wise,
the Tibetan Annals as well as in early Chinese sources. but this particular event) Skillful In dlspute and brave in heart.
seems to have aroused strong feelings of Tibetan patriotiun (imperialism is\ They roae in rebeUion and went to war
probably a more accurate term) re11ulcingin a poetic version which is found ii:t;_: Against Hsilan-isung, the King of China.
the Tibetan Chronicle. 9t ..
Having rebelled, he recently lOSt,
And being the ruler of his kingdom,
In the time of the King Khri lDc-gtaug-bnun (Mes,ag-tshoms) manners were.·; He sought 1ympathy and fatherly proteetion,
good and authority was gentle, so everyone was happy. Having conferred with'/ Sought it from the Mighty One Divine.
the Chief Minister sTag-sgra kbong-lod and the councillors, the King set out . , High-crested Divine Offspring,
on a campaign. He brought his power to bear on China, so that the Chinese? Whose religion is right and whole ways are good,
fortresses of Kva-cu (An -hai) and other places fell. The Chinese empire wu so\. Whose word ii straight and pronouncement firm,
great that it included all the Westcm Turb (Dru -gu) to the north, while as fat:_,; To him La-bong has offered his killgdom .
as the Ta-iig (in the west) all was part of China. The many Chinese possessioni/ Our empire of men has been formed by gods.
which were to be sent to the Upper Region were stored at Kva•cu and they al( Its great dominion knows no end.
fell into the hands of the Tibetans, They obtained even more wealth than this,':;:' La-bong and his people performed an heroic task.
so that the dark-headed people (ordinary Tibetana) had fine Chinese aiJks t<.( They deatroyed the towa-ing Chinese fort&,
dress in. · ·/ Gathered in numerous Chinese subjects,
Down toward the south there is a kingdom with a small population that·~'.: Making the land and its communities
part of :Jang and ia known as White Myva. Afttr the King had addressed him·:.: All part of the land of Tibet .
skillfullyin accordance with the profundity of his thought, King Kag La-bong\ Up abov-c the heavens rejoice.
of Myva made his submission. He was given the rank of Younger Brother (of. Oown below the earth is glad.
the King of Tibet) , so that the number of subjects was increased and territory) La-bong and his people
made larger, Since a ruler of '.Jang became a Tibetan subject, the Chinesef. Are ever closer to us.
government was eYen more humiliated and mat ease. Thii king of)ang Myvif The gods are close, the heavens are close.
had been looking for his opportunity ag.unst China, aad thus the Emper~f Finner and ever firmer,
became his enemy. Now that he had allied himself closely with the Mighif Sham-po is fum as our Defender.
One Khri lDe-gtsug-brtsan, he offered to him all the Chinese territory an~ ; Today and still tomorrow
k Concemlng 1he Tibetan Annals and ,he Chmnide ,_ below, sttrion V.1.b. For re£erencc··~
J· Cung-ltogand his company
otbersourcaaeethe anidn by G. Uray, "The Old Tibeun.Sourccsofthe HiltOl')lofCentral Ae1a·1i P,~ Are linked with us like sky and eanh .
to 751 I\.D.: A S-y" and by C. L. Beckwith, "The Tibetan Empire in. the West.~ both merred '19';' TM clouds are the sanctuary of the gods.
again ln aecdonV. I .a. ·. :·:
V?:, Bounte<>uslythey treat us all.
356 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
With an escort in front and a procession behind,
Let us ofttr as we sing and dance
The ceremonies that are proper, 96
Verses such as these ilhwrate better than any historical sketch the attitude of
the Tibetans toward the extraordinary victories which placed at their djspoul
the enormous wealth of Central Asian trade. The route from Kva-cu (An-lvi) in
northweatern China led either through Turfan and Kucha by the northern Silk
Route to the High Region of the Pamirs or by the then less frequented southern
route through Khotan to the same general mountainous a~ea, wh~ch ~ad _robe
crossed, whether one continued lttStward into Arab-occupied Persia (Ta-zig) or
southward into India . The events celebrated here occupied much of Khri· .
lDe•gtsug-brtsan's reign from 727 onward. 96 The references to religion can
hardly apply to Buddhism, for as we shall note in the ~xt chapter the term chos_
(religion), which was used as a translation for the Indian term Dharma, clearly
refers in the early period to all pre-Buddhist religious customs. Nothing could be
more "pagan" than the general spirit of these! verses. Sham•po is the sacred
mountain, known more fuJly as Sham-po lba-nse (Divine Peak of Sham-po ) or
Yar-lha Sham-po (High God Sham-po). claued as a gN,an (translated as.
"Defender" above). a wild divinity whose domain was in the intermediate space
between heaven and earth. His life-force ( bla) was linked with that of the kings · ...
of Tibet; thus he was in effect defender of the dynasty and of the whole territory '·
subject to their rule.
The land referred to as "down to the south" and known a1 Jang by the .
Tibetan, is the ancient kingdom of Nan-chao, which corresponds in area more
or less to modem Yunnan. 97 Throughout most of the eighth ccnrury-until final ,.,
victory was theirs with the capture of Tun-huang in c. 787 - the Tibeta~s w~e · ·{'
engaging the Chinese on an enormous scale, as a glantt at any map of Chi~ ~It <i
show. and it seems almost incredible that they &hould have been able to mamtam :r
their campaigns on so many fronu for 10 long. On the occasion which we have .:/
just been conaidering, the Chinese counterattack was temporarily s~ccCS5ful, and.)
it is f.iir that we should hear their side of the story. Thus concernmg one battle _:I
under the walls of the city of Ch'i-lien we read: ,,:.
The fighting went on from morning to evening, separating and a~ain coming \ }
together . The brigands suffered a great defeat and one. of their ge_nerala, }
~cond grade, was beheaded on the field. The defeated bngands fled 1n _con•.__;:
fusion into the mountains and their lamentations were heard on all 11d4:5.)
When the Emperor first heard of the new incursions of the Tibetans, he said i.!
9~ Sec DTH, pp. llH and 151-2. Theedite<l ~xt ttquircs-nu small amc~ments. Stt Ariane,./
Macdonald and Y. lmaeda, Ch~ ded.ocummtstibetdi>rJ, Pelliot Tib. 1287 (Pia. 569-70)- . · :~.
96 See DTK, p. 48, where the capture of Kva-cu ia mentioned and _the ap];X"nu~g of 1Tag•,gra-:;:_·
Jcbor,g-l<JdasChidMinister. A missionfrom Myvato the Tibetancou.n ~ mennoned m the )'ft( '155. ,,'.
rook place In '148-52. ~ following note.
The aeual rebellion against the ChlSW!Sc ..;,
11 Concerning Jang and Myva (which cannot be 11tis£ac:1orily identified)~ FWT op.~ -· vot .':.
m. pp. 45-6. Concerning Nan·chao- a reanc won by Charle& Backus, The Nan,chM Kmgdom._ :,,,·,
..,.d T'ang Cltinai Sotdhwut,r11 F'rtmtitt. ::,~:;
JV.2.d Tr=es of Buddhism in Central As1'4 3~7
to his ministers: "The Tibetans arc proud and violent and come presuming on
their strength. I have juat examined the maps of the country and estimated the
strong and weak points. I have myself given indications co our generals. The
defcat(ofthe enemy) is certain." Jn a few days the news ohhe victory arrived.
Such victories were -verycostly, for here was an enemy who could never be finally
driven away . However on this occasion they asked for peace, and this was agreed
upon despite the Emperor's initial hesitation.
The Emperor said: "Over the past years the Tibetan king bas sent me insolent
and ill-construed letters. I intend to punish him. How can there then be
pcaccr· Wei-ming said: "At the beginning of the present reign, that king was
still a child, 10 how can he have done that? h must have ~en the generals at
the frontier, who, wilhing to gain some temporary credit, have forged these
letters and thus angered Your Majesty. This reswts in the two kingdoms being
at war, so that armies arc advanced and troops moved forward. They are
guided by self-interest and profit from such occasions. Acting in the name of
the public interest, they act Reretly like robbera and make false repom on
their achievements in the hope of promotions and titles. The 106Sesare
enormous and what profit does the State gain? The populations of H~hsi and
l.uog-yu are famished. all from this cause. If Your Majesty would send an
embaaay to vi.tit the Princess Chin-ch 'eng and to make u,e of this occasion to
devise a treaty with the king, who would prostrate himself and acknowledge
himself your subject. thus pacifying lastingly the frontiers, this policy would
ensure the people eternal peace." The Emperor approved these words and as a
result commanded Wei-ming and the eunuch Chang Yuan-fang to vi,it the
Tibetans on an exploratory mission.
Peace was duly agreed upon, but it lasted only a few year&, as the Tibetans strove
lo maintain their hold in the Upper Region. Thus a fresh attack on Baltistan
(Bolor) in 736 seems to have brought the state of formal peace to an end. For the
following years the T'ang Annals tell of continual devastating fighting and of
Chinese efforts to find diplomatic solutions, where military ones failed.
Rebellion at home finally gave them no choice but to make peacf/ with the
Tibetans, conceding to them the territory they had won. The Chinese account of
the even, is significant from a reJigioU6point of view.
(In 766) the Tibetans sent an embassy to the Court and uked for peace . An
imperial order authorized Kuo Tzu-yi, Hsiao-hua, Chang Tsuen-ch'ing and
others to organize a banquet at the Great Secretariat. All were supp0&ed to go
to the Monastery of Glorious Residence (Koang-cbai-ssu) where they would
inak.e a sworn treaty, ,acrificing three kinds of victims and smearing their lipa
with blood. As this was something that could have no association with a
lluddhist temple, a delay until the next day was requested in order to fulfil)
the rite at the Court of State Ceremonial, where blood could be smeared in
accordance with barbarian ritual."
d11Tib-' , pp. 19-28, and S. W. Bushell. "The Early History
"' Sec Paul Pellioc, Jtillon, '4'111,i,nn,
nl Tibt:1"'QRAS, 1880}, pp. 463-S.
"'' ~ Pelliot. op. eit.. p. 29 and Bushell, op. t:it., p. 47!1.
358 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
This treaty was in fact made within one year of Khri Srong-lde-brtsan coming to .
the throne at the age of thirteen. The di!ficulties that he had in establishing his
authority as the first fully committed Buddhiat ruler of Tibet are described in
the next chapter, but his eYentual success did not prevent the continuance of .
such "pagan"ritual, u is mentioned aboYe.The same rite was followed wheri ..'.
another treaty was sworn with China sixty-five years later in the reign of Ral-pa· ·
can (see iection V.l.d). During the reign of Khri Srong-lde-brtsan the military
initiative passed entirely to the Tibetans, as Chinese troops and gaffi&ons had to
be withdrawn from Central Asia in an attempt to stem rebellion at home. This .
large territory was not regained by China until the thirteenth century as a result
of the Mongol conquests, in which the whole Takla Makan area, Tibet and.
China itself were all involved. In 76S the Tibetans gained indisputable control of
the western Chinese provinces of Ho-hsi and Lung·yu and thereafter China was ·
effectively cut off from the Central Asian routes. In the same year the CbiM&e· /
capital of Ch'ang-an was captured and a puppet emperor in1talled, the real one / :·'
having fled south. After fearful fighting the Chinese regained their capital, but\) .
the Tibetans sull controlled all the routes to the northwest, and thus it was from :<:
now on a comparatively easy matter for them to occupy the city•statts of the :/.
Takla Makan. Tun-huang seems to have held out alone under siege until 787. 100 ·:\
Homever, a new enemy in the form of the Uighur Turks appeared on the scene, ·.y
and the Tibetan hold on the northern route through Kucha may have been .\ '.
rather tenuous. It was to these same Uighurs, who were Manicheans previously )i:
but who adopted Buddhism as a resuk of their contacu in this _area, th~t theJ \
Tibetans lost this whole territory after the fall of the Tibetan kmgdom m the },
mid-ninth century. With the disappearance of the Chinese from this scene, their \
records, which are invaluable for the earlier period. come to an end so far as:·:: .
relations with the Tibetans are concerned. Large q11antities of Tibetan record&;\
dealing with everyday administrative maUel'i ha"e been unearthed, mainly ·at {.
Tibetan ruined forts in the Khotan area and further east leading toward·}
Tun-huang. 101 : /?
Tun-huang is of outstanding importance for the history and religion orTibet?t
from the second half of the eighth century onward, and this is for two reasons,)
Firsdy, it was a major Chinese Buddhist center of which Khri Srong-lde•brtsan .\
appears to have made full we in his efforts to establilh Buddhism as the religion.:<
of Tibet. It was the main source of Chinese forms of Buddhism, which came into;:<;
conflict with lndian forms during his reign, as will be related in the nex({
chapter. Secondly, early this century one of the Buddhist caves there was found ? ;
to contaln large quantities of manuscripts dating mainly from the ninth century ..;·
onward in a variety of languages which we~ in Ille in the area, but mainly ~·'.,
100 Conc:cming ,he fall o( Tun-huang _, Paul DcmKVille, La _Concile tfe U-a, pp. 168-~7{
Earlier evenu may be followed £mm the T'ang Annals. for which stt c11her Pelliot. op. ed •.''~
pp. 29·M or Bushell, op. m., pp. 476ff. . .."
101 ~tions of these have been edited and translated by F. W. Thom;is in Tibetlm Te:ds an~ :
Don,mnl.s, vol. II. · ,·.,
IV.2.d TrtUesof Bv.ddhism in Central Asia 359
Chinese and Tibetan (PL 64b). The Tibetan texrs may be generally classed in
three ways: as administrative, as Buddhist and as describing pre-Buddhist rites.
The administrative materials, of which the most significant are the Royal Annals
and the Chrorucle (see V.l.a), fill in the history of much of the earlier period.
The Buddhist materials give in their variety a very good idea indeed of the
nature of Tibetan Buddhism from the mid-eighth century until the end of the
tenth and do much to explain the later appearance of the rNying•ma (Old)
Order. The pre-Buddhist ~ligious materials as.sist in dcfirung such beliefs,
demonattating a starlt contrast with the later Bon religion.•• These various
materials will be dealt with in the next chapter u relevant to tbe conversion of
Tibet, but a few ohllervations of a more general nature can be made here.
A brief survey was made above of the subjects depicted on the walls of the
Tun.huang Caves in so far as these represent to a large extent the forms of
Buddhism that were in voguethere from the fifth through to the tenth century.
Up to and thtoughout the whole period of Tibetan occupation there is no sign of
tantrk imagery and the general absence of tantric: texta in Chinese confirm• the
impression that tantric Buddhism was not fostered there. This is not at all
$Urprising when one remembers that even the more orthodox Mahayana was a
latecoma in the Kucha and Turfan areas along the northern Takla Makan
route and that it reached there from the Chinese and not the Indian end of the
Silk Route. The only sugge&tionsof the existe~ of tantric Buddhwn in C.Cntral
Asia bcf~re the arrival there of the Tibetam derive from the eltistence of a very
few texts in Khotanese, which have been dC$cribed as Vajrayana. 10s Unfor·
tunatcly so little statuary and painting suvi"VCS from the whole Kbotan region
that no conclusions of a very satisfactory nature can be drawn from this source.
Apart from a well-known painting of Vairoc:ana as supreme cosmic Buddha and
one which might be identified as a tantric form of Avalok.itdvara, there is
nothing of great aignifkancc so far as these later Buddhist traditions arc
concerned. uK If the term tantric is wed to include any form of Buddhist practice
where mantras arc used u spells to ward off evil, then ample evidence of this is
provided by the text relating to the remarkable Lady Bodhisatt"a, Vimala·
prabha. to whom we have already referred above. She prays thus for the well-
being of her brother and for the salvation of Khotan from the Tibetans, the
,vhole context being cut in the form of a prophecy:
At the time that the Red Faces are 10on to arrive, Vimalaprabhl beco?Ma
extremely sorrowful. Then the Lord Buddhu and all the divinities who
protect the land of Khotan will be attentive, and Vimalaprabha, alone in her
t:hamber of sorrow, will petition the Buddhas. ~citing the spell "Elixir Sound
of Drum," she prays to the Tathlgata Amittbha, adding the words: "May I
either meet my brother or die, or else may we be saved from sa,:paaral" Then
UIY Significant example. of this material are provided by R. A. Stfln in a Jong art~. "Du rklt au
111111:Idnnsk$ man11Strii. tibttains du Toucn-houang" in &uwtibitainu. pp. 479-547.
lll.\ Sec It. E. Emmcrick, A GuiJ!e to th,r Liuralure o/l'CMla,i. pp. 41·2.
1111S<:eM. 81M&a,li.Pca~of Cn,t,c/ASftl, pp. SS and 60.
S60 IV: BUDDHJST COMMUNITIES JN INDIA AND BEYOND
the next day the Lord Buddhas will emit light-rays over her and she will
receive dlulraniJ and forbearance. The Buddhas and the godswill say "Well
done!" and ~ offspring of the gods will ring bells , play drums and cymbals.
exclaiming: "She has performed the task of ao irreversible Bodhisattva ."
The dhaTa'lpS(spells) are listed in detail:
She obtains spellJ for the time when her brother Vijayavarman is defeated on
the battlefield; she obtains these and others. She obtains from the Lord
Buddhu. as she siu weeping in her chamber of eorrow, the spells for the
actions on behalf of the Land ofKhotan u announced by the Lord .
"Siliitation to the Tathilgata , the Arhat, the Perfectly Enlightened Buddha ..
Aprat~thitama tirija who eliminates all harm!" . . · · (::
"Salutation to the Tathlgata, the Arhat , the Perfectly Enlightened Buddha
Ji'ilnabuddhimat , who mnoves the: darkna1 of gloom!" . who came with an uncle from India u a youth and became Vajrabodhi',
"Salutation to the Tathagata , the Arhat, the Perfectly Enlightened Bu~dba .
Gajapatil" . . db .':/
"Salutation to the Tath'Pta , the Arhat, the Perfectly Enlightened Bud a.·:-\
Vajra.td{iachediltal ... " 10S
It will be noted at once that the whole context in which these spells are given and _:
recited 11the same 'kind of Mablylna Buddhist world u we find described in :j
The Boo4 oJZambaJta, from which some extracts have been dra~n above. The .);t
use of spells i.$already 90 widespread in Mahayana wtras that their we does f ?°':
necescarily imply actual Vajrayana practice, as already shown above (see sccuon . :_{
111.1). Although the Vajraykna. ~nerally is indeed referred to also as M~ntra: . :}:
yana (Way of Spella), thu use implies the application of spells ro a parucul _ar :.·'·i
aim , namely self-identification with a chosen divin ity by mea~ of the: spec_ial:.-;,
imtruction 5 and comecratiom given by a qualified muter. In 1h11 more effective :..?
sense there is very little trace of the Vajrayana in Khotan . The conclusion may_}:
fairly be drawn that whil e some Vajrayln a traditions may well have been :\
transmitted from Kashmir ro Khotan before the arrival of the Tibetans u _:· _:,
invader• in the seventh century and as incipient felJow-Buddhi1ts in the eighth .:,\
they could not have amounted to a great de2.J.Ellewhere throughout the whol~) .
Tak la Maltan area they aeem to have been unknown. . :.:::~
The Yoga Tantras certainly rea ched China ~ the early eighth century•~ :)
ma ybe even in the previous century in some rudimentary form . The firat know~ .}
Indian scholar to reach China, who took any interat in the: theory of mu:,.4&1~,,-::'
is Pu~yodaya, who having traveled by sea from Sri Lank.a,arrived~ Ch'ang·•~ }:
in 65~. ~ ten years aftet Haiian-tADg's return by the Central ~aan route . _I~·/
Hsuan-uang has appeared as the "hero" of this present cha~tcr , 1t ma! be d. :/
appointing to learn that he: treated PuQ.yodaya with extraordinary unfairness . I_\ \
,~ Sd FWT ot,. i;il ., vol. I, pp. tiaff. 11'e euracu aans>ated will be fO\lnd in TI,~ SS,.'{
p. 279-2-1 and pp . 279-$-Sff. 11'e names ~f the MOU$ ~dh • in tM spells ~tt ~n ID Ttbeta~ \
andihe $aNll.ritn1me1are my reconacr11cc1on . The luc one given, ~,eh mea~ -Cuulns l~e a Va~ ,.''.
( or diamoDcl)" ~y be of int-st to anyone c-..ned about the mearung of Vayac;hedib 1111bt wd~ :·,.
1t-,i p~ ol Wisdom llirua of wt name ; e.g ., ate CoNc '1 ed itlon. PP· 7-8, where~ -:'.
ditcv.lKI this matCCI' , ';. _';;':
., ...
JV.2.d Trac-.i of Bll4dlaum in C11itTalAsia. 361
may not have been his fault that the new arrival wa, dinnUKd so 500n to
Cambodia by the Emperor T'ai-tsung . who was especially attached to Hauan ·
tsang, but it wu his saious fault when Pu~yodaya returned to the capital eight
years later to find that Hsilan-tsang had carried off all the texta that he had
brought from India . He wa•
happily much respected aDd lm:d in Cambodia,
where he returned and seemingly ended bia days. He i1 reputed to have tru-eled
widely in India and to the far northwctt as well as throughout the Southern Seas.
Apart from the interest which the man binuelf cvokei, his .story dnws attention
to the pn:valence of tantric teachings in Sri Lank.a, which is usually regarded as
the refuge of strict Theravldin Buddhism.•• The three leading cxpoMnts of
tanuic Buddhism in China in the eighth Cffltury were Subhakaruin;lha , who
arrived in Ch'ang -an in 716, Vajrabodhi who arrived in 719, and Amogbavajra ,
disciple. In their cascs there is no doubt tha .t Vajra~na teachings were followed
a1 represented by the Yoga Tantra tradition . lt seems that ~ubhakaru~
attempted to reach China by a Central Asian route, found it impracticable
·:·}
became of the warfare to which we have already referred above, and made his
/1 way to China through Tibet . The other two ume by sea 11 » Thie 1hon digrellioo
on the subject of Cbineae tantric connections is inttoduced solely to illustrate
that religious tranuniaions between Indi a and China across Cen tral Asia
counted for ttry little from the eighth century onward, precisely when the
Vajrayana was being seriously developed. in Indian monasteries and so was
available for export to other lancS.. The Yajrayina traditions that eventually
reached Tun-huang were transmitted by the Tibetans from the end of the eighth
century onward, and the collapse of the Tibetan kingdom cannot have brought
rhi$ steady transmission to an md. Extraordinary survi'1als of Tibetan painting
styles were found early thi • century in the remote site of Kharakhoto some fifty
miles northeast of Tun-huang nea r the border of praent•day Mongolia (Pls. J:Z,
JJ, H). 1• Here wu the ancient Hsi-.hsia kingdom, pan Tangut , part Tibetan,
of whkh practically nothing is known apnt from Ch ine6Creference.. as it wu
completely obliterated by GengbizKhan's savagery about the year 1227.
The forms of Mahaylna Buddhism that the Tibetans found awaiting them in
Tun-huang have already been suggetted by the brief survey of paintings that
cover the walls of the caves. Worit in the caves as well ea in the temples continued
under their occupation, as they simply replaced the former Chine1c gentry aa
. benefactors. MOH significan t in thi• reapect is a painting in C.ave 159 of a
Tibetan king, possibly intended as Ral-pa -can (Pl . JJ) • in the b0ttom right
of a preaching scene from the Vimalakl,timrdeJa Sutm. Among the various
106 See Li•lloliana,· Pu1,1yod1ya
(Na·t'i), WIpropapteuT du taPlri- eo Chine et au Cambodge t
r~poquecle Hiuan-uang, · Joun,Ql lfsi«tu,iu. 1955, pp. 35-100.
101 See Chou Yi-Uuig . '°Tanuism In Chim.'' Hammlj . of As'ilk Studw 8 (IM~). pp. 141-S52.
1<19Plata az.4 haft beff1 copied frona the onJr -wor\ Oft 1ne subjea (apan fram the Paris c.talog ,
l>itu et dJ1111msul'Hi'llUU(l:,a,1'¥17)namely A. Cninweckl, OIRor sobNllll)IOf"td.m.u,r, i...au4a .
,c11kulld E. E. Ucldomslro.p(Bibi. Buddb. VI fasc. 1 &: 2), St. Pet.at burg. 1905 •
862 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
manuscripts one of the more significant is that which giva the religious lineage
of a Tibetan monk named .Akliagarbha (Nam-mkba'i mying-po in Tibetan),
who was a contemporary of Khri Srong-ldc-brtu.n and ii quitt well known from
other IOurces. 109 He was the coauthor of one of the earliest catalogs of Tibetan
translations of Buddhist works, mainly from Sanskrit, and he i.salso regarded as ·
one of the transmitters of later rNying-ma tr.aditions, to which we shall refer
below. Mm religiOU$lineage connects him through Chinese teachers (known as
Hva-shang) with a certain A•nan-hyver, who taught in Kucha. They followed
the teachings known as Dhylna, repraented by Ch'an in Chinese, and better
known in the West nowadaY5by the Japanese term Zen. This form of Buddhism
was certainly being propagated not only in the Tun-huang region, but wherever
Chinese influence reached, and thia would certainly have included the Turfan
and Kucha areas. It is interesting to have this clear indication of direct trans-
mission of Buddhist teachings to Tibet from some district in Central Asia 'Other .
than Tun•huang. For the reasons given above, Tun•huang loorne very large
indeed in any account that one gives of Tibet's cultural relatiom wilh Central
Asia, partly because the materials are so scarce elsewhere.
S. BUDDHISM IN NEPAL
a. The Early Period ,.
The firat datable reference to Nepal as a country occurs on an inscribed pillar· \ .
at Allahibtd (ancient Praylga) in praise of the Emperor Samadra Gupta and· .:\
listing alJ the countries that were subject to him. The Gupta Empire had been :'/
built up by his father Candra Gupta from the first quarter of lhe founh century;
Samadra Gupta (SS5-76) reestabliahed the power of a north Indian empire the .,
like of which had been unknown since the rime of Moka's empire of the thud ./
century a.c. The dynasty survived until the latter pan of the fifth century when it.: ,
succumbed before the attacks of the Huns, who also ravaged the whole of north·. \
western India (see section IV.2.a). A revived Gupta empire was formed toward ·
the end of the sixth century with its capital no longer at Pltaliputra, but at\
Klnyakubja (modem Kanauj) in a far more central position than ·the earlier <
one. The greatest of its rulers was Hanha (606-c.647), to whom reference has j
already been made. These Gupta dynasties appear to be the first major Indian \
powers, with which Nepal had dealings. while the 1econd of them is the fint with:\
which the Tibetam later made contact. The fint Gupta dynasty was linked in;>
marriage with the ancient aristocratic family of the Licchavis, who had ruled a:/.
small kingdom in the central Ganges valley in the time of S1kyamuni Buddha,/
109 ~e Marcelle Lalou, uDocumenc tiMtain SW' ropansion du dhyana chinois," Jourrul.l A~-)
'"tVt.1H9, ~P·. &06-1?,~l• little work II ,aid 10 have ~n ~poted la"~ly by ~ug Ye-dies·)'
dby;mg. the disaple of Akiiagarbha. and also well known m rNying-ma tradition. His woa Is also• J
n:pramced in odler Tun•huang ma-ripe,. See R. Kimvn, "Le Dhyina chinois au Tibet •~3
Mahayana.~jo!R114lA.uatique,1981, pp. 18!-9!.
tv.,.a B11ddhismin N.po.l 868
and who had maintained their line of descent ever since. Considerable prestige
w.u felt because of this connection; thus it is significant perhaps that the first line
of Nepalese kings, known from their inscriptions from the fifth century onward,
refer to themselves as Licchavi. No connection of marriage need be involved in
their case, for one may note that later Tibetan historians also claimed a direct
connection between lheir early lungs and che Licchavl family. 110 The earliest
known script in Nepal is of Gupta type and Sanskrit was regularly used from its
first appearance on an inscription set up by the Nepalese king, M4nadeva. in
A.D. 496 (local era 586). Abo the earliest known surviving atone images and
monuments (mainly small stupas) are manifestly of the early Gupta style. Thus
whatever infonnal trading and cultural contacts there may have been between
nonhem India and the Nepal Valley in earlier times, it was
probably not until
the fourth century that the ruJers of this small kingdom established more formal
relations wilh their powerful southern neighbor.
As in the case of Tibet and the establishing of diplomatic connections with
China in the early seventh century, so the establishing of these links between
Nepal and Gupta India would have resulted in major cultural advantages.
Neither the Nepalese nor the Tibetans were devoid of earlier indigenou1
cultures, but the cultures of their two powerful neighbors inevitably proved
stronger. Drawing later on Indian Buddhist culture in full measure, the
Tibetans e5tablished, aa will be illustrated in the next chapter, a c:omplex
civilization of their own, adopting all surrounding sources. Nepal from the
fourth century onward drew entirely upon India except for later Tibetan
influence,, eapccially important when its boundaries spread to include so many
Tibetan-speaking peoples.
Nepal was not pan of the Gupta Empire; it is listed on Samudra Gupta',
grandioseinscription in the remote category of countries "that pay tribute:, obey
orders, and come to make obeisance. "111 Effectively it was independent, as it has
been throughout it:a whole history except perhaps for the period of Tibetan
occupation during the seventh and eighth centuries. Even then Nepalese kings
continued to rule, and during the same period China too daimed to receive
"tribute" from Nepal. At that time the kingdom consiw,J primarily of the small
central valley. a mere twenty miles from wen co east and twelve from north to
soulh, which is known nowadays as the Nepal Valley or the Kathmandu Valley
in order to diatingui.sh it from the larger political entity that appears on our
maps today and wu the creation of the Gorkba dynasty in the late eighteenth
century. It is impossible now to have any dear idea of the effective extent of
Ne~l in the early period with which we are conc-erned. The 1urrounding
Himalayan •alleys contained petty kingdoms, some of which are mentioned in
c.trly Tibetan records. and it is likely that the early lungs of Nepal extended their
118 Sec:for9ampkC. N. Roc:rich. 1·JuBluelfnnals, p. ff.
_111 ~orpw IJUcnptionum. lndicarum, d. III, cd. J: F .. Flcec, "lmcri~o~ of rbe £arty Gupta
K1t'115, London, 1888, p. 8, See also Bhambrkar, 'Princes and Termona in die Allahabad
h1<e:riptloo."Indian Historical Quarterly I (1925), pp. 250-fiO.
364 IV : BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA ANO BEYOND
control over the nearer of these when they bad die power to do so. Thus when
the Tibetan& refer to Nepal in their Royal Annala, they may well be referring to
an area rather larger than the actual Nepal Valley. The people of this nlley .
were certainly conscious of their cultural identity, which distinguished them
from their neighbors; they alone were known as "Nepalese" in its earlier
pronunciation as Newar. The Newars were therefore the people who had lived .
together in the valley long enough to establish a cultural identity expressed in
their own Newari language. This is how they enter history and one can do Jitde
more than ,peculate on their origins. Their language is usually classified u
"Tibeto-Burman," but so little linguistic work has been done on it, that this
attribution does not explain much at all. While it contains a basic vocabulary.
clearly related to Tibetan and a very large number of Indian loan words (largely
from Sanskrit), its basic structure may well have an entirely unknown indigenous
origin. In its earliest form it remains totally unknown to us, u Sanskrit was
regularly used instead, and by the time it appears a1 a literary language (four·
teenth century onward) it has clearly absorbed a large foreign vocabulary:
However, this language in its various local dialects represcnta the c:ultural
identity of the people whose kings ruled in the Nepal Valley until the Gorkha
conquest of 1768, when an entirely different language of purely Indian origin,
known aa Gorkhlli and only later as Neplli, was imposed upon them by their
conquerors. Thus while Tibet has remained a fairly consistent political and .·
cultural entity throughout the whole historical period, whatever internal . ·
changes have uken place, modem Nepal is altogether a different political and·
cultural entity from what it was until the eighteenth century. Confusion between ·,
the two can result in misundCl'$tandings so far as the history of Buddhism in i
Nepal is concerned. Thus one often reads that ~akyamuni Buddha was ~orn 1n·::·
Nepal, when in fact he was born in the northern Indian kingdom of the Sakya&,..:.
which occupied the forested plain to the north of the central Ganges valley··
extending to the Himalayan foothills. Nepal was totally unknown at the time
and probably did not yet exiat as that rather remote Himalayan kingdom in the_:._
Nepal Valley, far from the Indian plains, which is first mentioned in the fo~rth ::,:
century A.D. This strip of fertile plain (known as the Tcrai, probably derived·' ~
from an Indian word meaning "moiat and green") was coveted by the Gorltha_.:J
dynasty because oFits fertility. They occupied it by force in the early years of the }
nineteenth century, but were forced to restore it to British India in 1815. In 1860_,)
some of the area they had previously occupied was granted to them by the Brimh_.;:"
Indian govemment, as part of the reward for the support lhat the Gorkha ·7
Prime Minister MahtrajaJung Bahadur had given during the Indian Mutiny . 112 -;
lit OnJWlg Bahadur Stt Tiu Life of Maharijo Sirjun1 Bal14dur G.C.B., C.C.S.1. of N_~pol. a/:
well•writcfll nudy by hi, wn Pudma Juna Bahadur Rana and PtofesSOI' A. C. Mukcrp, lim . ;'..
published in An.hab.ad in 1909; reprinted by llat11a~1111~ Bh.and~r,Nepal. 1~4. Jung Ba~a~ur:;_
m:eiwd the Craod CRISllof the Batb (G.C.B.) fur ha scrnc:es durmg the Muuny, He had Y1S1ted_ 1
Lon.don and Paris in 18!>0,but Bridsb,Nepali friendship. ttll1 celebrated today. dates from tM 1tcaty
.-:,
of 1860. Sin« Ihm Gurkha (Go'l'kha) troops. mainly hill-l'olk $UCh u Magan and Cunmgs and not ..:-,
Gorkha in any dynasdc sl!nte, have -d IA the Indian Army and$i1lcelt-17 In the Brilia.h Army;·_':\
JV .S.a Buddh:ism in Nepal 565
Thus the Buddha's birthplace became pan of Nepal. The belated and quite
accidental possession of this important site has aJso bad the effect of giving a
false suggestion of truth to the Newar legend concerning the Emperor Akdi:a's
visit to Nepal in the third century B.C. Inscriptions referred to above (section I .2)
prove that~ visited the stO.paat Lumbini (modem name: Rummindei) and aliio
amangcd for the enlarging of the stupas of the previous Buddha Kanakamuni
located. in the same Terai area (at Nigali Sagar). but he can have had no idea of
Nepal as a country which he was honoring by his presence. I have dealt with this
matter in some detail, as even such an outstanding Buddhist scholar as Professor
Lamotte can unintentionally give credit to t~ notion that Nepal wu at least
known of in Aioka's time, when he writes: "The edicts of Rummindei and of
Nigali Sagar prove that Nepal wu part of the imperial domains, and that Aioka
went there in person to honor the birthplace of the Buddha and the m.ipa of
Kanakamuni. " 111
Such was A'°1ta·a fame as the greatat of aU benefactor$ of Buddhism chat his
name was readily associated with mmionary activities that far exceeded their
already congiderable historical range. If Khotan in the mnoteness of Central
Asia can preiervc tradition, concerning the founding of the city·state by an
imaginary son of Aioka, named Kustana, it is by no means surprising to learn
the A6oltapersonally visited the Nepal Valley and founded there the royal city of
Patan (ffltten in full in Sanskrit as Lalitapattana. "Lovely City") together with
its four great stu.pas each to one of the four cardinal points. u4 This city is
certainly the earliest Buddhist city of Nepal, but there i, nothing surviving above
ground lo suggest a date earlier than the fourtb century A,D. Some clearer dating
might be obtained by excavation of one of the four stupas, which are all of a very
early simple design, but this has n0t been possible because of the religious
susceptibilities of the local people.
. The old route from Tibet enttts the Valley in the northeast corner by the
village of Sankhu, passes by the great stupa known as Khisti by Newars· and
nowadays by Nepali speakers as Bauddha or Bodh-nath (which is some ten miles
further on), then continuing by the smaller stupa of ~-bahf (popularly known
as Little Bodh·nlth) which stands on an undoubtedly ancient site (Pls. JJa (!I b,
.56). it then turns dittctly south and pasaing through tlw district known a,
Baneshvara along an embanked track between rice-fields, it enters Pittan
directly from the nonh, croaing the Bagmati by a picturesque wooden bridge.
Thus it bypasses Kathmandu altogether--whicb in any case was a later
foundation-with the happy n:sult that the new road between Kathmandu and
Pruan has left the old route very much u it must have been for centuries. The
11, St-e2tien~ 1..amow.. Hfstoi',~ du Bouddhi$rn, ind{#fl. p. 280.
I H The Newar name of the city is Ye-la. rtproduccd bl' die Tibet1m 86 Ye-rang. mai11iflfa flaal
Nc•warinual. which is heard in certain nominal declensions. Tli,e four great sti)pas are nanied after
1hc Tol6 ("town warca") in which they stand: Yampi •thur (North), Laprp-rh11r (South), Puco•thur
(~~), and 'l'eta-thw {East). T_Aur'!lust represent stupa; er.thupra in Turner, N~pr,J:i-English
t1u:t10nary. pp. 298-9. The cerm IA no1 m general uac. a.sthe Ne-rs refer to acupe,~ally II tfl-ba
. ( ·.. San.dtrit cail]a).
366 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
Ca-balf1 site has a rather derelict appearance but its great age is atrested by_some
images and miniature st\lpaa manifestly of Gupta (Licchavt) style. AcCOTdingto
Buddhiat legendary talea it was founded by Aiolta'a daughter, Carumati, on the
occasion of her father's supposed visit to the vaJley. . probably a contraction ofSrr-Yeqi·gu"1, meaning"CloriousHill of Ye~," where
Jt will be noticed that the Newan run together the syllables of foreign words
(and that includes Sanskrit), thus producing w~t appear to be different terms
in some cases. The name Ca (pronounced lightly ja, as it would be in Sanskrit)
represents the whole name Clrumatl, while bdhl is a curious derivative of
Sanwit tlil&4ra,"monastery." It is curious because the more obvious Newar form
is bahd.,which is used of the many old "mona&tic compounds" of which the
medieval cities of Pitan and the other main towns of the Valley seem to have
largely consisted. The term "medieval" is used in the vague 1e1* ~ the.
thirteenth century onward, for it is doubtful if there were quite so many viMras
in the early period with which we are immediately concerned. &ht is a
peculiarly Newar term, perhapt a diminutive form with slightly derogato1!
implication, for reasons that will become clear below. When the fuJI S~krit
name of such an establishment is given, aa in the case of the CArumatf•'YthAra; ....
then it becomes quite clear that the term balii has no Sanskrit equivalent. The •
name Khasti ~ also an elision of Kasyapa•caitya, namely the stupa which is ..
supposed to contain the relics of the previous Buddha KUyapa . This great ltQ~;
which stands by t~ side of the old route from Sankhu to Patan, along which . ...
Tibetans arriving in the valley would normally pass, became at an early date the ::,
favorice Tibetan shrine in Nepal. From time immemorial they have kept it in)
repair, presumably enlarging and embellishing it over the cent~ries, and theb'./
legendary talc of its origin connects it with four of the penons mainly res~sible . ::
for introducing Indian Buddhism into Tibet in the second half of the e1ghth :!:
century (namely: Khri Srong-lde -brtaan • .Santarakfita, Padmasambhava and <,
Sri~a; see below section V .2. a). 115 The theory that it contained the relics of}
the Buddha Ktf.yapa is probably theirs; this would have been part ·of their:'}
readiness to recognize in the Nepal Valley sites and aaociated legendi., which/
had earlier a rather finner basis in the land of Khotan. The name Li-Jui;?;
originally referring quite clearly tO Kbotan, came to be applied rn_istakenly·to::
Nepal, and thia could only reasonably haw happened after the Tibetans ~\
forgotten about their earlier Central Asian connections, but mindful of old;
legends, found in Nepal the very places which might be identified with vagu~y/
biitorical memories. 116 This may haw: ~ppcned any time from the tenth:.
century onward; certainly the tradition that Li-yul was Nepal is found ·in
collations of quaaihistorical quasilegendary matttials that assumed a final form./
in the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, although theiT component parts were:;:
usually very much older. ···
m My earlia- uaMlation of this panicular lcgffid will be found in Buddhist H~. PP· 93-9{'.
116 ~e the ankle by John Brou«h, "IAgericls of Khotan and Nepal." BSOAS, XIJ (1948><.:
pp. ffl-9. Many rderencet may be found co the Kaiyllpa K\ipa in Khou,n in FWT "t· cii., vol.: li;
e.g .. pp. 19, 26-7. 109.
IV.S.a Buddhism in Nepal !o7
Traditionally the oldest shrine in the Valley is the impressive stupa that rises
on a hill-top two miles from the center of modem Kathmandu just across the
VitJ'.lumati River (Pl. .59). It is known aa Smgu by Newars, and tbi11name ls
Yem. (corresponding to the Tibetan name Yam-bu occurring the many texts) is
the Newu name of Kathmandu. 117 Nq>Ali speakers refer to the shrine a1 Simbhu
which is presumably an elided fonn of its claS&icalname Sva,ambhu, "Self.
Existen t," by which name it is now generally referred to by foreign visitors.
According to Buddhist legends this hill seems to have existed eternally as a
sacred spot. In previous world-ages former Buddhas had sanctified the place and
they were followed by the Bodhi.attva Manjulrl who came from China
(mah4cma of the texts) and having witneaed the spectacle of light-rays emitted
to
from the summit, he resolved ttleaae the waters which filled the main valley.
This he did by opening valleys to the south, thus emptying the lake. Later his
disciples built a stt&pa on a second lower summit of the Svayambbll Hill, which ia
. dedicated to him. Professor Brough has already drawn attention to the parallel
between this story and the one quoted above (JV.2.b) concerning the draining of
the lake of Khotan, and one may observe that a variant of rhe same story is t0ld
of Kashmir. The tradition of Maiijusti's connection with China, specifically with
.. the Five-Peak Mountain (Wu-t•ai•shan) in Shami. can only have been a Chinese
invention possibly suggested by this Bodhisatt,,a's earlier Indian name of "Five-
Crested" (Pancaiikha). This is yet another notion that probably reached Nepal
from Tibet, when (c.A.D. 600 onwa1-d)the long route from China through Tibet
to Nepal came into use. Without the help of archaeological excavation any
auempt to give a date to the great Se.dgu stupa can only be speculative. The hill
was likely to have been sacred even be!ore the arrivalof Buddhism in the Valley
and its imposing summit would have invited the building of the firlt stllpa,
which like other monuments of this kind W<>uldhave been enlarged and
embellished over the centuries. In ita present symbolic arrangement the great
stupa represents the main divinities of the Yoga Tantra trad ition. These are
enshrined around the base of the dome in their conventional positions:
Ak~bhya (East), Ratnaaambhava (South) , Amitlbha (West) and Amoghasiddhi
(Nonh) with the four Great Coddesaes, Locanl, Mamakf, Pl~aravasinl and
Tarain the intermediate positions. The central Buddha Vairocana is placed in a
shrine on the eaeuoutheaat side between A~obhya and Mimaki. The
11p(.-cial
the,? 1n The Sanskrit name ~~lwna~pa, whence Kathmandu is derived, is aiustcd from at lea.$1
tl11:,_JJth century. One wooden if !heat Santltrlt names were not artlfidal cnaciona, the original
lo.-nl nllmes being (!!It ur,suitable for use when writing Sanskrit. This town existed from early times,
""'"l'J
l"'"ibly the cighch or earlier. as a depmdmcy of Pitan, and '" Sarutcrit name, 111noing
.· "woockn mansion·' may wggest its 1-r status. The name ~ now mditiooally 35$0CUU?d with an
·.""~illling tiered•roof muctVtt in the cei:11erof the day, but in ils .,-n,
;:,'.· form ac leut this i$ ffl'Y much
:::_ : 1,wr. A plan oi ic win be found in Ulrich Wie$ner , N~l. Xonigr~icl& im Himalayo, Cologne, 1976,
:,...:: !'· 111.Thit ls certainly lt~ bete book now available on shrina and templa in Nepal, cotUalnlng
,.::r-•r,•llcm plans. diagnms amd phorographa, many of them being teprocluclions of nineteenrh-
,;(_r1•111ury drawinp. which are ftrY hdpflll in that they ,bow thelc slw before later cha"&" 'lttl'll
.:·:J.
, ,>imuk.
 368 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDJA A.ND BEYOND
Yoga Tantras were in vogue jn India and presumably in Nepal from the eighth
until perhaps the tenth century, when they tended to be overtaken by the tan tras :
classed as Supreme Yoga . Thereafter in Nepal , as in Tibet , Yoga Tantra ritual
was generally neglected. However, where the symbolism of $rapas is concerned,.
the earlier arrangement of the Five Boddhas is preserved. All the large st1lpas so . .
far mentioned, namely the fou.- around Patan, Khuti and SeJigu, have low ·.:
domes on the early Indian pattern, although this may not be so obvious in the _·- \ meals. He ~i~ the stupa built by Dharmadatta and bwlt several viharas
caae of those which have been revtced and orn amented later . If one wonden why ·'.'.'
the southern, western and eastern stupa1 around Pit an have remained in their ·\
apparently earlier simpk form, the only answer can be that no-one ha$ taken \
great interest in them over r«ent centuries. Main benefactors to these shrines :_:-': _
have been the Tibetans, for their interest is not only apparent at their favorcd ::/
Khasti, but also at Scngu, made most noticeable perhaps by the elegant metal ·<
fence with inset prayer•wheeJ&which now 1urround1 the central dome. It ia also~.:)
significant that only the northern one of the four Patan stupas has been rcvf:tc:d.\.'
and cared for, as it stands by the side of the track that enters Patan from that._-:;;
direction, coming from Sankhu and eventually Tibet, Such benefactions have \
also been the work ofTibetanued Newars , especially wealthy traders, who in the :-'·
later period became thoroughly imbued with Tibetan religious culture. ,-;
However, the earlier Tibetan interest in this Valley is certainly indicated by the ::;
manner in which they have transferred to it a topography belonging properly toi:
Khotan. ··
When one looks for firm historical data relating to the early period, there is:·
very little indeed compared with the precise information available in Chinese _- : reference to the Kimr.7J-~tlJUMSutra, which tella of the merciful powers of
and Tibetan accounts concerning Central Asia. Nepalese storia of these early::
limea are so extravagantly legendary that little or no precise information can be'.;
obtained from them . As always, the best g\lides in these matters must be thosf:
who have worked painstakingly on collecting and editing early stone inscrip{ _
tiona, for their evidence can seldom be gainsaid.111 The first king of the Licc~vt :;
dynasty to be named on inscriptions ia Vffadeva, the great -grandfather -.of
Manadeva, whoee inscription set up at Cangu Narlyat_\aat the end of the fil'thi
century ii the earliest dated one yet found. He lists his ancestors. V!'adeoia'.;i
Sarikaradeva and Dharmadeva, praising each in turn. A rather l~tcr inaaipti<in !,
of Jayadeva at Pa!upati datable to A.O. 754 also lists some of this king's more\
illustrious ancestor&, beginning again with V~adeva, of whom it is saidi',i
''Glorious wu this best ofkinga, named Vwadeva, who was especially devoted
the teaching of the Blessed One." Th.e Buddhist Chronicle, published by D:anic(
Wright , may be quoted as an example of what is to be leamed from tradidonii(
11, By Carthe '™'A imponartt work on the e.riy hi.to.-yof Nepal b that of SylYainUvl, u Ni;,,d
ituik b.is'8riqu.ed'tm royavme hindoa. Vol. l contains much valuable genenl information, vol. n~;
llitco,y and vol. Ill hit ~d and tramlared imalptions . So far aa insc:ripdont er,: concerned, t~_ :
mOS(compkcc edition to date fDI'the early period is that of Raniero Gnoli, Nepohstt br.scriplio,u-i1'i;
C1<ptaC'-ractm. More recent 1utwy11 and collectiolll hav.: been made by local Newar ac:hobii'~i,
notably Hemraj Shiltya and Dhana'llljfa Vajridrya (c,.g., chc latter's LicdunlikM/ui Abhildmii
pubU.hedbytheNepal 11ndAalanStudicsCentre , N~I Unl-versity,Nepal Year20!0 • l97S) • . :'.\
JV.S.a
Buddhum in Nopat 369
sources. With V~adeva·~ father we are still in a land of fantastic legend, but in
the case of V!'fadeva himself there is the :first suggestion of some historical
substance.
Rudra~eva•varman wassucceeded by his son Vf!adeva•varman. This king was
very ptOU5.He made daily offerings to Vajra-yoginI before taking his own
for,monks to live~- He went one day to visit that one of the four great stllpas
wtuch had been built on the anniversary of the beginning of the Good World -
Age , and being attacked by severe illness, he died there. The servants of Yama
{Lord of the ~ad) t~ hi~ to their master's kingdom, but when he saw him,
he rebuked him .for bnngmg such a vinuous man to hell. He was therefore
~Je~d a~d retl.lmed to life. He compared what he bad seen in hell with what
IS wntten tn the Kara,µ/.auyuha, and finding that they both agreed he was
plea,ed , He thus attributed his strange adventure and his release to i.;,kesvara
Padmap~. who had brought to an end the torturn of those in hell by his
pres:nce, as ~P!ained in the text. He therefore erected images of Lokeivara
as Kmg of Religion and aa Yamt.ntaka (the one who makes an end of Yama
namely death). He left his brother Balarcana at that place and returning'
plac~ i~ages of the Five Buddhas at a place called Bandegaoo nea;
GodavarL Shonly afterwards he died at h.i8palace. lit
It is of ~ule uie to investigate the matter of the stt1pa "built by Dharmadatta, " u
according to the Chronicle this king lived several thousand years before Vnadeva
and ruled for a thousand years. There is lik.ely to be more substance ·in the
~valokitdvara {also known as Lokeivara, ''Lord of the World") in saving beingi1
m all apheres of ~isrence . It is also one of the earliest Buddhist scriptures said to
,.., ha~e r~ac:hed _Tibet (see V.2.c). The four great scupu around Pitan, ·one of
which 1s~ennoned here, might conceivably have been built in the time of thi,
~lc:voutking Vnadeva , but this is pure apeculation . According to the Chronicle
111st.quoted, they WCTc built by Aioka. on his vis.it to Nepal , one on each
anniversary of ~he four world-ages. After the death of V~dcva when his brother
•uuned above ts supposed to have ruJcd, there was a terrible persecution of
lluddhi~, instituted by iu archenemy Sankara. Since this renowned Brahman
. 11Cholarbw:d at least four centuries later, the story is revealed as a hotch-potch
of lcge":ds and vague reminiscences with no historical cohesion. Imagined
to:
: p.-rsecu~1onsare also a common feaU&reof early Tibetan Buddhist history as will
l>t•!ll-en rn <he next chapter.
II would •eem
certainthat during the Gupta period Buddhism and Hinduism
;.
r.'i"' 17Sc:cDalllel Wripc, Hblory of N•~l. fint publish'!d 1817, rq,rinted In Kathmandu, 1972,
\. 1'·1 · for ~ercncc co Dhannadaua aec:p. 92, and £or Aiok a t0 pp . 111 and 116, Wright , of the
.::.
::..111 m•.~.
.U,ilnM_~ical Setvlc:e,
\;: .ftn'.i~I~M,mon (1866-76). His h11COry
~-II~ u,e al his stay in Kathmandu as .Resident S
~ ISentirely a translati011 of the .Buddhilt chronic~~
n to the
'/·11"',
4
,ucally - all tha~ wu pomble at the dl!K'. HI• personal omervaliom on the country and its rultt,
, .. _ ,., uf ~he Fate« interest; he also made an iRYaluable <,>llection of manuKTipu now j the
,._.flul~rllllty oCCambridJe. • n
S70 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
were both established in Nepal on much the same pauem of coexistence that ,:.
was already typical of them in India. Despite continual religious controve~•.
whecher between one Buddhllt faction or another or whether between Buddbiat . · ::;
and Brahmanical scholars, organized persecution can only have been a rare and ··
local occurrence, and there is no sign of it at all in Nepal until the Gortha . s~ lewl), and four thowand li (about one thousand two hunched miles) in
conqut:I( of 1768. Kings were normally Hindus, but they supponed Bud~ist .)
monasteries as well as Hindu temples. Manadeva appears to have been mainly· /:
devoted to Visnu but at least one Buddhist viMra is named after him and is thus ·
listed in a la~~ ~acription. This is the MAna-viharo, which is mentioned in an ·
inscription of King Amiuvarman, dated A.D. 627, together with another six .'
vihdro.s,and about the same number of ~aivite and VifJ'.'uite temples. 120 Other ·.
holy place, are mentioned, which arc not so easily categorized , and it is quite _'
clear that Indian religon in all its forms was then flourishing in the Valley under
royal protection and maintained at public expense. This panicular inscription Is'./
in fact concerned with the division of revenue to the various temple& and _)
monasteries. Hsuan-tsang was in northern India at this time, and although he ·\
did not visit Nepal himself, he included in his account a description composed of \
information that he must have elicited from his Indian boau. ..·.-
The country is about four thousand Ii in circumference and iJ situated in the { .
midst of snowy mountains. The chief city is about twenty Ii all aroun~. :\
Mountains and valleys are joined together in continual succession. It ts \
suitable for the growth of cereals and abounds in flowers and fruit. It produces'?
red copper, the yak and the ming-mmg bi_rd (a. kind of pheasant). In :}
comm~ coins of red copper are used . The cbmate 1svery cold. The ways of,:-:
the people are false and perfidious, and their natu_re is hard :•;t1d
fierce wi~ no :.:;
regard for good faith and honour. They have no literary ability but are skdfutc.
in the aru . Their bodies arc ungainly and their appearance unpleasant. There ,~,
arc true believers and heretics mixed together; the Buddhist monasteries and i-
the Hindu temples touch one another. There ue some two thousand mo~kt :
who follow both the Mahlyana and the Hinaylna. The number of herencs
( = orthodox Hindus) and other different groups is uncertain. The king
belong$ to the k,alnya (warrior) cute and to the lineage of the Llc_cbavis.He ...
bas a sincere faith in the Buddhist religion. Recently there was a kmg name
Amluvarman who was distinguished for his learning and wisdom. He had, .
himself compo$ed a treatise on the tbeo,:y of language (iabdavid,a). He}
esteemed knowledge and respected virtue and his good reputation spread.
evcrywhere. m
The information of value to be drawn from this short report ttlate& to . th_ : /\
flourishing nature of Buddhism and Hinduism, which lived side by side in th'_
seffllth century in Nepal. jUS(as they do today. The other &ignif1cantpoint is th .
reputation which the Nepalese then had as skillful artisan&, for thi1 has
110 See S. U,,l, t>p. riL. vol. III, pp. 95•6 and for obtava.tion, on the beneuc:tioos or
man's reign, vol. II. pp. 1S8·40. The inscription is given in R. Gnoli, op. dt., no. xxxvr.
m See Beal. B"'1d.hul Rttewth, wol.11,pp. 80· 1,
IV.S.a
871
proved true down the centuries (Pls. 57, J8, 60, 61) . The general information
S about the country is vague and not very helpful, simply representing what might
have atrudt the imagination of Indian travelen . To my knowledge yaks never
come as low as the Nepal Valley (some four thousand three hundred feet above
Clrcumference would cover a far larger area. It ill quite poaible that in
Am§uvarm.an's time Nepal occupied more territory toward the north, perhapt
far enough for yab to be met with. itt As for the reported ugliness and bad
charac~r of the ~epalese, th~s may be attributed entirely to Indian prejudice .
The~ JS no ~ent~on of the Tlbetan presence in Nepa), which by this time was
c~rta1nly making ttself felt. Srong- bnsan sgam-po wu in the process of making
Tibet the centcr of a considerable Central Aaian empire, and while this whole
process is well documented on the Chine;c side, very little precise infonnation is
available concerning the extent to which Nepal was depf!Ddcnt on Tibet. There
is an unconfirmed tradition of Srong-brcsan sgam-po's marriage with a Nepalese
princess, sometimes identified as the daughter of Amsuvannan, and this is
chronologically quite poaible. After Amiuvarman's death in 6!9/40, there was
a diapute over the ,uccession, and one of the claimanu sought refuge in Tibet
and was in due course proclaimed kin_g of Nepal thanks to his Tibetan aUies.
1'his king Narendradeva is mentioned in the Tibetan Annals as well as in a short
~~ription of Nepal, which waa later inserted in the T'ang Annals. The
f1betam had already brought such military pressure to bear upon China that
lhe_Emp~r T'ai-tsung had finally consented to grant Srong-brtsan sgam-po a
Chmc1e pnnccss as one of his several wivee. This occurred in 641, and taking
advantage of the cordial relations then existing between China and Tibet T'ai-
tsung sent a mission in 645 via T~t to Harsha's capital in K:ltnyakubya. is This
not only the fint recorded diplomatic contact between China and India
depending be it noted on Tibetan goodwill, but it is also the first reference to ~
journey being made between China and India by way of T ibet. From this time
cm they bec~me ever more frequent, but it would seem clear that they only
l_1eicai:zie fea~ble o~ Tibet had become a consolidated power and opened its
lmnnen to u.s neighbon. A second Chinese million was sent in 647/8 but
,u-rivi~~in India afler ~anha's death, it was robbed and maltreated . A pu~tive
1
•x.pcdmon was organized by the Tibetans and their Nepalese allies; they
·• iltl.t~ked s~ccellfully the Gupta capital and carried off the usurper as a prisoner,
.-: M.·udmghun under armed guard to China.'" This was the end of Chinese
,:;::
111
: '.'~.ctions with Nepa~ and lnd.ia ~ntil the thirteenth ttntury, when once again
\\ . the I 1bctans were the 1n~rmed1anes. A later Chinese description of Nepal was
{'t : J1tC"11umably composed on the occasion of theae fint visits, as it makes specific
a~;.; ?:,:: _tdc-n:nce_to_Narcn~'s dependence upon the Tibetans. It is seemingly more
:§:.1u·1:111·ate in us details than HsUan-uang's deacription, but for that he is not
Amiov&~ 1
\ ':: ; ~ • i-·•.,, the po111ibillcy
ol 'N~'in this larger se~ being th, place where kings of Tibet ftom the
:_:;:: 1.-ud, (ffl(ury onward somcrnnn
?.<, passed 111mmcrmooth.5,sec &l·:)lal(Nc:pal) in lndn.
· · m Thisc- ia menlioned again befow(V,l.d), w~remel'fflecs arc gi11m.
372 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
directly responsible.
The Kingdom of Nepal is situated to the west of Tibet. The inhabitants have · .
the custom of cutting their hair in a straight line with the cyebrow1. They .>
pierce their cars and wear hanging from them pieces of bamboo or buffalo- ·.;
horn; they think it elegant when they hang down to the shoulders. They cat .-'.:
with their hands without using spoons or dlopaticks, and all their utensils are . '.
made of copper. Their merchants, both traveling and stationary, are /
numerous; their cultivators are few. They have coins of copper with the figure ·/
of a man on one side and a horse OD the other. They drC$$in a single piece of _)
cloth that covers the body and they bathe many times daily. Their houses are-)
made with wood and the walls are sculptured and painted. They like gama o{ /i
chance and amuse themselves with blowing horns and beating drums. They_:_,
are skillful in 1ooth1aying and in magical pn.cticea, and they are equally .:i
competent in astrology. They worship five celestial gods (presumably the Five :·:
Buddhu are meant) and carve their images in stone. Every day··they wash -_:;
their gods and make offerings of cooked mutton. .·/
Their king, Narendradeva, is adorned with genuine pearl,. with rock~J.
crystal, with mother of pearl, with coral and amber; he wears earring& of gold <
and pendants of jade, and he wean a small Buddha-image a. an amulet. He /
sits on a lion-throne and inside the audience-hall where flo~rs and perfumes. )
are scauered. The ministers of state and the courtiers are aeated on the /
ground to left and right, and on botll sides there are hundreds of soldiers oif,
guard. In the middle of the palace there la a seven-story tower, its roofs>
covered with copper tiles. The balustrades and railings, the columns and the \;
beams, aD are ornamented with precious stones. On the four comers of (the \
roofs of) the iower there are fixed copper pipe,, at the end of which are golden '/
dragon spouts. The water from above flows down the pipes and comes out>
from the mouths of the dragons like so many natural fountains. -t {
The father of Narendr"adeva lost the throne to an elder brother; Narendra~ ;:;
deva fled to escape from his uncle. The Tibetans gave him refuge and .re~: ~·
established him on his throne; that is how he became subject to Tibet. 114 ·
From the year A.D. 6&0 onward the Tibetan Annals give a more le~,
continuous account of the main domestic and foreign affair& in which Tibetan:
kings and ministers were engaged. The impression one gains {rom these is that-_
while campaigns were being continually launched to the west, to the north and.
to the east, Tibet's southern frontier remained relatively peaceful. There is
occasional reference to trouble in a small Himat.yan kingdom. such as Se-rib;;
but this is immediately brought under control. h would seem that the Ne-paletci
gave tbe Tibetans no trouble. and in return the Tibetans left them to their owil
affairs. In a grandiose ediet (that of King Sad-na-legs, section V.l.a below)",
which refers to the situation existing a hundred yean later, die Tibetans cJaim:t '.
be held in awe by the kings of northern India, but there seems to have been ri '.
IIM My "enion is based on the French OM of Sylvain Lhl u reprim.ed in w Nlpcl, vol.-f:
pp. 163-5. One may $eC also S. W. Bushell, "The Early ff'istory of ·n~,. "JRAS 1880. p. 529, whc:ii"
1hce,itract occur, as a f-no1e.
IV . .S.a Buddhism in Nepal 575
~d ~or warfare in that d~ection. Thus one gains the impression of a general
situa~n of ~ce along Tibet's Himalayan borders, presumably accompanied
by an increase 1n trade and cultural penetration from the south into Tibet. Yet
h~re again ~recise information is lacking and throughout the seventh century the
Tibetan aristocracy appears to he more interested in Chinese cultural and
literary achievements than in the religious traditions of India, which by then had
clearly t~oroughly pervaded Nepal. The one exception to this apparent lack of
lnterett 11 the -story of Srong-bruan sgam-po'a having sent a mission to India to
fix finally a Tibetan system of writing and this argues strongly in favor of the
establishing of cultural relations, in which the Tibetans would be the chief
bencfactora. Knowing how they took advantage of their conquests in Chinese-
held territories in Central Asia to avail themselves of the forced service.a of
Chin~ scholan and saibc:s, it would be surprising if they had not called upon
the assistance of Nepalese craftsmen for the decoradon of the fint Buddhist
temples in Tibet, which wer~ certainly built during the reign of Srong-brtsan
sgam-po. Bue here we have Jude more than legendary material at our disposal
both on the Nepalae and the Tibetan side • .Even the account of Srong-bnsan
sgam-po·s rnarriage to a Nepalese princess is legendary, although it is quite likely
to b~ve taken place. That she should have brought images with he-r as well as a
quahfied Ne_pak:se ent~rage woul~ also be likely in the dtcumstanccs. Apan
~rom her arnval m t?e Ttbetan capital, there is abo the curious story of the four
images of the Bodhisattva Avalokicdvara, aU made from the same trunk of a
sandalwood tree, and brought, one to Lha5a, one to the village of Bungamati
near Patan, one to Kyirong in the Ti~tan·Nepalete frontier area and another to
Purang (southern border of Western Tibet). I refer to this in slightly m01'edetail
below (section V.l.d) but one can at least deduce from this that the cult of
Avalokite!vara was al~eady ~tablished in Nepal at this time, wbiJe in the process
of being mtroduced mto Tibet. Nepalese tradition, while seemingly knowing
nothing of the other Images, asserts that the cult of Avaloldtdvara was intro-
ot duced into Nepal by King Narendradeva, which at least agrees on the same
pcri~d, namely_the first half of the seventh ttntury. It may only be surprising
1h:u it wa• not introduced before; probably it had been, but it is quite possible
that a new temple for the cult was built and that a similar image was made for
an I he Tibetans at the same time. Later Nepalese tradition confused the cult of
Avalokite5vara with that of the Nlth Yogin Matsyendra, who may have been the
1~:acherof the Yogin Gorakhnlth. Both belong to the general tradition of the
l•.1ghty-FourGreat Adepts (mahasiddha), which was followed by both Buddhists
1111dSaivites in northern India from about the tenth century onward (see section
111_-6.b): and its ~troduction into Nepal about that time is no cauae for surprise.
h ss quue conceivable that the yogin Gorakhnath introduced it there himself.
,:v
't'hl'. Bodh~1attva Avalokitdvara has been credited with so many beneficent
num1festatt0ns that Corakhnlth might well have chosen to regard his teacher as
j111r. of these. Becauae of the later confusion between the two, the Bodhisattva
ll nd the Master Yogin, the Buddhist Chronicle to which reference: has been made
374 IV; BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN INDIA AND BEYOND
above, credits Nattndradeva with establishing the cult of Matsyendranath in ....
Nepal. but this can only be one of ita many legend.try anachronwns . m . · ·)
So far as Tibet 's cultural relation, with Nepal were concerned. this amall ::;
country was generally regarded as a halfway house to India, and thus there is · ·)
little specific mention of Nepal for iu own sake. From the eecond half of the · :,
eighth century onward, wheo the Tibetans began co import lnd!an Bud~hism in· :'.
earnest ,. Nepal is often mentioned as the route through which Indians and . ·i
Tibetans passed and where they quite frequently met. There is no early mention ·. ·:i
of Nepalese craftsmen, but their assistance must turely have been .called ~pon ·_: i,'.
for the conatruetion of tiettd roou,
for the carving and ornamentation of pillan .:)
and beams, for the painting of t.emple•walla and for the casting of images . The _/
Newa~ have played so importan t a part in the production of fine metal work for,).
the Tibetan market throughout the whole known historical period. that one may : ;{
•arely assume that this tradition wa• already under way in the eighth century : ln \ .
Tibetan dncriptions of the building of the gyeat monutcry of bSam -yu vanous :'i:
uylea are mentioned. namely th01e of Tibet. China, India and Li-yul. The last is·/;
u,ually underatood in this context, probably correctly, to refer to Khotan, for · ~·
the undoubted Nepalese contribution wu ptobably regarded as Indian. From ::
the very first , Buddhist temples in Tibet were built in Tibetan style so far as-:.,
the basic ,tructure ii concerned, a.s they could only be built with the normaJly '\
available Tibetan materials, Mone and earth. The lodiaru and the Nepalese _':j.
used bricks and especially wood, of which they bad plentiful supplies, while in /
Tibet wood is one of the scarcest of commodities except in the 10utbem frontier:_::,,
areas. But whcu it came to roofing and de<:Otatmg the basic strueture, then _;·,
foreign models were naturally followed. Thus a form of tien:d roof was./
introduced, surmounting at leatt the main shrine of Buddhi&t temples . In t~:·.:
seventh century tia-ed-roof buildings (often referred to u "pagodas" b( ,
Weatemera 1•) were a common feature of religious and royaJ architecture i~;-~
India, Nepal and China. Towers with projecting roofs appear quite early in:\
China , tong befor e th e introduction of Buddhism, but the tiered-roof temP,le::.
aeema also to have been a spontaneous Indian creation, passing to Nepal as part ,t
of the general cultural penetration already referred to above. 117 The Tibetan( ;,
115 This baa finally been made <:leafe-,h by JolinIt. Lodi.ein his tSi:ellm. &Ndyol the G« f '.
Bunp -dya (• .Avalokhldnr&) en tldtd ~4.)'11. Kathmandu . 1980, pp. 28lff. Ka~a-~ ::
("Fqnmod of C,ompaalon1 ii - of dlC cpithtu 0£ di£ aocl. Conctrnma tbt elltl\tial Indian badt:~,;
grouad ot the whole N'1h cult, of which M&csyendranhh is but pan, ace S. Dasgupta, Ol>u:vrc ::·
R 6lip 11u Ci.lls, appendix C. pp . Sllff •• "Aft ACQOl.ln.t of w P.-ilnctK F"ipres in the N"at~.,
LitentuTCol Bengal." Onr maynoccin paaing thac tbttlde ncith(Loni) has alto been affixed toth~ .\
great .Buddbist "llPDof Nepal , a& S.ayinnbhu -ni r.h and Bodb.·niah; these can ODt,meaa .."~f '.f
Lord " and ftl,Qrcl Buddh& (Kilyapa)." The Nith yogim presumably had • followmg '~ ::,
!.x-l1111tn1
.'.9
Nepal
IN I ha¥Ca long DOie on lh, origin of the tttm "pagoda" in my anicl c. "'Shrines md Temp~ ~r
Nepal ,'' p. 102; J b&-¥Cncxbinrcoadd to t&at ~ . • , · ·:·,
lt7 J hatt ahttdy refencd to the book by Heinrich G. Franzon this ~bieci:; see secrl.oa V.2:c·;-
Early repraentacionsIn IIU'Vl'mll - canlnp pnM ~ly ~I -mike aro.ctDffl 1Wlt~ ..
promadingroofs wett known in both India and Ch ina very early on . ~111cct~ MO$l<fflconq~t tb'. ~:-
lype of buildln, ba, diuppcartdfrom QOrtbcrn India~ forceru111- Him«layandittrlai ,{
· .1•
·.:.
IV.5.b Budd/tum it, NtJHil 5'15
would have seen them in all theae countries at least from the snenth century
onward , and their rather ttstrained use in Tibet can only have been dictated by
the limitations impo,ed in the way of building materials.
b . The La.ter Period
The term "later" in the preacnt contat means approximately from A.D . 1000
onward, corresponding more or ICN to th~ period known in Tibetan religiow
history as the "second diffusion " of Buddmsm in Tibet, alchough the corrs,
pondence i& accidental. Little as may be known of Buddhicm in Nepal during
the early period, practically nothing is known from the mid-eighth century
onward , when for a long while there is & la ck. of reliable aoun:c material. m
In so far as this book ia concerned generally with Buddhism in India up to its
eclipse in the early thirteenth century and it.a transfer to Tibet between the
eighth and the thirteenth centuries, ladt of information about Nepal during this
period from Nepalese aoun:a bas to be accepted with the same equanimity that
one hu learned to accept the absence of precise information about the pat
Buddhist monastic centel'$ of northeastern Ind ia, which .pl.aycd so large a part in
the con\len.ion of Tibet. Nepal is of special interest for its own sake, in that it has
pre served right int0 the present century the same kind of Hindu -Buddhist
culture that was typical of the whole of India before the Moelem conquests. At
the aame time its Hindu-Buddhist cultutt ha.a undergone its own curiou&
development, J'esulting in a form of cane-structured Buddhism, of which
nothing similar is known in India and which separates it entirely from the
BuddbitmofTibet. It ia convenient to date this change in the nature o£Nepa1eie
Buddhism from the reign ofKingjayauh.itimalla (1582-95), who formalized the
arrangement o! Nepak se society into a ea~ stn&cture, which inc:luded
Buddhiats as well as Hindus. This can only have be en possible if already by the
fourteenth century the rule of celibacy as a fundamental condition of being a
l\uddbist monk had largely ttased to apply . Thus many of the viharas must ha~
h«ome already what they att today, namely the joint property of the
<lescendams of the first monks who in a~ment with their fellow• had brought
wives into the community and claimed the right of residence for their progeny on
the undentanding that these offspring would take their vows u a monk in due
n,urse ,o as to maintain their right• of manbenhip of che community . A specia l
n :rcmony had to be devised for the formal renunciation of the vows of
111onkhoodwithout loeing the rights of comm11nity membersh ip.
Thia extraor dinary development lia outaide the scope of this book, bur the
1'<mditions which brought it about certainly Jie within iu purview and need to be
u·cated, if only briefly , as they link up with what tw already been written about
later Indian Buddhism in the last chapter . Nothing aimilar has occurred in any
·;::, 111d1as dw Kuka Va&y . The ltJle wrvivea in ~h laclia, e1pedally Ill Kertla . In ncnhffn lndia it
}; . wu replaced by a ~1-·bwlt tower, whichwas ako imlm.cd in Nepal. ~
{\ 1211The mOM reliable fram-k for ihil laicr pc:riodthat il is pollible to ckrilc 1' available in the
:1~:...,,.ri,_nf Luciano Pct«h, M«dieml llatory of Nt1/14l.
~::·
.:t:t..·
S76 IV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES JN INDIA AND BEYOND
other Buddhist country and it can only have been possible in Nepal because of
the ready acceptance by higher Nepalese society ol Indian caste prejudice. It
seem&to have affected only Newar society of the Nepal Valley in thi1 unusual .
manner, because only here were there Buddhist communitieJ willing to connive
at such changes. Wherever Hindu culture has penetrated into Himalayan areas,
it has brought with it a rather loose application of a caste system, but it required
just $\ICh a centraUied government as still existed in Patan in the fo1.1neenth
century to impose a rigid system on Hindll$ and Buddhists alike. The polite form
of add,eas for a monk in Indian society was a term meaning "praiseworthy"
(Sanskrit: viandya).In everyday speech this term became bande and it is in this
form that any man of religion is referred to in eighth-century Tibetan
inscriptions, once Buddhi11m became the state religion. In Nepal the pro·
nunciation was weakened still funher to bama and then to ho-re. and this is the
term by which according to Jayasthitimalla's ordinance these ba-re became the
equivalents of "Buddhist Brahman.a." They presumably accepted without demur
this ratification of their high social status. However, there may well have been ..,
some opposition to this. One can scarcely imagine all the Buddhist communities
in the Va1leybecoming noncelibate within even a single decade. It can only have ·
been a gradual process and there may well have still existed some celiba.te
communities later than the fourteenth century. Thu was no Buddhist
persecution, and monks were not being forced to many. This may explain che
curious Newar distinction betWeen btlha and bizhi. which we referred to above.
Those who refused, surdy on sound principle according to the Buddhin Vinaya;
to be drawn into a caste &ystem, would not be respected by the others who
willingly accepted the change (such ia human nature everywhtte); rather they . /,
would be treated as sticklers or fogies and their communities refened to :f
accordingly with a diminutive (i .e., belittling) form of the term v,'h.4ra, It is \,.
sigificant that the praent-day members of balus,now manied men like ~ll the ( ;
others, are still classified as brahmaearya· bhik~u (celibate monks). while che .._",
members of bd.MJare known by the lffmingly less compromising term of s4/tya; '::\
bhuc,u (Buddhist monks). 119 Except in Nepal there could be no intended · /
dutinction between thest: two terms, and although the distinction is now . :':
forgotten there, it mu.st once have been made with some such purpose as I have ....
sugge,ted. · ·
Some further clarificarion may be required as one sometimes comes upon the
term "married monks" in boob concerned with Tibelan Buddhism. Such an ·
expre&sionis quite as much a contradiction in tenns in Tibetan religious life as it: . :
is in Christianity. There are certainly Tibetan monks who give up the monastic:_\\
life and become householders, but they thereby cease to be monks and have no :/
rights in their former monastery. There are also married practitioners of :}
religion, referred to rightly or wrongly as manied lamas. A lama ("superior'') _\
who has not taken the vows of monkhood is quite frtt to marry; one who belongs :.)
, .. For this Jut piece of!nformaiion I am indebted to John Locke, Ko""'1ma,o, pp. ISff.,
he roo attempts to clarify rhcse varioos distinctions.
IV.S.b Buddhism in Ntfxll 577
to a celibate community breaks hi& vows on so doing and cannot remain within
his community. The distinctions are quite clear, whatever ab11Se$may exist in
practice . No such choices existed in early Buddhism, for if one took up Slkya•
muni's teaching seriously, one abandoned the world and became a celibate
practitioner of his doctrine. The Mahiyana, as sufficiently described in Chapter
II. allowed for the existenceof a fully committed Jay practitioner of the Buddhist
doctrine without questioning the superiority of the celibate way of life. The
followers of the tantras carried this idea even further and devised techniques of
ptychological yoga, aome of which were cl.early unsuitable for those who had
taken vows of celibacy. Thus tantric consecrations, as described in section 111.13
are applicable in their different ways to both laymen and monks. One might
become a Vajra Master (Vll]"tlcdrya) either as a layman or a monk . In either caae
this represented an acknowledged migious grade of achievement, since properly
acquired it involved both wide learning and intuitive knowledge. In India up to
the last days of Buddhism there were celibate communities of monks, who
followed the monastic rule (Vinaya) and there were lay teachers and famous
yogins who led an independent life and received pupils in their homes or
hermitages. Both kinds of Buddhist establiahmenu exiated in Nepal, but we may
reasonably assume that the monastic communities were very much smaller than
those in India. It is interesting to recall that the greatly renowned teacher AtiA
on his way from Vikramatila Monaatery in Bihar to mTho·gling in Western
Tibet spent one year in Nepal en route and founded there in 1040 the ThaJt!
Vihira (given the Sanakrit name of Vikramafila-mahavihi.ra)which may still be
viaited nowadays. 180 This might well have contained a community o£ twenty
monks or so, and this was probably quite a usual complement for a Nepaleae
vil11lra.The smallness of scale of such communities, their proximity to the towns
of which they often formed part, and the existence of small religious com-
munities gathered round a lay teacher, accepted as a vafracarya, must have
made it very difficult for such communities to survive as celibate establishments,
once the Buddhist monasterieaof northern India, which had alwayabeen their
inspiration, ceased to ex.iat. Thus the reformation that they undetwent must
have proceeded fairly rapidly throughout the thirteenth century, leaving for a
while a few communities outside the towns, who held on rather longer to the
monastic rule.
·rhe whole process was undoubtedly made easic!r by the considerable increase
in tantric teachings, especially those of the Supreme Yoga cl.ass, which reached
Nepal direct from nOl'thern India from the tenth century onward. Their
pr<:valanceia indicated not only by the Jarge numbers of manuscripts relating to
1hc:11e particular tantras which still exist in Nepal, but also by the continuing
,,dhcrenc:e to the consecrations and ceremonies centering on Heruka, Cakra·
a;u~1vara,Hevajra and Ca~q.amahlr°'a~a. who have provided much of the
1:111ll lies to the north of Thahid (in Kathfflllndu} about halfway toward i.hr pracnt Britilh
, .· t-:1111>as,oy.pn:sumably open land mAma's time. For more pr«~ information I ttfor readcn 10 a
when;
} { ,·.:,.,.,vwork(n01 yet •~n by me) by John Locke. BruldJ,m MOM.St,ncsof Nip.I. a su~, of tlu bohi&t
. . ·<;. ).·IIH.I l,j/i1sof the Kathmandu Jlalu,, Kathmandu: Sahayogi Pte$$. 1986.

378 lV: BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES IN lNDJA AND BEYOND
subject -matter of section IIl.6 .b. Since aU thae tantras are more ~ited to the
practica of a noncelibate yogin than a strict follower of the monast1c ~le , they
might seem ,o encourage, imked even to ju&tify, a change from m~nasuc to lay
life . But here again. one must note a curious situation that arO&C.I~ asclear ~m
our descriptions of consecration ceremonies that one's teach.er p«~des as ~aJrl-
carya (Vajra Master), and that in due coune die co~ated pupil ~ay h~maelf
become a teachtt and Vajrlc:lrya with a following of his own . l1 was in this way
that religiou• $Ue<:elliomexisted in India and the same normal pracric:c baa been
followed in Tibetan Buddhism to this day . While it is not difficuh to ~ndentand
how small communities of monks beame established in Nepal u an hereditary . be aeen in the next chapter their later accounts of the story of the conversion of
cute, contrary aa thit certainly is to all Buddhlst doctrine, t!
i1_rather more ·:
difficult to undentand how those that happened to be Va)J'tcuy.u at one · :r.
particular time also became a hereditary group within the general caste of ba-re.
Maybe the proceas of potential "up-gndlng" continued for a while and then w~s
finally abandoned wtder the general pressure of the whole caate system . To thll ·
day consecrations may 1till be ~ed. by a Vajradrya upon any "cute·
Buddhist" but this raises hja ttligious statua in no waywhatsoeVer . One can only
become a Vajradrya by having been born potentially as one, thanks to one's
par~nts, for only then does the consecration ceremony auromatically 11.ve the
desired e£fect. 1s1 To my knowledge the Tibetans have never con:nn~ted upon
the unusual nature of Nepalcte Buddhism . SiPce the thirteenth c~tury , w~
there was nothing more to be gained from India, they have contmued to vu1t
Nepal , but without attempting to learn anything else there. T~ have taken ~n ._:,:.
interest in the well-Jr.nownpilgrim sites, but they lftll1 to have ignored Buddhist ;.:~
practice there altogether. In the performance of many of its ~ma.ls,. esi_,ecially. ·}
consecration and homa ceremonies, Nepalese Buddhism contJouct m its own ·..:!
curious way exactly the same traditions as the Tibetans, but while the Newan:_·;
have continued to use Samkrit, the Tibetans from the very start translated ·._::
everything into their own language. During the four centuries or so ~wing w~i.ch .:_:;:
the whole Buddhist tradition was transferred to Tibet, only speoally trained ·.:.,
scholars and translators were competent in both langua~ . From the thineenth \
century onward there was no need for such competence, and as the ou~bcr, ?£_. _:
Tibetans who knew Sanaltrit diminilbcd, so any idea of a cl0te relauonahip :.:
between their ceremonies and those of their ncighbors was generally forgotten . ::-:
The one group that haa maintained a con~tion . bctwttn the two cul~utts :\
(:Onsists of those Newan who have been reetdcnt m Lhasa for long per1odl, :;:
eithtt as merchants or u craftsmen. Recoming aware of the superiority
Tibetan religious pnctice. they uted to encourage a certain amount of "fibetan .}
missionary activity in Nepal. This wu curtailed w~ the ~· d~ \ •1yles and those that developed in Tibet. As for building styles, although theTc
became ruler1 of Nepal and with the Chinese Commumst occupauon of Tibet m ~
1959 it seemed that it might come to an end altogether . However, t~nty year~}
m "Catte·81lddhila" lndlldt die N•rt and the l11J0r gN)UPI.no- u .,.dai
. who rep~nt
•f>itsdas
. ~ committed Buddhist layfolk o( earlier times. Edac:ated Ncwan today aft qlllfC awar~
of the ttTanr aaomalieaof which the, arc eh, lnheriton. See John Loc'ke, X11ruttA-,o, PP· 50-\
••••~--·~- ...~ 1!.WISP.
IV.5. b S79
later one noces the existence of flourishing Tibetan Buddhilit communities
throughout the Nepal VaUey, while Nepalese Buddhism continuea its inevitable
pr<>CCSJ of decay .
Such up-to-date rdlecdons might seem to take us well outside the intended
scope of the present book, but they have to be made in order to contra,t the
relationdtlp of Tibet with China and Central Asia on the one side and with India
and Nepal on the other . The fim remains ent irely part of the past and largely a
forgotten part . The second also belongs to the paat , but it is a put that reaches
right down to the present and is by no means forgotten by the Tibetans , As will
their country to Buddhism has b~ mongty biased on the Indian aide, simply
because this is the side that remains clearest in their memories and indeed etill
exiats for them. Finally it must be noted that while the Tibetans rem a.in indebted
to Nepal for proYidiog the main line of communication by which Indian
Buddhism reached their counuy, other Buddhist scholan are nen more
indebted to the people of this small valley for having preserved, whether as
original Indian manuacripta or a the even more numerow copiet, practically all
that bas survived anywhere of Buddhist Sambit literature . Thus most worb
quoted from Sanskritin Chapters II and III above and many more that might
have been quoted, are available to us only becawe of their aafekeeping in the
W14'4S and in the homes ofNewar Buddhist scholars, who arc happily still to be
found in Nepal.
Thus within its smaU geographical limits the Nepal Valley preeerves the most
remarkable traces of the last days of Buddhism in northern India. The large
area included nowadays in Bihar, Bengal and northern Orissa formed the
powerful kingdom of the Pila dynasty from the late eighth century through to
the twelfth, when it finally succumbed before the attacks of Moslem invadcn.
The Pala kings wett protecton of Buddhum, giving it a vigorow and extended
life in northeaslem India at a time when it &llrvivedeJ,ewhere only In Kashmir
and in a very fragile state in the far south . Pala iconography and Pila
manuacriptt provided the material substance of which Nepalese Buddhism was
formed during thOR 5an1e centuries, of which so little is known from actual
Nepalac sources . Pila styles influenced directly those that were developed in
Nepal and which have been perpetuated in imagery to this day. Moreocver our
own knowledge of later Buddhist painting sty-la in India comes from illustrated
l'rtla manuacripu that have survived in Nepal. Some fine examples of early
of;:~ Ncpalex painted scrolls ( Jla/4in Sanskrit,thcmg-lla in Tibetan) have also come ·
down to us, showing th e direct connection between lndo-Nepalcse iconographic
1m: very few tiered •roof buildings which in their present form arc earlier than the
11evcmeenth ~ntury , since the st Ncture ii a fragile one, yet they mott etttainly
: . p1irpetuatt': the earlier pattem , and standing in the main courtyard of a well-
~ }-
{ : mainta ined whara,such as the Kwibh\\·bilhl (Hiral)yavar.l}a·mab.lvihlra} in
\
:: L l'atan , one may recaJI Hsiian·tsang 's poetic description of the courtyards of
·..:'\s~ }[~:
S80 IV : BUDDHIST COMMu'N ITIF.S IN INDIA AND BEYOND

Nllandl: "Ornamental towers were nangcd like stars and decorated turttts fa«!(f:
o~ another like peaks . . . The uorys had main beams with projectiona of.
dr agon design , suppo rting beama of variegated patterns, pillara ornamented ·
with painted vermilion and carving, richly adorned balustrades , jade (colorcd)
plinth, and pain ted croa-piecee" (in IV.Lb). One .realizes how mu ch has been.:
V
lost in India, and how fona.mate we are to have a small surviving replica i11 :
Nepal.
THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
1. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

a. Th e Rulers of Tibet
Tibet enters recorded hiatory in the early seventh century as a unified
.kingdom C1!ntering on the Yarlung Valley some fifty-five miles .southeast of
Lhasa. Only later to become the capital of Tibet, Lhasa was then known as
Ra -so, meaning "enclosure " and auggeacing that it was a hunting ~serve with a
royal residence on the hill- top (later known as the Potala) looking down on the
surrounding plain . 1 How the once peny kings of Yarlung became accepted u the
nominal rulers of a united Tibet can only be a matter of speculation. Through
the historical period from the early seventh century until the mid -ninth, when all
N!al semblance of acknowledged authority disintegrated, they had to contend
with the rival ambitions of powerful clan leaders. on whose fealty to the throne
the unity of the whole country depended. f.~tt~) ..~1.!~ical gnal!!,L~
aaocia-tcd..~~ -.~~-t.~m~.&i.rJl,~. ~..,~~~-~ ..~J>.I .~i,LY~~ .(Mighty
One, Divine Son, King of Miraculous Powu) ~~-~~~
tb~!J.:.~tf~ -~g,.~ed from tht~~IU to ~-~!.!.!:tl!.!!2~iiWi
then returned to their henenl~ome_hlneana oTa;;cred cord , thus never then
lea~ng a mortal body on earth. 2Ithas bttn suggested that it was precisely this
myacical quality that led to their eventual acceptance by ocher petty rulera u the
overlOt'd of a united Tibet, but why they in particular should poesess this quality
while it was lacking in others , inevitably muat rem a in unexplained . However,
ant icipating later eventa, one may oblerve that this particular quality inter·
The main ,quatt, Patan. preted as it could then only be . namely in terms of pre -Buddhist Tibetan beliefs .
was bound to be weakened as Buddhist concepts gained a gra dual hold on the
1 The 'Deer Par k' (/d· tHl) of Ra•u ia ,nmlioned in t1M, Royal Annala in dw ~ar 710 when lh~
Chi- print- Chin ·eh'fflg (in Tihet.an: KiJJt·la"#f, bw alao n:fen-ed to by the title of K.oog·jo)
anived 1here. TI-, na- Ra·aa appean as Lba·aa (t>iviae Place) in Tr~ty toscriptlon of8l!1·3.
2 I ~alt with thJ. theme in lhiddllist Hint,0/;Jyo , pp . l28ff .; tee also H . E. Richanbon'& and my
C11lt111clllistory of Tibtll, pp. Z,f{ . and Erik Haarb . Th• Yar-lu,i Dy,aca.Jty, pp. 156·7 . Recently in a
brilliam ankle , "Saint et Divin," Profcuor R . A. Stein UJ'll'l!f that the Tibcta,n dtle '/Jh~ul i,t' Ilia
came into u,c dllring !he:shon pt'riod c,790 10 c .SSO ., die equivalent of rhe Chineae imperial title
hholy aod divine " (Wade ua111e:ripliao: Mfflf ·cAhl) and that ii ia thus app!lff to eartier Icingsreuo -
1pec1iwly. Ho-r. that lt 1hould haw been ueed •• an ~uivaleot does not mean matii carried the
IBIM meaning and the same implication, fol' Tibe,ans •• the to1Te1pondlng Chinese title carried in
Chinnr uodrntlU\ding. Tbu1 Tibetans would 111.rely unclentand 'pllrulin ha more i»ual meaning,
and so u eoda1e it with the weU-established myth of their tupreme ruler as a dlvine manifestation of
miraculous poWf:r_ Also the connttting particle g-,1requlm; an inrrrpmation of aucb a kiud.
582 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET v .1.a Politicaland Social Facturs 383

clans, and this doubtlea played a part in the eventual breakup of the Tiheta .· sorne surviving inscriptions on stoM pillars attest to the general acknowled~·
kingdom.' Looking even further ahead to the mid-seventeenth century, whe rnent of the high mystic status aas.ociated with their divine persons .& Since it was
Tibet wu finally united once more under the nominal rule of succeeding Dalai during thete historical times that the long process of the convenion of the
Lamas, one note5 that the same ancient mythology was deliberately country to Buddhism began, it will be sufficient for present purpose to refer to
reintroduced, albeit in a then acceptable Buddlwt guise. Thus the favorite . the brief line of king-a who are known with certainty to have acted u heads of
Bodhisattva of Mahaylna uadition, the compassionate Avalokitdvara who looks 51ate from the seventh century onward, and especially to those whose penonal
down from on high, is still believed by faithful Tibetans to a•ume human form; , interest in the new religion is proved by their actions. They may be listed with
in the reincarnations of this line of ruling hierarcbs. It ill perhapsnotewonhy toc1 fair certainty thus:
that this most elevated mystical respect, in which the supreme ruler was held,(:
gNam-ri srong-bnsan assassina ted 627
whether aa one of the early kings of Tibet or one of the later Dalai Lamas, baa::
Srong -brtsan sgam-po died649i50
never inhibited ambitious ministers, who could best retain power for themselves : his son having died before his father
by emuring that a1 far as poaible he should remain a minor, from despatching.: Khri Mang-srong. his grandson. followed died 676
their lord and master prematurely to his hcaffnly abode, fully aware that a vali( '. Khri 'Dus-srong died 704
replacement would be available in one of tender yean. The kings clearly had i ; Khri IDe·gtsug-brtaan(alias Mes-ag-tshoms) MSaSlinated c. 754
better chance of survival, since they could play one great clan against another,·: Khri Srong-lde-brtsan reigned until 797, died c.800
but most of them started their dangeroU$ careen very young and m01t of them : Mu-ne brtsan-po poisoned 804
died violent deaths. There is even a suggestion that in an early ~od of the : Khri IDe·•rong·brtaan (Sad-na-lega) died 81S
Tibetan confederation the supreme ruler, to whom all clans bore allegiance, wu: Khri gTsug·lde-bnsan (Ral-pa-can) assassinated c.858
expected to incur some form of sacrificial death when his eldest son reached the .; Khri 'U'i dum•brtsan (Glang-dar-ma) assassinated 842
age of thirtttn, and was formally associated with his father as acknowledg~cf , The official names of thoe king-aare for the most pan compounded of certain
heir.• Together with this, one should observe the existence of a probably quite .. recurring terms such as klari (pronounced "trhi") meaning "throne," .Trong
valid tradition of the lung's closest associates being immolated and buried :; meaning "straight,'' bnsa.n (pronounced "tsen") meaning "mighty," gtsug
together with other valued belongings in his tomb.~ Such a practice might have: : meaning "crest, .. ld, (pronounced "dey~) meaning "god." A, for the alternative
ensured the ex:stence of a small body of personal retainers who had a direct· ~ names given in brackets, in the case of Mes-ag-tshoms this appears to be a family
interest jn the survival of their lord. In historical times the kings together with .::· name and in the case of the other three simply nickna.mes. 1
certain princesses and princes of royal blood were interred in tombs. constructed :: Later Tibetan historians identified three of these kings u the main promoters
as tumuli. at a place named 'Phyong-rgya5 in the Yarlung Valley (Pl . 6Ja). and.'.'. of Buddhism, namely Srong-bnsan sgam-po (proDOunced "Song-nen gam-po"),
Khri Srong-lde-bruan (pronounced "Trhi Song·dey-tsen") and Ral -pa -can
s See 1he anicle by H . E. Richardwn, "Mm.cm of tb.! Ti~tan Kingdom," eap<'ciaUyp. l!9. This j
anidr. c:ontaina a lignifitant atttlllpt (pp . l!-15) to trace lhe hiotory of Tibetan king,Jiip bad: into ·i
(pronounced "Ral-pa-jen"), recognizing them retrospectively as incarnations of
eatlirr centuries. One may I\Ote that the editor of the journal without rdcr,encl' to che author has ~ Avaloki~tvara, Maiijuirl and Vajrapt~i, namely as "Lorda of the Three
introdu<:NI nna11thoriied phonetic:apelling, for the many Tibetan names, making the reading .'': Families" (see section Ill.I l). However, this does scam justice to Ral-pa-can's
titt,ome for aoy specialise.while helping the nonspecialiR in no way what-r. ·?. father , Sad -na-lega (pronounced "Si-na•lek"), whoee zeal for Buddhiam is
• S~ the a nick by Giuseppe Tuc:a, "'I'M Sacral Chancier of die Kings of Ancient Tibet.• ..
5 The main 1ut~I authority for lh ia i, found in the Tang Aanall whett m a p11oeral clacnpdon
amply demonstrated by early inscriptiom to which reference will be made below.
of Ti~t - read: "Prince and aubjec:tt ,wear f~ip up to a number of five or al11~no111 ~ Later Tibetan accounu, diHegarding such evidence, . seem often to have
a1 'having life in coonmon.' When thr printt die,, aD kill rhetnlelves in aurif"ice. One inten (also) hia confused him with his son. In their own rimes their Buddhist interests must
garments, !us jewel$. the horaes be hu ridden. A large rooll) ii made cowered by a 1wnulu, on which
various UNS arc planted and which becomes a pla« for sacrifi«. " ~ Paul PelJIO(, l&toir,
oncknne di, Tibet, pp. 81-2 and also p. 5. A$ ii so ofmt the ca,e in 11.KhChinese imprcuions of 6 A description of the combs cogcd,er wilh 11ew:ral is giw:n by GiuteppeTucci,
tt'!lcvant hucripcion.~
11b~, the Information may be h<:-anay, merring to an earliet period. However, Hugh Richardson 1'/u Toml,.s of tlu Tibetan Kings. Ho-wr, it i$ -ntial t~t OM reads in conjunction with this
adduces aome evidence that che W$IOID was srill practi«d as laie u the yor 800; ,ec: hi$ article, Hugh Ri<:hanbc,n'• lai,er article, "F.arly Burial Ground.a in Ti~t and Tibetan Dccorati-,e An ol the
"Early Burial Croundt .. ." (quoted in n. 6 below) , p. 85. See also Erik Haarb. op. eil. , pp. S.Sff. VUlrh and IXlh cm1um," pp . 74-92, in rhat it amends Tucci'• account in RYCral imporca111

II
We haw: translated in A Ci,lt¥ral Hillary of Trim, pp . &2-S, a dacriprion of the ri~, peT{ormed at
the tomb of Sroug,bnaan •pm ·po ex11ac1cdfrom the l,ICa'-llaoryr ul•l"#Ca, a fourtnench-cenmry .,
eompihatiun 1ts.1 drawa on m1.1ebearly rnarerial. Thett i1 no rlftd to doubt the pneral 'l'lllidityof ~ii \ ·
details. One may abo noce his versionf of w vuiow i01Crip(ionsgiwen, for which plea11erefer to the
Bibliography , The m.01t detaiJtcl dilcuaion of 1be lombs will be found in Erik Haarh. op. ,:ii .•
pp. 580ft.
7 The moa doubtful eatry in 1hr list is thar of M11-nebrtsan·po. t·or an attOUnl of lhe probl-

=~~1.,;=!if?~;..:;5r.:.-~-=~~ in-.olwed here 1tt H. £. R.icharcbon, "The Inscription at the tomb or J<,hri lde-srong-brtsan,"
pp. 56-8.
584 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
certainly have bttn known, as much by th~ who supported the new religion as
by those who opposed it, but it is dear that they continued to be regarded in :
tTaditional pre -Buddhiat term, as the Mighty One, King of Miraculous Power ·
while the entirely non-Buddhist cult of the royal tombs seems ro haeve continued ·
up to the tut days of the dynasty. Thus there is a marled difference between :
those inscriptions relating to the royal power and those which record royal ,
interest in a particular Buddhist foundation. We may take as an example the:.
inscription at the tomb of Sad -na-legs, contrasting jt with another one of ·..
specifically Buddhist intere#t which will be quoted later in its proper context (sec ·
section V.l.d):
The Mighty One, the Divine Son 'O ·lde sPu ·rgyal, from being a god in heaven
became a ruler of men. He established good religious cu&tomsand they do not
change; the influence of his mightiness never diminilhe,: hia dominion i.aever •.
on the increase and his helmet is always firm. ln accordance with this great ·•
La~ of Eternity (g Yung-drung gig T.sug·lag)the Mighty One, the Divine Son, ' i
Khn IDe-srong-bruan, waa ruler of mc:n; great was 1w might in accordance :.,
with divine custom (lha'i lugs); firm was hia word in conformity with celestial
religion (gno.m-gyi ciaos).By the grace of his profound thoughts and by the .
ordinance of his beneficent pronouncements all was weU both internally and ·
externally, and great was his dominion. So that the manner of this may be
known for ever by all men a short account is written on this stone pillar. The
Mighty One, the Divine Son, Khri IDe-srong-bruan, u an exprnaion of his
holy miraculous power (lha , 'pkrul) was profound in thought, generous ·•
beaned, finn in command, quick in apprehending and of great mental ·::
power. Hi&nature being so, he prevented unwanted actions in his governing of :'.
human beings. so that there was no internal dissemion or unhappin.e• and :'
throughout the whole of Tibet the land was prosperous and people were :'.,
happy. E&tablishing forever the dominion of his ions and gi-andaom, he made .,
ordinances relating to advice about keeping tht- people happy and to methods •·
of defence, better than anything known before, so that enemies might be kept :
in subjection, thm directing hil thought on a vast scale toward long-term . :
general good. Aa an expression of his holy miraculous power his commands ·.
held firm in the four quarters and the eight directions and great was his ·
dominion. 1
Thus is Sad-na -legii (Khri IDc-1rong-brtsan), whoee reign encouraged a
considerable increase in Buddhist interests, identified with the mythical ancestor
of the royal line, who had brought all Tibet under his sway by the exercise of his
miraculous power. A fragmentary manwcript from Tun-buang purport, to list
the maoy pettykingdoms and their rulers, noting that:
~ l'b.e text a~ translation _of this iosa-iption ~ve been p11blilhcd by Hugh Richard.on in the
~rude quoa:d m t~ prttedm3 notr ~og1:1he_r wuh a full dilaiaioo of dw pan which prcwed
mc,:OYCrabk . to ~1~h I thaD _11ltorefer 1mmc~1atdy ~low . It will alto be found in Giuaeppr Tucci,
s~~.1%.F.::'E
~~·;!:-=:":!;:E.~~~!...~
V,La Politi'<:aJ
and Sccial,FacttYls 385
F'ormerly this is how petty .kings and their ministers were to be found in their
various lands, but the King, the Mighty One and his wise rniniater, gaining
lordship over ever more people and mastery over ever more lands , subdued
them one after another with wondrous stratagems, and when they were
reduced to subjection, none of these neighbors could prevail against the
helmet of 'O-lde sPu-rgyal. Afflicted with divine afflictiom and conjured with
royal magic. thus were they coerced. 9
During the period of Sad-na-legs 's reign (804-815) the Tibe tan empire had
reached its greatest extent and was about to enter upon half a century or so of
comparative peace. In the east it included the confines of China; to the south it
claimed suzerainty over the kingdom of Nepal and may be prewmed to have
occupied the whole region up to the main Himalayan range; in the west it
reached BaltiHan and Gilgit (the Northwest Frontier Province of British Indian
days), and m the nonh it dominated the whole of the Takla Makan with the
several 0ourilhing city-states to the north and eouth of the great deaert. as
described in the previous chapter. The northeastern limits were represented by
frontier districts that w~ properly Chinae and including the imponant
Buddhist community at Tun-huang, which the Tibetans had held since 787, and
which wu to play an important part in early efforu at the conversion of Tibet. 16
However, the lower section of the iruicription at Sad-na-legs 's t0mb, which after
the first few sentenc:a has proved irrecoverable, conceives of all theae Tibetan
conquests in grandiose imperialiat terms. It refen first to China in the east. Here
the Tibetans struck terror until China ceased to vie with Tibet and agreed to
make peace. It then refers to India in the south, possibly mentioning King
Dharmapala (c. 770-810) of eastern India. In the west Ta-zig seems to have been
especially named and in the north certainly the Dru-gu (Western Turb) and
probably Khotan (Li-yul). u Although it would be satisfying to have this
particular imcription complete, the details are not of any special significance, aa
the main intention of the eulogiser was to name the most powerful neighbora in
all four directiom who all supposedly held the Tibetam in awe.
'> S«- BaCOt, Thomas and ToW11aint, Dll<'llm-.S tU Toven ,l,0114,,gre/41if.14 l'hinoiTe dv Tib<tt
(in future refenod to as DUi) , p. 80 (la,t line) to 81. Thei, traoacribed ce,ct nceda to be ,mended
slightly, vi1,, tlM,b inund of tlwb, and IIIM1'forno-r (MS 1286, platt' 555 , in Choix .t, dof'tlffl,fflts da
T0t<a11• ltoua.itg). My thank» to Hugh RlchardlOn for difflring me t""9t, detal&. ·o-liu sPu-~ ii Ilic
mythical anc:r,tor ofthe royal lint'. '0-tth (or 'Od·ldB) may be undencood as "Light Uivinc ,r Various
uentativr meaningsha,i,ebttn sugclfflt foB 1Pv-T,WU:,tt, r.g., my Bud,l/iut Hmtillaya. pp. 129,
290· l. our CiJtu-rolHuwry of Tibet, pp. 2S·6 and E. Haarh, r-.e Yar-lull I>jnasty, pp. 289ff,
10 I take the dare of 787 from P-o1ul Demitville , Le C1m.ciltt
de l.h4S4, stt esprcially pp. 176-7. The
second pan of this masterly work i1 a "C"..ommen1aircHistorique" (pp , 167 -1152),which is crammed·
'lrith invaluablr informatioo in fOOl.notcsof U111illrype, far exceedif18in <.-ontelllthe ma.in t~t.
concerning all upecta of relations bctw.:cn Chineu, and Tibeuins to ~eighth century ,
I
11 TIIN, 1111pp01itions lk,rivr from what app<'lln to be a slightly l'laboraml vniion of th,, iiitcrip·
tioo incorporaccd in tlv bKo '-lq sdt-l"{l4 and commented on by both Tuc:cl and Richardoon in
·,
·'.':!
!I · their venlo.ns of tbc inscription. Two Indian ki11g3are named as having $1Uffndcred to the Tibe<am.
namely R4-duz DluzNM ( = Dharmapala) and I>ra'v·dpu:ng,ln a pn-sonal later dated 27.1.83 Hugh
RichardlOII points out that tbc laat named may be identified with tbc R.,raJr.~a King Dhruva
(780-93). Hacapital was a1 Nisik in the 1'-0tern [)cc,can. Concerning Ta ·zig (Ta-z41g) see fodex for
rcfereocet .
386 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
The military succcucs of the Tibetans are in retrospect truly amazing. In the (
course of SOIIU! two hundred years a smaU principality ccntcred on the Yarlung '.
Valley had succeeded in uniting all its immediate neigbbors under ita sway and . ·
having subjugated those who lived further afield, the people of Zhang-zhung in :
the west and the Sum-pa in the nonh, the 'A-zha in the cast and Dv~po and :
rKong·po in the south, thu.a creating a united country more or less the ai.u or
present-day Tibet , they challenged the powerful Tang Empire with such dogged ··:;
persistence that they finally gained control of the whole Takla Makan region, ~-
meanwhile holding the Turks and the Arabs at bay on the northwesrem limits of ·.
theiT enormous empire. Their control of the Central Asian trade routea certainly
brought them material compensations, but the cost in manpower and human :
suffering must have been considerable. The problem of manpower was solved by '.:·
pressing their captured foea into military service, either as fighting troops, or in
corv~ duties . Local adminiarators were usually kept at their potu or presaed
into other special duties, having been suitably tattooed as a sign of their abject
status.•! If the Tibetans themselves ever wondered at such extraordinary military
aucceues, it would not be surJ)J'ising if they attributed it in all seriousness to the
miraculous power of the SUJ)J'emeruler who ordained all things for the best . We
may try and explain such concepu in mythological terma, but they for thcir part
had no concept of myth. Their conversion to Buddhim1, which once taken
seriously could only appear as a rejection of all they had striven for, could hardly
be expected to be easy.
b. The Cultural Effects of Territoruil &pansion
The Tibetans as we know them today certainly do not come from a single
racial atock, and the forbears of many of them in the early centuries that we are ·;
now considering were not yet Tibetan speaking. The Tibetan language as we
know it from early inscriptions and surviving manuscripts (mainly from those
fortuitously hidden away in a cave at Tun-huang) was certainly based upon the
spoken language of the people of the Yarlung Valley and neighboring princi-
palities that joined in the confederation established under gNam-ri srong-
brtsan, if not already by hia predeceuors. However, not only would there already
have been local dialectical variants, but one must also take into account the
existence of oral traditions , recited by bards, where archaic forms of
pronunciation were undoubtedly prnerved. These considerations go a long way
to explain the many irregularities of spelling in the manu1eripts of the eighth
and ninth centuries found in l'CDloteCentral Asian sites. By contrast the aeveral
atone inscriptions from the same period standing in the Yarlung Valley and the
general vicinity of Lhua show remarkable regularity in their orthography.
Those of us who are interested in the problem continue to wonder how to
interpret the well-known story of how Srong-brtaan sgam·po sent a mission,
headed by a minister named Thon-mi Sambhota, to India (usually undeTStOod
as Kashmir) in order to establish a Tibetan alphabet by the suitable adaptation
otheT details ohhcir
1% f"CII' treatment see Dcmikillc, <>f,.
cai.• pp . l 95-9n .
'V,.l.b Political and S<>cial
Fact,m S87
of an Indian script. Thon-mi Sambhota noc only perfected an alphabet which ill
JDanifestlybased upon an Indian Gupta script, but he also produced a grammar
that conaista largely of rules of spelling. This wu premmably neceasary for the
reasons given above, namely that the Tibetan language was already being
pronounced in different ways. Thu, in some ca1Csinitial and final letters were
pronounced, while in other cases they had lost their full phonetic value, very
much the kind of situation that continues to exist today. The progress made by
the Tibetana in the we of their new script would be quite as amazing as the speed
of their military conquests, if it had not been invented until the early years of
Srong-brtsan sgam·po's reign. Moreover the pre,ti~ of China already 1tood high
at the Tibetan court and the king was intent on obtaining a Chinese prince.ss as
bride. An embusy was sent to the Emperor T'ai T1ung in 684 with this specific
request. It was refused, while at the same time a Chinese bride was given to the
chief of the T'u ·yu-hun, a people who arc probably identifiable with the 'A-zha
of Tibetan accounts. In his wrath Srong-brtsan sgam·po attacked this neighbor·
ing country so vigorously, caUling IOISC8 to the Chioae who came to ha
aaaiatance, that when he next sent an embassy to make peace, T'ai-tsung readily
granted his wish and the Princess Wen-ch'eng duly reached Tibet in 641 as
Srong-bruan &gam·po's bride. She is said to have instituted some cultmal
changes, such as persuading her royal husband to wear silk brocades rather than
felt ( or woolen homc,pun) and not surprisingly she detested the Tibetan practice
of painting the face with red ocher. So the order was given that this should be
allowed no more, JITCSUmablyat the coun . As we have already noted (IV .2.d),
the people of Khotan, who did not suffer from their encroachments until 665,
still knew these particular foes as the fearful "Red Faces ." More to the point one
notes that the Chine~ connection led to an increased interest in Chine.SC
learning, amd young Tibetans of good family were sent to study at the Jmpc:rial
College. 13 Despite such culturaJ contacts there never seems to have been any
suggestion that the Tibetans might adopt the Chinese ideographic system of
writing, as t~ KOJ'eansand the Japanese had so readily done. It may be pointed
out that in their case they were generally unaware of any other choice, while the
Tibetan, had other neighbon who were already fully literate in various styles of
Gupta script. This again argues for still earlier Tibetan contacts with these
neighbon, which is only to be expected, and this r,1.ncs fwther the question
whether writing was not already being experimented with in Tibet, and Thon-
mi Sambhota's main contribution waa to bring order imo the then exining
variant styles.
A possibly related matter i.,;the Tibetan connection with Zhang-zhung, the
ancie-nt name of what is now regarded as ~stem Tibet. Until the !H'!'Ventb
century this was altogether a separate territory like the other outlying regions.
Early in Srong -brtaan ggam·po·s reign it seems to have been forced into aome
kind of allegiance to the new Tibetan kingdom , for he accepted a Zhang-zhung
u 'lncscdaails aretakffl from the T'aog Annal&;see J'elliO(,HiJlorre Ancu1tne, pp. 3-~.
 S88 V: nm CONVERSION OF TlBET
prince• as one of hia ,everal wivcs.14 Thereafter tbCTeare seven! references in
the Royal Annals to revolt, and it was not until the next century that it was
finally absorbed into "greater Tibet'' without further trouble,•~ In ~
organization of Tibet into districts and military areas which was completed after
Srong-brtsan agam-po's death under the direction of his powerfui miniater mGar
aTong,nsan Yul-zung (died 667), Zhang-zhung is not included amongst the
districts-of which there were five-but it appears in the list of military area,,
divided into Upper and Lower Zhang-zhung, thus embracing the whole of
western and northwestern Tibet presumably right up to the Kun-lun range. 1•
Whether the anc~nt kingdom of Zhang,zhung ever controlled or even lay claim
to so vast an area toward the north may be doubtful, but it would not be the
first time that impcrialist adminiatratori applied local names for administrative
purposes to wider territory than that to which they had originall}' applied. But
wherever the earlier boundaries may have been, ancient Zhang-a:hung certainly
bordered directly on northwestern India and the mountainous routes that
croaed thence into Khotan and the whole Takla Mahn area. It was inevitably
included in the military ttorganization of greater Tibet, because it was by t~
same far western routes that the Tibetam under the direction of the Gttat
Miniater mGar (named above) and thettafter his son, raided the city-states,
Kashgar, .Khotan and Kucha, between the years 660·80. 17 They thu&approached
Kashgar and Khotan by the same routes as -med by Hsilan-uang only a few
decades earlier. In the course of these campaigm the Tibetans occupied Gilgit
(Little Bolor) and Baltistan (Great Bolor). 18 In this direction no new routt!Swere
being opened and it is a fair assumption that the kingdom of Zhang-zhung had
maintained at least trading relations with their neighbon acl'ONthe mountailll
to the weat long before the Tibetans occupied their country. It can only have
been people of Zhang-zhung who provided forced labor as guide&and carriers
for the Tibetan troops when they attacked in these dirtttiom.
Zhang-zhung is of special interest in cultural mauen for two reasons, firstly
becaU1e the later followen of Bon auert that their religious teachings came from
Ta·tig to Zhang·thung and thence to the rest of Tibet, and secondly because
they claim for the country a language of ita own, from which their texta were in
l4 SttG. Tucci, "Th"WivesofSrong -bn.sanapm·po,"pp.121 •6.
•~ FOi" an attnnpt al more precillion in this mat= lff G. llray, "Nora on a Chro110logical
Problrm in 1be Old Tibeun Chronic~ ... pp. 289-99.
16 Stt G. Tucci, Pr~liminary RIIJ>on011 Two Sdmlijic uptditiot,s ill N~pol. pp. 75ff. and for
&~:;
~P,Sff.i;!i"iu~'f.~e,~~:s
_••.·:-
.
~ _-~:
11 f.'or succinct accou.nu of tlk."R Tibetan military ~eotura ar.cC. L. 8ecltwhh . "T~ Tibeun
Em~ in the West ," Tibet,m St11die,in Honaw of H"lfla Ricltardstm, pp. 50,8 and againG. lJray,
'"fhe Old T~n Sources of die Hiaooryof Central Am up 10 751 A.D.: A Su,vey," Prolegomt:N4 _tt,
::~:2=f:..~:~;d:;~ f
~~~.;;;::,;m,-.;'.
y,1.b Politicaland Socuil Factor$ $89
} due course translated into Tibetan. They suggeat in a composite literary work
~ that wa5 probably composed in the thirteenth to founeenth century that Tibet
·; under King Khri Srong-ldc-bnsan sponsored Buddhism, while Zhang-zhung was
;; ftriving to preserve Bon. which in the conflict with triumphant Buddhism went
: into general eclipee. It wu at that time that many of their bookswe~ concealed
) in order to be discovered later as the "hidden treasure" of the later Bon tradition
': from the thirteenth century on. Apan from tbe historical problem of whether
:- the final conflict between Tibet and Zhang-zhung occurred in the seventh or the
· eighth century,;~ the whole trend of the story seems very doubtful. Even allowing
: for Khri Srong-lde-brtsan 's personal interest in Buddhism, Tibet could scarcely
, yet be regarded in the second half of the eighth century as a champion of
· Buddhism. Funherrnore, such opposition as the new religion faced from the
.-, practitioners of indigenous religion, arose in Tibet itself and not in neighboring
_; lands. A main point of conflict was likely to have been the royal cult, and here
\ one gains the impression that an effon was made by th01e who directed the
affairs of state to preserve this cult intact, as witnessed by the general tone of
inscriptions at the royal tombs, while accepting the foundation of an occasional
Buddhist temple and the preaence of foreign monk-scholars, mainly from China
(especially Tun-huang after it fell into Tibetan hands), India and probably also
Nepal since it was by this route that visitor&from India normally came. Tibet's
fim monaatC!ry (bSam-yaa) was not completed until, probably, 779, and only
abou1 that time was the first formal ordination of Tibetan monks held. Even ISO,
there are reliable ae<:ounts of opposition to earlieT Buddhist ventures, especially
toward tlw: end of the nign of Khri IDe-gt,ug-brtsan (died 754) and during the
early reigning years of his succeaeor Khri Srong-lde-bruan. The opposition could
easily arise from the mere presence of these strangel'S, especially when they
arrived in large numbers and had to be maintained at public expCNC (see
section V .1.d), but it i5 also likely that the priests of the indigenous cults saw
their own position threatened, thus teeking the support of powerfu} protecton
among those clan leaders who still showed little enthusiasm for the new faith.
Little is known of indigenous religioWI practices, except for the mention of
sacrificial rites at the tombs and on the occasion of oath-taking, when prieata
were regularly required. The telling of auguries was certainly practiced and
there appean to have been a cult of local divinities. In ~n-ospect the difficulties
·'t.i · that the promoters of the new religion faced (and it is bardJy easy, if indeed even
a .\';!£ . poasible, to introduce a new religion wholesale) were attributed either to evil
ministers and to one king in particular. Glang-dar-ma, or to the local gods,
~=
_!_;,: ,_;!,..:_:_;__
:::.:___ •_·,·
doubtless referring to those who served them. In retrospect this oppoeition was
identified ra~r misleadingly with Bon. a term nner used to refer. to
I.
: pre -Buddhist Tibetan relie& in the early period when they still represented the
official religion of Tibet. They were ~nerally referred to as ch.os,the very same
· ·;-
~;~ :
term used quite understandably to translate dharma, thus later changing its
19 This problnn has been dealt with by G. Uray in bis a11icle, "No~
Probkm," altudy referred to above.
<>D a Chruoologkal
390 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
implied meaning from indigenous to (foreign) Buddhist religion. The term
occun several time• on the inscription at Sad-na·legs's tomb (quoted above) and·
thtte ia no question what it there refers to. Another intercating term occurs.;·
namely gYung-drung gi gTsug-lag, translated above as "Law of Eternity.".
gYung-drung meaning "eternity" (Sanakrit: .sanatana) normally refen to the:
svastika symbol, and as such is used by later Tibetans of all persuasiona.2e·
gTsug-lag was uaed by the early Buddhist tranalaton with the meaning o(
"sacred word" (Sanskrit: df'111)and 110 as another rather general term for .·
"religion." 21 The term &m , earlier meaning a special category of priest in the :
indigenous religion, came into u.e with a changed meaning in that uncertain:
period of the history of central Tibet (late ninth to mid-eleventh century) to·;
which we ahall refer below. It then meant what it has continued to mL'an to this.·.
day, a form of Buddhism that may fairly be regarded as heretical, in that those.
who follow it have penisted in claiming that their religion was taught not by ·..
Sakyamuni Buddha, but by gSben·rab, likewise accepted as Buddha, and that it .'~
came not from India, but from Ta-zig and by way of Zhang-zhung. Such an the ·'
Bonpos, who have man.aged to hold their own down to the present day against :
the enonnoualy more powerful representatives of orthodox Buddhlam, while
they are constantly and quite wrongly identified by other Ti~tans, as well as i
by many modern outsiders, as the penistent practitionen of pre-Buddhist i
Ti~tan religion. Historically their true origins are of considerable interest and '
immediately relevant to the early period with which we arc now concerned. ,.
Their insistence that their religion, which we now frankly refer to as Bon,
came originally from Ta-iig to Zhang-zhung, can very well be taken quite
seriously. Later they may have plagiarized Buddhist texts, inserting artificial
tides "in the language of Zhang-zhung" where the Buddhist text has a genuine
title "in the language of India," but thia was -done becau&e many of their early
traditions were indeed received through Zhang-1.hung. Nor would they have
thought of inventing arbitrarily the claim that their teachings came originally
from Ta•zig, u it is scarcely a claim to impress otMr Tibetans. and it has _:;
nothing to commend it at all except the twth. Ta-iig, like so many other
geograpbkal terms in ancient times, was rather vague in application. It refera
generally to the direction of Persia and often more specifically to the area
immediately weat of the Parnin, namely Sogdiana and Bactria. When the name
occurs, as it often docs in Tibetan inscriptions and documents of the eighth and
ninth centuries, it refen to tbe Araba, wbom the Tibetans had already
encountett.d there in the latter part of the sevent,h century. The connections that
the people of Zhang-zhung had with this area would inevitably go
back to the
pre-Muslim period, even to the latter days of the K.ushma Empire, when this
whole area still provided the main routes by which Buddhism was tTan1mitted,
llO By the Bonpos gYung-dru:ngwa, lattr used as their equivalent of Yajnr: f:.g., gYvng-dr1111g·
sem$·df1a' instt~ of rDo·rfe sl!ftu·dfla' ("' Vajraultva), in cheir plagiarizing of Buddhist
lClll$.
!l 1t occur, moac {requ.,nlly in the cmnpou11dgTs,,g·""'·~. ineaning any lw1d of religious
building. s« the MVP 9150,9157.
Pobiical and Social Fac1,m 891
as we have seen in the previous chapter, from northwest India across Central
A.sia.It ia not only conceivable, but by the nature of the cue almoat certain, that
a kJ10wledgeof Buddhism, however rudimentary. would have been transmitted
to the people of Zhang-zhung long before Buddhism was ever heard of in centraJ
Tibet. Moreover, Indian yogins, whether Buddhist or Hindu, arc very likely to
have penetrated these mountainous regions, thus laying the foundations of
contemplative life on the Indian model, much as we find it described in such an
early Bon text as "The Oral Traditions of Zhang-zhung" (Zhang-dung sn,an-
,gyud), which is certainly no later plagiarism from orthodox Buddhist sources. u
Lacking any org-,mized structure for their religion as well as wealthy patrom,
who could invite foreign scholars (a& was later the case whm Buddhism was
introduced into central Tibet), the people of Zhang-zhung would assume that
these religious beliefs and practices came from Ta-iig. They would have heard
of the great teacher who had fu,c promoted aucb doctrines and they might well
have used for him the title gShen-rab ("be.t of holy being1"). 23 Furthermore,
when later they learned more of Buddhism from other sourca, namely as trans-
mitted direct from India in the eighth century and later, remaining staunch in
·i their own already established tradition, they would quite reuonably u~ that
this same religion mwt have reached India from Ta-zig and that Sakyamuni
must be either a manifutation of gShen-rab or clae just another religioua teacher
who was paS9ing on gShen-rab's teaching in his own name (PL 67). 14Only a
theory such as this can explain the Bonpo claim that their religion comes
originally from Ta-zig via Zhang-zhung and that all Buddhist teachings,
whenever they have learned of them, are already theirs by right.
We now come to the related problem of the language of Zhang-zbung from
which their earlier teachingg have supposedly been translated into Tibetan. Here
one has to ask the queation whether it was likely that old western Tibet would
have possessed a non-Tibetan language, and if so what might it have been.
The population of pretent-day Tibet is a complCJt amalgamation of various
Asian peoples who have settled in the valleys, mainly in the south and southeast,
of this high plateau, while nomadic races have continued to occupy the lcaa
fertile uplands to the north. Thus the actual origins of the Tibetans are for the
m01t part lO&tsight of in the distant prehiatorical period.=~The Tibetan
language with its many dialecta is generaJly classed as belonging to the Tibeto·
Burman family, but little comparative study can be done sarisfactocily on this
tt Sec S~Ugrovr and Ric:banuon,A Cultuml Histor:,of Tibn, pp. 102-5.
n An alknaativt spellinggSMn-robs would mean "of the lineage of che ,rSh~n.•• Ac1:ordingto
later Bon tradition phen-nb ia ex10llcd on one occulon •• the Avior of Khri sTag,bu anya,gzip,
the grandfat~r of Srong•brtaan 1gam-po, but dwff is no auggutioft In che earlier recorda chat
&Shrn,rab wu in any way connttted wllh the cult of the Yarlcing ki~. For that rde~ncc aee G.
Uray, "Th" Narrative nf Legislation," pp. S7-8n.
2• Thi, -nee is 11otlimply speculative comment: it rcpresenlli the view adopted by J)l'e$Ctll·day
educated Bonpos, e.g .. my friend and collaboratOI' Lo-pon Tcmin Namd.ik in our wo~ Tiu Nme
Ways of Bon.
25 For a general ac:roum it is not poNible to impl'- upon cbr wccioo ~aliag with pop1da1ionin
tb,, fint chapu,r o( JI..A. Stein'• ·r;b-,,...
CirAlaation.
392 V: U-IE CONVERSION 01-· TIBET
group owing to the lack of early written records. 1.ilerary Tibetan as rccorde«(
from the eighth century onward preserves oral tradition of the earlier centuries/
but since no other language in the whole group can claim even this antiquity foi.
its Y..'Tittenword, materials for comparison arc clearly lacking.M However. it.'
would seem cenain that the various wavea of people who occupied Tibet; ;
speaking early styles of Tibetan, came from the east, pressing ever further :
westward. They c:enainly pem.'trated at an early period dttp into the Himalayan ::
Range to the south, as is proved by the survival of ancient oral traditions, nm.
: experiments in writing, based directly upon Indian models, had been tried fim
intoned largely uncomprehendingly by the pries11 of the people now usually.
referred to as Gurungs and Tamangs, who live mainly on the southern side of the.·
main range almost the whole length of pre.sent -day Nepal. v la it therefore ·
conceivable that those early Tibetan speakers did not also press westward up the::
main river valley of the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) and so reach the land of Zhang. ,:
zhung~ It is al.so significant that Tibetan dialects are still spoken far to the WNt ;{
of the boundaries of modern Tibet, not only throughout Ladakh, but also in-·
Gilgit and Baltiatan, now controlled by the Pakistan Government. The$e laar·:
extensiom are doubtless due to the later prcaure from the Tibetan side with·.
their then clearly superior culture, probably from the tenth century onward, .
when Tibetan dynasties were well established at the far western limits of ancient •
Zhang-zhung . ..
If the later Bonpos had not claimed that their "canonical" literature had been ;
originaJly tran,lated from the language of Zhang-zhung, the notion of a separate }
Zhang-thung language would probably never have been entenained. Bw }
whereas onhodox Tibetan Buddhists can easily point to the existence of the \
1nany Sanskrit versiom of texts from their canon, it is not so easy for the Bonpoa:'
to find their supposed Zhang-zhung originals. The language is found, to my ,~ . be identified wilh ancienl Mai--yw (later ccmfused with Manl(•yul ... l..adakh) referring 10 1011che m
knowledge only in titles, many of them quite artificially created, in mantru andO:;
in occasional unusual turns of phrase. I have no doubt that we are dealing with /
an old Tibetan dialect, which has borrowed a number of Indian words, either ;'
directly from their Indian neighbors in the earlier period or from Tibetan :}
tran&lations of Sanskrit works later on, where Sanksrit vocabulary, especially in?
mantras, is occaaionally retained. The problem might have been made more :°:
complicated on account of the many artificial titles, supposedly in the language :
of Zhang -:thung, of texu purloined from the Tibetan Buddhist canon. However, ·
it has been greatly eased by no less a person than the recently deceased
26 Jc is clearly impracticable ,o gi~ a complete bibliography on the ,11bject of Ti~tan lioguiitia.
One should mention the many artick• b)' R. K. Sprig that luive a~ared in tM BSOAS from the
,:ady 19:M>aonward iuul bis anicle on "Tib,,io -8\lrtn&n Liagui,tic Comparison~ in Linguistic
Comp,n;,.,,. in S.F. A.,ia a,ui tll11Pv.r.ific. The liaiest comprehenoive work is 1h.tt of Ausiin Hale ,
R•••m:k oraTi/Nto-Bi;mu,n I.anguogrs. for related language, in IM Himalayan tqiona or modtm
Nc,pal ace Kitamura, Nilhida and Nishi. Tibeto•B1Vmot1 Sli,dw 1. Within the wi.t..r field of Sino-
Tibetan languages one tnllJ DOU rlw work ol Walter Simon; for a full bibliography of his
publications Stt .Asia Major, new serit:5, X. pp. 1·8. One may mention aJso ,f Compo.-oJiv. Word·
Lisiof (Jld Burl'IUse.Cllincseo.nd Tibaa1t. by G. H. Luce.
%7 Stt. 'Bemard Pig»Me, us Gurungs , chapter XV ; also Andreas H&er , 74'7141111 Ritwd
T~xts.
Political and Social Faclo,rs 598
\!.l.b
iwenty·tbird Abbot of sMan-ri Monutery, who produced a Tibetan-Zhang-
zhung Vocabulary, recently printed in Delhi. The true nature of tbe Zhang-
ihung language is thus clearly revealed. 211There is also a Zbang-zbung alphabet,
but despite its rather unusual appearance lo anyone who is unfamiliar with the
Jndo-Tibetan ornate style of lettering known as lan·tjha. one observes that it is
odded letter by let~r upon Thon-mi Sambhota's alphabet of thirty letten.
111
This is disappointing, for it would not have been at all surprising if some
in Zhang-zhung. However, there is no proof that this was so, and the Bonpos
cle.irly adopted with alacrity the official fonn of writing and of spelling when
ihey began to put their own oral traditions together.
We have already referred above to the administrative reorganu.ation that was
initiated in Greater Tibet a few years after the death of Srong-bnsan sgam -po
when his former minister mGar had reestablished himself in power. Moreover
from the year 650 onward records were kept of the main events of each year,
such as the summer and winter residence of the king, the actions of state and
official visits of the chief miniater , notices of state gatherings, of foreign
campaigns and visits by foreign dignitaries, deaths and burial ceremonies of
members of the royal family and feudatory rulers, even notices of royal and
ministerial hunts, which were doubtless elaborate affairs , the issuing of decrees
and making of a censU5, reports of high treason, etc . That this system of yearly
recording was not begun until aome time after 650 is indicated by the existence
of an introductory r~u~ of the main event$ recalled from the previous twenty
28 Thi, it a shon wo1·kof 64 pages entitled sGra-ji ®" sd#b ~?Jang 1pol sgrorama ( Tibefan Zh•ng·
z/1~ Dictionary) . Tbr lansuag;; ii said to be th.tt of Zhang-,h,mg sMu, when, sMar i, probably 10
Tibet bordering on Dolpo but und,,ntood by 1be Boapo110 include Ii much larger a~a as in tM ~ay,
o( ancient Zhaag-zhung. This 11111all"dictionary " together with another Bonpo IINJl'k,o,111trled
mD1.0d-pltug: Ba.tie Vnn.t and ComtMf'IUL,y. attributed 10 the Sa~ Dran·pa Nam-kha' and
published by Tmzin Namdalr., ha~ led to aeveral reappraisals of 1he lhang-zhong langua!J". Stt
1'.cikH.iarh, The 1.Jtang•zhung Language; A Wmnma>' oradDicti<maryof the U,1,xpioTed lAngvag11
of the Tibetan Bonpos. This is the most substantial work on the subjec1. There is alao a sbort ankle
by Hebnut Hoffman. "Zhang-zhung: The Holy Language of the Ti~tan Bon-po." and a long weU-
mearched appraisal by R. A. Stein, ..La langoe zhang,ihung du Bon organae ." All are agreed 1hat
the languag1:must be bMicall)' Tibero-Burman. bla1we can probably be nn1 more- ~eweand call it
a dialect ofTibeun . Haarb and Hoffmann tend to acw.p1 the available v,xabu.lary for what it claim1
to be, wundy gCAuinr Zbang -ahuAg l.nguage .with Indian borrowings, whik- Stein dnwa attention to
tho-artificiality of much oft~ law Bunpo vocabulary, cre•tt.'CIIII it c~arly was mainly from Tibetan
and Sanakric in order 10 find cquiv11lenu for Bucldbilt techniu.l lt'mll and prope,-ruim°". Thr iaue
wao ~ loag ago by F. W. Thom.a, who publir.bed the iexr of a Tun -huang 1eroll in an
Wllulown language ORAS 1955. pp. 405 - lO), ldrntifying ic ea the language or Zb.ang-ihung for no
othct reasoci than the Tibeianlilr.r app,aranee o! l()C!lt' of the terms. How~. other related
'. l&l\g\lagcsmust have been in usr in 1be nonbeastern ell\remcs of the Tlbeun ffltpire and It eeenu. ro
.:· be following a .. red lv:rring" too far in ordct to su~t that thil might be a separate dialect of 1he
.;: lbang-2hung languaF, as Hdmut Hoffmann seems ro suggat in his article mentioned above. 1-k
.'.,
•unu!$ quite expliddy that aocirm Zhang-zhuns coveted ..the area now Jtyled Wesc, North and
/
No~atem Tibet including pam of the prnent Indian Himala)'I, a»cl the western disuicu or1lv:
··.·
actual kingdomof Nepal," •II controlled from itt "cenrer &nd capital" of Khyung -lung dNgul-mkhar
in the upper Sudtj Valley! On Nch a c~ry a great Zhang -ihu1111"e111pire" would then have
pr-ec:ededthe Tibetan one. Thi• is surely fanaay.
594 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
years. These records are known only from copies that were made for the Tibetan :'
administration in Tun-huang probably as late as the mid-ninth century. Also:
surviving from the same date is a copy of the "Chronicle," to which reference h.1 :
already been made, ttc0rding ancient traditions in a kind of epic ..styk which ;
relate to the early foundation of the line of Yarlung kings in earlier centuTies a4·:
well as to later evenu of the better-known historical period. The difference in<
style betwttn che curt notices in the 'Annala'' and the "epic" incerpretation o(
them which is provided by the "Chronicle" may be briefly illustrated by:·
reference to the dismissal and execution by Khri 'Dus-srong in 698 of his chi,£:.
minister mGar KbTi-'bring. This is an interesting case of a Tibetan king, who~~
nominally aasumed power as a mere child (he was probably three yean old), \
succeeding in early manhood in gaining personal control of state affairs, which\
could only be achieved by the elimination of his all-powerful mentor. He himacl(
died (possibly violently) a few years later at the early a~ of twenty-nine.
It wu the Bird Year(697): the Mighty One (bTsan-po) was residing at Bal-po)
and an embassy from Cc-dog-pan came to pay retp«U. In the winter he}
resided at the Red Crag .Estate while the Assembly (or Council) stayed at ".:' '
'On-gyi-'a-ga. Thusoneyearpaaeed. : occurred every twelve years. Once started, these Annals dearly provided a sense
It waa the Dog Year (698): in the summer the Mighty One went to the nonh '
as a diversion (for hunting). In the winter the Great Minister Khri-'bring \:
seized the Chinese General Thug-pu-shi, having invited him to Tsong-ka-che. j
cbung. That same winter, having disgraced mGar, the Mighty One went ·,'
abroad. ·,
It waathe Hog Year (699): the Mighty One was abroad in summer at::
Bri'u-tang in Bal-po. The Chinese envoy Je'u•zhang·lho came to pay his;:!
respects. In winter the Mighty One resided at Mar-ma of Dold and he sent to ':}
his right-hand man a memorial and presents. A record was made of the)
pONellions of that one (presumably mGar) who had been disgraced at the · ..
"Bird F.state" ofsGregs. ·/
With thia we may contrast the reference in the "Chronicle":
When mGar fell from favor, the Mighty One 'Dus-srong sang this song:
0 at the very beginning in the moat ancient times
AU was so well ordered beneath the zenith blue.
Upon this earthly mrface the aky did not collapee
Nor did the earth cave in.
The sun shone in the sky, the earth was nicely warm.
Our arrows att plumed with feather. How good they are to !ottl
If you let them fly. the deer lie dead.
When deer are slain, then men have food.
0 but recently the earth-bound beetle
Tried to be like a bird, tried to fly in the sky.
It hu not wingsfor such flight, and even if it had,
The zenith blue is much too high; it could not pass the clouds.
V,l.b Pblilical 4ftd Social Fact<m S95
Neither reaching the heavens nor regaining the earth,
Neither high enough nor low enough, it aervesas food for the hawk.
Jn the small land of the Little Bird, a subject hoped to be lord.
The son of mGar hoped to be lord like a frog which hope, to fly.29
We are not primarily concerned with the identification of placenaJMs and
peraonal namca, but one should note that Bal-po normally refen to Nepal,
which in these early times comprised little more than what is nowadays the
central Kathmandu (or Nepal) Valley. This small country waa certainly 1Ubject
to iu more powerful oeighbor to the north: it may seem surprising that kings of
Tibet should choose this comparatively low-lying valley (4270 feet above sea
lt'VCI)as their aummer residenc,c, but it may seem equally surpruing that they
should dect to spend the depth of winter in the bean of Tibet. so
· The Annall continue up to the year 763, using only the twelve.year cycle of
animal names to count the years. 31 Thus they served as an historical framework
for the later period, in that one could identify a panicuJar animal year in which
a well-known event occurs. Thus one could refer to the Dragon Year in which
Khri 'Du1-Srong died, distinguishing it from all the other Dragon Yean which
of historical continuity essential to any well-organut'd adminiamuion, and it was
presumably for this reason that they were copied at the various administrative
cmters, of which Tun-huang was one. sr It would seem dear that tltt' main use of
the new 1ys1emof writing, establilhed early in Srong-brtaan sgam-po's reign, was
administrative, and already by the second half of the seventh century the whole
machinery of government must have depended on the written word. The
fragmented ttmains from Tun-huang are among the earliest surviving Tibecan
literary material, but since they are abbreviated copies of repori» of yearly events
It Tran,lat~ froo, DTH, pp. 18 and 118·9: w ~no werr ttanda~ pm,iously in .4 Cuhural
Hislory ofnbtt, pp. 62-S.
,o See G. Tucci, .MBT II. pp. S4-5. wh«e he argueuuoog-ly agaiM Bal·f>o( ~ Nepal) as a toyal
r~lmce. See also Dcmitville , LA Concile de Lhasa, fn. on pp. 185-6 and pp . 200-1: here Ba.I-poii,
sugge1ted u 1h.-idcnrification for a place known a, Pa -pou in a Cbinc,c itiner-.iry of the righ,h
century. 'Wherethif pla~ is describedu ·'beyond Lha,a and 10Utho{ 1he Tlangpo Rj.,.,,.,• Aa for
other plaoea mentioned in ou, l!lloerp1 Ce,dog-pan •- lO be unidentified. Tsong-lt,a-clu•ehung
mighl be translated u Gttatn ud 1-r r-,.u. Mar-ma of Dol(d) c:ould rrf~ ro ancient M11r•
yul, which borckn upon Dolj,o to eh~ io.arh; ic c:ould •Ito be idfflrical wi1b Zha,,g•:ltt,ng JMar, which
would ha"tt ffl!br--1 thit arett. The •unan land of the little bird" m.»t be a refere~ 10 tM "Bird
Estate" (bJ14-tsol) of sGreg,, where mCu Khrl-·bnng met his end. As for pcl'S<lllalnarMS, a ,ignifi-
c:anr one is that of tbot-Khagan ot ·ron-ya-bgo, who is idmtified as a chief of the wr.stem Turks who
was then subject to the Tibetans. See G. Uray, "The Old Tibetan Sources" (already quot<!d).p. 281.
SI It was no1 until 1027 that the Cbineec ~'J'lelll of a siscy-ynr cycle, produced by combining the
five elements (canh, iron. wa~r . wood, fire) 10 chc ,_lve animak, came into Fncral uec in Tibel .
~ Claw V•I, MOnTibetan Chronology .. and Dieter Schuh, Unl.n-uclu,..,,:n n,r GeJchicht• ,l,,,
till.tischc11Kalnr.dn-reeltt&lfflg. That rhe Tibetans knewof the cxiltmce of 1uch a .,aem In China is
prO\'ed by dwir ,ac of it on t!M!Treaty Pillar of 1121/J. Sec H. E. Jl.ichanbon, "The Sino-Tibetan
Trea1ylnecripuon,"JRAS 1978. p. 146.
» See G. Uray, "L'annaliltlquc et la pratique burcaucratiqu,, au l'ibet ancien,'' for a diacuwon of
the ptU'f)(lSl!J ae-rvedby the Royal Annal$ and of lhe fonn in which they have survived.
596 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
made within a short time of their actual occurrence, they prove that the originals :::
must have been composed 1ome two centuriet earlitt than the date of the actual·:,
manuscripts (mid-ninth century), As for inscriptions carved on stone pillars, i
none ha, been found dating earlier than the reign of Khri Srong-lde-brtsan, _
although they frequently refer back to events in previous reigns. Thus their
infonn.uion and that provided by the Annals help gready in checking the later ;,
Tibetan hiatoric.s, whose Buddhist authors tended to retell events jn accordance \
with their own wuhful thinking. ·:-
c. Early Situations Leading to the Later Emergence of rNying-ma·j)as
andBonpos
In the judgement of any matter contemporary evidence has an immediate ·;
claim upon one's hearing. and in the mauei· of the conversion of Tibet to .
Buddhism the royal inscriptions and edicts of the eighth and ninth centuries/
rdating to Buddhist foundation, and early Buddhilt texts of more or lea the ·
same period, which were fortuitously preserved at Tun-huang, command
undoubted respect. From the thineeoth century onward, when the Tibctam . :
began ro get into some kind of coherent order the vast amount of religious ::·:
literature of all kinds that had accumulated from the preceding centuries, they" :
proved themselves competent hiatorians. The great scholar Bu-ston (1290-1S64) ·_·,
to whom much credit goes for the final arrangement of the Tibetan Buddhist :_:
Canon into its two parts of "tran,latcd Buddha-word" ( bKa'· gyur, pronounced '
"Kanjur") and "translated treatises" (bsTan-gyur. pronounced 'Tenjur") was
not only a voluminoua writer on doctrinal matten, but alao the author of a
history of Buddhism in India and of its introduction into Tibet. Probably the
main credit for the eatablishing of scholarly traditions goes to the leading lamu
of the Sa -skya Order, which may be dated to the foundation of their clt~f
monastery (Sa-sltya) in 1073. Throughout the twelfth and the thirteenth
centuries they systematized their received teachings, wrote works of exegesis and
produced some of the earliest historical works. Specially wonhy of mention are ·.
the "Blue Annala" (Deb-ther sngon-po), produced during the last yeaH of his life ·
by the great scholar gZhon-nu-dpal, also known as 'Gos Lo·tsa-ba (1392-1481),
Both this work and that of Bu-non arc available in English translation." These _•
historical writers made use of ah earlier work attributed to gSal·snang of sBa,
who was a minister of Khri Srong-lde-brtaan toward the end of the eighth
century, but since it ends with the visit of Atib to Tibet, who died in 1042, pan
of it at lea&tcannot possibly be earlier than this. M
It is conceived primarily as an account of the events surrounding the founda-
tion ofbSam-yas, the first Tibetan monastery , and it may have begun precisely· .
as tbia, later undergoing further legendary embellishments as well as the ':.
" See the Bibliography. ~u-ston 's account of the "fim diffusion" of Buddlu$111begii'.11in Vol. l!. ··:__
pp. 18lff. and 1bat ofgZhon-nu-dpal in Vol. I. pp. S!if!.
,. It iii thus known as Jllo-b:hed ("The sBa Ascription"); the Tibetan re><twith a reaum"of the
~-ontents was publimcd by R. A . Stein.
v.1.c Political and Social Factors 597
addition of later events . It already adopts the general tendentiou.s line of nearly
all later Tibetan historian.., who wish to aee the early stages of the conversion of
Tibet as primarily an Indian work. thus discounting as far as possible Central
Asian and Chinese influences. The writings of this later period (twelfth century
onward), which present in their own curious ways a more balanced account of
evenu, are the quaaihiatorical compilations of the rNying-ma•pas and the
Bonpos, as these both had a special interest in preserving traces of the other side
of the picture. The rNying-ma·pas represent a rather haphazard grouping of
,~ who held firm to the earlier Buddhist traditions dating from the eighth
century and continuing unrecordedly after the end of the Tibetan kingdom the
following century. They certainly found themaelvcs threatended by the
promoten of what i1 referred to in Tibetan histories as the "&econd diffusion" of
Buddhism, when undoubtedly authentic tradition, were reintroduced from
India from the end of the teruh century on the initiative of the kings of Western
Tibet and spread rapidly over the rest of the country. Finding the authenticity of
their teachings challenged by these later generations of scholars who could point
to extant Sanskrit venions direct from India and Nepal as the 11ources for their
translations, they began to dose ranks and sought their authority in the person
of Padmaaambbava, one of several Indian yogim who had visited Tibet during
the earlier period and whose name (meaning "Lotus- Born") had become
usociated with the superhuman insight and the extraordin~ry miraculoua
powers of a ''Second Buddha" (Pls. 6,, 72). Several hagiolatrous versions of his
life story were compo5ed, represcntiog him as the one true converter of Tibetans
to Buddhiun and giving by implication unquestioned authority to any teachings
promulgated in his name.~ Many texts must have survived amongst the
now .elf-styled "Old Order" (rNying-ma) but many more were composed often
from earlier fragmentary material and then conveniently. rcfound as "hidden
treasure" (gtn-ma), which had aupposedly been concealed at the time of the
persecution of Buddhism under the renegade king Glang-dar-ma. It ia not
unlikely that ancient texts of such a kind were found, but the number grew
enormously in volume from the thirteenth century onward, usually aaociated
with the name of some famous discoverer (gter-gton). One of these, O-rgyan
gling-pa, produced a work entitled the "Fivefold Set of Authoritative Scrolls"
(bKa'-thang sde-lnga), consisting _of the scrolls of "Gods and Demons," of
"Ki.ngs, •· of "Q.ueens," of "Tranalaton and Scholars," and of "Ministers. "H Some
u Entitled the Pdd,na tltallg-yig ("l.otlll Scralr"). one such exisu in F~ch 1ranslar.ion by G. C.
Touaaim. Tilis h» since been uanslaiM into F-ngU.h (-. BibliogTaphy). On theR works ~Dl!rally
1tt MIit A. M. Blon<kau. • Analysis of the Biographies of Padmu:11J1bhava According to Tibetan
Tradition: Classification of Sources,'' In Studus mH<>no117 of Hugh Richard.ion, pp. 4!'>-5!.
S6 Whctoo actually di:$co,-ettd as &ucbor nOl, thae 1exu att referred ro a& "1crolk, • since it was
kDown d1a1 &<>ml: ol tbe earlielt Tibetan liu.ruy worb, as in fact found amonp ,~ Tun-huang
colln:tioN. were, written on aaual 1crolk - oftm reu&ed Chinese ecroll1, for tht' Tib,:cana '11/ffeshort
of paper. The ecrolla of the Ki11311and of the Minillen contain SOIJlt' intuQtin!( q11asihisrorw:al
· material. The Q.utt1•· ScroU was edited and 1ra111la1edi11u, German by Berthold Laufer so,n,:
ffWnty ~n ago with die titlr lhr Roman nMr tibni$eMn Koni(!in. The central point ol thi• story
is 1!w,auempt of Khri Srong-lde-bruan'1 quttn. Ts~-spong-ma, 10 ,educe the monlMramlator
398 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
of these show a clear knowledge of quite valid ea rly traditions, as in the case of
the inacription of Sad-na-Iegs quoted above (V.i.a} or in the series of queations 5
on doctrine put by Khri Srong·lde-brtsan to Padmasambhava at the beginning ·:
of the scroll of "Translators and Scholars": what is the nature of the universe, ~
how do Buddhu of the past, pn:sent and future become man ifest, what are the :-
different ways ( yana) toward buddhahood, what is the difference betwee n siltra1 :
and tantras , what about the diffusion and the eclipse of the doctrine, what is the :
universal basis of mind and the various categories asaociated with tt? This follows ·:
the pattern of similar sets of questions , known about thanks to the survival of ·..
auch manuscripts in the Tun -huangcollections, sent by Khri Srong-lde-bruan to.·
Indian and Chinese Buddhitt &eholars (see V.2.b). Here they are all duly'
answered by Padmasambhava in generally acceptable Mahayana terms unt11 we
come 10 the last item (chapter !4 of the text) , the analysis of the universal basia·.
of mind, which is explained in terms of teaching, known as the Great Fulfillment .;
(rDzogs -chen) . Mind is primordially pure (ka-dag), becoming manifest in its ·.·.
"Glorious Body" (sambhoga-kdya) as light of five colors, embod ied as the:
fivefold Buddha manifestation. subsumed aa the Supreme Buddha Sam anta . ::
bhadra. Recognized as such, it is perfect enlightenment and the great fulfill· :'
ment . Unrecognized for what it euentially is, it appean to erring beings as the.:
condition of the Five Evils, which maintain the eternal revolutions of pheno- '
menal existence (SaJlllara) . Essentially it transcends aU concepiion of nirvil].a .
and aa~slra; in it nothing arises and nothing is brought to rest; it transcends aJl ·.
conceptli of subject and object; there is no such thing as Buddha and no such_·.
thing as living being; there ii nothing definable wbauoever, but if one must }
defme it momentarily in words, then it is the pure essence which is realized ' ;
apontaneoualy in its own aelf •nature.'7 I would understand this as a perfectly·) '
legitimate development of the theories of the Mind Only school. but despite the ::.
\lie of negative terms, the later Tibetan phil01ophlcaJ achoola regarded 1uch.:.
teachings as heretical in that they appear to assert the existence of a real i.
transcendent absolute, thus conflicting with the more negative interpn:tations of : '
Madhyamaka dialectics, which came into vogue with the se<.'(Jnd diffusion of ···
8uddhiat teachings in Tibet. Here we cenainly have interpretations of the final :·.
truth of Buddhism, which were being taught in T ibet in the eighth and ninth :::
centuries, cast in the form of questiom and answers tha t were also in general me ,·
in that ea rly period. -:,
Although the lacer fol1owers of the Old Order accept the Tibetan Buddhist· {
Canon, as o:imposcd in the fourteenth Cflltury of worb tran slated mainly from. '
Sanskrit, the authenticity of which could be proved, they have preserved their :
own set of tantras, which clearly go back to the earlier period and of which'\
Vairocana . The Scroll of Cod a and Demons has bc:enaruilyzed very "-di indeed by Mlle A.-M .. '..
8londea11 in a long article, "Le lha -'d~ bka'-tba,\ ,u in £1.ths tilHuii,us didiies ii I• ·11Nmoir1·d, :.
Marcell • l..aloa, pp. 1-123.
S? Tibetan: d, Uar m«l ,po'i M:,m& ·/JOr. I rultie Uiti«-KiJgl#.n bah._ I ngc,-bo ft'Jid ni ""·'°l·i-
la I r,a,eg-bzltm,iyid-d,. /Jtun-grub•bo /(fo. 72!.).
V.J.c Polilial a,i,d Soci,d Factor., 399
Sanskrit originals could not always be produced .58 We shall refer to these again
below (V.2.c), but in the meantime it ia important to obterve that while there
can have been no actual break in transmission between the so-called fint and
second diffusions of Buddhism in Tibet, there was no longer any controlling
authority in the form of known aristocratic patrons or yet of any self-coostituted
religious order. Aa we hav e observed, the proper tranamiaaion of re ligious
teachings from master to pupil as a regulated system was regarded as essential
for the validity of any Buddhist teachings that one held, and where this could
not be shown the teachingJ were called into question. Extraordinary inventive·
ness was shown in the creation of such spiritual successions and in this tt6pect
full credit must he given to the later Bonpos for the thoroughness with which
they set to work.
J111t as tboee who tried to remain faithful to forms of Buddhism transmitted in
Tibet in the earlier period from the eighth century onward found themselves
darcaWlCd by the rep resentatives of the so-called ,econd diffusion . so the still
earlier "men of religion" found themselves threatened already in the eighth
century. when Buddhist teachers were invited from India and the whole buia for
the earlier beliefs and traditions began to be undermined. As the follow ers of the
older Buddhist tradition, made common cauac and established themselves
eventually as the rNying-ma ("Old") Order, so the still earlier representatives of
religion , who were not convened to ,he new ways. banded together as followers
of Bon, an old term coined with a MW meaning , which wu from now on
adopted as distinct from Chos, recently u~d to translate Dharma , and began to
sort out their various branches and lineages. TI1e branches (for which they used,
significantly , the newly coined Tibetan term theg-pa in the sense of Sanskrit
ydfta, meaning "way" or "vehicle") came to be arranged as nine, since the
rNying-ma-pas used the same number , presumably suggested by multiplying
three (the number of Indian Buddhiat ,anas) again by three . An earlier
arran~ment of these Tibe tan religious beliefs and practices seems to have
exia«ed with the name of "four ponals and the trcaaw-y as fifth" (sgo bzhi mtbod
nga). comprising (i) the higher teaching of sages who withdraw from the world,
(ii) monastic life , (iii) tanuic ritual bued upon textual tr~ditiom , and (iv) rites
for placating and subduing local d ivinities of all kinda, as well as the spirits of the
dead, with sacrifices and ranaom·Qf[erings . st There are thus strong indications
,. The term "authentic " ii inevitabl y "'" in a father relativt' -. ., ttlati~ to what c~ India
vi.2.
te&e:l'M!nof n~an ~- after tnath reglllded u authentic io the la.a ~ o6 Indian Bt1ddhiam
(tfllth to twelftb centu~). There are many .Buddhurs scill, who refuse to accept Mahayana de~lop·
ments as authentic, and likewise rnaoy followcn ol the Mahayana who att loam to accept certa in
iantras as genuine Buddha -Word. Ooe :ma.ynote that educared Bonpos uaei this as an argv.mfflt
against their fellow Tibetan Bllddhisu. Precisely what is the authentic Buddha-Wonl1
'8 The elaboration of all thi4 early mamial can best be iUutrated by refettnce 10 Samten C .
l.armay'• admuabl e woTlt, Tiu Tre<uvry of GolHI Sa1ffl&S, ,f Tibeton Hi#ory of Bon. Thie ia an
edition and uanibtion of pan u( the work o{ a N!ffl&rub~ Bon tchol ar, bKra-ahi• rCyal- m!Shan
(dic-d1956), who amaaaed hill mat~ rialaf rom tom e of1be rarliest knoWJ>B011potou.-ca. For a 1-t of
•hat •u lUttly a ....,mary of pre-Buddhist indigenous Tibetan religion. tee p. SI . The a,a~lll wa.
all lau,rlndudedin the fintthttt"w a,- " of Bon, 1ttmyedition , Th. NiM Woy of Bo,,.. pp. !4·11&.
400 V: 'THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
that Buddhism, a5 we have already described it in the previous chapter, was
familiar to the Tibetans in its Central Asian forms before the seventh century, ·:
and it is not unlikely that Buddhist teachers were known in Tibet long before the :
Tiooan royal family began lO take an interest in them. The area in which the :_
later Bonpos place their teachings coven precisely the regions that we have been>
dealing with, namely Ta-zig (U&ually wriuen aa sTag-gzig), "' Tho-gar -~
(Tocharistan, rather vague in area but cenainly C~tral Asian), Gilgi~ ~
(Btll ·zha), China. and with frequent mention of such people as the Sumpa, the i
'A-zba and the Mi-nyag. Their inaistence that their teachings came from the ··
direction of Ta-zig is surely explained by the fact that Buddhism, as well as other.
religions, not.ably Manicheism and Chratianity, came from the •ame direction."
Such belie&, instilled over the course of perhaps two or more centuries, would ..
not have been euily changed, when Buddhist teachers began to arrive in Tibet \,
direct from India in the eighth century. The first obvious deduction was that ) f.
the1e teachings, for they were immediately rccogniz.ed u similar, muat ha~ {;
reached India also from the direction of Ta-zig. In order to justify this position it ·i
was eucntial to cscabliah lines of transmi111ion, as it was on this basis that \
authenticity was asserted by all who followed the new (Buddhist) teachings. For }
all the indigenous religious rites, the validity of which they had never denied, ·::
this was unnece&1ary,a, it seemed to be expected only where the transmission of· ;
literary works was also involved . It is interesting to note that they therefore · ',
eatabluhed lineagea for three daues of re1igiow life, monastic di.cipline, tantric.
teachings and the way of Great Fulfillment (rDzog5-chen), the very forms of.
Buddhwn which were being offered to the people of Tibet in the eighth century ::.
from the Chinese and Central Asian $Ide aa wclJas from the Indian. •2 In drawing \
iO The earlier spelling, u aueatcd on inKripdons. is certainly Ta,zhig, which repre1ents qui~ ':° '.'
adequately in Tibe(an ac:riJ>r. the pronunciation of the n;ame as it would have been ~m by them. ·:
Occurring as TalWICaa in tbe USSR. the n- h:as acarcdy changed through the centuriC'.S,::
although tbt arn of ii> applicatioa may baw varied. The spelling sTGg·lfOK as adopted by the · :.
llonpoo, conaisting of the two Tibetan words for H1igu" (Ila«, pronounced "ta") ,.ru:1"leopard" (grif, :
pro-need "a~) is entirely artwcial, and suggt'.SU a naive effort at producing a atraJll!I! t,peUing·
with a •upf'Oll'!daura tofa1iquity. On d.., ~ually nalve dalm of thr Bonpo,1t<>hlM.' produ~ tht
Tibetan alphabet, aee S. G. Kannay. op. cil .• pp. 28,SO. One ni.y f'111dhere allo the su~ion ~ mainly of• few European ocholarJ, slace rhe l111tCffltury- we may at firat wonder at the ignorance of
&~ was adopttd as ~ name of their aU-embrac:ing rellgioo became of its close -blantt to &4.
meaning '"['i~t." lt is nottwonhy how .readily they ~pted the tenn chos in its new meaning ol .
Buddhist religion, although it. was still used on royal lnacriprions in t~ ~gbtb and ninr:h ccnturia : i
<."karlyrefening 10 pn-Buddhist Ti~tan religion. · :·..
ii No niden~ ii available 10 dare to su~t that Bon ha b«-11 influen«ed by Manichei11111 and ::
Chriatianiry except in 10 far as Buddhi•t imdiutioo, in Cenual Asia may already have hem
influe:nc:cd. Rcligiou, d,_ and mUNC ba.., been affected by influencft fl'Olfl d1e -t. Cenain
Tibetan Buddhnt Cffl!lnonietl tuch u tht "l,i~ Con,ecratlon"' (blle-dbartg), where CODAeCraffll
specio!s(sm.all peUea of routed barley flour and tips of alcohol) are dlttributed to the congregation so
mnfortt their "life,fortt" (l>la), suggat a non-Buddhist origin, but teimw evidence af any aidi ·_,.:_
connection Is unlikely to ~ found. A m:cnt ankle by G. Uray. "Ti~'s connection, with Nest.0rian- ·c:
ism and Mankheism in the eighth to 1cntb oenturics." dni• attention to the paucity of clear litttary \
evidence.
4t Concerning theae lineaga aee S. G. Karmay. t>P · cit.• pp. Soff. Similar material Wlll be found iD
Sowca for a llistory of &rt, compiled and edited (Tibetan 1uo only) by Tcuzin Namdak, f05.
114-140 and 186-2'7. Havingworled on rhae u:xg, I wonderiftlwy an:wonh publishing except fat
V,1.<. Politicaland SocialFactors 401
up their lineages in support of their main thesis of the or1g10 of all these
teachings, the future Bonpos drew upon Central Alian traditions, elaborated in
the legendary manner that few of their fellow-countrymen would have found at
all strange. Thus in order to assen the priority of their teachings, they placed the
lifeof gShen-rab in the very remote past and they bad no hesitation of according
lives of considerable length to many of their teachers of the pait. In some cases
they may e~n have been deliberately outdoing the Buddhisu who claimed
unusually long lives for the earlier Great Adepts (mahfwddhas) of Indian
tradition . The whole range of pre-Buddhist practiefl wu claimed by them u well
as all that had been learned of Buddhism from West and Central Asian sources.
The claim to the Buddhist part of their heritage has never been generally
acknowledged by others, and thus they have been misleadingly regarded as t.he
repn:sentatives of pre-Buddhist Tibetan religion only, although the tenn Bon
was in fact not generally in uae in the early period with the meaning of
indigenous Tibetan religion. •5 lt simply referred to a type of priest. One needs to
bear in mind that in the time of the "religiou.s kings" (in actuality: Khri Srong-
lde-brtsan, Sad-na-legs and Ral-pa-can) of the eighth and ninth centuries, the
vast majority of Tibetans continued to follow the cuatoms of their ancestors,
namely ptt-Buddhist practitts. As already observed the entirely non-Buddhist
royal cult continued to be centered on the tombs of the kings well into the ninth
crntury, whether these same king. took any great interest in Buddhism or not. In
their midst there were a minority of convinced religious practitioners, namely
indigenous priests who remained in constant demand, indigenous providers of
perhaps only partly understood Buddhist teachings, Indian and Nepare&e
teachers who claimed to teach orthodox Buddhism based on reliable Indian
sources, Indian yogins who were nansmitting Buddhist tantric tradition, usually
orally, and monks and religious teachers of Central Asian and Chinese origin,
who were transmitting Buddhist teachings that were strongly influenced by the
tbc:ir linguiatic imernt. Tb~ wb.talM:C i, alrca<ly c:omainNl ---more briefly - · in S. G. Karmay's
puhllcaLion. With 011r now superior knowledge of the,~ place of origin o( Buddlliam and 1hr
gmttal cli=tiom of iu diffwion -..,a knowledge that baa only bc,en acquifed, 1hanb m the labora
ocher&can~ming the orig!N ol the religioo they profess, but in the apecial conditions or Central
Asia, wherese,,eral dlffacnt religious aad culw.ral ttaditioos were all pa&Singfrom West t0 East. the
general ~F" of me &npog of the western origin ol t:hrir amalgama1ed ~achings docs n«
seem scuurpr1S1n,r. ·
15 The equating of pre-Buddhis< 'fiberan practices with the religion lam· known as Bun has led to
~bsunt nmundcmaadings . Stt for example Hdmlll Hoffmann, Tli« Religio,asof TifH:I, pp. 711·4:"h
"clear ft'Qffl1beir characieristia and tbeir c:lothingthai lhe Bon-po -re typical .Shamani,,r,, Heoc.e,
f':"'~animal sai:rifl<U were l'orbidden lei tbem, and (hey had r:oIlle tubatituttt in plar,e of animal
VICtt_-, 811t, aa we have already IHtt in our fine eh.apter, It was not poaible to eii:tirpate animal
1acrifice1 al1ogether. The Ban,po- ·ridlng on oxen and donlceye- wer.ebantlhed to banen lands
•~ng the _fn>lltiers or Tibet. and this was unporrant as having a great inf!Ut':n<.-e on aubsequent
teliglous h11tory.becauae ew.n down to the p-t day the 8on religion hn maintained itself in d~
northern and e-ttn frontier disrricu. where it s<ilJbas $df-sufficienr communities with numerous
l'IIOIWttrici." This book was originally published (in Gcnnan) in 19&6before anything reliablt was
kac1111n about the actual nature of Boo religion, as still pncticed, A more~ rea&0n for the
flourishing ofBonpo manasccriel in eaaem Tibet until the mid·twm~th ct,mury is gi-.en oo p . 473.
402 V: THE CONVERSION OF 11BET
Jong roundabout route they had followed and especially perhaps by Chinese :
Buddhism, which had already developed a flavor of it& own. No contemporary
description. even if it existed, couJd be expected to keep track of all these va · ·
trends, and all the subsequent accounts, produced only when the generaf;
situation seemed to have clarified 10mewhat, are liable to deacribe events frorni
the inevitably bwed viewpoint oflater established traditions. In this respect t~\
lea coherent accounts u preserved by the later rNying,ma and Bon compilers of-
supposedly ancient traditions, give a truer impression of that earlier period than i
the more simplified version, which camt- to be generally accepted by Tibetan ·:
historical writers, of the MW schools, eatablished as pan of the second diffusion;
of Buddhism , when the whole bias waa in favor of teachings imported direc(
from India.
Thus the "Fivefold Set of Scrolls" (bKa'·thang sde-lnga) in their references ti
Bon give a more accurate impression of the earlier situation just becauseof thei(
apparent incoherences. Likewise the legendary biographies of Padmasambhava/
while oversimplifying ( and thu&falaifying) the various religious trends exi11tingin '
the earlier period, in that far too much is ascribed to the person of their ;:
panicular religious hero. neverthele,s p~ aUUlion1 to real situation, o(
which scarcely a trace is found in the later more onhodox accounts. 44 This is wlf
illuastrated by a paaaage from the Padma thang-yig:
Then the King of Tibet (Khri Srong-lde-brtsan) thought to hinuelf:
"I have wanted to establish these Tibetan lands in religion ( chos)
And much has been achieved in the way of images and templn.
But as for obtaining scripture! and translators of religious works,
Although I have found them and sent the wise and intelligent ones to
India where they find excellent scriptures,
The ministers who are well disposed to Bon are jealous of this religion.
They refuse it their approval and so I have had to dismiss it.
Whether one may consider Bon religion or not, I have thought that it
should be translated.
I have summoned a sagt' (gShen-bon) from the land of Zhang-z:hung.
and 10 put Thang-nag bon-po with the Sage Sha-ri dBu-chen.
They have translated the four-volume Klu· 'bum in tilt' A valokitdvara
Temple.
So now it is said that I am propagating Bon teachings.
It is said that my tomb should be built at Mu-ri ofDon-mkhar
4i Here honorablr. snention m- be made of an early work of Helmut Hofl'inaM. QJ,.llffl ,u,;·:i
Gucltichl, d,r tibni#kr,. Bo~·Rf•lfltO". This cooailu larply of u,racu from Buddhilt wori:ai
mcrrlng IOBoo, carefully l!di1Nl and 1ral!llau•d. I draw upon 1111nhstatingly for ptttent puTf)OleS.
:/..
The praent e,mact will be found in ~rman translatiOll on pp. !59-60 (slightly amended itt my: ·
wnlon) lltld the Tibetan tat oo p. S56. One may no~ in agreement with the author that iuch ·..
rden-ntts to Bon in Buddhist 1ats corrupond 10 the references w betttical ,,icws in onoodox .:·
Christian works, where fair rttatmml of the opponent is hardly to be el!p«ted. The fint chapter of:.:
Helmu1 Hoffmano.'s book ab<>provide an admirable swwy of prc-Buddhbt Tibetan religion. I oalj.:
quation whether this may be correctly refei-red to as "old Bon religion" in any valid biitorica\
SC-.
v.1.c Pola~ica/and. Social Factrws
since such tombs are a Bon custom,
So I have ordered my Bon ministers to build this tomb.
It is said that I should build a stupa on the hill (named) Crnt-noae,
since ,uch atlipas att a religious custom,
So I have ordered my religious ministers to build one."
The ambivalence of the king's attitude, which is so clearly expreased here, is
confirmed by the different content of the inscriptions, whether relating to a
Buddhist establishment or to his personal position as ruler of Tibet. Thu is
deliberately obscured in the later orthodox accounts. Nor wouJd they ever admit
that he may have sponsored translations of Bon texts. Here we return to the
problem of the R<itureof the Zhang-zhung language and the pouible existence of
a fonn of writing in Tibet before the seventh century. This last must remain an
open question until other evidence becomes available. ln the circumstances
under immediate consideration it is pouible that the text referred to here, as
well as othen. had been wricten in Zhang-ihung dialect, using the new Tibetan
,cript, in the seventh century. and was then "translated" into central Tibetan
style (viz., the approved S}'ltematized form of spelling) in the following century.
A, for the actual work named, the Klu· 'bum or "Hundred Thousand Snake·
Divinities," whkh is known from editions already published in Germany at the
end of the lut century, 6 it ia clear that it is pervaded by Buddhist thought and
Buddhist terminology, just as the present writer would expect, if Bon was indeed
from its inception a composite religioua de~lopment, drawing heavily on
Buddhist sources before any central interest was taken in the new religion.
Otht'rs have cxpre$$Cd disappointment that Bon literature does not dearly
repreaent pre-Buddhist religion in Tibet. tt Tht're is something contradictory in
this view; the earliest self-declared Bon literature proves to be exactly what
preeent-day Bonpos say it is, namely a form of Buddhism, however heterodox we
may judge it. 47 It is manifestly not what its later Buddhist opponents, who have
tcldom taken the trouble to study Bon literature, have often taken it for, namely
the old indigenous religion of Tibet, against which the new religion had to
struggle. How should we feel disappointed, when we di8cover that there is indeed
a large measure of truth in what tilt' Bonpos themselves have always claimed?
That they seemingly plagiarized Buddhist literature throughout subsequent
cenruriea in no way detracts from their wdl -substantiated claim that Bon was a
e A. Schie!nu. Das Weis.TeNaga·H1.md.erttllUJffld, and 8. Laufer, Klu-'l>timbsdu.<·pa'imyiy;-
f,o, an inaugural dis&crration given at Leipzig Uuiwnity(Berlin , 18J7). Sec also Mm:elle Lalou . "Le
culte des nip, H
"Scce.g .• Helmut Hoffmann. TluR•Ji«iimlofTibll, pp . l5•ltl,
47 The J)ffllffl!nt 111cof the term Bon 10 ~&:r 10 all ~-Biaddhist Tibetan rites maua a atft"'mmt
111cbII thia difficult to formulate. S.e e.g .. the excellent anicle by R.. A. Stein. "Du r&:it au rituel
dam Jes fflllnuscriu d~taios de Touen-houang, " In ttvdes tf/Htai1l8s , pp. 479-547. In bis first
~e~ the- aud,or states that the ritualt he is about 10 analyzc bc:long Indisputably 10 Bonpo
religion and be la clnrly using the term hett in the sense later given ro it by TilH:tan Buddhieu. One
mutt repeat: the activities of />onand gslun as f1mctionaries of early Tibetan religion i& one thing: a
l:Onstiuued Boo religion is anodicr .
 404 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
form of Buddhism from the start.•• In their view this would give them a natural'
right to claim all Buddhist literature , from whichever direction it might come)
as rightfully theirs. Such a clarification of the early nature of Bon leada at onct·
to a better understanding of the ttry confusing religious situation that existed
Tibet during the eighth and ninth centuries, not to mention the following one~
of which so much less can be known. To begin with, the close relationship kn
to exist between Bonpos and rNying-ma-pas (as they were both called only later ...
become, much easier to understand. Both gave a ready acceptance to Buddhist-'._:
teaching, received from the Central Asian side, thus finding themselves in)
opposition to what may be described as the "Indian Pany.''
They differ from more onhodox Buddhists in thdr joint p061ieaion of the:'
teachings .known u tbe Great Fulfillment (Tlkogs-chen), in their separa~/
po~ion of groups of tantras that were excluded from the later Tibetan;,
Buddhist Canon, and in their tardy devrlopment of monastic orders, both\
preserving a long tradition of noncelibate rdigious practice. This Jast is found i~:',
other Tibetan religious orders, except for the aelf-proclairned "reformed'' ones/
the bKa'-gdams-pa (pronounced "Ka-dam-pa") and the Jater dGe-lug$·J>o}
("Ce-luk-pa"), so one should not draw too clear a di1tinct.ion in this la,t case. It
perhaps an accidental difference in the sense that monastic life for actual.'
Tibetan communities was a delicate creation of the late eighth cemury, relying>
on the financial support of the state, and it must have come to an early end with:·;
the reported persecution of the new religion foJlowing upon the murder of the::',
oven:ealous Buddhitt king Ral-pa-can, c.858. It waa du1·ing the immediately-:
following period, before other powerful protectors had appeared on the scene/_
(late tenth century onward), that the religious enthueiaat1, later known as: :
Bonpos and rNying-ma-pas, must have continued the elaboration of their J:
various teachings, free of any kind of centralizing control, thus lacking the :·
support that was always needed for building temples and monuteries, and abo'.·,
lacking the scholarly guidance that $UCh institutions usually em:ouragcd. We: ·
have to enviaage them working with the same kinds of religious materials;:.,.
primarily interested in the "higher" religious teachings of Buddhism but also
aware of the existence of the "lower'' practic~ a11110Ciatrd with the cult of l«al ·
divinities and the whole range of popular religion, astrology, soothsaying, .' ..
medical work, whether by uae of actual remedies or the placating of offended ..'
gods and demons, rites of prosperity and harmful rites directed against others . .··.
We may deduce from their later separation into the general categories of .'
rNying-ma and Bon that they differed in their manner of acceptan~ of aU these .:~
1eachings and practices. The later rNying-ma,pa, were thole who tried to hold ·::
firm to some of the more schoJarly traditions established in the eighth and early '.'
ninth centuries. They accepted the Indian Buddhist tradition as primary while ':
not denying their Central Asian connections. They knew that clear distinctions )
ta T~ claint cannot be !!llplicit in a hinorinl .w~. sinc:e I My were unawart> of tilt real sourct>of./
Buddhism a, - now know ii. It is IMrrly 1alr.cnfor granted in their cult of gShen•rab u Buddha ·
(Sangs·rgya.,) and in thtir belid in prl:VlousBuddha& and variOU$Buddha-manifnuuions.
PQl:itical
and Social Faclors 405
v.t.c
must be! made between Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs and practices and
thu• that indigenous Tibetan divinities could only he accepted on the theory of
,heir conversion to the new religion, which they were bound under oath to
i.; prou:ct, So chey came to establish themselves a, genuine Tibetan Buddhists,
adapting the new religion to the needa of their own country in much the same
way that all religion has to be adapted, if it is to pTOveacceptable. The Bonp06,
on the other hand, were t~ who refused to accept the Indian tradition as
primary, persisting in the view that their religion already existed in Tibet before
Indian teachers arrived there under royal command in the eighth century. They
:i had never made a clear distinction between indigenous Tibetan religion and
what they had earlier learned about Buddhilm, of which they had cenainly
learned a great deal more since the time of Khri Srong-lde-brtaan. Thus they
included various grades of indigenous n:ligious practice in the arrangement of
their teaching, int0 their Nine Ways. Their three lower ways are those of sooth·
saying, exorcism of minor divinities, coercion of powerful divinicie1, while the
three lower ways of the rNying-ma-pa are the traditional Buddhist ones of the
Early Disciple (havaka), the Lone Buddha (pratyekabuddha) and the Bodhi-
is> sattva. Above thete the rNying-ma-pas have aix grades of tantric practice, of
which the last is atiyoga ("supreme yoga"), identical with the Great Fulfillment.
As their aix higher grades, the Bonpos have three of a lower Buddhist order,
namely after-death rites for the emuring of satisfactory rebinh (entirely
Buddhist in impiralion), the way of the lay devotee, the way of celibate monk-
hood, followed by three higher Buddhist orders, which correspond generally to
the distinctions later made between Yoga Tantras and Supreme Yoga Tantras,
and fmally the Great Fulfillment (rDzogs-chm). As we shall observe, there is
much artificiality in the arrangement of tantras in the later groupin8$ and many
do not fit where they are supposed to belong (see section V.2.c). The division of
tantras into six da&leS, thus making an overall total of Nine Ways, appears
therefore aa a device to achieve that particular total, once the rNying-ma·pas
had accepted the three traditional "lower" groups as already adopted in the
< Indian tantric tradition. On the other hand the Bon po set of nine is a reaaonably
coherent arrangement of their accepted religious practice, and what is perhaps
more interesting to note, adapted emirely to Tibetan religiou, interest&. The
concepts of F.arly Disciples and Lone Buddhaa belong to Indian Buddhism,
while the higher stage of a Bodhisattva's career had already been absorbed in
India into the general monastic tradition and waa thus received in Tibet as an
essential Mahlyllna doctrine. There were no acknowledged followers of the
Hinayina in Tibet. T~re were certainly lay devotees and monastic communities
were surely known of, even if none existed in the "dark period" of ninth· to
tenth-century Tibet. After-death rites continue to play a very i.mponant part in
Tibetan Buddhism, and the division of the tantras into two general categories,
those cemering on the gentler aspecu ofbuddhahood, as in most Yoga Tantras
and those centering on the horrific divinities of tantric yogins, is a feasible one.
The Bonp06 were well aware of the dose relationship in content between this last
406 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET V.J.c Politicaland Social Factors 407

class of tantras, introduced into their set of nine. probably by analogy with: GRADES OF BUDDHIST PRACTICE
known Indian tanmu; of such a kind , and their own third way of the coercion or:'
powerful divinities. This kind of duplication aeems to be the only incoherence in: Jndia
The /7140-Tibetatt T-ra4ilitm J'lu HeteroM:c 1'ib<ttan TrtUiilitm (Bon)
l. Phyva-~ thq·pa (Way of Pmliaion)
their set. The period of its formulation must remain quite uncenain. It wa.so; 2. aNang -gshm th~·pa (Way of Exorci,m}
l. STivaka,yina (Early Di.sciples)
certainly weJI established by the fourteenth century, but it iJ doubtless .: 2. Pratyebbuddti.-yana (Lone Buddh~) S. 'Phrul-gsheo tbeg·pa(WayofCoercion)
considerably earlier than this. It is known not only to the Bonpos themselves, but:· 4 . Srid-gshen thcg·pa (Way of the BG1'-do)
Til>rllln T-radilion rNying·ma 1'raditiort
al50 to the rNying-ma-pas as it ii dacribed in the twenty•sttond chapter of the '. (from su:ond diffuaion)
Ministers' Scroll (Blon-po'i blta'·thang-yig)." As mentioned above, this_: Bucihisattn-yina .... .. S. Bodhi&anva-yina 5. dC~gsh~ thcg-pa ( Layman's way)
composite work contains much earlier material, and thia particular chapter on.; Kriya-yoga ........ .. . f. Kriyayoga
6. Drang-irong cbcg-pa (Monk', way)
the Bonpos is manifestly an older Bonpo summary of their teachings. sttmingly · Carya-yoga .... .... .. s . Upa-yop
little undentood by the fourteenth-century compiler of the bKa'-thang sde-lnga, . (or Ubhaya,yoga}
In the earlier period before the separation in any formaJ sense of the two:. Yota .......•....... 6. YO!Ja...• ... •...
? . A-dkartheg-pa (Way ofthc- White A}
7. Mahi -yoga
tendencies that they represented, exaggeration of an indigenous tradition on the'. Anunara•yoga · · · · · · · 8. Anu•yoga ... .... . 8. Y<t·pben theg-pa (Way of Superior gSben)
one hand and a rather bland wiUingnea1 to adapt a foreign religion to local-· 9. Ati-yoga 9. Bla-med tMg ·P• (High .. t Way = rDi:op-
nttds on the other, the Bonpos and rNying-ma-pas must have often cooperated, :, ( • rI>zogs~hen) chen)
and there is at least one famous early tran,lator, namely Vairocana, said to be a"_'..
disciple of Padmasambhava, who i5 claimed by both traditions as theirs. There isi Tls• Inda- Ul>dtut T,tul.iti1m
(I) Itrros l and 2 are retained as part of 1be traditional Indian .u-rang~t of the ways ()"2114);
also the interesting case of the sage Dran-pa Nam-mkha', who decides to declatt .·
thry are not dir~dy relevant to Tibetan Buddhisl praai«, as then: are .no •o-.:aRed Htna·
himself formally a Buddhist when Khri Srong-lde-bruan was supposedly ~ yiniw in Tibet. (lndirecdy Tib«an Buddhism i~ritcd through the Mahayana very many
threatening the Bonpos with persecution. In the true style of one vened in the : traditiom Jdatiqg co die earlier period. concttmng the cloae coancction between the Jrciw~
teachings of the Great FulfiJlment, he declares there is no difference between:: ~and laierdevelopmcm1 in India. tee section IV.I.a above.)
(ii) llem S inclada monktand laymen who commit thffludves to Mabiyanate-achi"S', ~fore
Buddhism and Bon: ·· in theory at Inst, all Tibetan Budclhilca.
(Iii) Tanu.J clattcd as Kriya and Carya (or \Jbhaya- or Upa•yoga) re!)f~nt the earlier type of
Buddbisu and Bonpos who are sitting here, Indian Buddhist ~u-:u(described in Chapter IIT). They arc au~ed by the Yap Tantras
Believe in a religion that doe11not exi&t. with their fivefold arungamnt of the ma~la and their !)fOCffl of self· identification with
If you desire to make the kingdom white, ooe's cboeen divinity.
And wish to obtain Enlightenment, (iv) The term Mahi:yoga u oned by the rNying -ma·p.&5 includes 6111M tanuu later known u
Why do you differentiate between me and you? Anullara•yoga in ,o far as thae introdtaec .a.ml ,ymboliam (e.g., Cuhyuamaja Tantra) while
eaduding tlntru ol the Herulca type (aee 111.6.b), which Wffe inuoduced mainly during the
Why do you make a distinction between Bon and Buddhism? 30 1«-ond diffuaion.
According to Bonpo tradition he had two sons, one of whom. Tshe-dbang ) ; (v) Anu·yop talUtlc pracw:e correspond, to the Anuuara-yoga practi<:r in ,io far as ,exual yoga
(no longet mere cymbolilm) is praal~d. but It appean that it I&difflcalt to distinguish bet-n
Rig- 'dzin, continued hia father's work as a follower of Bon, while the other was) symbolimi and practice wbete these nfl<>IISdassa (Mahli-, Anu- and Anuttara·) are oon-
no less a person than Padmasambhava, who established rNying-ma traditions. ' 1 ;/ c.erncd. as they ttpttsenr overlapping cau,gories as dttised in widelydiffi:ring times and pi.aces.
On the rNying-ma side he ill mentioned in a list of tantric adepu who had {:'
Tls" Haerocoz Tilnt«ri 1'raditmi
benefitrd from Padmasambhava's instruction (TGyal-po bKa'-thang-y,'g,/
(vi) Their itmv 1·4 repment Tibetan folk religion, which is a, much pm:riced by onbodoa
chapter JO). Despite the legendary nature of all ,uch references, they suffice u .:;; Tibetan Buddhiffl•• by 8onpoa. They a~ thua liated a, tlug-po ("' yina). replacing di,, wa'fl
indications of the close connections which must certainly have existed between: .\ I and t of the Indian traditloo, whkh is lrrclevant to Tibetan praccke <-(I) a bow).
those who initiated the Bonpo and rNying-ma traditiom, 52 {vii) Their ways~ and 6 represent a separadon of laymen and monks. 1'his separation ia often made
in Indian Buddhism, but they ue never distinguished as separate ya,io (rtt (ii) above).
tt See Helmm HoffmaM, Quella, pp. 2St ·2 and 549-50. (viii} They were probably mon: or lea unaware of cbc: two lower du.leS of Indian tamrai for re-•1C>ns
given in (iii) ab<Ml. Thus they do not even Ha them .
!IO S«Samlt'nC. Karmay,TIie 1retuuryofGoodS4yiagJ, p. 91. . (ix) 1;he Way of tbe White A (basic:l<ttier of the alphabet) refers to die emanation of the r-fold
s, ll>id.. p. 8 n. for rereRn«a, 10 which one may a<ld Temin Namdak. Sovrus for • History of·:' rna~ala from 113,ra,...tucll!llt (whke) ce-mer, cOITffpor>dlng to the 1heories of Yoga and
Bon, fos. 167,77 (Tibetan tein only). Mabiyoga tantras.
~I In her article on che "Scroll of Gods and Demons" Mlle A.-.M. Bloodeaa ha• anangrd in thr / (x) The Way of Superior gShen introduces -.ual yoga. corresponding to that of the Anu·)'Oga
form of a cable the ttlaoonshipt between the le~ary live. of g.$bcn-nb on !he oiiie side and·.. cws.
hdmasambhava on the other. She giwes priority, ttasOClablyenough, to the .Bonpo mateTiaJ. 1'he· . (xi) rDiogs-chr.n(Creat fulfilhnent) has been mentioned abo,,e. Here the rNying-ma and Bon
life of Padrnaaambha•a wu after all mainly compoaed or i.lldigen°"'Tibetan inalffial. ti-aditiol'l6 claim to tramcend all other Tibetan Buddhist practice.
 408 V: 1'HE CONVERSION OF TIBET
d. Royal Inscriptions and Edicts
As contemporary evidence , the inscriptions on st<>nepillal's set up in the reign,
of the three kings, Khri Srong-lde-bnsan, Sad-na-legs and Ral-pa-chen,
covering a period of ovel" eighty yean from 755 to 8S6, are of primary
importance. Apart from their direct references to the matters on account of
which the pillars were set up, in commemoration of a royal person after his
death, in confirmation of honon and grants bestowed upon a loyal officer of
state, as a proclamation of lasting peace between Tibet and China with details of
the treaty of 821-S, or giving details relating to particular religious foundations
and grants . they also provide incidental information of great interest, whether
with reference to eventa of the past or the actual hap~nings of the present. They
thus serve aa a m06t uaeful check upon the later accounrs of these rimes presenect
in the emhusiaatic elaborations of Buddhist hi.storiana. Even a chance reference
may give the lie to the most circumstantially detailed of later inventions. We
may give just one significant example .
The inscription on the West side of the famous treaty pillar in Lhasa ends with
the following words:
Having established this great period in which Tibet shall be happy in the laad
of Tibet and China shall he bappy in the land of China and in order that the
solemn agreemen1 now made shall never he changed, the Three Jewels and the
Noble Ones, sun and moon , planets and 1tan have been invoked as wimesacs.
The aolcmn worda have been uttettd; animals have been sacrificed; the oath
has been taken and the agreement has been ratified. If the parties do not act
in accordance with this agreement or if they violate it, whichever, be it Tibet
or China, first commits an offence to damage it, any scratagem or guile under-
taken in ttta.liation shall not be considered a breach of the agtcement. ~s
These few words composed on so solemn an occasion during the reign of Ral-pa-
can whom later Buddhist writers regard as the moat fervently religiow in an
exclusively Buddhist sense of all their kings, allow us to see Buddhism as a highly
esteemed state interest, but not to the cinent of having triumphed over its
imagined arcbenemy Bon, as the same later religious writers would have us
believe. We have already argued that Bon is not to be identified with pre-
Buddhist Tibetan religion, although this identification is consistently assumed.
These performers of animal sacrifice$ were also supp01Cd to have been driven far
away from Central Tibet during the reign of Khri Srong-lde -brtsan, never to
return with such un-Buddhi.st ritual until the evil king Glang-dar-ma came to
the throne. 5• However, thia atone inscription provides clear evidence that
~, See H. E. Richardson. A,ldimt Hisltwiul Edicts, pp. 69 and 70-l. I hatt. only changed the
1110,dlngfor dKim-mclu,, tl.ft1171 (trirotna, tM "rhrtt J<.-"'-'la,
viz., Bllddha., Dhuma., Sangha ) a.nd
'J>lt4&'·pt1'imams (ctryli, "ooble onea," retttting either to Arhars or 8odlrisaavas). This i5 not an
lnicncled rorrection. but in accordance with my ttansladona of d-. tCl'ms dx-wheff in this book.
S« a.lsoH . E. Richardion, '"TheSino- Tibnan Trca!J Inscription of A.D. 8Zl/82S at Lhua."
S4 The euliest Buddhia-cmon may be that in 1& -luh,d , p. is . Thi, Bonpo account of the 1amc
suppoafd event will be found in S. G. llarmaiy, Tiu Treosv,y of Good Sa.,t11,8's, pp. 91-5. Concerning
lheae doubtful tales of ~aec u rion, -below , V.2 .a. 5ft abo abow p. -401, n. 0.
v.1.d Poluical and Social FacloN 409
animals were still slaughtered ritually at a ceremony of oath ta.king in 821/S in
,' accordance with a well-documented Tibetan practice, even though che chief
:, minister was at that time a Buddhist. We have quoted el!IC'Wherethe description
:· from the T'ang Annals of the reception of the Chinete ambassador on this
· panicular occasion, but perhaps the relevant passage may be given again:
The T'ang ambassador and more than ten of the alien ministers faced more
tha11one hundred chiefs who were seated below the altar . A throne wa1 placed
on the altar, and the Great Religious Minis1er, having ascended the throne,
pronounced the oath. Someone at his side translated it and passed it on to
those below. When h~ had finished everyone rubbed their lips with blood, but
. the Great Religious Minister did not. However, he repeated the oath in the
name of the Buddha and drank to the T'ang ambassador from a cup of
·; saffron water .&~
. ·· The inscription quoted above (V. I .a) from the tomb of the previous Buddhist
·
King Sad-na-legs is sufficient illustration for present purposes of the non·
Buddhilt phraseology and mythological references of the stone piilan set up at
royal tombs. Thus we may now turn to the specifically Buddhist inscriptions,
bearing in mind that these did not represent the only royal interesu in this
period.
The earliest stone inscription to refer to Buddhism seems to be one still
standing at bSam-yas ("Sam-yi"), the fint Tibetan monastery, founded
probably in the year 767 and completed in 779 during the reign of Kbri Srong·
lde-bruan. It reads a1 follows:
The Buddha-images act up in the temples of Ra-aa, of the Red Cr ag (Brag·
dmar}" and elsewhere, as welt 8$ the practice of the Buddhist religion, are
never to be abandoned. The rdigious itema provided are not to be diminished
or neglected. From now on in every generation the king and hi& heir shall
make a vow to this effect. That this oath may never be transgressed or
changed, the celestial divinities, the gods of this world and nonhuman beings,
all are called to witnesa that the king and the heir and all ministers have made
this solemn oath. There exists an ordinance in precise wording which has been
put carefully away.
It .ii of epecial interest to learn that this inacription baa been copied in the later
Tibetan history entitled "A Festival for the Learned" (mKhas ·pa'i dga' ·Jton)
together with a copy of the:relevant ordinance, which is therefore also possible to
quote here :
This is written as a copy from the text depotited in the treasury of the Miracu-
lously Produced Temple of bSam-yas, written in the reign of the Mighty One
~, Sc,e our Cultural History, p. ~ and Paul Pdlio<, Hisloire Ancwine du Tibet. p. 1!11. The
'"rcHginusminister"~ Bra.n-ka Yoo-wi . Sec p. 4%2below.
~, The name of the royal winter R.iidence m cbc Yarlung Valley, which is ,upplicd to the w~
diltric;t. Thu, bSam -yaa may be referred to n rhc mona«ery of the Red Cng. For 1bc (lrobable daie
of ii. co1Dplc-tion1ce Ciuoq,P" Tucci, Mino, Bwldliist Te1</s,wl . 11, pp. 26ff. and Hltgh Richard·
IOll , "The Fifll Tibetan Cho&-byung,., p. 63.
 410 V: TifE CONVERSION OF TIBET
Kbri Srong-lde-bnsan in gold letters on blue paper and placed in a golden
casket. It is a copy of the ordinance in the casket which is to the effect that}!~~ .
there should never be an abandonment of the Three Jewels. As for the mainjt ·;·
substance of the teaching of the Tathagata it is thls: if one does not adhere to :f;; :,·
the truth, one returns continually to States of 11.~ppiness in the threefold i :;r
world. Thett is no one who bas Ml been reborn since beginningless time, and :J\t ;,
having been born one acts either usefully or usclculy. Then again one dies and.
is reborn in good or evil states . In this respect the best teacher is the Buddha, );J;
the dearest expression is his Holy Word and the virtuous guide is the Buddhist
Community. Thest" (Three Jewels) are permanently good as the one island of }!J;
~fuge. The Three Je~els are au cve~·increa.sin_gblessing and in the former
times of my ancestors tn every generation accordmg to custom there truly were ·;:~ ;:
temples both old and new. After my father, the Mighty One , went to heaven, :)fl,,'.
there were cases of discord , so on the occasion of the conaecration of thia J!i ':·
Miraculously Produced Temple on the seventeenth day of the spring month of
the Sheep Year the text was recorckd of an ordinance that was solemnly sworn ~ jJ
by the king and the royal heir, by his mother, by the ministers of the exterior )i :
and the interior, great and small, to the effect that from now on the practice :=:f. ~ '·
of the Religion of the Buddha and the "suppons" of the Three Jewels shall ;,f.: ,:
never be destroyed in Tibet .~, :,:i
;Z/f
Thus the edict continues, elaborating the text as it occun on the pillar, calling
Buddhist and non-Buddhist divinities as wirnetsel and pronouncing a male-
diction on anyone who ,iolates the oath. It is interesting to note that thirteen
copies were made and.di~tributed not only to temples in Lhasa and Yarlung. but
also as far away as Gilg1t (Bru-zha), Zhang-zhung , Eastern Tibet (mDo-smad)
and the Tun•huang area (bDe-blon-ru) ..s
dPa'-bogTsug-lagpbttng-ba, the authorofthls history (themKhas-pa'igda'·
ston) , which he completed in 1565, also includes in his work a copy of an
additional statement which he sayswas in the same casket as the royal edict:
This is a copy of the text of the account of the practice of Buddhism in Tibet
and of the "supports" of the Three Jewels from the earliest times, which is in
the casket:
From the time when the Buddhist religion was first practiced with the
building of the vihara of .Ra-sa in the reign of the Mighty One Khri Srong,
brtsan sgam-po, our ancestor four generations bade., down to the practice of
the Buddhist religion with the building of the Kva-chu Temple at the Red
Crag in the reign of my father Khri lDe-guug-brtaan, five generations have
pa•ed.
After my father the Mighty One (Khri IDe-gtsug-brtsan) went to heaven,
&l Tu~'Ci. Tom6.1 of th• Ti/utan Kings, pp. 43-4 and 9S ·6; and H . £. Richa,d,oo'a ewntial article "
on thuubject, "TN Fira Ti~ancho,-byung."
6 k Tht! ce,it n,ads .tDe-bl1m-m,which Rio:hardaon corrcc:u, accordingly. Concet"ning 1be chief local · ".·
official in ~ l 'un-huang an,a (ns) known as bDe-blon, see Dttnievillt, L, Concik de /..Juua,
P·. 568. 'I'he "supports" memioned above are images, acripwrcs and scupu, regularly referred 10 ia
Tibetan as ?ten gs,.m {the- rhr~ suppons) ; thc,-e is no ,uirablc general 1enn in .F.ng)WI.Jn a more
general seo~ this term may mean "shrine ."
411
:;,
~t? V.l.d Polilica.l and Social Focton
:t:-: some senior ministers conspired together and destroyed the Buddhist religion,
which had been practiced continuously from the time of our ancestors. They
vilified it, saying that it was unsuitable to havr anything to do in Tibet with
foreign gods and religion, and they put a law in writing that it would not be
allowed from then on.
Then when the present Mighty One reached the age ot: twenty, there were
:·~fi<' bad signs and omens, and although whatever rite they prescribed was done,
there were still bad .signs and omens for many month&. But when it waa
:\l~:\ suggested that the law forbidding the practice of the Buddhist religion should
be rrj«ted as lawles., and that we should again worship the Three Jewels,
)i~;, immediately the signs were good. Then with the help of religious teachers
(Aal)'d~munr) we studied religion, and texts were made available under my
supervision and it was resolved that the Buddhist religion must be practiced
increa&ingly. Then the old religion stood for nothing and since the beseeching
J~; of a penonal divinity and the whole cult were unfitting, everyone feared that
it was bad. Some be5itated about the red color on their bodies; others feared
to caut spell&against the government; aome feared to cause disease in men and
in domestic animals; others feared to cause famine with hailstorms.
If one wants to know about the core of our religion, in the event of its non-
manifestation in the world, innumerable dallCS of living beings would be born
:/~}: in the four modes of birth" and being thus committed to san:islra they would
\i~i'.. be reborn beginninglessly and endlessly in accordance with their own actions.
?if;:. Being reborn in accordance with good actions of body, speech and mind,
i:/i: those who acted well in body. spttch and mind, would be fortunate. Those
JI;, who acted ill, would suffer. As for those who act neither well nor ill, that is an
>;'.I ; undetermined matter. The fruits of the action, thlll one does to others ripen in
) 1ll!
. oneself. Tho,e who are born as god, in one of the celestial stages, or u men on
}l :. earth, or as titans or tonnented spirits or as animals or in the hells beneath the
:}{tf earth, these six kinda of rebirth come about from their own actions. As for
/I : those who transcend this world, those who become Lord Buddha, or Bodhi·
\I\
):&';\'·
sattvas or self-enlightened beings or Disciples, all of these operating at their
various levels, accumulate malllCI of merita and knowledge. This is how things
come about. 14
.}~ : :
.{! i The text goes on to explain in what such merit and knowledge consist. Merits are
··· .. ·· the ten vinuow actions . Knowledge comprises the four truths, the twelvefold
· causal nexus, the thirty-acven principles of enlightenment and ten perfections
and so on, maners already treated in our second chapter. Local rulers, ministers
~, Thr four model of birth &CCOO'ding t0 an rarly Indian theory. adCJptrd by the Tibrta.N, II~ born
from 1 11 rgg, from a womb, from moisturr (• worm, are 11ttmh•glyborn) a.nd "' ~ miraaalOUA!y
born, e.g., ugod.softrn are- out of a lotusflowtt.
oo ltefenmc:e ro the text and prrv.iow rranslat.ion hatt already bttn given jua above. My tran.1·
ladon may be an itnpr<Wellltnt in tht pa•av conttrning the "old religion.~ The wol'd m111sla1cd M
.
"foreign" in chc phrue "fomgn gods and religion~ ia llla-bal, a word which often refon to Nepal.
HoWCYCr . in a r«cot article "Saint cc Divin" R . A. Sceinahows1hat in early ,exu U..o-baloccurs a$ the
Tibetan equivalent of the Cbincie tenn for "barbarian ,'.' ben<:e"fompff" (Walde: jun~-i). Such a
111agcis diffiC11ltt0 e,rplain ratisfutorily, and in later times thr Tibecana themseh-es 106tmac;k of the
term c.c,epcio the meaning of Nepal. Stt the "Note" by H. £. Richardton , "Bol·po and Lho·bal,"
8SOAS, vol. 46(1985), pp. IS6-8.
412 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
of the exterior and the interior have been consulted and all have agreed that :°
Buddhwn ,hould be pr acticed, both because it is inherently good and also :
because the royal an«stors have already decreed that it should be practiced. · other temples, both centrally and in frontie r districts, were built and
The passage quoted is interesting for thrtt reasons, firstly for ita reference to :
the founding of a temple in Lhasa (Ra-sa) u the beginning of Buddhism m. ·,
Tibet, secondly for its reference to the "old religion" (chos mying-pa) , and ~
thi rdly for the primary importance attached to the doctrine of rebinh and the ~:
simple moral system based upon it. We can treat the fim of these in more detail :
after quoting another early inscription . The "old religion," described mainly in -:
terms of harmful rites , is significantly not referred to as Bon , nor can it be ~
identified with the royal cult and state ceremonial of the kind that took place at ' ·
the ratification of the treaty of 821/5. As for the interest expressed in the moral ..
value of Buddhist teachings, we arc reminded at once of the inacriptions of the /
Indian Emperor Aiola and bis primary concern for the Dharma as a guide for [.
virtuous living. However, there are some notewonhy differences, such u his ;'.
apparent determination to serve as an example to his own subjects and his quite
extraordinary solicitude for actual living creatures . But whether in India or ·'.'.
Tibet the preaching of any such morality would be vain apart from the doctrine ·.
of universal retribution for one's acts, good or bad. l'hc rulers of Tibet excrdied ·,
no effective choice in the adoption of Buddhism ; in the eighth and ninth -:
~nturi.es it presented itself to them from all sides as the chief medium of a ::.
highe.r culture and a more enlightened atatecraft. · ward, let then, choose a religious guide ( kaly~mitm)
We may now quote in full an important royal inscription from the time of :
Khri lDe-srong -brtsan, disrovered by Hugh Richardson in the late 1940s on the
bank of the river some two miles southwcst of Lhasa. It refers to a temple
founded at Kan:hung (sKar-cung) by this king, and although the local .
connection with this ancient name has been forgotten, there is littJe doubt that ·
this is its actual site. 61 However, we are more concerned with the contents of the
insCJ"iption both on account of iu references to earlier foundations and to the )~I~
~rck~ngof re:igio~ life in !ibet in the.early ninth century, or at least to the way
1n which the kmg himself W15hed to see at ordered. :-,?Ail
A _soleofmnKhe~c·t for the bpermancnt upholding of Holy Religion made in the: ··.:·•.·._
reign n 10 e-srong· nsan, Mighty One of Miraculous Power: In the time ;, ,~
of Khri Srong -braan (sgam-po) , our ancestor, Mighty One of Miraculoua
Power, the Buddhist religion was practiced, for the temple of Ra-sa and }~~}
others were built and "supports" of the Three Jewels were established. In the ·)1~i
. f . ,e.
nme o our ancestor Khn 'Dus ·srong temples such as Khri -nsc of Gling were ) i )~·
buil t and "supports" of the Three Jewels were established. In the time of our j/~}f
ancestor Khri IDe-gtsug-brtsan the temples of Kva-tsu and mChing-phur of -~~)-!
•,.~• NI
61 s~ H. E. Richardson , ''Thrtt Ancicnl Inscriptions from Tiber." Also in this ankle: he draw, :/ ~ /~
attm1ion fort~ first t~ to the unv.ual nau.m, 0£ the histOl'ical writings of dPa '-bo gTwg-lag
phreng-~. a_Slllt~n~rh,c:eotury~a·gyu:pa monk of Lbo·bi:ag, in that he ~u ~ne ou1_~f his way 10 /@
ittk ano etn 1,ua1puom and edic11, which he often quoica m full. Soch h•toncal prec111on secm1 10 ··'·B'ii
have gone unappreciated by his fc:llow-,-ountrymcn. S« abo G. TL1Cci,T<>111bs o.f Tibaan 1'ui,s, ·>i111
pp. 51ff. , where 1he rdnllllt exuac1 is qu«ed .
v.1.d Political and Social 1-'ac to,s 415
the Red Crag were built and "supports" of the Three Jewels were est.ablished .
Jn the time of my father K.hri Srong -lde, brtsan bSam -yas of the Red Crag and
"5Upporu" of the Three Jewels were established . Jn the time of the Mighty One
Khri IDe•srong-brtsan the temple of aKar-cung and othen were bu ilt and
''supports" of the Three Jewels wtte established. Such practice of the Buddhist
religion as represented by all this and more from one generation to another
will iuult in immeasurable good, if it is never destroyed, never abandoned.
From now on let it be everlaating , for were it abandoned, destroyed or turned
to nothing. countless evils would come. In the time of my father Khri Srong·
lde -brtsan, Mighty One of Miraculo11S Power , an oath was made in the name
of all our generations that the "suppona" of the Three Jewels and the practi~
of the Buddhist religion would never be abandoned or destroyed. Thus having
made a solemn oath of this kind , the Mighty One him,elf and hit heir as well
as all the ministera acted in accordance with the words of the edict and what
was written on the stone pillar . Thus the "supporu " of the Three Jewe1s
> euablished by tbe generations of our anceston and their practice of the
Buddhist religion must in any caae be held as dear to us and for no reason
whatsoeVer are they to be destroyed or abandoned, even if some say that they
are bad or that they arc not good or because of progno1tications or dreams .
Wb.oever it may be, great or small, who argues in this way, one must not act
accordingly. Grandsons and sons of the Mighty One , from the youngest ones
upward, thoK who adminiater the affairs of state, from the highest down -
from among the monks
and learn as much religion as they can absorb, and with the whole of Tibet
thus studying religion, let the way to its practice never be cut off. So that the
gateway that leach to salvation shaU never be dosed against the people of
Tibet from the highest downward, from the capable ones of the faithful who
have entered upon salvation , let us appo int permanent follow~ of the Lord,
and those who thus act as permanent followers of the Lord, being committed
to obeying the prescriptions of the religious community, should be authorized
to perform the rites and consecrations of the religious community and to act as
·}jf religious guides. Those · who have renounced the world (viz. , become monk•)
should act in accordance with what we, the king and tl)c heir, have ordained;
in the case of these "honorable persons" (mchod,gna s). they shall act as
,,::_,<•f.:.~
~::·:[,,_
t' :i..¾
.~.',··_~-~
_:~,,
._
.• :·
"priests'' (mckod -gna.s) in the palace of the king, arranging the "supports" of
the Three Jewels and performing worship there, being neglectful in nothing.
In shon , in the palace of the Mighty One and in the land of Tibet nothing is
to be done that might lead to the denial or abandonment of the Three Jewel11.
In whatever time it may be, that of the present king, his ancestors, his grand-
sons and sons. the: things rdating to the Three Jewels arc not to be diminished
or destroyed and they are to be treated in accordance with the strict terms of
the laws relating to sacred property. From now on in every generation the
Mighty Ones , fathe r and liOn, shall make an oath in this wise: that our
/J~{ promise.&may not be renounced or changed we call to witness the celestial
fij
divinities, the gods of this world and all nonhuman beings that the Mighty
One s and all minister&have made this solemn oath . The precise wording of
:iii'ii this important edict has been placed with that of the edict of my father's time.
{i~I
414 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
One gains the impression form this proclamation that those who became
monks, being maintained at die royal expense, were under the general direction
of the palace where they had religious duties to perform as priests of the house-
hold. The Tibetan term mchod-gnas (repre1entiog Sanskrit 14nd,a) ii gram-
maticaUy applicable to any sacred person or object, but u usualJy applied to a
man of religion of high status who acts on behalf of a lay patron. 6t The term for ;"
a "religious guide" (dge-ba'i b.shes•nyen) reproduces exactly the Sanskrit term .
kalya:,:iamitTa,meaning literally "virtuous friend," and refers to one's own chosen
teacher. Since all the leading members of the royal family and ministers of all :
ranb are urged to choose one, quite a number would be needed, and one ·
wonder, if thei-e would be enough "monks" available, auuming that the tenn
dge-slrmg(representing normally Sanskrit blai~u) actually refers to them. In the
general context it might aectn to refer to the apecial "followers of the Lord,"
where the Lord is Bhagavan (Tibetan: bcom-ldan- 'das), the Buddha. These are
dearly layfolk specially ,elected because of their own proven capabilities, but
who woilld pTCSumablyhave to receive suitable consecrations before they were
authorized to perform these themselves. Finally, the term uaed for "those who
renounce the world" is Tibetan ra.b-tu byung-ba, representing Sanskrit pra.wa, ..
jita, one of the oldest terms used of Sakyamuni's first disciples, and used of all
thoee who "went forth" from home in a homelas atate. All this technical
terminology had to be mastered by the Tibetans, and if any deductions are to be
drawn from a proclamation wch aa this, looee translations could be very
misleading. It is clear. however, that in the early ninth century ordered religious
life was atill in a formative stage.
Although King Sad-na,legs (Khri 1.De-srong-bnsan) argues his case for the
funherance of Buddhism on traditions established by hi, anceaton, the evidence
for any sustained interest in Buddhism aa a potential state religion before the
time of his father, Khri Srong-lde-bnsan appears to be largely lacer fabrication.
It ia likely that ,everal chapels were built in the fint half of the aeventh century
during the reign of Srong-brtsan sgam-po. the first ancestor with suppoaed
Buddhist proclivities, who ii named on the inscription. Theft! were probably
erected to please his foreign wives, of whom the most influential would certainly
Rem to have been the Chineae lady, Wen ch'eng . She is aaid to ha~ brought the
famous image of Sll.yamuni as a princely youth, referred co as Jo-bo
(pronounced: Jowo), the Lord, which despite the many vicis,itude, it baa
wffered, of which the moat re<:ent was the so-caUed Chinese "culturai
revolution," remains enthroned, scarcely in its original form, in the Jo-1,hang
(the Lord's Hou~) in the center of Lhasa, This temple, referred to in early times
as the 'Phrol-snang (Magically Manifest) Temple of Ra-sa and ao known from
other illlcriptiom, can be attributed with certainty to Srong -brtsan sga1n-po's
St It has been .ipplied in panicular co 1lw n.1lingSukyahierarchs in their n:lacionahip wiih !heir
Mongol OYeflo.ds (referred to• :,<m·bJ.-. = bmdaaor). The Hine n:latioNhip wu claimed latff
~cween di£ Datai Lamaa and 1he emperon of China. The relatiomhip heel£ i1 ref~rrecl to aa )OIi•
mcltfHl, taking 1hefint p,uuohhe twotffmf. For theSan.ui, N:rm t.'ltnd,C eeep. S76 above.
V.1.d Poiilical4'tid Social FactO'r5 415
time. and the~ were doubtless several others as well (Pl. 68a). 65 Of some interest
is the later tradition (found in those later composite worka that are claimed aa
refound "hidden treasure"), that he was responsible for building twelve special
temples with the object of pinning down the limb. of a demoness, whose total
subjtttion was necessary before the country could be converted to Buddhism.
There were said to be three sets of four: namely four for the four main regions
(n.1 b~hi) of Tibet proper, four fort he subjection of the borders (mtha '. 'dul) and
four more for the regions beyond (yang- 'dul). 64 This tradition is not without
some basis in fact, for in the following cenrury temples were certainly built in
border areas, and the regions beyond were usually already well disposed toward
Buddhism, p01eesaing temples and monasteries of their own. It would fit more
plausibly if the tale were told of Khri Srong-ldc-brtsan, and the inscription just
quoted attributea to him templa built centrally and in frontier d.iatricts. Like
much ebe, this general situation hu been transferred back to the time of
Srong-bnsan sgam-po in order to glorify funher the reign of the founder of the
Tibetan empire of the two succeeding centuries. His interem were those of a
statesman rather than a man of religion, and whatever influence Wen ch'eng
(known to the Tibetan, aa Kong-jo) may have exerted in religious matters, there
is no doubt that her marriage formed part of a determined Tibetan intere&t in
learning all that could be won by clmer contacts with China. As the Tang
Annals record, young Tibetans of good family were sent to the Chinese capital in
order to study Chinese, and this was for reasona of statecraft, not of religion. The
same surely applies to the development of a written language, for already by the
following century it was being u,ed on a most impreseive scale for administrative
purposes, whik the translation of Buddhist works, probably still largely from
Chinese, was only' just beginning. As already shown, by far the greater part of
the surviving early Tibetan literature comes from the sealed cave discovered by
Sir Aurel Stein early this century at Tun-huang. Since this was a Chineee frontier
district, it is inevitable that Tibetan contacts were mainly with Chineae in this
area. and the work done here in translation either way would be between
Chinese and Tibetan. However, this accidental emphasis on the literary
importance of early Sino-Tibetan contacts probably re-presents a large part of
the truth. From the time of Srong-bruan sgam•po the Tibetana evinced
considerable respect for Chinese institutions, and when they later occupied an
appreciable- part of northweat China in relative peace for sixty years and more
(c.787-848) with Chinese scholars at their beck and call, there is no doubt that
they took full advantage of the situation. The other great neighbor, whose
cultural contribution to the heritage of Tibet was certainly in the long run far
greater, is India. Unfortunately, referen<:Cj to cultural coniacts before the
6S54':eow- CultuTOllrulcry, pp. 7S-f, for the names of 01hers.Ste alao H. F_Richardson, ''ThieJo·
khang, 'Cathedral' of Lhasa," in&sais sur l'111tdu Tiber (ed. Ariane Macdonald and Y. lmaeda).
pp. IS7-88. Cooccrnillg some of the earlier .-icmirudes suffered byjo-bo, ICC again H. E. Richard·
1em, 1'he Crowibof a Legend,'' AsioM..jor XVI (1971) , pp. 174.S.
6-1 TM mythological aspecu of due scory a.re dC!lc.ribedin detail by M. V. Aris. Bhutan, pp. 8-SS.
416 V: THt CONVERSION OF TIBET
· ·:.
second half of the eighth century are lacking except for the account of the :
'J)«ial miaion of Thon-mi Sambhota to India (or more specifically Kaahmir) in·
order to fix the Tibetan system of writing. Militarily the Tibetans appear to have ;
had far ea1ier succeaset against their neighbors to the south than against the ·..
Chi~ in the nonh and the east, but whereas the Chinese kept remarkably ·;_
accurate records of their dealings with the Tibetans , the Indian and the /
Nepalese, Jacking in such hist0rical interests, tell us practically nothing .
Following upon the death of the Emperor Harsha (647), who had entertained
Hsilan-tsang so magnificently, tl1ere was temporary confusion in the cou ntry,
resulting in an armed robbery committed against a Chinese envoy who had been
&ent, pretUmably via Tibet, by T'ai•uung to Harsha' s court. The envoy called ·
upon the help of the Tibetans, who had already gained mastery over Nepal , and
with the help of Tibetan and Nepalc,e troops he captured the usurper in
Hanha's capital Kanyakubja (present-day Kaoauj), and took him bad captive
to China. s; This event is significant, not only because it suggests the existence of
an aggressive Tibetan policy to the south, but also because it clearly indicates
that the route from nonhern India through the Nepal Valley , thence to Central •'
Tibet and thence on to Central Asia and China was already in use. The distances
to be covered were vast. especially the long journey from Centtal Tibet to China.
The route to the sou th muat have been open much longer. but the whole route
through from India to China via Central Tibet could only have become
practic able from the fir1t pan of the aeventh century onward, when diplomatic
relations were established between Tibet and China, which might be reasonably
dated to 641 when the Chinese princea Wen -ch 'eng (or Kong·jo) was given by
T'ai•tsung as wife to Srong-brtsan sgam·po.
This Chinese marriage is balanced in later Tibetan accounts by his marriage
to a Nepalese princ~. referred to as Khri· bTsun, which simply means "Royal
Lady." Since she is not referred to in any of the early records from Tun-huang
:::.:::: :::.
:.r::17."::'.:.~.=:.!::::::;::
1
Ch'eng become the only two wivea of special significance, both seen as fervent
1
Buddhists and zealous builders of temples and regarded as manifestations of the
Goddeu Tiri. in her primary forms of dark green and of white, thus becoming
suitable companions for Sroog-brtsan sgam-po, regarded a,
a manifestation of
A valokiteivara. 6ti Such a mythological interpretation disaedits in no way the
a
6SSee Paul Pellio1, Hisloirq Ancunn11 dv TilHt, p . 84. Th,: o:vcnc alao mcationcd in g1:nrral
hiaroriea, e.g ., A. L. Basham, The Wond•r thllt 111,ruIndia, p . 70; allo komlla Thatpar, A Hastory of
India, p . IH (but without mention of die 1lgnilk aa1 Tibeta n p,-n«) , a.nd Grouuet, Aaboyer and
Bubot, Hi,1oir11du Mo:,.n IIJ•. X: L 'll 1i• Ori,nt•lc, p. 94.
ff A main source for their Buddhls( elabotatiom Is IM M•·ru· bKc'- 'bum , 0nt o( the "bidden
treaaur1<s"(gter -rna). which was prolr..ablycompiled in lhe rwelfth century aod is (Xlfflf)oscd of
apocryphal materials. for an idea of its corucnts one may refer to Ja,:qUC$ Bae«, "Le mari.agie
cbinoia du roi tib&ain Srong -brtaan •m·po (F..xtrait dll Moni bKa'. 'bu,nr in Milalltfes chinois el
bouddllUJMIJ,vol. !I (19M-5), pp . 1ft . See al,o Michael Aris, .64ula...- Th11E.tnly History of a
Hima•Jtln Kingdom . pp. 8tf .
.ifi
v .1.d Political arw.Sacial Factors 417
historical likelihood of such a marriage. when so little is known otherwise about
Tibet 's relations with its southern neighbors . If the nory were an invention, one
rnight have expected an Indian rather than a Nepalese princea. Nepal certainly
served as an important halfway house , but it was from India that the mosc
famous Buddhist teachers came, and the compilers of Tibetan Buddhist
,raditions were well aware of dus. The lack of information concerning Tiber.an
concacu in that direction in the seventh century, not to mention earlier times,
leaves us in much the same situation as in the case of Zhang-zhung and the
relations that we uaume must surely have existed direct with India in 11tillearlier
timts. One can do little more than speculate. The frontiers of nonhern India
were far more easily reached than those of China, and there is frequent mention
of areas bordering on Himalayan areas which since at least the end of the
eighteenth century are included in Nepal . Its actual extent in the seventh and
eighth centuries is unknown, but the country itself was well known to the
Tibetans under the name of Bal-po or Bal-yul (where yul simply mearu
country). The Tibetans pent'trated quite deeply into Nepal, aa we know it today.
Thus there is mention in the Royal Annals of at least two revolts in Se-rib, which
cor.-esponch to the district now knownas Thak -khola , south of Muatang. 67 The
death of the king of Nepal and the proclamation of his successor is mentioned as
one of the first items aa having occurred not long before 650 . The Tibetans we re
active in the frontier areas of Mar and Dol(d), probably Dolpo, both of which
borde red on ancient Zhang -zhung. It may IICelD strange that knowing Nepal so
well or cenainJy irs nonhem borders, there should be so much apparent
confu&ion in the meaning of its name, since the same spelling may have been
used both for Nepal and a r.mall place not far from Lhasa, as Profeasor Tucci has
urged. 68 In later Buddhist tradition, as already noted, it was even confu5ed with
Khotan by the misleading application of the name of Li-yul , presumably
because both places were remembered as subsidiary sources of Buddhist
tr aditiom .
As well as Rnding a mission to India for the making of a Tibetan system of
writing and marrying a Nepalese prince11, Srong -brtr.an sgam-po's name is also
associated with a famous group of Buddha-images . all supposed to have been
made out of the same uunk of a sandalwood tree in the South . They remain well
known from later descriptions . although there sttnu to be some doubt about the
correct identifications. Known as
Jo-bo mched-bzhi, "the Lords. the Four
Brothers, " there was one in Kyirong (aKyid -rong) on the Nepalese border , the
district known confusingly both as Mang-yul and Mar-yul, another in Pu.rang
(sPu -hrang) or Taklak.ot u known by the Nepalese, another at Bungamati, a few
miles from Pltan in the Nepal Valley, and the fourth one in Lhasa. 69 They are
,, SttDTH, pp. 41 andf!!, and myF01trl.4111410/Dolpo, p. 166.
M This compUcarm q11e1don la bNt elw:idated by referring co Bal-:;-td ( = Nepal) in the lndl!X.
68 Tbeiurory is told succinctly in the rGyal-106 g•l ·b«'i me-tong, ch.ipttt 11. In accordance with
.i divine prophc,:y. Sronr-bnun 1gam·po himself' takes the initiative of lffl.diog a miraculously
produced monk co India in tearch of the m-,k sandalwood. Thi: aory ca11haw no historical batis
except for die pc-ni9tenl iradirioo of the ttraoge relationship between the four imascs which
 418 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
all images of Avalokitdvara. but there seems to have been some popular
confusion with the Jo-bo of the Jo-khang. The 5tory of these related images
suggests some dose Buddhist contact between Tibet, Nepal and India, but once
again the earlies< references are in the ..apocryphal" works ab-eady referred to,
and we may be dealing with later traditions tranaferffd back to the time of
Srong-bruan sgam-po. Apart from the clear references to temple foundations
during his reign, for which images were certainly requil"t'd and were more likely
to be brought from Nepal than from far distant China. there is little indication
that any great interest was taken in Buddhism during his reign.
Of the potsible Buddhists interests of his immediate successors, Mang-srong
and 'Dus-srong, nothing i, known except for the reference to temples built in
'Dua-srong's reign as mentioned in the Karchung inscription (quoted above). We
may recall that during these reigns the Tibetans were involved in their
campaigns in Central Asia, where they were known by the Khotanese as the ,
terrible Red Faces, who had no respect for religion, With the acceuion of Mes-
ag-uhoms (K.hri lDe-guug-brtaan) in 704 and the arrival of a second Chin~
princa5 in Tibet, the situation became racher more hopeful for the few
professing Buddhiau who must have looked after the existing temples. One
wonders who they were and whether there may have been any Tibetan monks at
this time. There is much mention in Khri IDe-srong-bnsan's imcription from the
following ~ntury of specially consecrated laymen, and it is conceivable that .su.ch
Tibetans u these were available during the first half of the eighth century. The
ktepen of the temples were probably often foreigners, either thoee who
accompanied foreign wives or else taken from amongst the inhabitants of
neighboring atates, primarily in CentraJ Asia, where the Tibetans were
campaigning. It is known from preci,e Chinese accounts how the TibetaN
treated their pr.iaoners of war and availed thermelvea of the forced services of
those specially qualified in any way who could be of use to them (for references
,.;.,,,.ij
:1
see toward end of section V.l.b) and the 1ame conditions doubtle• applied
wherever they were campaigning. It is interesting to reflect that the situation of
Buddhists in Lhasa at this time may be seen as in 10me wayt analogoua to the
situation of Christians in Rome in the third century, if one discounts altogether
the excesses of Diodetian's persecution. Thus one can appreciate the force of the
aspiration expressed in prophetic terms when Mes-ag-uhoms received as wife a
Chinese princess whose devotion to Buddhism might be taken for granted.
Then after seven gP.nerationa of tho5c who have been kings of the Red Faces
there will be a Bodhisattva King whose wife, the daughter of the Lord of
111ppotedlymanifest tlmnselvcs from 1hr wood . Concerning the three in Tibet . .1rr ·r. V. Wylie,
The wogrcpl&y of ribn, pp. 61. 64 and 81. 1"• Kyirong imagr la mentioned _,al li~• In my
Foin LamG$ of Dolpo, -. _elf)ecially p. 10&. The curious naine Voti bl4ng-po (Good Vati) is
probably a deformation of Aryavati (Yi%,.'phogt·fltl oa-ti in the t'Gyal-.-ab.p. 70). &imply meaning
t!M?Noblr One. for 1hr famoo, imagr of Avalokitdnra, known as Bung;i,dyo (the God Bunga) 5tt
T. V. Wylie,, A 1i'6eta11
RrligiDus~aphy of Nepal. pp. 14ff.. wbe.re.despite: a lenghty footnore,
Bu-llham is not rccogniz~ aJ Bunga; concerning this primary Nepalrse di11iniry, rtt JohnK. Locke.
Karu114maya, pp. !45ff. Jn the rC,,al-nib(p. 70) tlw, name iaconupt«l 10 dB"·IAnB· Sec also aectiOD
IV.5.a.
jj
V.1.d Polilu:al 1211d
Social Factors 419
China and known as Kong-jo, being a Bodhisattva herself, will come from the
land of China to the land of the Red Faces together with six hundred
attendants. She will be great in religious faith and the holy religion spread
more than before.~
Following upon her arrival in Lhasa and the resulting protection that seems to
have been given to Buddhists, large numbers of foreign monk& began to &ett~
there as refugees mainly from the regions of Gilgit, Yarkand, Kashgar and
Khotan, where the campaigns of Turks, Arabs and Tibetans must have ciiused
continual upheavals and devastation. Mes-ag-tshoms himself is given credit for
the generous treatment that these wanderers received, and one may assume that
the seven "religious houses" (gt.tug·lag-kJumg) said to have been built for them,
were erected at government expen&e. However, he was ultimately powerless
agaimt the opposition that their ptteence aroused, when an outbruk of
smallpox occurred and the queen herself died. The whole story is told in early
manuscripts that survived at Tun-huang and thus may readily be accepted at
face value.
Then the ministers a$Sembled and beaought the king, saying: "Never before
was there a plague of smallpox like this one in our land, but now that these
many homeless monks of foreign origin have come, even the queen has died
and also many belonging to the families of mini~ters and senior ministers. It is
undesirable to keep such men of religion ( bande) here and they should be
expelled." The king ordered that they should consider the matter well,
whether it was right to expel them or not , and wit.h one voice the mini5Cers
said that those men of religion should be e"l[pelled, beseeching the lung
accordingly. When it was thus decided that none of them could stay in the
kingdom and all were expelled, the Red Face monks were angry, saying: "If
these monb are expelled, then neither shall we stay." Then the ministers were
angry too and replied: "Just go where you please."
After Kong-jo had come to the Land of the Red Faces, the king ( of China)
had taken up the religion of Te'u-shi (viz.., Taoinn) and Chinese monks too
had come all together to the Land of the Red Faces. So the monks of those
countries loaded the relics. the boob, the items for worship and all the
moveable property of the Three Jewels in the Land of the R.ed Faces, and
directing their gaze to the West they set out for the country of Great
Gandh1ra. 71
The story is set within the prophetic context of theories concerning the final
70 This is from 1he "Propbec.')I of thr Land of Li'' (l.i-yul-gyi lu1tg·bJlm·f'4). from which quota·
tions bavoealready been 1uen. Stt lltttion IV .2.b. For the pre~nt ~xcerpt aee FWT op. c1t. vol. I.
p. 80 and 1T, wol. 1!9, pp. ,oo-2,4ff. For the Chinese acrount of 1his lartt marri~ of a Chillt'M
prince. to a TiMtan king. 5tt Paul Pl!IJiot. Ha'uoireAncieruu du Tibet, pp. 12-l!>. Thf! samr rilk
Kt>"(I-joill used of her by the Tibetan sourn:1.
11 ~ FWT op. cil .. pp. 83-4; Tr, vol. 129. pp, 500-4,Sff. The tfflrl ttamlated as "of foreign
origin" is 1/ao,bsl. Ban-de = S.lnsliri1 vanJye meaning "venerable" and so applkabll." 10 IIK'll of
religion generally. It i. ick-ntitalwich the angliciadjapancso, lrrm "borm," as •Pf•licd to Chin-. a~
Japanae monk•. Tbc tnm 1ranala1cd as ~man1,... abott is in rvery case dg,,slong ( 6ki1ru). Tr"u-shi
(or De·u-ahi a1on theTun-buang MSS)"' Chinew Tao,shih, ·1rachff of the Way:·
420 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
ext.inction of Buddhism , theories that were revived in various forms, depending
upon changing drcumstances. The pres&ure of Islam Wall being felt in north-·
west.em India , and thus it is not surprising to be told that the wandering monk.~
eventually fared no better in Gandhara than they had in Tibet. It may be noted ·
that there is explicit reference to Tibetan monks, indeed the first reference,
coming some sixty years or so before the fim official recognition of them when
the first Tibetan monastery of bSam-yas was founded. h would not be at all
surprising if '°me Tibetans. of whom there is otherwise no record, took such
vows, when tMl'Cwere so many foreign moults there to administer them, but this ·
whole story surely indicates how foreign a thing Buddluam was still felt to be in
Tibet in the first half of the eighth <-'Cntury.It seems quite certain that the death
of Mes-ag·tshoms in 754 when his succeS&Orreached rhe significant age of
thirteen, was followed by a concerted attack upon such Buddhist interests as Btill
existed in the country . The age of thirteen was the time for .mociating the heir
with his father u ruler and thus was a convenient time for disposing of the
father, whlle the sc>nwas still young and relatively powerless in the hands of ·"
determined ministcn. However, Mes-ag-tshoms's rather noncommiual Buddhilt . /
proclivities were scarcely a sufficient reason for his aasassination. which is clearly ·.,,
suggested by the wording of an inscription on one of the stone pillars set up later
by his successor, Khri Srong-lde-bnsan, the fint really commiued Buddhist king
of Tibet . The pillar in quc:stion, which was set up in an impo,.ing position in the
district known u Zhol below the royal palace on its hill-top (now known aa the
Potala) about 764, happens to be aJso the earliest known example of &Uchitone
inscriptions and thus the earliest known surviving writing in Tibet. It has no
explicit connection with the progress of Buddhism. but by revealing a plot to his
young master, Ngan-lam Klu-khong, perhaps a kind of confidential 11ecrctaryin
the royal service, saved the life of the first genuinely Buddhist king of Tibet. A
shon inacription on the east side of the pillar refers to his later appointment as
''Great Mi11ister of the Interior" and commend& him for his honest labors. The
opening lines of the inscription on the South side refer specifically to probably
his greatest service to his king:
In the time of the Mighty One Khri IOe·gtsug-rtsan, Ngan-lam Klu-lthong
was in a confidential po&ition in the royal service. 'Bal-ldong-tsab and Lang-
mycs-ii~. being at that time the chief rninisten, were not in royal favor and
they caused harm to the person of the Mighty One, my father, Khri lDe-gaug·
rtsan, so that he went to heaven. They came near to doing harm to the person
of the Mighty One, the Heir, Khri Srong -lde-bnaan, and they cauacd turmoil
in the realm of the black-headed Tibetans. Then Klu-khong informed the
Mighty One, the Heir, Khri Srong-Jde-brtsan, of the hostile machinations
of 'Bal and Lang. Since their hostility was proved, they -re
punished, and
Ngan-Jam Klu-khong was thus in royal favor. 72
7t See H. E. RictW'd!oo, Anci~,., lrutoncol Ed.ictJ at 1./uua, ~>p.16-l 7 and 20. Onie 1nayno«' that
.Kini II>t-·gt.'!Ug·bnsan(latte spelt without the b- prefix on tht lut .yllable) OCl'urslattt u Khri I~
gt1Ug·brtan, a marginally easier aptlling aild with a slight diff•m~nce In meaning: brtsan or btJOn .,
migh1y, and b<tan : firm. The exprt"S.~n "go to h~aven" or perhaps more literally "procted m the
V.l.d Politicaland Social Fac/07s 421
The same events are related in their larger Buddhist context in the "histor.ical
survey" said lo have been iuued under royal decree and preserved in a casket at
bSam-yas, where it was seen and copied later by dPa'-bo gTsug-lag phreng·ba.
Here we arc told that at the~ of twenty('", 762) Khri Srong -ldc -brtsan resisted
successfully ~nain ill-disposed ministers, and set about establishing Buddhism
as the state religion (sec above pp. 410-11).
These events are clearly related to a major reorganization of the government
as briefly described in the Royal Annals for the yc.u 768, the very year in which
the Tun -huang manuscript comes to an end. Khri-bzang of the mGos clan is
named as chlef minister .7s The later Buddhist historians have more colorful
accounts. Here 1he villain of the piece, an evil minister named Ma-zhang, who
has been the main opponent of Buddhism, is buried alive at the instigation of
Khri-biang and with the consent of the king . Thereafter the Indian sage
San1aralqita is invited from India and the conversion (or according to theK
Buddhist versions which assume that Buddhwn had already been establilm-d in
the land by Srong-bnsan sgam-po, the reconversion) of Tibet can begin. 14 The
Buddhist interestli of Khri Srong-lde-brtsan are very well attested, both by his
words as preserved on in5Criptions and in edicts and by his actions, especially by
the founding of bSam-yas and the first officially recognized community of
Ti~tan ntonks, as well as by the personal interest he t00k in matters of doctrine.
However, it should be remembered that during this same period, Tibet was
engaged in constant warfare in Central Asia from the far nortbwe&t of the Indian
subcontinent (especially Gilgit and Baltistan) to the distant confines of nonh-
wcstern China. Sometimes fighting and sometimes on terms of truce with tm-
Arabs and various branches of the Western Turks, they prased their advantages
agaimt the Chine.e , finaUy capturing temporarily the Chinese capital of Ch'ang-
an in 76S and installing a puppet emperor. The -rang Dynasty had been
~riously weakened by the rebellion of An-lu-lhan in 755-6, which followed upon
a devastating defeat of a large Chinese army by the Arabs in 761 .7 ~ These events
explain 1he comparative ease with which the Tibetans were able to maintain a
hold on almost the whole of Central Asia ( although the Chinese garrison in Tun-
huang seems to have held out against them until c.787) for the greater pan of a
century." It is interesting lo note that the conversion of Tibet was thus
tt!nith " (tlg,.,.g·du gffldgJ·j)o) io!simply an honorific 1:ttm for royally. which iA praer->cd In 1he
Buddhi111.period , altho11gh it rrlatca to the pre-Boddbiat myth of the king's rrturu 10 the cdeetw
sphere .
,s Stt 0TH, pp . 66 and 132. Hae /(U)ti/fUhab (Tibcian text p. 102), com:5Ponding w them.
intentioned minitler named on lhC' imcription, i• also described a& having beat diagra<:ed.
,. Stt Bu•Ron. llim,ry of B1ultl/aur,,, vol. rr, p . 188 and gZhan·nu-dpal, Blru ,h1114ls,V<>I.
I. p . 41.
1, s« W. Barthold. Turustun tlow,1 10 1lu1 Mongol 1'w,uio1t, pp. 1%-6 and C. P. Fitzgerald,
China, pp. 29~·6.
'6 It is doubtful how far the Tibetans could control the city-stata nonh of the Takla Makan
(Kucha and Turfa11). l:kre they faced a powedul new enemy, the Uighut Tum. who cectainly toot
hold of these areas whm rhe l'ibeta11, . sooner or later were forced to withdraw. That is was aoon.er
rather than later ;., argued by Taluw Moriy:uu, ~Q.v.ides Owghoun ou des lib#:taw ont gagne m
789·97'.l.l Sei-baliq,"/oumaf..fsMl&fl"' · 1981, pp. 193-005.
422 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
undertaken seriously for the first time, when the whole country was organized for··,
conquest on the grea test acale that it has ever achieved. This hitherto "foreign ·
religion " became the chief booty of war. Foreign monks and scholars appeared :
within the royal precincts by imperial command, a rather different situation .-
from that obtaining during the so-called second diffusion of Buddhism, when :
quantities of gold had to be offered to persuade Indian teacben to come.
Buddhism, firmly established as the official religion of Tibet by Khri Srong- ·
lde-bnsan, survived the uncertainties of the end of his reign. and we find his .
eventual successor as resolved as was his father to maintain the new religion. In ·
this respect we may quote from one of his inscriptions that well illustrates the
change that was gradually taking place in government circles. Previously the .-.
kings. even Khri Srong-lde-bnsan. were $Urrounded by lay mioisten and
advisen. Even in the case of this monarch's edict proclaiming Buddhism u the
religion of Tibet in eternity (quoted above, p. 410), the name of no monk-
minister or adviler appean as a witne11 to the oath, but (as H. E. Richardaon hu
observed) in less than fifty yea!'$ a monk appears as ch ief minister. 71 This it the
Venerable (&n·d•) Bran-ka Yon·lan, chief minister of Ral-pa -can . both
assassinated in the coup of c.8S8, which was probably largely dire<:ted against
the increased power of Buddhist prela~ in state affain . in that it brought
Ral -pa -can's anti -Buddhist brother, Glang-dar -ma , to the throne, if on'ly for a
very shon time . The three genuinely Buddhist kings of Tibet are ckarly Khri ..
Srong -lde-brtaan, who made Buddhism the ofticial state religion. at least in ·
intention, his son Sad-na-legs (Khri IDe-srong-brtsan). who continued the
proceaa, and hil grandaon Ral -pa -can (Khri gTsug -lde -brtsan) . who attempted
to bring it to fruition with what might have been a Buddhist-dominated
administration . He preaumably failed, bccauae the ruling families u well as the
ordinary peopJe of Tibet can scarcely have been expected to accept such rapid
changes. It has already been observed that there was continual rivalry between
these ruling families in the provision of royal consorts and ministers, and the new .:_
:_
religion served as an additional major factor of contention. It is perhaps ··
remarkable that the Buddhist initiative was maintained for ao long through
thrtt more or less consecutive reigns. 78 Sad -na-legs benefited from the guidance
of a Buddhist teacher of the Myang family who had receoivedthe religious name
of Ting- 'dzin bzang·po ("Good Contemplation") presumably under his Indian
teacher VimaJamit ra . He waa practiced in the traditiom of the "Great Fulfill-
ment " (rDzogs-chen), being in the direct line of transmission of the later sNying·
thig (Heart -Drop) teachings as preserved by the rNying -ma tradition of that
name. He is said to have!disappeared at the age of fifty-five, leaving no mortal
71 Stt H. E. Richardson, "'l'ibetan l111criptioo,;at Zbva'i lha-khang," JRAS, l9M!, pp. 135-M and
JRAS. l!SS, pp. 1-12. This particular ob.-vacion is on pp. 156-? (19!>2). The.-extract from the
itlS<'riprionlhar follows is taken from d1iasame article.
78 l ha,-c ddibc:ratefy repeat~ wilh rhcii alternatives the names of di-. kinp. as the NDiJarity of
their COIJlfXMlffll ,yllable1 can be cxtmncly confu sing. Cooccroing d\e uncertain ~riod of sw:cesaoa
after KbriSrong·lde,brtaan'• reign,-. H. E. Richard.on , op. cit. abow(n . 77), pp . 138·50.
--~ii
·\:
~ JJ
V.l.d Political a.nd Sodal Factors 42!1
remains , in accordance with the relevant t~ry of the "rainbow-body" (Ja'-lw)
achieved by the.c practicea. 18 Sad ·na-legs's education was presumably conducted
in accordance with the wishes of bis father and it may be significant that
someone teaching this particular form of Buddhiam wu so dose to the coun. As
will be shown below, it came close to representing , despite its probable Indian
origin. remarkable similaritie, to the "Chinese traditions" that were supposedly
banned from the land following the decisive conclusion of a "council " held in
l.haaa in the prC5C'Oce of Khri Srong -lde -bruan himself. However, the
inscriptions are not concerned with doctrine, but simply with an expression of
touching gratefulness on the part of an heir-apparent now become king, for hia
ttligious teacher who has guided him over the years.
By command of Khri lDe-srong-bnsan , King of Mid-Heaven, Mighty One of
Miraculous Power:
The Venerable Ting -nge-'dzin ofMyang
A sworn edict granted in eternity.
Concerning the Venerable Ting•nge- 'dzin
From firat to lut he has been near to my bean.
From my youth up to my assumption of soverdgnty
He has acted as father and mother to me. dCffl'ingonly my good.
Acting as a true uncl e , he has brought me u p .
He united in happy accord father and son, elder brother and younger brother .
mother and child, high and low. In aU matters he gave good advice. con-
tinually acring beneficially aa suited the occasion and being always nea r to my
heart . Later on, after continuous troubles which affected my father and elder
brother at a time when I had not ye, assumed sovereignty . there was some
faction and contention, but the Venaable Ting-nge-'dzin applying himself
zealously. gave beneficial adv ice and brought the disturbances to an end.
Making it his principle to do whateVer is for the good , he performed generally
great and good worka for my governm ent aa well as in other waya. rema ining
always very dose to my heart . Taking the part of both high and low, he got rid
of discord and made everyone content. Likewise performing the duties of a
great minister of atate, he acted continually aimply for the general good both
with regard to the present and the future. Thus from first to last he w been
closer to my bean that anyone, continually making laJge offerings . Although
l had in mind to make a suitable preeent to him in accordance with former
precedents, this Venerable One, adhering to the ways of a subject and the
propriety of a monk, urged that no such favor should be granted . But since it
is a religioU6duty to grant favors in return for offerings, J hereby issue this
firm edict in favor of the Venerabl e Ting -nge -'dtin , granting him an estate in
perpetuity, and so that it may flappily long be ao and that all should know it,
an emplacement has been contructed here in thi s temple, this "1upport ,. ofth e
(Three) Jewels, and a stone pillar has been act up. On the stone a summary of
the text bu been inscribed and a seal has been affixed at the bonom, 10 that
my sona and grandsona , the future rulers . the future ministers of state and
others whoexerciie authority , shall always act in accordanu with the words of
?9 See Tiu BI"" Annal,, vol. I, pp . 10?, 167, 192.
424 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
the edict, diminishing nothing, amending nothing and changing nothing of
what lil written on thi&atone pillar. 8ll
The inscription continue,, bestowing apecial privileges and royal protection on
all family members of Ting-nge-'dzin from his grandfather downward, and
binding all members of the royal family and ministers of the pre~nt and the
future to uphold them. A few years later, as Ting-nge-'dzin had still not received
sufficient in the king's eyes, the &ee0nd endowment was made as. announced in
the later inscription, and once again aU and sundry are bound to abide by its
terms.
As a further example of t~se devou~ly Buddhist inscriptions we may qu?'e
from one that was set up dunng the reign of Ral-pa-can some fony -five miles
west orLhasa, where the grut monat1tery of mTshur-bu was founded in 1185 to
become the chief religious house of the Karma-pa Order . This later monastery
must havt! been built on the site of the earlier temple, which has since been
t~tally f~rgotten locally, even th~ nai_ne_of lCang-bu as rec~ded on ~he stone
pillar being now unknown. The mscnpuon tells of the founding of tb11 temple
by a certain sTag-bzang Ny~·sto of the Tshe-s~ng fa~ily, fairly \tt-J~ known
from other records .81 The utle Zhang (Uncle) given him estabbshe. 1t1 cloee
connection with the royal family.
The account of the founding of this temple at Upper lCang-bu by Zhang
Tshe-spong sTag-bzang Nya-sto, which by command of the Mighty One has
been inscribed on this stone pillar. Jn accordan~ with the edicts and ordin-
ances that the Holy Religion, received in the times of the Mighty Ones, the
Divine Offspring, Father and Grandfather, should never be abandoned but be
practiced in succeeding genetations, Zhang Tshe-spong Nya-sto has taken our
Holy Religion to bean. In order to repay the great favor that he has received
through the miraculous grace of the Mighty One, the Divine Offapring, Khri
gTsug-lde-brtsan (Ral-pa-can), he has founded this temple at ICang-bu in
sTod-lung, praying most sincerely that it may he consecrated to the intention
of the Mighty One. He bas endowed "supports" for the Three Jewels, provided
for the residen<:4!of four monks, and given aU that is n«cssary for its main-
tenance, namely bondsmen, arable and grating laod, sacred items, precious
things and live&Cock,so that the (transferred) intention of the Mighty One,
Khri gTaug-lde -bnsan, may never be ended. The actual name of the temple
so H11ghRkharcbon°1 tra061ation will be found. in war1iclc cit.ed inn . 77 above , pp. 1-2 (195$) . I
have checked through hia urefully edit.eel.TiHtan 1ex1, making full \\le of hia nota. My tranalation
waril.'Sin ,ewral DOC wry important rmpec:u, but I do 001 claim 10 be mOl'eCOl'rect. The main
pTObkms pi-aent.ed 10 audenu o(l"ibetan by thae e.arly mcca COIMS from unusual irnns and phr_..
which latn go out of uoe and 10 become a, much gueuwork for later «lucaced Tibo!tan1 as for us. I
ha~ taken tl~s-iwng., in the earlier IC'Dseof "to be troubll!d," a8"1ming that this ia Intended as a
delibffa~ly discttte reference to c:enain evenu affttting Sad-na-legs 's father and elder brother. I
take gdon-stsonas "'contentiom" rather than "stirrings of evil apirita." although the meaning would
be much the same . sT.wn(~ TTson) may well be a nominal fonn of rtwd-po "to dispute,"" and 10.'on
may mean here no more than "'~ii.·· Zlt,>-J/u, ttfers to coruributions as payment in return fOI'die
granting of a pemmmt offke. Stt FWT op.cil., vol. m, p. I7Hor referen(:ft.
11 See H. E . .Ridlardson, ·~nm:e Ancicut Jmc:ripaon, from Tibl:t.'' pp. !'lO and 6lff.; allO
Giueppe TllCCi, Tomb, oft!&~Ti.bna,. Ki>i«s, pp. 16-18 and 87-90.
V.I.d Pohtical mid Social Factors 4%5
was bestowed by command of the Mighty One and he has commanded that it
should be made a dependency of the great temple which he has penonally
founded at 'On-cang-do and that it should be administered under his
authority. He funher commanded that as a great religious estate no taxes
should be imposed upon the subjects and the poaessioru orthe eatate and that
they should not be liable to forced duties or punishments. He has commanded
that the provisions made for the dedication of the estate of this temple are to
)!~
·:t®l
be ratified jwt as Zhang Nya-sto has made them. Alao he has commanded
that if ever there should be descendents to Zhang Nya-sto, the service lands
and all else that may be held, shall not be resumed or given away, but shall be
)i!
.
J
;-tg
/,1.
added to the estate.
The great nine-story temple built by Ral -pa -can at 'On-cang-do, later known as
.:Jf) 'U-shang-rdo, is mentioned in later accounts, including a brief reference in
· :[
J~ Bu-aton'a "History of Buddhism" (Obermiller, vol. II, p. 198). 11 It has long since
·,-.:;
~!., disappeared and had doubtless suffered, like all the other religious foundations
/j ; in Central Tibet, from total neglect . if not actual desecration, after the faU of
\'.m1 the monat-c:hyin 842. Ral-pa-can, the last ohhe Buddhist kings of Tibet, has the
·:.;:}J
;! reputation of being the m011t devout of them all. He certainly added to the
·.::,~~} religious benefactions of his predecessors, all of which had to he paid for by
:}~%1 taxation of one kind or another, while the remiasion of taxes that these monastic
houses enjoyed also left more for others to pay. It is aaid or him perhape with
some intentional irony: "He gave seven households to maintain each monk. The
king would sit in the center with silk strands tied to the locks of his hair, and be
caused monks to be seated upon them; so there they were, the three of them,
monks to the right and the left and the king himself in the center. "115h is difficult
to ltnow to what extent dissatisfaction and resentment against the new religion
caused the downfall of the monarchy, but it mutt have been a contributing
factor, skillfuUy used by those who schemed Ral-pa-can's assassination. There is
a cenain sad vanit.y in all the edicu granted in perpetuity and so 10lemnly swom,
for they were to be rendered null and void far sooner than those who issued them
can have imagined. But although Buddhism ceased to be the state religion in
any official aeme, it was by no means effaced from the land. All state support
disappeared , but the seeds had been well sown. Left to itself, the new religion
sent out ahoor:, and branches, no lon~r deliberately cultivated, but all the
stronger when left to develop as bcsi'they could. Having now dealt with the more
general political and :social conditions of this early period, we mu8' try to gain a
sufficient idea of the varieties of Buddhist teachings that had so far been planted
in Tibet.
111·rtie ptt1rnt lite i• dcscribl:d by Giuwppc ·rued in To Lhasa and &yond. p. 117, For furlMT
reitt(t)«s see Alforua F.mari, ml<ltYffi·brt.Je's Gvide to the Holy Ptaces of Cf!ffl-rtdTibet. p. 166.
8S A. H. Francke, Anti.tp,itie.sof lndian Tilut. pp. SS-4.
426 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
2, RELIGIOUS FACTORS
a. Factions and Disputes
Not surprisingly perhape the Jater Buddhist historians of Tibet, whether
"orthodox" follower& of Sakyamuni Buddha, less ''orthodox'' followers of the
Second Buddha Padmasambhava or the heterodox followers of gShen -rab, all
conceive the story of the conversion of Tibet in the stark tones of black and
white, and indeed ihe whale history Qf tbct peRod is reimcrpresed in religiO!!!. :
~m_!. Moreover, whichever side they belong tO, the others are always vicious ·
anirevil,justifying them in taking appropriately vigorous measures in legitimate
self-defence. Thua Buddhilu are penecuted by wicked Bonpo,. as they later
come to be called, and in their tum the 511ffcringBonpos are driven forth from
the land. Next thOR who hold to Indian Buddhist tradition, find chem,elvea
threat .coed by other Buddhists who hold to Chinese traditions. Then King Khri ,
Srong-lde-bn:1an convokes a council, so that both parties may &tate their views.
According to the later accounts of "orthodox" Tibetan historians the Indian
party is completely victorious and the Chinese party is driven out, but not before
they have taken foul revenge by murdering the leading Indian protagonist and
provoking his chief Tibetan supponer to auicide. However, their victory is shon
lived, for within forty yean or so the evil Glang-dar-ma murders his virtuous <·
brother and seizing the throne, sets hjm5elf the immediate task of totally ··•
eradicating Buddhiam from the land. Likt'Wile the later Bonpos have their own
story of cruel petseCUtion, but in their case the evil persecutor is the King Khri
Srong-lde-brtaan who haa been falsely subverted to Indian teachinga .
Until the contents of cenaio manuscripts prnerved fortuitously in Cave No. 17
at Tun-huang began to be known, one had little choice but to accept these later .
versions more or Jess as valid, relying upon the proven ability of Tibetan
historians to 5ift their materials carefully when they are writing of later periods.
Valuable as the stone imcriptions are, their references to religion are eitha-
rather oblique or else, as in the case of the Buddhist edicts, they proclaim an
ideal 1tate of affairs. However, there is nothing vicious or panisan about them.
~
l~: :~:;!'rysu;i:~n!t::m;;:::t!:t!% 1:::i;:;~!~
~:i::~o;~~
editions, ·-certainly reveal many differences of viewpoint and disagreements on
the essentials of Buddhiat doctrine, but there i$ no suggestion that tbeae resulted
§[ig~§.?.:lt~¥.~!i~
···
·.:;_•.·::·,:
.•
.
teachers. Some of them .certainly 10Ught his sanction for their particular
teachings, when they were openly challenged by others, but it seems unlikely
that any religious views or practicea were effectively forbidden throughout the
land. We have already observed above that sacrificial rites performed in :.:.\::::,.::, . ;.'_;·.·.:,. were foiled by the faithful retainer Ngan-Jam Klu-khong. Here we have
accordance with the old religious ways continued and it is scarcely conceivable
V.2.a Religiow FMton 427
that any form of a new religion that wag only then beginning to become
established at a few main centen should find itself suddenly banned, least of aU
the seemingly harmless phil0$0phical views of disputing scholars.
Nevertheless the later accounts have some kind of validity as a simplification
or rather rationalization of those earlier events as seen by later generations. The
conversion of Tibet to Buddhism clearly proceeded through two main 1ta~s .
firstly the gradual overcoming of the opposition presented by pre-Buddhist
beliefs and. customs , all seen in rettwpect as the archenemy Bon. and secondly
the forms of Indian Buddhism, which manifestly prevailed from the end of the
tenth century onward, were seen as victorious over earlier forms of Buddhiml
that were then thought of as having come principally from China. From this
there would follow the simp~ deduction that Khri Srong-lde-brtsan, the
undoubted founder of the fint genuine Tibetan monastery, bSam-yu,
seemingly as an avowedly Indian Buddhist center, must surely have proscribed
both tb.c old religion aa well as the ChillCle form of Buddhism of which d:ieae
later Buddhists professed to disapprove. According to their ideas these two
processes would have reached their separate conclusions, victory over Bon as a
first stage and victory over Chinete forms of Buddhimi as a second, as a result of
public debate , over which the king himself would have presided as arbiter. Thus
it is precisely in this form that some later accounts tell the whole story. H~r.
whereas a debate between different philosophical Khools is quite conceivable ,
one between Buddhists and non, Buddhists. who are seen primarily u the prac·
titioners of heathenish rites, is not so easy to imagine; yet this is how the later
Buddhists envisage them. However, if one admits the pc>Aibility of religioua
traditions imbued with Buddhist teachings already existing in the land, as is
suggested by the quotation concerning "Bon traditions" in the Padmo thang-:,ig
(V.l.c), then one can imagine a royal interest in judging betwtto them and the
more recently arrived Buddhist teachings. Thus there may well have been
disputes between the representatives of theae two groups, "pf()(o-Bonpos" on the
one hand (understanding Bonpos as what we know them to be later, namely
·-,.'.~ hetCTodox Buddhiau) and more onhodox Buddhists on the other hand.
The violence and bitterness that appears in the later accounts d~lea bas ~
·:· ;·'.:;
'!'
flu'.iihi~a*-ln
'.f::.'.,::,;.:::,;
...l. :,.,: ~:1·:.
t~,! f~&tha(cfcut.ii.i.i)f'ptai_tl>,gw br·,;;;A QMP*-&Gd
between powerful individualJ, and as we have already seen from some of the
~arlyi'iiltriptions t6at have been ..quoted, these same feud.a were a continual
threat to the monarchy. Thus it folJows again that any known ill-wishers of a
king who was weU di.posed to Buddhism, whatever their penonal reasons for
seeking to do away with him may have been, would be seen by the later Buddhist
historians as protagonists of the archenemy Bon. This tendency is very well
, illustrated indeed by the cue of the apparent attempt on the life of the young
:.'· 1
~ _.:; :.~:·_·
., :
Khri Srong-lde-brtsan by the two minister&named as 'Bal-ldong-tsab and Lang·
':,3. myes-ziga on the Zhol inscription (see section V.l.d) and whose evil intentions
undoubted valid hiatorkal material. In later legendary accounts the two evil
>.:_:~~~
. ..·"-~
.,·
:.;.:;~.
428 V: THE. CONVERSION OJ,' TIBET
ministers appear as champions of Bon with the changed names of sTag-ra Klu-
gong and Ma-zhang 'Kbro n-pa-akyes in one BuddhLllt aourcc and as Ngan sTag-
ra Klu-gong and sNam-nam Phrom-pa-skyes in a Boopo one. Moreover they are
also pretented (with inevitable variations of spelling) a& two of the leading
champions of Bon in the debate that was supposed to have been held between '
Bonpos and Buddhists under the presidency of Khri Srong-lde-bnsan. One may
observe that the Bonpo account, in accordance with traditional Indian Buddhist
stories of contest between believers and heretics, describes the event not as a
philosophical debate but aa a competition in the display of extraordinary
magical powers. We thus mo~ into a world of pure fantasy, where personal ·,
namea are attached to parts that could never have been played by the holden in
real life ...
One may observe that while there has usually been comiderable religious
tolerance in Tibet, much as in India and Central Asia before the arrival of the
Moslem, as conqueron, a situation which the Tibetans have been spared (unle111
we include Ladalth in the Tibetan cultural world), religion bas all too often
become involved with political interesu and on such occasions its representatives
have suffered accordingly. When some of the later accounts were bcing
composed, the whole country had fallen under the suzerainty of successon of
Genghiz Khan (from 1207 onward) with the Sa-&k.ya-pa hkrarcha u their
accredited "viceroys." This led understandably to very bad feelings between
them and other religious orden, resulting in such appalling events as the
storming and sacking of 'Bri-gung Monastery (of the Ka-gyQ·pa Order) by
Sa-skya and Mongol troops in 1290. With poignant examples of religious
conflicts as real-life experiences , it is not surprising that some recorders of
ancient events should have conceived of them in much the same terms. We th111
have two reasons for the intrusion of 80 much violentt and bitterness in the later
descriptions of how Tibet was converted to Buddhism, firstly bitterness and
violence wae part of normal political life, and secondly religion was seen as
involved in politics in the earlier period quite as much as it came to be in later
times.
Having established himself in power, Khri Srong-ldc-bnsan appears to have
deliberately initiated a program for the introduction of Indian Buddhism, while
continuing to accept out of poJidcal necessity the traditional ways of bi&own
people. The troublesome ministers, whom he had first to eliminate, had
.r1tb1gsal ·ba "i me·l011g, Ku1neuov'• ed.. p. 166, II. 19,20 (foe
lH I take these na1m• from 1he ,<;,,,,_/
a Gennan trambiion of d~ ~-xe see Helmut Huffmann, Quel/coi, pp . 301-2) and from the Bonpo
work Sr,'tJ,,,:yud u quo~ and tran,dated in S. G . Kannay'~ Th.• Treo.u,ry of Good S,aylft&s,
pp. 88-9. One could compile• Jilt ohuch nllmft fr<111uimilar 10Ura,1, probably m liule purpow. It is
intett1ting to note, however, that JB11,b2Md (Stein', rd .. p. 27) lil1.1a. 100 Bonpo champions IT"l ·n&
K.lu-koog, rTsis-pa chm-po (The Crc-.at Aauonomcr), K.hyung·po Dum-guugs Khyu11g-po-~t1e
and l("..OS*·smonl.am-'bar, w~ rttainiog as an eniircly separate story Ma,zhang·s perJCCUtionof
Buddhism and lli1< nemual burial ali,reat rh«,instigation of gSal-snang o! sBa (later the first abbot of
bSam-yu with the religious l\llmt:of Jnancodra). It is not imp<l55iblefor the na~ Khyung-po-ue IA>
ht, a conuption of (Ma-ibang) Khrom·pa·skJ"'S, so tlte same peTSonmay appear in both smrics,
whichareccnpbined in the rGyal-mbgsol-bo'imd1mg.
\l.2.a ReliK1°ous
Factars 429
probably been more interested in the maintenance of their own positions and
privileges than con<."Crnedto oppose new religiou s experiments, so long as old
customs were maintained. The king doubtless chose Indian Buddhism for the
simple reason that it imposed itself so much more easily in central and southern
Tibet from the mere fact of the comparative closeness of Buddhist centers in
northern India and Nepal. There were already representativell of Chinese
Buddhism in the capital, where they ~med to win a sympathetic hearing, and
there is every indication that the king took as much personal interest in the forms
of Buddhism that they profeesed as in the teaching of Indian Buddhist scholars.
How~r. now as later, Chinese influence: could only make itself felt in Tibet
acl"056the vast expanse of Central Alia or the distant wastes of far northc:ute-m
Tibet. So far as Tibet's conversion to Buddhism is concerned, th e period of
Chinese influence: was limited to the short period dwing which the Tibetans
controlled Central Asia and nortbwest China, and if we start this period with
Khri Srong-lde-brtsan's interest in the new religion, it amounts in all to about
sixty yean. Because of earlier cultural contacts with China, to which we have
alttady referred above, the representativeli of Central Asian and Chinese
Buddhism must have had their small circles of adherents in the Tibetan capital,
but such official support as they had recei~ was sporadic and all too easily
withdrawn . The short period of sixty yean, covering tilt later years of Khri
Srong-lde-brtsan 's reign and the reigns of his s11cces60r$Sad-na-legs and Ral-pa·
r.an, is thwi a most unu.sual period in the whole history of Tibetan religion.
Militarily Tibet was then at its most powerful, controlling a vast area with
administrative districts which included parts of China in the far north and the
Himalayan regions in the nearer south. The Buddhist sites of Nepal and India
were certainly neart'r , but this neaJ'IlCS5was not so much of an advantage, when
Chinese acholan , whether acquired for religious or administrative duties, were
at the beck and call of the Tibetan court and any other administrative center,
notably Tun -huang, where their preaence was required. This state of l'quaJity of
Indian and Chinese Buddhist interests in Tibet came to a gradual end with the
disintegration of the Tibetan Empire from 842 onward and the loss of contact
with Central Asia and China, which was not restored until the ~io<l of the
Mongol conquests more than three centuries later. By then the Tibetans had far
more to give in the way of Buddhist teachings, which they had in the meantime
been receiving direct from India, than they might ever expect to receive.
Khri Srong-lde-bruan', interest in Indian Buddhism was expressed most
clearly by the foundation of the great monastery ofbSam-yas, completed in 779.
Thr instiBator of this great event seems to have been a ttrtain gSal -11nangof the
sBa family, who had b«.n governor of the southern district of Mang-yul, 85 which
bordered on the Himalayas, and who had visited Buddhist centen in India and
3~ Written later u M.aug,yu.l. rhis region s«ms 10 corrc~pond with the diilrict known as M.ar(d) in
tht earliest literature . See Mang-yul in the Index . ladakh is alto known wmetiffl<'t as Mar-yul.
sometimes as Mang-yul. TM IC'trer represented by •a and nga are aim.iln in Tibetan and this
probably a«ounu for the:confU1ion.
4SO V; THE CONVERSION OF 'rIBET
Nepal, making the acquaintance of the Indian teacher Santarakfita and
commending him to his royal master. gSal-snang had already received con-
1e1:rations from Santar~ita in Mang-yul. where they appear to have founded ·.
temples together; he received the religious name of Jnanendra (Ye-shes dbang- .
po), meaning "Lord of Knowledge," by which name we shall refer to hirn .-
hereafter. Some intere,ting details are given in the later accounts suggesting that ·
the Chinese connection already had a considerable hold on the lung. Thua it ia
recounted that he continued to send scholars to China
in quest of Buddhist
~rks , includi~ even Jilaneodra hinuc:lf according to some source,, although
this seems unlikely. Also before inviting Suuaralqita he is said to have sent
representatives to examine him on the natw-e of hia Buddhist teachinga. He
arrived with a Kalhmiri interpreter, but there was opposition to hia presence and
he soon had to leave, since his arrival unfonunately coincided with a number of
natural calamities, indicating the displeasure of Jou) divinities at his presence.
He then recommended to the king the name of Padmasambhava as o~ who
would be able to deal with such obstructiom, and carrying tbe invitation
personally he returned to Nepal, where he met Padmasambhava who prompdy
set out on his special mi55ion. Only when he had successfully quelled the goda
and demons of Tibet did Sutarak!ita, who thus appears in the role of hia
partner , return to preside over the foundation of bSam-yu Monastery and the
first official ordination of six or seven Tibetan monks, among whom were
Jfianendra, Vairocana (a disciple of Padmasambhava) , a renowned translator
rMa Rin-chen-mchog (a dilciple of Vimalamiua), Sang-mi R.atna of sBa, and
probably also Srtgh~a(dPal-dbyangs)." Soon after the completion of bSam-yas, .,,;i,ii!
Padmasambhava was accused of practicing magic and sent away, while Sinta·
rak~ita died after being kicked by a horse. He is said to have prophesied that ) f·}l
there would soon be a schiun amongat the Buddhists of Tibet, and when the · )?,}1
need aroee the king was to call upon the assistance of his Indian disciple .:j)!
Kamalaiila 87
fl~t;~;;s~~~s;j:i~g~
Firstly the new monastery and its inhabitants had to be paid for and maintained
:;oi:.::.':.i"":.~or::,':"l.':'O:::!~:,;,,";
!;~!\~:=y~~:a:::\:it!~~~e
ni:~
!:;'
eh::~
~--=
and this could only be done by the gift of lands and aervices. So We! are told :
~~:e•::;:
~I
;:rt:::s:
paper, three pieces of(dry) ink, and a& much salt as required.
."' T~ list of names nrie-s in dlfletent SQUtOl!S. but tM names given here occur fairly regulart 1. ~
G1weppe Tucci, M&T U, pp, 12ft\ All thosenamed bett will bi: referred to ~w.
.,, See Bu-stoo, Obl:nniller'suaml.tcion, .-ol. ll, pp. J88ff. andBta.~.f11110ls
, pp. 4Jff .
V.2. a Religiow FoaOT,, 4Sl
To the twenty-five who were
inretreat (.sgom-chen)at mChims-phu twenty-
five bu1hel1 of barley each, of aea,oned butter eight
hundred ounces each, one
horse each, six changes of raiment each.
For thethineen appointed tea.chers fifty bushels of barley each, six changes
of raiment each. eight hundred ounces of seasoned butter each.
For the venerable ones in retreat (mtshams kyi ban-de) and who are &elf.
reliant (rang-ga-ma) eight bushels for each person, two pat.-ks of paper and
one piece of ink.
For the twenty -five students twenty-five bushels of barley each and three
cbanga of raiment each. This is given in perpetuity by the great favor of the
king 10 that Holy Religion may be promoted.
The social consequences of the founding of such religious houJCS is well
illuscrated by this short pusage despite certain textual uncertainties. u mChims-
phu, which is mentioned here as a "house of retreat" for the bSam-yas com -
munity, is situated on the mountainside above. It is one of two such meditation
centers founded during the reign of Khri Srong-Jde-brtsan, the other being Yer-
pa in a separate location, a pleasant valley a few miles to the east.' 9 Although
small when compared with the monastic foundations of the Tibetan ''High
Middle Ages" (which lasted effectively until 1959), theac state-supported
religious houses must have seemed to many at that time an unwelcome addition
to local taxation.
bSam-yas Monasttty is said to have been modeled on the monastery of
Odantapuri in northern lndia (now completely disappeared) and thus laid out aa
a gigantic ma~la. '° ~spite frequent reconstructions, it has retained this
Jti general plan up to the present century . It mw.t have seemed an amazing creation
to the perhaps still ·rather doubtful inhabitants of Central Tibet. As for iu
inmatei, despite their affiliations with renowned Indian teachers, they could
scarcely represent a unified Indian tradition
at a time when Buddhism in India
'::,%
l was undergoing the changes described in Chapter III. So far as monastic order
waa concerned, that of the Miila-Sarvistivadim was generally accepted in Tibet.
·• .l _!_:_:_:.:,_l.•.:
- ~
_:.I,:
_:_
but once thia was included within the later Mahay~na tradition , a whole variety
of philoaophical views. of meditational practices, consecration ceremonies, and
tantric theories and practices were also available. This variety is well illwtratcd
by the choice of te1ts translated and by the varied religious interests even of th06e
few who are named as the first seven to be ordained. It may be pnsumed that
Ji~
·:_{_i;_::_j_
l
Jiianendra followed the teachings of his master Santaraqita, whose Indian
disciple Kamala!lla was the leading representative of the Indian side in disputes
with the Chinese supporters. Thc-sc teachings consist of the conventional
Translated from s&,bded,
1111 p. 65, ll. Uff_ Se-, abo G. Tu~i. MBT ll, pp. 56-11.TM flnt
_,coce 1$doubtful and a word may bi: mi!-,ing which relates to the oumber af 150. The nrlitt
- tramlaaon of H ~ estate with ISO peaaanLf' .«ms to have no jusdficauon, Only irigbt buahels for
those in retreat does not seems much; Tucci makes this eight hundred, but this is not io the text .
19 An inscrib(-d bell from the time of R.tl-pa,can wrvives at Yer-pa . See H. E. Richardson, "A
Ninth ~otury IJ11Criptionfrom rKons ·po ," JRAS 19!>4, 166-7 and my Bi,ddhut Himiila,a , p. 156 .
to FOf.a 1IION! detailed dacripcion ,_ my Btuld.hislllintidoya, pp. 152·4.
432 V: WE CONVERSION OF TIBET
Bodhisattva doctrine, namely that of a gradual progress toward final enlighten- ;,
ment by the accumulation through a large number of rebirths of the merits of ~
good works and of knowledge, succinctly ex.pressed as Means and Wisdom. But i
Wt? have already observed how these same terms were used in the tantras as the ,
two coefficients of a kind of enlightenment, which might be n:alued spon-
taneously, if the appropriate way was shown by one's ch°'en teacher. Now these
later tantric conceptions were dearly alttady known in Tibet in the early period,
as may be well illustrated by a short work entitled "Vajrasattva's Answers to
Q.ucstions" (rDo-rje sems-dpa'i :hw-lan), attributed to a certain Srigh°'a and of
which manuscript copies exist amongst the Tun-huang materials. 91 Professor .
Tu(:ci haa already ma<k- a most useful survey of several short worb attributed to
this same Srtgh°'a in the Tibetan Canon, pointing out that the theories of
spontaneous enlightenment that he advances i1l accord with conventional Indian
teaching of which Kamaluila was a main spokesman. H He thettfott raised the
question whether this may be the same Sngh~a whose name is sometimes listed
u one of the first official ''ordinands" and who succeeded Jfi.lnendra very early ·
as abbot of bSam-yas. As abbot, JUnendra met with concened opposition, and
one of his chief opponents wu Myang Ting•nge·'dzin bzang·po, the guardian
and teacher of the future king, Sad-na-legs, who is praised on the inscription
quoted above for 1mfaithfulness and aelflesa devotion. He belonged to the Yoga
Tantra tradition as received from his teacher Vimalamitra. Th\1$ if he opposed
Jiianendra on doctrinal grounds, this would not be at all surprising; convenely
his suppon for the Srig~ who is known from his writings to have held views
similar to hia own might be quite reasonably expected. At all events it would
seem clear that the leading Buddhist penonalitie, who were close to the court,
even those with Indian affiliations, were by no means as united in matters of
doctrine aa the later accounts try to lead us to believe. Another example of ·
internal dis.,ent is provided by the case of Vairocana, whoseconnection with the
tantras of the "Old School" is indiaputable, whether he was in fact a disciple of
Padmasambhava or not; however this too is likely. According to the later
accounts he is aaid to have supported Kamalaiila in the debate with the Chinese
..
91 I nnm thank Mr. KffiMth F..asc:manfor drawill8 my a1tenti<11:1 to this particular woit, on which
he i, now engaged. It exisu in tht India Offitt colleafon. no. 470, and in Paris M Pelliot Tib&ain
1'10. 8'7. ltisin die Tibetan Canon. TT. t0I. 87. pp . 16S-5-l to 166-1-6.
9! SttCiustppe Tucci, MBT II, pp. 141-51. Thi£ work . ofwh.it-h the title Minor B11ddhist Te:c~.
vol. II . acarcely gives a faair icka of tm:cootemt, i& the must Wldul ge1M!ralso11rtt of infonna<ion
available fur tilt- I\IDject that we • ~ now couideriJll!l. II ceni,en on an edition of 1he writinp of
Kamal•ala relevant tn 1hr di~CT111 with die "Chinae pany," but it inclllda mucb detailed
ducullion of •" !he per10n&litio in'°lved. Thu1 fo,- ttfettncea u, th-, ,.,,,.;,iaexisting het1ff'ffl
Jilinendra and MyangTii>g -ngr-'dli.n, rl!ferred to ~iau-ly below, 1tt Tutti, op. cit.• pp. 41•1!,
and conttming Vair-ocarul IN' pp. 110-15. 1!7-S? aJ'ld 151·l!. Anocher relevant monumental worlt is
that of Paul Dt'mif,,ille, Le Concil~ dd J.11,na, to which we have already referred, and will certainly
refer again. Othe-r significant rdermcea remain scattered in various anic!es, qwt~ a number of
which are in Japa11C$C, and for ea.1yacxe,,sto their contffllS one is again grateful to Paul Oemlmlle
for his long sonoeyof their contents in "Rttentl 1ravaW1111rT~n-houang."" Much basic marerial
Mill remaiM unworttd , for schofan competent in this field <ll"C' few indec-d. I hope that none iJ
orniued from my fOOUlOlet , but it it DOl a maightforward tauw draw on cverylhing available.
v.z.a Religiov..Factors 433
faction, but his personal affiliatioJl$ could scarcely have allowed him to sustain
wholeheartedly the Indian side. The story of bis eventual exile, supposedly
brought about by false accusations made by the Q.ueen Tshe-spong-ma
concerning amorow, advances which he had made her, is more likely to have
been caused by doctrinal dissensions. Yet another of the first seven ordinands,
who like Vairocana was a renowned tramlator, is rMa Rin-chen ·mchog . He ia
known to have worked in close association with another famous Indian tantric
scholar, Vilasavajra, and his connection with the tantru of the Old School is
quite certain. 9~ Such was the variety of Indian Buddhiat teachings entering Tibet
at this time. as included within the two main Mahayana categories of the System
of the Perfections (Pdramit4na,a) and the System of Formulas (Mantranaya) as
defined above in section 111.1, that there were doubtless many basic texts on
which all Tibetan scholars with Indian backgrounds would find thfflllelves in
agreement, but it is difficult to see how some of them would have found them-
selves in disagreement with the teachings of the ChinC'$eparty, who likewiac held
to teachings that could be justified by reference to basic Indian Buddhist texts.
One can only assume that the account of the lndo-Chine,e dispute, which takes
up so much of the traditional versions of the events of Kbri Srong-lde-brtsan's
reign, represents one dispute among many; that they neither represent fairly the
Chinese side nor the Indian, in that particular lines of argument, cenainly valid
so far as they go, have been selected as though they were universally
representative.
According to the later traditional vt-:rsionsthe dispute was provoked io the first
instance by the aggrel!liYe and vicious behavior of the Chinese- pany and was
settled conclusively at a council held either in Lhasa or bSam-yas under tht>:
presidency of Khri Srong·lde-bruan himself . The king decided firmly agaimt
the Chinese and they were driven from the land. M These Tibetan versions of
cvent1 have been shown to be totally mialeading, since Professor Demihille
published in 1952 the Chinese side of the story, based on an account drawn up
by a layman named Wang-bsi for the imperial an:hivea. Found amongst the
Tun-huang manWM:ripts,the report must have been written soon after the events
it describes; entitled "Ratification of the True Mahayana Principles Concerning
Simultaneous Enlightenment," it attests explicitly to the ratification of such
teachings as laid before King SlODJ·lde-bnsan by a Chinese teacher named
Mahaylna.~ More recently Yoshiro Jmaeda hae drawn attention to an early
Tibetan account of the ''debate" preserved also in a Tun-huang manuscript,
which ia a translation from the Chine&e.96 There is no doubt therefore that the
teacher Mahlytna was required by the Tibetan king to give an account of his
os Concerning Vfiillanj.a OM may reftt io the useful introduction of 'Ronald M. Oavid110n to liia
edition and trantlation of Thr Litany of Name of Mailjmri" in T411tnc OJ1d Taoist Studies in
00
Ho,wrof Projesu,rR. A. SUm, pp. 1,69.
!l.f Stt for eumpk Bu,ston°J History of Bvddhism, ed. Obenniller, vol. II, pp. l9lff.
s~ See L,eCona1• ,u LlutJa,pp. U-165 .
111Stt Y. lm~. "'Docwneni. ti~a ina de Touen •houang concemant .It' c:oncile du Tibet:·
jo,,rMI Asialiftu. 197!>.pp. l!S-46.
454 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
doctri~ following upon complaints made by Indian teachers at the court that '.
"the system of dhyima (Chinese: Ch'an; Japanese: Zen) known aa 'spontan~
enlightenment' as taught by the Chinese mon.k(a) corresponds in no way with:::
what ~s taught by the Buddha" together with the request that it should be
forbidden immediately. As a result of this challenge and the royal interest in the '
matter, it would seem that a aeries of documents were produced in question and ·
answer form. Whether one or more public debates were held must remain ·
doubtful, for the Indian side would have used Sanskrit sourcn and presumably -;
argued in Sanskrit, while Mahiyana.'s party would have used Chinese. The\
preparation of dossiers which would presumably have been placed before the"{
king and his advisers would have been enough to tax the ingenuity of Tibetan }
translators operating in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Their linguistic competence /
throughout thi1 early period of the conversion of Tibet, when they were dealing :~:
with both Sanskrit and Chi~ source materials, must have been truly out- ~-
standing, There appears to be no mention of Kamalaiila as actual leader of the {
Indian party in the early Tun-huang accounts and the three works written by)
him and entitled "Stage, of Meditative Practice" (Bhawnakrama), while entirely -'.
relevant to the doct1-ine of gradual pr~ toward enlightenment, could well \
have been produced quite independently of any debate. 91 It is interesting to note \
that the later Tibetan versions, misleading u they certainly are, continue to \
refer to the two main theses under ditcussion, viz., gradual progress toward ;.'.
enlightftlment as oppoacd to the spontaneous realization of enlightenment, by ) .
their Chinese terms. transcribed more or less phonetically into Tibetan as rTsen· ;-"
mi-n-pa ( = Wade : chien-men.-pa'i, meaning "gradual entry echool") and .-'
sTon-min-pa ( = tun-mbt-pa'i, meaning "spontaneous entry school") as though ·;
a debate between Chinese Buddhists were being tranaferred to Tibet. In fact the :
whole matter had been long since debated in China itself, where it has already ·
been argued that the teachings of the Mind Only school inevitably involved a
sponta~ realitation of the final truth when the proa:sa known as the
"Revenal of the Basu" was achieved (sec p . 108).99 Thus in drawing up hil
dossier the teacher Mahiyana could presumably draw on arguments that had
often been used before, without any necessary references to challenging
st:atementa from the Indian side. Since this question and answer form was of~n
used in order to clarify one's own points, there may have been no such debate at
all. He was challenged; he presented his caec; it wu approved by the king and
his advisers and.he returned to Tun-huang to a &ituation of bonor. The questions
and answers may be illustrated sufficiently by a single example from the dosaier:
Question : ''One might say tha t a Buddha does not become a Buddha until
t7 The lirs1 of t~ Bhovtmakttimu has h~n edited in Sanskrit and Tibetan with an .l!:nglisb
mum~ by Giwq,pc Tucci in MBT 11, pp. 157,end, and the third one has been edited by trim in
Sanskrit in MBT JII. £..Lamottt''s earlier cranslacion from the Tibetan will be fowid in Demie,,ille's
L~ Co11eik de LhtzJa, pp. 356-5%.
,a Ou the terminology involffli tee R. A. Scein, "lllum.inalion subitc, ou aaisie simwtan~" In
R- d,l'liis,oir• ,us religio,u, 1971, pp, 3·!10.
V.%.a Religiow Facton 485
through immeasurable ages he has satisfactorily cultivated innumerable
merits and accumulation• of knowledge, and that it is not pouible to become
a Buddha by the mere suppre•ion of falae notions. And why? Because if
Buddhahood were just concerned with these false notions , it would not have
been necessary to speak of the Six Perfections and of the twelve aectiom of the
canon. It would have be-en enough to speak of the destruction of false notions.
But since it is not so, your argument is not reasonable."
AnsWff: "It is becauae all being, throughout immeasu rable ages have been
unable to free themaclves from the false notions with which their thought has
been long impregnated by the three poiaom of pa•ion, etc.. that they arc
dragged into the flow of birth and death and arc unable to gain release.
According to the first chapter of the Sarvadh4ffll.4·f'To.vrtti-nirdesa, one is
caUed released if one hu eliminated every thought of ~very dho.rma, since
these are inapprehenaible in so far as they are just objectivized notions. Also in
the Vajrasomddhisutra the Buddha says: 'However little is the spirit kindled,
be it only as much as a single thought, the five components of penona1ity arc
born aimultaneously. Let beings but compose their mind in a condition of
calm! Let them be established in the vajra-sphere, and they will not have a
single thought. This absolute, this suchnesa , containa anthe dhannaa .' "!l9
It IICelDI that under the influence of Taoiat thought the implications of certain
Mahtylna theories, especially those of the Mind Only school, may have been
sooner realized in China than in India, although the terminology relating to
11pontaneout(yugapat) and gradual (kmmai,rtty4) realization was ready to hand
in certainsutras. 100 In India the implications are realized in the Yoga Taxuras, as
we have shown in Chapter Ill, and the later tantric yogins use such terms as
yuganaddlu,.("two-in-one") and sahaja.("innate") to expras the same idea of a
spontaneous recognition of the truth, where the two planes of s~sara and
ninra~a are known simultaneously for what they really are. Yoga Tantras of
various kinds, some referred to u Mahiyoga, were certainly being promulgated
in Tibet from the eighth century onward. There could therefore be nothing
•trange to thoae who followed them in the teachings propounded by Mahaylna
and bis companiona, except probably the liJ\C$ of argument used. The teachers
of tantric theory who used the practice of self-identification with one's chosen
divinity as a means toward self-identification with the state of supreme
enlightenment did not see the nec:es-.ityof arguing their theory from Mahayana
sOtras; they simply produced the required tantras. The process of producing new
texts to fit new ideas was a continual one throughout the history of Indian
Buddhism, and for thoae who followed them they represented orthodox
Buddhist teaching,. But when Buddhist teachings were exported to other lands
99 SeeDe~l~. l,e Col'ldi,, pp. 5!-4. prniously ql&Ol*din my BuddltiJJ Himill4JO, pp. 157-7.
100 See W. Ueberithal, Th~ Boolt ofChtAo. hkmg, 1948. Smg·chao was a pupil of K.uminjiva ; of
Taoist upbringing. M in1trpreu Buddhbc con«pts in ao entittly Chioat form. See especially
pp. l69ff., MNotes on Jnstama_, lllumioacion. • For dll? Krmmology as it occurs in lhe Lanlca-
vatarri.swtni,s« Suiuki's tTanalacioo, pp. 49-50 (Vaidya', Saoskril ed., p. 24, II. 27ff .) .
436 V: 1H£ CONVERSION OF TIBET
and the same prouu was tried, their works were challenged as forgeries . It ia'.
therefore not Alrprising if Chinese fonnuJarions of Buddhilt tea chings ahould<
have appeared unonhodox to Indian teachers and to tnose Tibetans who were·
being schooled by them . However they received official approval and their
influence continued unchecked so long as Tibet had such easy access to Buddhist ·
centers in northwestem China . The teacher Mahayana himself was a notable :
scholar of his day and 8e\'f!ral woru are attributed to him of which some arc ·
found amongi;t the Tun-huang collections. 101 Jn T ibet his reputation has been a
mixed one: he was suppoecd.ly cond emned a1 a teacher of heretical doct rines; ~ ·.
was nonetheless included in an enlarged set of eighteen Arhats, and here we may ::
recall that the cult of Arhata in Mahayana circles was followed especially
Central Asia and China; 102 he is popularly treated as a kind of joker. appearing -~
in this role in practi cally all the displays of Tibetan monastic dance one ia ever i_
likely to Ke. 1os ,;
b. Varieties of reaching , wasexpected to answer:
The interest of Khri Srong-lde-bman himself in the kinds of Buddhism being _:'
preached in hls land i, clearly shown by the teats that he applied in any matter of •'
doubt (on the Indian side as well as the Chinae) and in the various invitations ?i$\t
that be aent to foreign teachers accompanied by lists of questions concerning :~ :~
; ;}
their doctrines. An interesting example of a reply to such an invitation has come
to light recendy thanks to an illuminating article by the Japanese scholar )f.lJ
Daishun Ueyama, entitled in English "T 'an-lt'uang and Buddhist Studks at ·?fti lJ
Tun-huang . "1°' This Chinese monk lived during the eighth century; having
studied at Ch 'ang-an at _the college es_tablishedin the previous.century by Hstian·
tsang, where the teachings of the Mmd Only school were chiefly promoted, he ,-h!i
settled in the Tun-huang atta, devoting himaelf to scholarly writings of that ·:;{~~
panicular kind . Amongst his various works there bas survived the lett er which he : ;ji:{
sent. in reply to ~hr! Srong·l~e-brtaan, the opening paasagcof which certainly
ments retranslauon tnto English. ·:{'i;fj.
·11,e supreme doctrine is obscure and profound; it remains unfathomable to
lower beings who are uninitiated . The subtle word embraces everything for it
goes far; even those higher beings, the sages. go astray. What is to be said of
m~ T'an -k'uang, whose knowledge is undeveloped and his teaching super-
ficial? I know litde of the sidras and the .iastras; my interpretation goes astray
101 Stt R. Kimur.a, "Le dbyana cbinois au Tib..-t ancien apru Mahayana · inJovmat Asialiqut ,
1981. pp. 185-9! .
l\Ji Con<:tTning th e aixteen o, eighttto Arhata in Tibeua an ace C . Tu cc i, Tiboton PIJinld
Scrolls, pp. 555ff.
IOI He ill refe rRd to•imply a1H1111,
-Jha11g, t.h,,Tibet an form ofChiacae Ho -Jftong, which iJ, tum is
a corruption. of thl.'San1krit term 11pildllyi,J1a
( "" "teacher") received lhrough a Cmmd Asian tran&-
miasion. In early ti- tM titl"' wa, u8ed in Tibet of Chinc:5C teadten gcnerally , not only cl
Maha yana. ~Tucci , M8Ttl. pp . 112-U , forothnsurncs .
lM lnjapa-. "Donlto10 Tonku bulr.kyogaltu" in T6h8 gakuh o, 1964, pp . 141-l?H, reviewed in
detail by Paul Dr.m.imDein "Rtctms tnvaux ~tarTOllan-houang ." pp . 29-43, and 10 whom I am
therefo,e much in~bted .
V.2.b R eligious FactO'ts 437
with regard to theories as to facts. Lying in bed and ill for a long time, my
suffc:ring5 increase; I am too weak to climb mountains and cross floods. Lying
on my pillows beyond che frontjen and directing my thoughts toward the:
Sacred Count enance, behold suddenly profound questionings descend toward
me. My 1pirit is afraid; I would evade them, fearing to show mysdf unworthy
of so heavy a task. However . suffering u I am, I wilJ reply respectfully on the
subject of these profound meanings, exerting all my efforts, but without being
guilty of presumption . But the points with which the queations are concerned
are extremely obscure: ; there arc: aome that I have studied before and others of
which I have never heard speak . Those which l understand, I shall explain in
accordance with what I )mow and have perceived; th0&ewhich. I do not k.now,
in: I will ex.plain in a reasonable manner . All that I fear is a failure to confonn to
the Sacred Thoughts (of the Buddha) and to be at variance with your
command. l beg you therefore to be indulgent and to take: account of my
sincere diligence at thi, great distance .
We may also quote a selection of the twenty-two questions which T'an -.lfuang
1. What do these Bodhisattvas do when they have left the woddly shores and
in order to save all living beings from the sufferings of afflictions (/clda) do
not interc&t themselves in the practices of the Early Disciples and Solitary
/J:11 Buddhasi
2. Furthermore in the case of those Bodhiaauvas who have entered upon the
practice of "no return," whatever they think internally , their bodies mani-
fest tin$ externally in the Dharma ( or: in the elemental particles , viz.,
Jlii· dharmas) . So when they are cultivating interiorly the Dharma of the
};i supreme practice, what are their outward practices? What is the Dharma
of the supreme p ractice?
S. Sou to cultivate body, speech and mind, one practices from beginning to
end. How does one practice?
/:~}1 6. Buddbas have three bodies (kayo). The Dharma-body is coequal with the
Dharma-sphere. The Tranafonnation-body exists indi vidually in each
Buddha. As for the Glorious-body (Saf!lbhoga-k4ya) . is it one or
?~l.f differentiated?
;'¾f
i1 7. Buddha, pouess omniscience and that is why they practice quite freely the
){fj Six Perfections. But it has the pure and inactive nature of dear and
\m¼ tranquil water. So how are Jbose two categories (viz., the inactivity of
·i'0
i1 omnilcience on the one side· and th e activity of the Perfections on the
other)?
8. It ill by pra cticing the practic~ of a Bodhisattva that living beings produce
the Thought of Enlightenment. But how do they produce those practices?
12. For Bodhiaattvas nirvAl';la and ~sA.ra are not distinguished at all? What is
the meaning of that?
14. Furthermore according to the Dhanna of the Mahlyana, Wisdom and
Meam are practiced u a pair. U living beings want to practice that way,
how do they proceed ? Bodhisattvas are paramount and so they can practice
in this way. But it ia not the same for living beings, 10 how do they practice?
15. or the thr~ waysof the Early Disciples, Lone Buddbu and Bodhi$attvas,
·/}?~~~
438 V: THE CONVERSION Of TIBET
how does each view the six objects of sense?
16. For those three ways of the Early Disciples, Lone Buddhas and Bodhi- :
aattvas, what are the charactttiatics of the initial production of the ..
Thought ( of Enlightenment)? What is their manner of practicing it? .t
17. Furthermore, all three (groups) enter into nirval)a. How is their nirviQa in.<
each ca1e, that of Early Di,dplea, Lone Buddhaa and Bodhisattvas?
18. Amongst Mahaytna s\"uras there art' aome that stalt that the three ways are
simply a matter of expedience (u-paytJ),while othen say they .are definitive,
Some 1ay that the (followers of the other) two ways can achieve buddha, .:;
hood, and others that they cannot. What is the meaning? i;
21. Although the cognition of Basic Consciousness (ala,a-vijrn:ina) and ).
supreme wi!idom differ aa regards defilement and purity, are they the same :.~
or different? What is the meaning here? .:
22. When a Buddha is in the world. all memben of the community practice ··
on«: and the same Dharma. But after the Buddha's nirv~a they separate · .
into four sects which are not the same. Of these four sects, which is the one·,
Dhanna? 105
Many of these are difficult and challenging qucstioos indeed, illustrating that ..
thoughtful Tibetans were already well aware of the existence of apparent contra- '.
diction$ in the MaMyma silmu themselves. They certainly range far beyond the :.
question of whether enlightenment ia to be realized gradually or spontaneously, .
although the twenty-first question relates to this matter, as docs any question of .
the essential identity of nirvi.iµ and &aJ\Uara, however it may be expresaed. Thi, ·
thesis, which as we have seen above (U.4.b) is forcibly expressed by the great
Nagarjuna, provides the philosophical basis for all later Mahayana develop·
menu, whether it be the dhydna (Ch'an) of Chinese Buddhism or the spon- ·::
taneous realization (wasa112vedana)by Indian yogins of the sameness of the '
apparently different planes of exis~nce. It always seems to the present wrib!r
that the most subde expression of this basic Mahayana doctrine was achieved in ·
the Mind Only ,chool with its teaching that the two planes were either the same .:''
or different depending upon the state of the one who regards them. As we have
noted , their position was challenged by thole who accused them of asserting the
existence of an absolute, thus permitting the concept of a self-existent being
after a Brahmanical fashion. However much denied, thia concept eased the way ·
greatly for the introduction of taotric theoriC$, C$pecially thost- relating to the
Ii
concept of absolute buddhahood (whar.ever name may be used) as expressed in
the fivefold arrangement typical of Yoga Tantras. 1"' All this has been explained
;.."::;:'
.e::~:.
:..t:':."
..:.~.::.
-:::.::
::.:::;.,'";«;.'::
10:, See P. Demii:Yilk. "Rec.entnnvauxsurTouen -houan& ,"pp. S4·6, forthecom~~lia«.
tel6 Itle relc!Yan1to note the popularity of MafljuJt'I u the la,_ of supreme Buddha (adibuddila)
inuilfcaatiom (•uch a& Vairocana, Mahivairocana. Vajradhara, Samantabhadra) in this period ud
the conntttlons of lh<IICwho promoted the rule, namely Mal!ijufl'tmlcra, Vilasavajra and Vimalll-
miua, with their Tibetan disciples. Stt Ronald M. Davidson, "The Litany of Nam~ of MaAjusfL"
V.2.b Religious FM:lors 489
Jeamed more or the Mind Only school than any other-due perhaps to Chinese
connections--, and that the Yoga Tantras which were beginning to wit\ a
following in Tibet accord remarkably well with these philosophical theories,
espeda!ly when they are presaed or almost p,used to the recogni~on of a se~f-
existent absolute. One of the main differences between the earlaer Buddhist
period, now under consideration, and the later one, especially when repre.sen~d
by the dGe-lugs·pa Order, is the relegation of the Mind Only sch~l to third
place in the ordering of their four philosophical schools and the plaang fint of
the PrAsangika ("Comequential"} school, which denies the existence of any
entity whatsoever even in a conventional 11ense.1°' In the earlier period this school
seems to be scarcely known.
The prestige of Chinese acholars mwt have been high. if Khri Srong-lde ·
brtsan found it desirable to send his enquiries on Buddhist doctrine to the
distant Tun-huang region, when one might well have expected the answen to be
available to him much nearer the court. In this respect ~ may refer to a short
survey of Buddhist doctrine attributed to a renowned Tibetan translator of the
period, sNa-nam Ye-1hes-sde, io early date b_eingconfi~rned .~Y~e existen.ce ~~
a manuscript copy in the Tun-huang collecuon. 108 Enbtled Vanety of Views
(lTa·ba'i kh_yad-par), it surveys four philosophical schools, the thrtt ways
(ydna), the set of four wisdoms, the eight kinds of consciousness, the two aspects
of truth, the two styles of no-.elf, the three modet of manife1tation, and the
twelvefold causal nexus. All these various sets have been treated in previous
chapters (see Index), and what is of main interest here is the arrangement of
philosophical schools and the attention given to Mind Only views throughout
much of the work. As listed the four schools are the following:
1. Thoee who hold to the existence of external realitiea (viz:. , the old dharma -
theory of the sects claased as Hinayana ).
2. Those who hold to the doctrine of "Consciousness Only."
3. Those who follow the "Middle Way" (Madhyamaka) known a& Practice of
Yoga(Yo~cAra).
4. Those who follow the "Middle Way" (Madhyamaka) known as Based on
the Sutra5 (Sautrimtib).
N05. 2 and 3 both repraent the Mind Only school, the difference being mainly
one of nomenclature due to the adaptation of the Consciousness Only or Mind
Only philosophy of Asanga and Vasubandhu into the general Madhyamaka
theory, aa represented by San1ara~ita. No. 4, as repreaented by the Madh!a·
maka philosopher Bhavya, corresponds to the school of the less negative
austainers of Nlglrjuna's denials, but which nonetheless rejects the Mind Only
theories. Ye-shes-sde devotes little time to this, as his interests clearly center on
the Mind Only teachir1gs. His view1aeem to have been typical of the period, aa
101 Concnning 1bew. four laier schools ae;: Ge•he L. Sopa aod Jeffrey Hoplr.im, Practice 0114
rAiiory of nb,tan Bt44dhinn, pp. 65ff.
aogSee D.S. Rurgg. "b lTa-b4'i lth-yo.d•par ~ Ve-sb;,s-sde" iro]dt4Ml A&ialiqu~. 1981. pp. :t07 -
!9. Y. lmaeda also writt!Sabout this work in ··.oo..-otru:nts
tiWtailll&de Toucn•hooang." pp. U!-5.
 440 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
we shall further note below.
At present we are chiefly interested to note the extraordinary competence,
linguistic, doctrinal and bibliographical, to which this shon work bears witness.
On the whole it emerges from a study of the lTa-bo'i khyod-par that a.bout the ::
year 800 a Tibetan scholar was not only capab~ of making tr.tmlations, which ·
were later considered "elastics," of many of the more imponant and difficult
Indian stitrasand iastras, but was also able to comp05e a trcati.e which proves .,
both a deep understanding of fundamental Buddhist doctrines and the ability ·
to present these in a concise and masterly manner. 1'his is a matter of remark- ··_:
able achievement, when one considers that Ye-shes-lSde wrote at a time ·..
following so soon upon the full implanting of Buddhism in Tibet by the .:
Teacher-Bodhisattva Santarak,ita and bis collaborators and diaciples in the
second half of the eighth centur.y.
I quote (in trat1$lation from the French) from the concluding words of Profeaor
Ruegg', masterly article, referred to ju,t above (n. 108). While accepting his full .•
estimate of the extraordioary competence involved, one may observe that it "
seems well-nigh impouible for such high standards to have been achieved in 50
short a rime. for ifbSam-yas Monastery was not completed until 779 (and no-one
would now suggest an earlier date than this). the time was very shon indeed,
Allowing for the twelve years that it took to complete tbc building, one can date
Santaraqita', final arrival in Centtal Tibet some time before 767, and for a
decade or more before that be had been in close contact with his chief Tibetan
disciple, Jiianendra . While it seerm certain that the first "official" translations
belong to the period of hi& stay in Tibet, as there are ~ many link.a between t~
names of the first ordinands and the fim great translators. one may fairly
assume that works of translation had been attempted rather earlier. We may
recall that the Tibetan script bad already been in use for administrative
purposes for close on one hundred and fifty years, by the time that bSam•yaa was
finally completed. Be that a,
it may, the words "full implanting" used above
must be taken at their full value, if one is to explain not only the individual
competence of someone such as Ye-shes-sde. but also the quite remarkable speed
with which so many works, mostly to be included later in the Tibetan Canon,
were translated from Sanakrit into Tibetan. A good indication of their number
and variety is provided by a catalog of such works, named after the royal offices.
where much of the tramlating work was done, namely sTong-thang IDan-dksr • .
interpretable probably as "White Cheek of the Empty Plain ." Of several such
early lists this one bas been fonunately prese~ in the Tl~tan Canon.1111Its
aut~on are ~med as the well-known translator dPal-bnsegs and Nam-mltha'i
anymg-po (Akasagarbha) wh06e doee connection with Chineae Buddhist
tradi~ons in CentraJ Asia is clearly indicated by a short Tun -huang manuscript
to which reference haa already been made (end of ,ecrion IV.2.d). It is eh~
I~ It hu been edi1~ and incle"~ ~ Mar<:ellcLalo11, "Leo iexte, bouddbiql,ICIIau lffllp& du roi
Kbn Srong -ldc -lwuan. /oflffl41 A.sttll1p,, 1955, pp. 51S·SS. For Prof-Dr Tucci '• oi-rvatl011a 1ee
MBT U, pp. 411-51.
V.2.b Religious FGclors 441
attributed to the reign of Khri Srong-lde-brtsan. as both authors were lmown to
be active during the second half of the eighth century. The lilt would quite
reasonably have been begun then as the first official translations were just being
completed , but it muse have been added to later on in order to include trans -
lations made during the later reigns of Sad-na-legs and Ral-pa-can. resulting in
the present total of seven hundred and thirty-six titles. In its present form it is
very largely a list of works translated from Sanskrit (Professor Tucci has
identified ooly eight from Chinese) and this is surprising when one takes into
account the very two who were chosen for this panicular task.. Their work may
have been recast in order to conform with the later prejudice in favor of texts
trarulated direct from an Indian •ource.
Once these official translations were undertaken, it was soon realized that not
only was a very precise terminology required, but also many new Tibetan terms
had to be devised in order to provide equivalents for an enormous Indian
Buddhist vocabulary. Owing to the previous ab11enceof a philosophical
literature in Tibet and thus of any need for an elaborate philosophical
vocabulary, the Tibetans were spared the problems that already confronted
translators of Indian Buddhist works into Chinese and that now confront& any
Western scholar who translates into his own langwige. One has to decide which
existing word to cbooae u the least misleading equivalent of a Sanskrit Buddhist
term, for which there is manifestly no true equivalent available. The Tibetans
simply invented new terms, imbuing them with the full and exclusive senae of
their Sanskrit equivalents, and even when they adopted existing terms, these too
were immediately absorbed within the overall Buddhist context . The moat
telling example of this is probably the word ciaos,which was previously used to
refer to the pre-Buddhist customs of the Tibetam with the general sense of what
was socially binding and which was now used to translate the Indian term
dharma in all it1 various meaning1 (even in the sense of "elemental particles"),
thus losing altogether iu earlier connotations. Once invented, all these terms,
new ones and old ones with changed meanings, had to be codified for strict use
by all official tramlaton. There was thus gradually produced the impmtant
dictionary of Sanskrit and Tibetan terms, known as the Mahavyutpatti and
which may be interpreted as "Essential Etymology," which we atilJ u&e today
-· usually in reverse manner of its earlier use- to discover Sanskrit equivalents
for Tibetan Buddhist terma. 110 ·
Akbough the considerable task of regulating translations must have begun in
the time of Khri Srong -lde -bruan, it aeems certain that the final ordinances on
the subject were made by his son, Sad-na-legs. It is therefore interesting to note
that hil former guardian, Myang Ting-nge·'chin, played an important pan in
110This work is aurib11tcd lo tile reign of Ral -pa-can. but as Prokaor Tucci ha. pointed out
(Tombs oftlu Tib.l.4n Kings. pp. 14-la), ic undoubtedly goes back to his pmieL"C'lsorSad-na·legs,
and OM might 1ttll -1m1C, 01 ita act\1111
cooccption, even b.-ck tot~ rinw ofKhri Srong·ldil·blUan,
WMtl thetl! problmia wcrl!fant 1moualy confronted. Latn Chinell! c-qui•alenu were added a,..t 1b"
whole work -withnew indl~• la 1valbbic ma nrwJapanne fllit!on.
 442 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
all these activities, appearing as one of the chief promP.ten of an imponant
guide to translators, which was certainly produced during the reign of Sad•na- ·.
kgs. It is entit1ed "Word-Combination, a two-part work" (sGra-slryor bam-po ·;
gn,,s-pa) and it may be helpful to quote from its opening worda, which clarify ·
the intentions of the promoters. 111
The Western scholan, the teachers Jinamitra, Sunndrabodbi, Stlendrabodhi,
Danaifla and Bodhimitra together with the Tibetan scholan, Ratnaralqita ·
and Dharmataida, and the experienced translators, jf\Anaacna. Jayarak!ita,
Maiijuirivarman, RatnendraAlla and others, having made translations from
the Sanskrit of both Mahayana and Hinayana imo Tibetan, made an index of :_
the worda they had med. The order was given that one should ne\11!rtranslate
apart from that criterion and that everyone should become familiar with it.
Out of the many terms wed previously in the time of my Father, Offspring of
the God&,by the teacher Bodhisattva (5antara~ita), Jillnendra, Zhang-blott
Nyen·nya-bzang, Bloo K.hri-bzher Sang-sbi, together with the translaton
JilanadevakOl!a, ITse Khyi-'brug and the Brahman Ananda and othen, in the
translation of a religfous language which had not been promulgated in Tibet,
there are some that failed to accord with religious criteria or with grammatical
11$&ge.Thus those that were unae1:eptable in their unrevised state, were
revised. The linguistic term, which required elucidation 111 were accumulated
and then depending upon their usage in basic Mahlylna and Hlnayloa textS,
also upon their usage by the great masters of former timn such as Nagarjuna
and Vasubandhu and the meaning that waa to be extracted in accordance with
grammaticaJ usage. those that were difficult to understand were separated
into their parts and then prescribed as a rule with the clear meaning given.
Simple tenns that did not require elucidation and that migh1 be .suitably
translated according to their ordinary meaning (literally: just as they sounded)
were prescribed as terms with these fixed meanings. A$ for aome words, which
bad to be fixed in accordance with an interpretation, they were prescribed as
terms with these finn interpretations.
The greatly Venerable dPal-gyi Yon-can, the greatly Venerable Ting-nge-
'dtin and other11came together in the presen~ of the lung; they made their
request to the usembly of ministers, the fixed terms for translating from
Sanskrit to Tibetan were prescribed, and the following orders were issued.
As for the manner of translating Holy Religion, tnnalate into the best
possible Tibetan without violating the interpretation. When translating the
Dharma, if the meaning of the Tibetan when translated holds together
without changing the order of the worda in Sanskrit, then translate without
changing the order of the words.
If an improved understanding results from changing the order, then chan~
the order as you translate but keeping within a single phrase ( or vene),
whether it has four or six feet to it.
111 Jt bas bttn edited and translated into German by Nils Simon1110nin lnd(l-til>e1uclle Studien.
PP- 258ff. He alao quotes an earlier Italian u-ai~ation o( Alfons.a Ferrari, publlsh.:-d i11 her
Artkamulca-ytt.
l u This phrase _m, imJ)O'Sible to tramlate as it 6tand6. I take ,r,os or bc.s as being " corruption
of the verb 'clu,d/ bshad , sill«' this occun in a related cona1n1cti011jusr ~low.
R~ligious Fo.ctor.r 443
V.2.b
So the rules are listed, giving the most preciae details on the correct methods of
translation. If the reference to Hlnayina scriptures seems at first surpriaing in
,hi• overall Tibetan Mahayana context, one must remember that the monastic
rule (Vir1aya) of the MuJa,Sarvutindins wu adopted generally in Tibet. The
last item in this set of rules is perhaps of special interest, as it refers specifically to
the translation of tantra,.
The tantras of aecret mantras are to be 11ecretby regulation, for it i$ unaccept·
able that they should be explained and shown to those who are unfitt~.
Although meanwhile their translation and practice have been allowed. their
enigmatic language has not been explained so that they have been taken
literally and their practice has been perverse. While it may be said that th~e
are selections and translations from among the tantras, hencefonb with
regard to dktlrt.U)is, mantras and tantras, unless permwion for translation is
given, tantras and mantra expressions are not permitted to be collected and
translated. m
With or without permission tantra, we-re cenainly being translated, and we
shall refer to some of these below. While the royal ordinances of the kind just
quoted had the moat positive beneficial eff~ in ensuring that_ fro~ th~ time
onward the highest standards of translation work were ma1ntatncd m all
officially recognized programs, they did not have apparently any negative
inhibiting effect and "unofficial" translation, surely continued to be produced
away from the coun, not to mention the steady increase in the production of
indigenoUI works. With the collapse of the Tibetan kingdom a few decades later
the rules fell into abeyance until they were reintroduced by the king, of Western
Tibet, but whether the rules were of11eialor not became of less imponance. Of
chief imponance was the fixing of a comprehensive Tibetan vocabulary for the
tramlacion of Indian works. Once eatabliahed, it was to the advantage of every
rranslator and writer to use it, if be wished to ease his own task and produce
texi. that were comprehensible to others. The question naturally arises: in what
style did a writer such as Ye-shes,sde compose his work. round about the year ~0
before all these regulations were made during the reign of Sad-na-legs early m
the ninth century? The answer to this must be twofold: namely that much of the
vocabulary was already agreed upon during the earlier period (the second half of
the eighth century) and thett mutt have been a continual process of revision,
carried out citiM:r by the master himself on his own work or by his pupils and
1ucceS1or1. Thus a work like the lTa-ba'i khyad-par (discwsed above), as
preserved in a ninth- or ~en tenth-century manuscript from Tun-huang, is
unlikely to be just as the author produced it. This detracts in no way from it5
m Simonswn, 1,p.cil., pp. 260-1. My tranalation Vllnet from bis considerably;_e.g .• it is surely
im~•ible to take tin,•• a noun meaning "m"3ical power" in its prea:nt grammaucal concext. ~
tunm1ion of zl113 gdo's II.~I as "while i1 may be ,aid" may not b4:,uong enough, b11,~c _word.'"
u-emingly oonupc, whfthrr written u fdag, or as gdn's. The ccrm nana!aied as . ~'111~a1ic
languag.," is ld~m- po,which re~nu abhi.l4f!1dhi or saridhilbM4". often rranolared aa -•,ntenuonal
language." vii.., the use of tennu,ith a hlddrn meaning.
444 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
value, for it is doubtless substantially the same. However, we may note that the ·;
eaae with which manuscript copies could be changed may have resulted in the ·
deliberate alteration of whole passages in later timea to bring the author into line :
with what future recorders of event. think that he should have written. 114 Profes. .
sor Tucci suggests that this could have happened on quite a large scale with the
writings of the very period with which we are dealing, in the attempt to pt:aent ·
to a later generation a fairly united Indian "front" opposed to the "heretical"
Chinese . us Such changes would h.lve been made in the twelfth ·to thirteenth
century before a work waa accepted for the newly established Tibetan Canon,
but there was no reason why Ye-shes-sde"s work ahould have been amended juat
then, and a comparison between the Tun•huang version and the one now in the
Canon suggests that no changes have been made. One is not always 110 fortunate
in finding the aame work preaervcd in both places .
Another intercsting question concems the relationship between the
comiderable progrcM being mad e in translation work from Sanskrit into Tibetan ,
and the parallel work that proceeded in the translating of Chin~ into Tibetan •;
and Tibetan into Chinese. This work proceeded mainly in Tun-huang, both
because it was a very irnportant Buddhist center with numerous monasteries well
known to the Tibetan11 and also becau5e they actually governed that whole area
from the end of the eighth century to the middle of the ninth. 116 Here the task
was much more complicated where Buddhist works were concerned, for in order '·
to produce acceptable translations one had to work with the Sanskrit termino-
logy or at least the approvw Tibetan equivalents as drawn up in Central Tibet
constantly in mind or readily available in a word list. Thus the process of adding
Chinese eqnivalents to the MahlJuyutpatti must have begun at an early date. '
Once again one may assume that the first ttanslations, made before any such
vocabulary was fixed, were later amended to tonforrn with the approved
terminology. especially those later included in the Tibetan Canon. That
examples remain of unamended texts is well illustrated by the Tibetan trans-
lation of the Chine&e account of the Lhasa "debate" to which Dr. lmaeda has
drawn our attention. Any such work in which later generation, of Tibetan
Buddhists had no particular interest was almost cenain to remain in its
uncorrected form. However, by the ninth century high standards of competence
io this most difficult of translating work was achieved. In this respect the best
114 As i:swell known tile Tibe1ans were by no means rbt, only onn lo tamper d(,liberately with
earlier t:eus. One of the more interesting Chri,uan exampla a{fec:u the refel'ffltt to j~ IIS of
Naumh in lhe wrililJlP or J.1itvi11,joa,:phus . the f.lmoua fint-century Jewish hiarorian . This has oftm
ba,n ~forred to , but for ea,e of refottna. 11tt F. F. Brw:e, }83W 11mdChristu,,a Origi11-1 Ovlside tlu
N• w Tti,-'4ment, IA>ncltm, 1974, c,hapt"" !.
m See MBT II, pp, 111·!> and 120-!; I note that R . M. Davidson. op.cil. (n. 95 above), e11pre,'6
doubt abou1 this (p. Ubl,), bur on the very nexr pa~ a~-c:ept~the possibilityor similar di:s1orrion1
achieved by easier me-.ins.
11, Of a population of cwenty thousand there wett more than a thousand monks and n11ns, 1;.;ng
in their vario\lS «>mmun.itia and J\I by.et w a g<'neTal admini11:nwr, who lffffl• 10 haw. been equal in
dignity to tht: dnrric1 4:0mmilllionc..-hinudf. Me Paul DrmiMllc, "R«en11 tra'¥aux sur To~n-
houang,'' p . 17.
V.!.b R~igiow .raclo7s 445
1tnownfigure must be the Chinese scholar Fa·ch'eng, known in Tibetan as Chos-
grub with the equivalent meaning of"Perfect in Religion ." Active in Tun-huang
from the early SSOsonward, he received from the Tibetan administration the
title of "Great Tranalator-Reviser of the Kingdom of Great Tibet" (Bod
i chen-po'i cha.b-srid-ltyi shu-chen-gyi lo-tsa-ba), producing translations of
Buddhist works subject to the sympathetic interest of a Tibetan district corn·
missioner who was himself a fervent Buddhist. 117 After 848 when Tun-huang was
lost to the Tibetans he continued hia work, &e1:'minglymainly with his Chinese
disciples, until his death about 860. He probably had some knowledge of
Sanskrit, but all his work consists of trarulations between Tibetan and Chinese
and original works of his own in Chinese. He adh~ to the teachings of the
Mind Only school. following the pauerns set by H.siian-tsang, as did also T'an·
k'uang . Among well-known T ibetan translations for which he is retponsible one
may rnention the SuvaT1J,4prabhasoltama StUTa,from which we have quoted and
which is found in the Tibetan Canon both in his version translated from l•tsing'a
Chine~ version and also as a direct translation from Sanskrit. This last was the
work of Ye-shes-1de, working together with the Indian scholars, Jinamitra and
Sllendrabodbi, all mentioned above. Anothtt of his translations from ChinCR
into Tibetan is the collection of stories known as "The Wise Man and the Fool"
(rnlhtJngs-blun), which may have been compiled in Central Asia, where it was
clearly a popular work , serving to impn:55 upon simple believers and also would·
be converts the basic Buddhist teachings con~ming the unavoidable effecu of
om:'s actions, good or bad. Most of his work, however, was concerned with the
philoaophical works of the school of Asanga and Vuubandhu, m
Despite the interest taken in Tibetan translations from the Chinese , which
certainly continued ao long as any Tibetan interest in this remote pan of Central
Asia remained, it was bound to be rapidly overtaken by the work being done in
Central Tibet direct from Indian sources. During the reign of Khri Srong·lde·
brtsari there appears to have been at least equal interest in both Chinese and
Indian traditions, and it must have taken aome time for the prestige of Chinese
lt>arning to be undermined by the realization that India possessed aource
materials of immediate validity. Chinese teachers whether of necessity or of good
will had also been more obliging than Indians, few of whom can have relished
long sojourns in the Tibetan climate. Chinese and Central Asian monks
throughout this whole period must have been a far more usual sight in Central
l"ibet than Indian monk&, for it was normally the Tibetans who went to India in
quest not only of books hut of the expert guidance they needed. Also whereas
m Thu is Kbri -swn -rje, contffni.ng whorn Stt Pa11I~~. Le Ctm.eik tk Lhtua. pp. ~8!11I.
Cho$-gn,b is rderted to at ~ast onc:eas rillg·lue,. i.e., gme,al administrawr; unle:1&
also uacd as a
councsy title , this Sllgpl$ 1hat he may have been head of th1' whok Buddhis\ community at aome
time.
118 For more dnails a,e Paul Dcminille , ''Recems travaux , " pp . •7-6%, which providn a detailed
anal-,,.i, or an article by D. tJl:)'ama, "Dai Ban -koh daitolr.u llllnwh&hi shamon Hojo no kenkyu"
(R-arch con~ning the monk Fa,ch'cng, MaJter o( d-, Law, Vmerable Scholar of l'ibct) in Tcilw
1a1tu/s6, pp. 185-98,
 446 V:J THE CONVF.RSION OF TIBET
Chinese a5'istance was paid for at reasonable rates, one hears OOll$tantly about /
the vast amounts of gold that had to be offered to Indian teachns in return (or ;
their help. However, it was inevitable that during the reigns of Sad-na-le~ and'.
Ral-pa-can the full importance of the Indian connection was recognized ancf
from the early ninth century onward the history of the conversion of Tibet :,
becomes an lndo-Tibetan affair. ::
Having given some detailed attention to correspondence between Khri Srong- )
lde-brtsan and the Chinese monk T'an-k'uang, I should perhaps refer to a lett~ ;,
purported to have been sent to the same king by the famo\M Indian scholar .-
Buddhaguhya, whose disciple Vimalamicra visited the Tibetan coun just before .
the end of the eighth century . It would appearfrom the letter that Buddhaguhya: :.
was invited by the king, but refused for the reasons quoted below. It is in many .\
respecta a curious document, containing strange allusiona that give the/'
impression that either Buddhaguhya foresaw the end of the Yarlung dynasty in/
quite precise terms or that his letter has been suitably updated at a later time, ~'
For present purposes it should be sufficient to quote a few extracts from it. It
compoaed in its Tibetan translation, as preserved in the Tibetan Canon, entirety :.
in vene, and falls into four parts, addressed in turn to the king himself, hia }.
ministers and men of religion in Tibet, those "in retreat ," and those who an:: ·
ordained. 119
A letter sent by the Great Teacher Buddbaguhya to the King of Tibet,
Kbri Srong-lde-brtsan, the ministers and ecclesiastics of Tibet:
Salutation to MaiijuitU
sPur -rgyal of Tibet, Lord of dark-headed subjects,
Khri Srong-lde-brtsan, son of Mes-ag-tshoms,
Grand.on of the King of Miraculous Power, Rlung-narn ( = 'Dus-srong).
Thus of unbroken lineage with Srong-brtsan agam-po,
The embodiment of Avalokiteivara, embodiment of a Bodhisattva!
A man of great knowledge among the six claaes of living beings,
He has no connection with the line of Khri rJe-thog-brtsan downward, 1
That founder of the sixfold lineage, that tree of the Five EviJa.
Having established the law of the Ten Virtues, he performs the task of
con~rsion.
This lineal manifestation, Khri Srong·lde-bratan
Opened a window on the darkne.t11 of living beings,
Acting in this wise:
I It The pt'O!:ilentt7anslatlon la ma~ fron, dte Pelting edition (Tr. wil. 1!9. pp. !8i· l ·4 to 286·!·!}
checked 1gah11r lhe Nanhang Tenjur. mDo, \'ell,94. COIi. 587 ·91.
1!11Khrl ije-thog-brtaan is the Chia-hsl-tung-mo of the 'rang Annal,. wbett be is named as firKof
a lineage of Tlbe~n kiogs where Sfoog-brtsan apm·po coma sixth. This will be found in Paul
Pellio1, Histoire A"'"°""" d11Tibet, p. 82. Erik Haarb notet 1hi&c:om:lation between the Tanc
Annals and B11ddbaguhya·sletteT in Th, Yor-lun l>y,uu:, , p. 127. Concerning J/>w.·rool or J/>ur-
rg;yal(written also a., />¥-rsyo/ ,iuat below in thia letter) ltt die Index . The Y11riou, nuna, titles,
1,ic-.knama.11\U:,of all tho, kin,p an lilted by Erik Haarh, op. cit., pp . -15ff. Rluag •Mm, written here
u Klung-nam, will be found on p. r,4,
v .2.b ReligiousFactors 447
.....
At Vajrasana (Bodhgaya) in India Suyamuni announced the thrttfold
scriprurea, •t•
Bringing to maturity Ananda and the others of hia following.
So it became the center of the world and wise men of great merit ensured
that it was 10 .
Hearing that, he broke with Im spiritual lineage
And so as to ttndcr mature his realm of such small merits,
He $0Ught out all learned and noble men,
Vairocana and Ka·ba dPal-bruegs, Klu'i rGyaJ-muban and A-ra A-ro
MaiijuSri:
Carrying the best of wealth, costly gold and iulver,
He sent them to obtain the Holy Religion of India,
Thus opening a window on the darkness of Tibet,
And reaching the limiu of his royal domain.
I. Buddhaguhya, rejoice at this.
Making straight (STong)all crookedneas in government,
is:i Divine (Ide) among an uninterrupted aeries of marufestations,
In the presence oftbe mighty Khri Srong-lde-brtsan
The power of ways human , ways divine, have reached their peak.
The combined disorders of wind and bile and phlegm
And the Eighty Thousand hostile spirits do not spare the component pans
or thil human body. which is like a blazing gem.
So ManjuArIand Mu·ti·ta have died. in
One such as I is now invited from afar,
Bu.t I am now weary and do not have the power.
The Noble Manju.trthas said: "Going to Tibet will be the death of you."
Thus powerless, J &end in return for the esc:onyou have sent,
The insttuctiona entitled Yogovatara ("Starting Yoga")
Jn answer to the enquiries of your two mes.scngers
I have explained the Tantra of Manifest Enlightenment. 1n
All items for both external and internal practice,
'° Everything needful, nothjng omitted, J send.
art This statement is not mkity accura~ as lik.yamuni turned the Wheel of the Doctrine in the
Dttr Park at VarioMi , while the "tbl'fflOld scriprurcs" (Vin:aya.Slirras. Abhidbanna) according to
an early tradition lfftt fint recorded at llajagrba. Howner, ar rhil luer pe7iod Bodbgaya had
becofflf.'the primary place of pilgrimage in the Buddhi!ll world, thus rcpmentinJ the "heartland" of
thC' doctrine .
lt2 Thia line read., Jom.,dpol dang ni Mu-n•ta '4 lhvms. u though meaniag: "and MaiijuRi bat
died at Mu-ri-1:a.-1 linowof no place M11-ri-ta.TM c:olophonof another work of _Ilia,the DA,n,_ .
1114t1"4/aStiha ('IT, vol. 81. pp. 107· 1· 1 to 110·4·&) makes it dear 1ha1two disciples of his are
iefen-ed co and I bav" amended the tut accordingly. The colophon in que11tionr~ds: · Sem by !he
Indian Pa:11t/ito.B11ddhagubya10 dBu Mai\jlliri and Bran-ka Mutlta. translated In Tibet by eh~
Lo-tsa-ba dPal-bntegs and others." The "Noblr MaAjl&tlf"mentioned jll4t bdow presumably reren
to a divine orade and not in thit use to a deceased dilcipl~.
tt~ ln Tibetan: m.ngo,a-porb,O"#l·t"*l>-P.·)i tantro. /uh.ad. Thi, doubdeta «:fen to !he ,'llaltil,
>Jam)t4M·Obhisa'lflOOdAi Tantro., listed in the IDl\n,dkar c:.au.log.no. 321. u r,'vom-P,,r ·,IU"tr ·
mdao.d"'"f'N'·J- lryangcllvb -l'O, It ii in TT, vol. 5, pp. 240ff. as 1raNl11Cedby dPal -bnle8•
---~ hy S!lendrabodhi .
448 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
Keep careful watch Jest they be lose to others.
Tibetana are alert in mind and clever.
They jump at all they Stt.
With no coucept of wrongdoing they make religion void.
Manifold is the cause of miaery and the dfecu (of good works) are lost.
Keep carefully the items for external and internal praaice.
With the answers to enquirie5 and the present in return, do good to
living beinga.
Khri Srong-lde-brtsan's great-grandson's
Pair of demons, pair of sons, will cut off your lineage,
Although the Tibetan kingdom is d~ armed camp of the world,
From his great-grandson onward the armed camp will be destroyed.
(lfi lines of verse omitted)
Wherever one is born high or low in the six categorin of living beinga
One remains independent monarch of one 's own telf-produced knowledge.
One's later knowledge is commingled with ( existing) knowledge.
The essential propeny of mind is wealth of knowledge, 1 say.
So know well the essential propeny of mind!
The sill categories of living beingsare to the mind
Like a darting monkey in a house.
Up or down wherever one goes, it is mind itself which has the power.
Do not be s)othful. Watch your own mind. I say.
(32 lines of verse omit~)
Each way (ydna) has i121 particular entry
And although results are achieved from all of these,
Choose the Vajra Way of Secret Spells,
For in the function of a guide it teaches everyone the (appropriate) kind
of practice.
So choose the Vajra Way, I say.
There exists a barbarian form of "wisdom."
Do not have faith in that. Have nothing to do with the sites of the tombs.
There is ri&k.of disaster. Do not waver! Be firm, I say.
(17 lines of verse omiued)
Like a still expanse of water, be unmoved!
Just as water is pliant, be: pliant within!
As a great lake is hard to fathom, set no limit!
Like great waters that arc: hard to bold back, apply yourself to governing1
·::tlf~Y!
~
V.2.b Religious Factors 4-49
Like the ocean that is aU embracing, be welcoming.
As water satisfies the thirst , satiafy the thirst of others!
As the ocean gathers in all waters, gather in all around you!
As an image appears dear in water, make all cl.earl
tf the perM>nof the king p014ie18nsuch qualities u great water hu,
As the royaJ lineage of Pu·rgyal, the kingsof Tibet are destined to be rulers
ofall dark-headed people, lsay.
With this stray advice despatched to your presence
May you , O King and Ruler, open a window in the darkness .
I beg you to keep it always in mind .
Thie section for the king is followed by one for the ministen and layfolk in
general, containing straightforward moral advice, and next a short section for
those in meditation (sgom-chen) and finally one for monks (bande). A few verses
from this last section may usefully be quoted:
Jf you are uncertain yourself, do not teach others.
Keep your three vows as you _would keep a p~e- ~ gold:
Honor your Vajra Teacher hke your chosen divtntty (yi -dam lha).
His profound instructions are as precious as the apple of your eye.
Even if you are knowledgeable in all w
ways()ldna),
Do not adhere to other ways than the Secret Way(= Vajra,ana).
Although you may know the other ways, not adhering to the Secret Way
ls like wanting gold and getting pebbles.
If the five affiictiom are not severed from your life-&erieli,
Alas, then you aever your life-11erie1as a monk! .
To be a monk and not abandon the afflictions, these two do not combine,
As though fruit might come from a rouen aeed.
If you do not cut down the evil tree of the five afflictions, m
Alas, when you stoop low in wonhipl .
Not to cut down the evil tree and to keep a faaLday. theae two do not combine.
It is like wrapping a berberry bush with fine doth.
If you do not envelop the five afflictiom in w (celestial) expanse,
Alas, when you make your rounds of a stt\pa.
Not to preceive the Dharma-expanse and to make such rounds, these two
do not combi~.
It is as though a temple might encle>Kan oil·pres.1. m
m The term /,lua (afflictiou) is~ het-cas synonymous wilh the Five .Evils,vis.• wrath, ~elu~,
malignity, pa.Mionand envy. There att S(",meunusual tcnns in thia wh~ work: _e.g•• ih~g-tsltyp
(Samkrit ur14) .., a wcigbl in gold; pyu llli lh,ugs = the two do not pair (M~rupom. &!>!~).
us Tbc,oe 1.. , few w:na <>On'apondto Tl' . vol. 1!9, p. 285-4·6 onwanl. J obtam the word 011·
prl!II" by amending ma,- 'dl,d to .. aT· 'tlon, CMwhole phrue be-ing:_,.. 'dotl ll&a-11/ta"l·,:,U 6,lwr ft
htitt-rlO.
 450 V: THE CONVERSION OF TlBET
I have quoted at some length from this epistle, as Buddhaguhya's fame was
widespread and bis in0uence through bis disciples in Tibet was considerable; he
waa (and still remains) one of the chief authorities on the interpretation of the
Yoga Tantras, which were being introduced at this time. These represent a lar~
pan of Buddhist theory and practice, in which the Tibetans were clearly
interested, but which was unobtainable from the Chinese side. The letter ia
surely genuine, although it may have been tampered with in the opening
pauagt!. The references to the royal line would in any case have had to be
written on Tibetan advice, which was certainly available to Buddhaguhya in
India, where he received Tibetan disciples, among whom are the two named
who had died, all too common a fate of many Tibetans in India, where the
climate waa quite uD.8Uitablefor them. Any prophetic statement invites the
suspicion that it was written after the event, but in the original Sanskrit it may
well have been worded even more vaguely than at present, and some such
statement fit11in with the general theme of impermanence, which plays an
important part in alJ such teaching of a general nature. The Tibetan translation
is cenainly an early one, filled with strange obscurities. Otherwise this letter
accords with the type of such missives to kings from leading men of religion, and
we may note at once the existence of another one written to Khri Srong-lde-
brtsan by Srtgh()fa. Thi5 is much better compOIC(j, having been presumably
written originally in Tibetan. He certainly writes far more reverentially than
Buddhaguhya, for he was a subject of the king whom he was addreaing, He too
refers to non-Buddhiat religious practices. using for these the term g•yung-
drung: "Always perform meritorious works and do not ever consider for a
moment to ettablish the (religion ot) 'eternity'." 126 O~ may recall Buddha-
guhya's wor<h about having nothing to do with "the siteS of the tomba."
Although this cult wu dearly viewed with such diap~asure by Buddhists, it must
have continued right up to the end of the dynasty despite the royal Nppon for
the new religion. One IDU$t express again one's admiration for the high standard
of composition that was apparently achieved in so few decades, even allowing for
later revision. I notice in passing a ahon work entitled "Summoning the Elders"
(Sthaviropanimantni~) written by an Indian teacher, Bhavakandad.uya, and
translated by Jinamitra and Ye-shes-sde, who has been mentioned several rimes
above. It is a call to the religious life in India, referring as usual warningly to
other states of existence, but containing descriptions of idealized Indian settings
with names of diver,e t.rees, animals and birds. Thu. the Tibetans had to forge a
vocabulary not only for religious and philosophical tenns, but also for the whole
natural and cultural setting, which is often refleeted in the Indian Buddhist
li~rature that they were importing. 117
m Taeci hq already aun11-n,arittdw (Otl~nts of thi&kuer in MBT II, pp. 141-S. To my know-
ledge tM uat of the tam g,yung-drwtg alont to !\![er r.onoo•Buddhist religion is unu111al,but one
may note chat the tenn '"'" dotS n« appear. although Tu«i has introduced it in his muwa1ion. Tht
'KJU" /aJ bsgrubs f'4 Jte I dtt ya,ig :r,d rtsam icic tu has I B·Ytmg·drung
phrase runs: hsod-,14111.l
bruugs par ma dgt>11fschigI, TI, vol. 144, p. 123-5-6.
m Thistcitt •ill be found inn·. vol. 129, fm,.l!9lH ·II to296-t,8. Profeaor F. W. Thomu ~
v.2.c 451
c. Early Ti'betan 1'muras
AftM all that has been written already, it must be clear that the kinds of
Buddhism introduced into Tibet were far from being exclusively tantric,
although it would eeem, as one looks back over the twelve centuries that have
passed since the first efforts were made to convcn them, that generally the
Tibetans have shown an extraordinary interest in tantric teachings. This may
not: have been so much a matter of deliberate choice as the ready acceptance of
what seetrui to have been the ~nenl assumption of so many Indian teachen
whom they visited in the quest for boob and instruction, thus gradually
discovering that this resulted in the wholesale imponarion of all the para-
phernalia of a highly comple.x religion. There must have been considerable
differences between Chinese and Indian forms of Buddhism, not so much in
philosophical theory, for both covered a wide range of MahlyAna speculative
thought, but rather in the religious cult itself. Before the Tibetan occupation,
tantras ,eem to have been practically unknown in Tun-huang, and there seems
little doubt that the main cult figures of Central Asian and Chinese Buddhism,
as fmt encountered by the Tibetam, were represented by a few Buddha, and
Bodhisattvas as popularized in certain Mahayana sutras (see section IV .2.c). The
far richer iconography of the Yoga Tantras was certainly known el~where in
China, where however it seems to have met with continual disapproval. Apart
from a limited cult of Vairocana as one of the supreme Buddha manifestations,
as witneued by surviving paintings in Tun -huang and Khoun, there is little
trace of its having penetrated Central Asia in any form more complex than the
arrangement of a triad or row of figure,, before the Tibetans introduced more
elaborate pattems from the ninth century onward. In opening the way to Indian
Buddhist traditions Khri Srong-lde-brisan himself may have been displeased
with aorne of the religious teachings and practices which. he found himself
spomoring. Both the last item in the official promulgation concerning
translation work and the ordinance of King Ye-shes-'od of Western Tibet issued
50me tw0 hundred years later (see V.S.a) indicate a continuing SU$J)icioncon·
cemi.ng tantric practices, even though it is explicitly admitted that such rites
may also be performed seriously. Rulen are more interested in good govern-
ment, which is assisted by the promulgation of good moral behavior, than in
specialized religious cults and eve1,1in philosophical theories. Khri Srong-lde·
brtsan seems to have been one of the rare exception,, but it is not unlikely that
he continued to find Chinese Buddhism more to his taste than the Indian forma
that were pres,sed upon him . There is no realiOnto doubt that Buddhaguhya and
bis disciples u~d the king to promote the VajrayAna, but his level of interest is
surely indicated by the list of questions sent to the Chinese scholar T'an -lc.'uang.
At a more popular level there was cenainly a ready willingneu to test the
to thia work M an "invitalion ileued10 Indian BIMldhitt />4t"Jitsby the Tibetan king Khri Srong,lde·
brwn" (1-WT ~ . ,;;t .• vol. I, p. 262) but I find oo reallOnfor t~ia aaumpti~. ft~- p~ably Ira~·
laced •• a ~nl call to die religious life and i,o thought apphcabl e to the 111uanon m T1""1:, which
doea QOt appea r to be mmtioncd anywhere in the text.
452 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
magical powera of those rep~ntativca of the new religion who claimed the
ncccssary competence. Here wu a qu field of po11ible activity, for one need&
only to think of the amount of human suffering from illncSKSand accidents of
all kinds that cry out for relief. The ~neral Tibetan belief in the maUgn
activities of a boat of nonbuman beings provided Buddhist teachers with the
opportunity of demons t rating their superior powen, and they could pel'hap, win
their new dienu with a more impnssive ritual and a greater display of co nfident
knowledge than their rivals pot5CS$ed . The Buddhist teaching concerning the
inevitable suffering that befalls one u a result of evil det!ds committed in the
past, once accepted, would prove a sure way of &eCuring the suppon of one ',
convcru in the future , and in return they would expect the performance of
required rites , replacing thoee of the old religion whenever the need arose. Some
Western interpreters of this process see the client, u cynically held by their
ptteepton "in the bond, of sacerdotal.ism and idolatry, " 1'- but the demands for
such SCTViccsUiUally came in the fint inatance from the clien11, and religious
leaden often find themrelvcs performing a function that is demanded of them.
The nonhuman beings of Tibet, who have caused so mu ch hann to humu1
beings down the centuries , were already there when the first Buddhist teacbcn
arrived, and they had no choice but to come to t:erms with them, Tbua the
general demand for the kinda of rites readily available in tantric literatutt was
bound to a.saiatita promulgation . If it is thought that the tantril.l are being
considered at their lowcat level of operation, then ooe can only reply that this
was a real immediate need, which they were called upon to satisfy. Higher in the
scale of popular interest comes the inevitability of death, to which aU living
beings are subject. Here it m ight be argued, probably aga in unfairly, that the
Buddhist missionarica were creating a need for their services by the doctrine of
continual rebirth in accordance with one 'a actions . good or bad. which is basic to
all Buddhist moral practice. Here they manifestly bad tea chings to offer, which
were immeawrably more attracti~ than any pre-Buddhist teaching, can have
been on the aubject of life and death . Here we may note that while Buddhist
doctrine inaiau that all matten of rebirth in any of the aphett.s of existe nce result
in milery of one kind or another, and that one's goal must be total freedom from
the whole proccsa, man y believing Buddhists who do not aspire quite so h igh.
reat content in the belief that if one balanCN one's actions on the right side, one
can al least expect a better life next time than at present. Popular preaching ,
even as expretled in tome of the royal edicts we have con5idered, has thus
eneo uragcd a ra1her more pragm atic view of Buddhist morality. Here we may
perhap, obeerve a fundamental difference in the at titu des of Indian and Tibetan
Buddhists. In India th e belief in continual rebirth bad been part of a general
religious background for some fifteen hundred ycan before it was uaught widely
in Tibet. Apan from references to texts, we now have no way of knowing
whether the reactions of Indian Buddhi1ts to thia belief were different from thOI.C
lU f..g., seeL . A. Wa~ll . L.onurimt, p. 421.
V.!.c Religious Fadrrr$ 455
of non-Buddhilc.. In Hindu society it appears to have had t.he rather negative
effect of merely helping to explain your lot in this present life and thus
inculcating a certain quiet resignation with regard to the privariona that you
in•Y bave to endure . According to Buddhiat theory this belief should con-versdy
instill in one the determination to better one ·s lot in the next life, since one ia
notionally free from any concept of caste . How the theory worked in India in the
later period we cannot now tell, but it is quite ecru.in that in Tibet it was from
the stan a religious idea that was free of all social limitation&. Thus it became a
liberating principle. fully effec tive if one entered the religious life, for then aJI
things were theoretically poa;ble for you in the preaent life as well aa the next.
All depended upon the circ111N~nce5 in which you found younclf and the
efforts that you were prepared to make within the giveo. contex.t. Even as a
layman bound to the soil, you r present life may be hard , but meritoriow acts
could aecure you a happier life in your next rebirth and even the posaibility of
improved circumlltances in the present one. Thus for Tibetans the whole trans ·
migration theory was not something that irrevocably predestined your fate, but a
process that could be manipulated. In terms of traditional Buddhin teaching
one could change the whole courac of one ', future by a cha~d way of living . In
terms of tantric theory one might either f.rtt oneself from the whole process once
and for all by finding a teacher who coul d show OJlC!tbe way, or one could
attempt to manipulate the process through the a~ncy of a suitably qualified
practitioner .
Much of our Chapter III waa concerned with the methods employed for
ach ieving one 's total freedom, and these some Tibetans took up with extra -
ordinary enthiuiasm . As for the second po91ibility, they seem to have devised-
these methods them8dves, making use of certain tantric traditions, received like
the rest from India , but devising surer methods (u they seemed to them ) for
gaining the desired result. I refer here to the so-called Bar-do thos-grol
tcaching5, which both the rNying·ma-pas and the Bonpos developed , using the
circles of divinities as they were known from Yoga Tantra5 , whether considered
later orthod.OJ[or unonhodox, and rhe earli er aspintion toward the ,ec;:uring of
a happy rebirth by an act of faith and the recitation of the appropriate mantras
toward the one who could save . While the Bar·do tho.s-grol, which may be
interpreted u "Sa lvation by Inatrucrion while in the Intermediate State " ii a
kind of "science" in the art of dying and being reborn in tbe best circumstances
poe1iblc,the earlier aapiration toward a happy rebirth wu a quite spontaneous
development within Mahaylna Buddhum, once the whole rebirth theory was
brought into rel ationahip with the cull of Bodhisattvaa who were concerned to
save Jiving being&. As i5 well known, the cul t of the Buddha Amitayus/ Amitibha
(Boundlea Life / Boundless Light ) io his Western Land of the Blessed (Sulthi ·
vat.i) developed in China into a form of sectarian devotion known as the Pure
Land (Ch'ing ·t'u} sect . While religious sects came into existence in Tibet in a
rather d.irrerent way (1tt V.5.b), there wu quite u mu ch conttm tbctt aa in
China for one's fate after death . It is t herefore interesting to note that amongst
 454 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
the tantras rranslated in the earliest period, presumably with official conacnt
since it appears in the IDan-dkar catalog, is the Sarvadurgatiporisodhana, the ··
Tantra "Elimination of AU Evil Rebinhs." It was m1nslated by rMa Rin-chen-
mchog with the a111istanceof Santigarbha and Jayara~ita. The translation was
accompanied by Buddhagubya's commentary and alm05t certainly some of the
others (e.g., Buddhanandagarbha'1) which are now in the Tibetan Canon. m
The general popularity of this work is indicated by the large number of small
works, containing invocations and ,pells, which relate directly to the main
divinities of this tantra, namely Sarvadurgatipariiodhana himself. U~~~avijaya
and Sitatapatra, which have been found amongst the Tun-huang manuscripts,
One may also mention an interesting little work- the story of the quest of a son
seeking the ~ans of restoring his father to life. 130 He goes from country to
country as.king different teachers, until at last he comn to Slkyamuni Buddha in
Magadha, where he receives his answer, namely that good actions wilt ensure a
happy rebirth and furthermore if one masters the appropriate spell and makes
the correct homa offering one can control the proce• of rebinh of anyone
deceased. Thus we have here in brief form the same inatructiona as are given in
full in the main tantra itself. Related to this cult is that of Avalokitesvara, whose
spell, 01\f MANIPADME HO~. continually intoned, will save one from all evil
rebirths. So essential to salvation is the recitation of this spell that the prayer-
wheel wag invented, presumably in Tibet but when we do not know, so that it
might be repeated incetuntly. Thanks again to the research of Dr. lmaeda we
now know that this cult also goes back to the early period. as he haa discovered
two manuscripts among the Tun-huang materials of a short text entitled
"Overcoming the Three Evil&"(Dug gsum 'dul-ba). which brings together spells
from the SaTWdurgatiparisodhana Tantra and o~ MANIPADME HU?!f.181 The
origin of this spell as related to AvaJokitdvara exisu in the Kara~<f.a,vyuha Sutra
and it must have been current in India from at the Jatest the sixth century
onward. in Thi, siltn too was translated into Tibetan in the early period by
Ye-shes-sde assisted by Jinamitra and Danatila. The special cult of Avalo·
kitdvara must have been spread in Tibet almost with the first introduction of
Buddhi$m, a5 his missionary value was certainly considerable. According to later
accounts, which no acholar would now accept u likely. the Kllrti,µ/,a'llJfuUl Siilrti
was translated during the reign of Srong-brtaan sgam·po. h is not so unlikely,
however, that an image of this favorite Bodhisattva was instaDed during his
129 A, Dr. T. Skorvp,ki hu indic,ued in hi, edition of 1hi1 1an1ra all t"4! available c:oa1mentari ..
(110win IT, rol. 76) refer 10 1ht- early 11e1aion,u tranala~ by rMa Rin -c,hen-mcbog. "I'~tt i$ M
commen1ary available to the lat<!J' veniM translated by Cbos-rjt-dpal (twelfth to tbineen1h
century).
1$0 Dr. Y. lmaeda has di~~rm this text for what it is, and has produttd a French uanslatioo
with facsirnileof tilt MS. See Hutoire d'DCyck de la Naissance et la Mort.
131See his article, "Note prcliminai~ sur la formule OIi( MA~IPAl)NE IIU.I:(da"' In manuacriu
1ibetainsdeTouen-hwang," Coni~iltulion, ci,z it.,,l.•swr To ..... -ho11an,g.
132Conccming !his aee Conetan1in llisUMY, "Mo<i& Yichnouitet et linYies dans le karanda•
vyuha." in Ecudutibltames, pp. 411-,1. apec:ially pp. 4188'. For it&meaning- above p. 19!..
v.2.~· ReligiousFactorJ 455
reign; hence the later assumption that this popular siitra which told of hi&saving
powers. was introduc:rd at the same time. We may note in passing that Srong-
brtsan sgam-po hirmelf was acclaimed as a manifestation of Avalokiteivara
eventually. Thett is even a reference to this in Buddhaguhya's letter to Khri
Srong-lde-bman as quoted above. Probably any su~tion that this attribution
was already current toward the end of the eighth century will be treated with
scepticism, but it is not altogether impossible. The Khmer monarchs of lndo-
China and the rulers of Srivijaya (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). already
enjoyed sirnilar attributions. u, Since such ideas were generally current in Hindu
and Buddhist Asia, it is quite conttivable that already by the later part of the
eighth century Buddhist teachers might be reinforcing their sprearung of the
doctrine by suggesting that Srong-brtsan sgam·po (acclaimed in inscriptions u
the first protector of Buddhism) must aurely have been a manifestation of
Ava.loltitcwara. Th~e would chen be tl()(hing surprising in Buddhaguhya's use
of the attribution as a polite fiction.
Returning to the subject of early tantras in Tibet we may note that the
Mah(111airocana-abhisaf'fl,lwdhi together with Buddhaguhya's commentary on it
is listed in the lDan-dkar catalog. This commentary is probably one of the works
mentioned in his letter. His influence in Tibet at thia time, so far aa the official
introduction of the traditions of the Yoga Tantras is concerned, must have been
considerable. This influence was cenainly transmiued by Vimalamitra, Myang
Ting-nge-'dzin, gNuba chen Sanga-rgyas ye-shes and the translator dPal-brtsegs.
To these one might add rMa Rin-cben-mchog, for both he and dPal-bnsegs
worked on translatiom of Buddhaguhya's work,, It is remarkable that so many
of these names reoccur as the early nansmitters and translators of other tantras,
later regarded as unorthodox, and brought together u an organized collection
by Ratna Gling-pa in the fifteenth century as the rNying-ma'i rGyud- 'bum
("Collected Tantra, of the Old School") . It will be recalled that they wen
declared unorthodox in so far as Sanskrit originals could n.ot be later identified,
thus guaranteeing their Indian sources. When we add to the namea just given
above thoae of Padmasambhava and Vairocana, to one or other of whom are
attnnuted the origins of the teachings known u rDzogs-chen (GreatFulfillment),
noting that Myang Ting-nge-'dzin is al.so associated~. it becomes extremely
difficult to make sense of the later siP,1plifiedaccounts that assume the exutence
of an Indian party unified against an 'heretical" Chinese party, with which many
of the tantras of the Old School were 5Upposed to show connections . 1"' The
whole situation in the eighth and ninth centUl'iea was much more complex than
this. The "Chinese teaching," which certainly must have included the traditional
teachings of the Bodhisattva'• gradual progress toward enlightenment (as
m Tbe famous lt~pa of Borobudur , symbolizing 1hr. majcscic unily of roonan:hy and buddh.a·
hood. was built injavia abouc A.O. 750.
13<On 1he permmnc:c of thi• uaumptlon by latter Tibetan 9Cholars rtt Samt~n C:. Karmay. "A
Di,c11Mionof th~ lloculnal Position of rl>zor·chen from 1h~ "l"mih 10 1he l'hlrteeoth Ccntucies, •·
JouT1talAsiatique. 1975, pp. 147-66.
456 V: THE CONVF.RSION OF TIBET
represented for example by T'an-k'uang and Fa-ch'cng) as well as Hva-shang
Mahilyana'i; exposition in favor of "simultaneoua enlightenment," were
undoubtedly current in Tibet throughout this whole period and their influence
surely persisted after the collapse of the Tibetan kingdom in the mid-nirnn
century. Their teachings were ba~d entirely upon acceptable Mahayana sutras
and philosophical treatises, especially tho,e of the Mind Only school of Indian
Buddhism, and there was nothing tantric about them. Hett we must define
"tantric" as meaning theories and practices deliberately based upon supposedly :.
canonical te:1ts known by all concemed aa "tantras." There may aL'IOhave been
present an element of purely ChinC$ereligious thought as represented by original
Chinese sutras, m but this was 110 closely mingled with Indian Mahlyana thought
as to be scarcely distinguishable at the mystical level where it found best
ex:pi:eaion. On the Indian aide we may note a considerable importation of
conventional Mahly~a literature, all backed by Indian originals and
represented by many of the actual textS that have been mentioned in Chapter II
and even in Chapter 1 so far as Vinaya literature is concerned. At the same time
there appears to have been a limited official importation of a few tantras of the
Yoga class and their commentarial literature, backed by the personal i.aueresc of
renowned Indian teachers such as Buddhaguhya , who urged that the Vajrayana
wu the beat. This seems to have met with a ready respo~ on the Tibetan s.ide
for there is no trace of any dispute between th06C who favored the tantras and
those who oppoaed them. It must also ~ borne in mind that the temple ritual
which wa.scertainly part of the general importation was also largely tantric in
the real sense chat the correct manner of worshipping and making offerings is
one of the concerns of tantric literature, and there need be no doubt that Indian
and Nepalese teachers had prescribed the correct way of doing such things.
It is clear, however, that an official distinction was made between acceptable
and unacceptable tantric texts and practices, and this is likely to have had the
reault of making a division between those tantric works that were translated with
official consent and those which continued to be translated "illegally." Surviving
Tibetan manuscripu from the Tun-huang collectio11 reveal a far greater interest
in tantric literature than can have been officially permitted, and the writ of any
official ban cannot have run veTy far . Such bans simp1y bad the unfortunate
effect of excluding from the Mahltvyu.tpatti and similar approved lists of
Samkrit -Tibetan terms for the ulilCof translators all vocabulary that might be
regarded as tantric. This resulted in a far greater laxity in translation of tantras
in the early period, which were not officially recognized, and this aspect of the
matter may have had something to do with later disapproval of them, especially
when the Sanskrit originals were not fonhcoming . However, this is only pan of
i
the whole story, for if we take into account the great imponance of oral traM·
;;f;;;~;~~;=
=~~~;;;.;r
V.2.c Religiou.rf'actOYs 457
received from Indian tcachcn and subsequently composed by Tibetan disciples.
These would quite easily incorporate other Buddhist traditions, of which the
rnoet widespread in the early period were certainly those being promulgated by
Chinese and Central Asian teachers. Renowned Tibetan scholars of the period
were WI·iring freely on tantric themes, and the gradual production of tantric
cycle$, brought together in the course of transmission from master to pupil (very
much as Indian tam.ras came into being), would be a quite natural develupment.
A process Su(:h as this would explain the eJ:istence of the large number of
Tibetan tantras that were later included in the "Collection of Tantras of the Old
School" (rNying-ma'i -rgyud-'bum). It ii perhapsunfortunate that later rNying-
ma-pa scholars were thrown so much on the defensive by the promoters of the
new (gJar-ma) tantric tradition, which from the 4te tenth century onward ba6Cd
itself entirely upon approved translations made direct from Indian sources. To
the charge that their tantras were spurious they might well have retorted that
they were surely no more spurious than many of the tantras of the Supreme Yoga
class in so far as these were produced in the even more unorthodox circles of the
tantric yogins of northeasl India. However. such was the later prestige of the
Indian connection at a time when the comidcrable significance of earlier
Chinese aasociations in the earlier period was largely forgotten that the little that
was remembered. such as Hva-shang Mahayina's teaching about simultaneous
enlightenment, wu interpreted altogether out of context and in a remarkably
biased manner. It is notable how the later schools of Tibetan Buddhism would
willingly accept (with suitable commentarial reinterpretations) the moat
flagrantly un-Buddhist assertions of some of the Sup~e Yoga tantras , while
rejecting the more innocuous terminology of some of the rNying-ma-pa tantra,
as unonhodox and probably Chinese. From my own lamentably small reading in
tantras of this kind I would note rather the strong influence of the teachings of
the Mind Only school of Indian Buddhist phi)osopby as certainly favored in
Tun-huang Chinese circles following upon the enormous work done in this
panicular field by Junan-tsang. 1:16 The later Tibetan objection to the whole idea
of a "universal basis" (kun-gzki) as a kind of real absolute such as one finds it in
rDzogs-chen teachings curiously repeats in a changed hlstorical and religious
context the objection of Bhavaviveka (alias Bhavya) to Mind OnJy teachings
generally , as quoted above (11.4,c). Again the term used by rNying-ma -pas and
Bonpos for their rDzogs-chen teachings, either sems-phyt,gs ("mind-tendency")
or 1ems-tsam ("simply mind") suggest a quite conscious connection with Mind
Only philosophy. Moreover, the assertion of the identity of sa~sara and nirv~
which is so often found in their texts merely restates with changed turns of
phrase exacdy what the great Nagatjuna, whose word no one disputed, had been
saying. All this may be illustrated by a shon quotation from the gSang-ba
1:16"!"he roain purpc>M'n{ Hstian -uang'1 visit to India had been to bring bad Buddhln ttlltJ.
mainly relating to tht Mind Only school, to which he was personally au.ached. On his return tO
China in 630 he waa bl!frimded by the Emperor T'ai•11ung. who ensured that he was pro,,ided with
his own monastic college in Ch·ang-an and a full staff to wmt wirh h.im.
 458 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET V.2.c R•ligious F4ct~s 459

sNymg-po Tantra, ofwbkh more will buaid below: Here the Lord and Lady are subject and object, mind (yid = manas} and ideas
(chos = dharmas, "elements of existence"), thus representing the concepts of
Them the Lady Objective-Activity (bya-ba-mo), the All-Good Mistress of the:_ g,ahaka ('dzin-po., apprehender) and g,tlhya (pung-ba, apprehended) of the
Dhannas (Chos-kun-tu-bzang-mo) united with the Lord Subjective-Mind:: '.
Mind Only school. The expectations of the practitioners of a tantra such as this
(Vid-bycd-pa·po) the AU-Cood One, and they announced these verses: .
would appear to be exactly the same as those of the followers of more regular
Indeed! The empty reabn of the ten dirtttions is eternally void. Yoga Tantras:
The threefold world is the land of the pure (dag-pa'i zhing).
The five impurities are the resort of the-ble!Rd. Having fixed the cloudlike ma~4ala of the alphabet,
The five !kandhas are final buddhahood. They recited these verses of magical manifestation:
The religion of the Victorious Ones should not be sought elsewhere Mind itself which has no basis is yet the basis of all dharmas.
Than in the be&tof quint~nce, which is the All. Mind itaelf has the self-nature of this alphabet.
If they sought the Dharma elsewhere than from themselves The alphabet as active mind ( ffl4114J) is this gemlike cloud.
The Victorious Onc:i could never find it. Having perfected the netlike maJ;14ala, all forty•two letters of this magical
A$ he recites this, the Tathtgata him1elf knows that all is Buddha eternally .. ma~la,
Then the great nondual one (bdag-nyid chen-po) in order to arouse the One accomplishes all perfect mar;i4alas in tM ten directions and four
eternal Buddha-mind to con,ciouanas said thill: periods of time.
Ohl The wonder of this marvelow Dhanna, Acting as an elixir it disposes of all evil spirits and the four hundred and
The aecret of all perfected Buddhaaf four diseases.
Everything is born from where there is no birth. Appearing as the Glorified 8ody(.ra11tbhoga) it eliminates all evil rebirths.
For what has been born there is no binh. It a«omplishes whatever one wants anywhere.
Ohl The wonder of this marvclous Dharma, It is hard as a thunderbolt(Mm-kha'rdo-,je);
The secret of all perfected Buddhas! Burning. it consumes even ftre.
AU is ended where there is no ending, Transformed into water, it acts the same way.
For what has been ended there is no ending. The world in all i.tsparts is dispersed.
OM! The wonder of this marvelous Dharma,
All is d~omposed and void.
The ~cret of aJl perfected Buddha$! By means of this meditation one conjures fonh, one send, away,
AU is at rest where there i, no resting. One binds, OM releases, one enlivens, one kills, one brings defeat or victory.
For what is at rest there is no resting. The terms such as "fonn" (ripa,) and so on are self-manifestations of
Ohl The wonder of this marveloui Dharma, absoluteknowledge,
The secret of all perfected Buddhasl And their transformation into the self-nature of mind
All is envisaged where there is no envisaging. Is like the changing of darknessto light or the production of gold by
Where there is envisaging, nothing is envisaged. aJchemy. 1~
Ohl The wonder of thil marvelous Dharma, Although excerpm like these reveal a rather different quality of 1tyle from m01t
The secret of all perfected Buddhasl orthodox Yoga Tantras, 1 would not doubc that they are based upon a Sanskrit
One comes and goes where there is no movement. original. Although impoesible to show in translation, this is even suggested by
In coming and going there is no movement.
the word order on occasions, whett a sequence is used that ii awkward in
As this was recited. all the Tathlgatas and the whole host of spou.sespervaded Tibetan but that would cause little problem in Sanakrit where case endings are a
one another delightfully. m sure guide. There is no question that the concepts are entirely Indian. The forty·
One observes here exactly the same ideas as an- expreaeed in "onhodo.x" Yoga two letters of the alphabet (syllabary is a more accurate word, but less familiar)
Tantras, but expressed in a more purely philosophkal and mystical language. are the thirty·th~e consonants of Sanskrit plus the compound letter kfa and the
eight vowels, i. u, e. o as both shon and long. 1" The amount of tantric material
m I have ddiberatdy choeen tbfa paisage as 1he vencs "Ohl Th<- wonder of this marvelouf
Dhar.ma, nc." occur in a Tun-huang MS (Stein a,IJ«tion no. 8!12),we K. W. EMtman, "Mahiiyop
Texts at Tun-huang.h o,.... may deduce from this that at k:aa componenu oflhe gSag -bd sN'jing- . 1:18Ibid .• fo. 8b7 (p. 16, last lint') onward.
po 1ontm exisled well Mfore the ten1h l'l'ntury, but rhrrc would -.n c,o reaaon 10 doubt this 1'9 This aet uf Cony-two lctt«s of the Sanakrit alpbabe1 appears to be a iip«ial Tibetan •nangc"·
anyway. Tu rllort extract will be found in ,h., reprint orr~ rNyiP1g-m4rgywd- "b11m.YOI.14. fo. 4a7 mem, and it would be iiuunting to know if ii can be found in 1biafor10 In any tantra of undiaptau,d
(p. 7, Ii~ 7) onward, but l ac~pt tb., 'l'un -huang MS reading o{ 'l?Md-ltyi-clioslnatead of the Sanu:ril origin. TM number forty•two fiu with t~ p.rawnably later formulation c>f1bf>fony•tW<>
sma,J.J,yi-e/t.t)s
of t"'1-print~ text. Tranquil Divinities of rNying -ma tradiriQft; fo, tbete we my Butld/ristHimiJJaya.,pp. 229·!11.
460 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
that. requires investigation remains enormous, and any obRrvatioru of a general
nature made on tbe basis of a rapid pcru.-al here and there can be VCTy mislead-
ing. Also one notes that titles of works are applied rather differently in the
various set1. Thus in the rNying-ma tradition the gSang-ba sNying,po ("Secret
Essence") is d~ main tantra of a aet of eight tantras known as the May4j4la
("Magical Net"}, while according to the later canonical tradition this same name
of Miiyafala corresponds roughly with one of the rNying-ma set of eight, namely
the llla· mo Tgyu-'phrut. ••0 In its canonical venion, as translated by Rin-chen
bzang-po. it conforms entirdy to the content and style of other orthodox Yoga
Tantras, such as the "Symposium of Truth,·• so often referred to above in
Chapte III, and to the Vajrasikluira Tantra, uanslated by gZhun•nu Tshul-
khrims in the twelfth century. 141 Written as Pafrasekhara (the meaning is the
same , viz., "Pinnacle-Vajra"), this name is used of a set of dispened Chinese
tantras, which seem to correspond in many reapects to the set of eighteen
Mahayoga Tantras in the rN:,ing-ma'i rGyud- 'bum . 1,iz
While it is atrangt'! that a fundamental Yoga Tantra, such as the "Symposium
of Truth," has seemingly left so little trace of itself (being mentioned only in a
stray document so far as present knowledge goes), there can he no doubt that
there was a consi&rable vogue of Yoga Tantras in Tibet in the early period,
,ome of them appearing in approved translations and others being produced
probably on the basis of oral traditions, when they came under the influence of
Chinese styles of teaching, which were nonetheles, still largely Indian in
inspiration. Whettas the official scbolaetic tradition ea~ to an abrupt end with
the breakup of the Tibetan kingdom in 842 and the withdrawal of 1tate suppon
for an monastic establishments, the freely motivated propagation of Buddhism,
especiaJly of tannic traditions , seems to have continued unabated . Whether
Glang·dar-ma, the supJ>OIICdarchenemy of Buddhism, withdrew state support
on his accession c.838 or whether this happened foUowing his assaS&ination in
842, can have made little difference . It ia even possible that later Ti~
Buddhist historians treat him quite unfairly, for he may not have been anti-
Buddhist at all; they may have simply asaumed his respomibility for .the bruit·
down of religious establishments, which clearly occurred either during or at the
end of his reign. Samten G . ~rmay has recently drawn attention to a
remarkable little Tun -huang manuscript that &scribes in a few ironic verses the
situation just as the author must have seen it unfolding. Having referred to the
beuefils of Kbri Srong,lde-bman's reign in terms rather similar to those used in
Buddhaguhya's letter, he continues:
When they accorded with the criteria of the ordinances,
The teachers of exo<eric and eaoteric religion
l te for this id,.nlification I am ~bt«I to Mr. Ke11ncth .Easunan. Rin·d\e11 biang·po 's .ersion i,
in TT. ,•ol. 4, pp. 157-5-4!{.
hi TI', vol. 5, pp. lff. lts full titJe is VajraJikhara-11UlhaJOf•ManlTa.
ut On thii in~resting conneaion - K. Eaarman, "'The Eigbtttn Tamras of tht.-Va.irilkkh•n/
Miyijila, ~ abm-act in Tnim. Jnt,rntUional ConfCT"enc• of o,,-.,.i.ilist•
m]o.pta1,no. 26, pp. 11!),6,
V.2.c R~ligio-usFactors 461
And knowledgeable vajra masters, all three
Did not confuse their practice& in auch a way
That conflict arose between knowledgeable monks and those who were
knowledgeable in religious practices.
So all the people of Tibet were content and h.apPY.
But from the time of (Giang- )dar-ma, Ofhpring of the Gods ,
Down to 'Od-srung and his descendants,
In general Holy Religion extends and spreads,
Extends much and greatly spreads
So that all who are born human endeavor to practice it.
Without knowjng the three vows and monastic rules ,
One buys a vajra muter for the price of a donkey.
Without possessing the right consecrations
One buys .a teacher to guide one for the price of an ox .
Without possessing a guide's consecration
One buys a vajra master's assistant for the price of a horse.
Without even possessing the conaecration of a vajra amstant ,
One buys a vajra chief for the prit:f: of a slave. 10
Such talk of religious degeneration wu probably only part of the story, for if we
are to judge by the quantities of rNying-ma and Bon traditions, which were
amaued over the two to three centuries following the end of the kingdom, there
was certainly a vast amount of literary endeavor. While it was certainly of
unequal value, whether from an hiatorical or religious point of view, it baa
preserved for us, even though still not fully explored, far clearer impreaions of
the ao-called "first diff1mon" of Buddhism in Tibet than one may gain from the
accounts of la~r writers. Tibetan Buddhism was neither extinguished in Tibet
iuelf nor in the remote parts of ear.tern Central Asia, over which the Tibetans
lost control after the mid-ninth century. The Uighur Turks who wrested ·the
greater part of their northern empire from them, became Buddhists in the main ,
while still preserving Manichaean and Christian interests. As we have n<Ked in
the last chapter the Tangut Hsi-bsia kingdom was manifestly imbued with
Tibetan religious cultuN!, although eo little is known about it. Literary activity
certainly continued well into the tenth century at Tun-huang and maybe even
later than this . One curioua little text, which resembles the notebook of a student
who is practicing his Tibetan-Sanskrit terminology, lists the names of Indian and
Tibetan kings, ending with a rather jumbled liat of rulers of Weatern Tibet, thu,
taking us well into the tenth century. 144 Among his various other lists tbett is one
of the Nine Ways (or Vehide1), which differs from the "standard" ones u shown
onp. 407.
If one asks what the Nim Ways are, we reply
The Way of Men, the Way of Gods, the Way of Early Disciples,
10 Stt Samren G. K.armay, "King Tn /Dza and Vajrayana" in Tantrn: and 1'aoisl StvduJ in
Honor of Profeuo,- R . .4. Siem, pp. 192-211. The text and translation (pp. 207ff.) an- inci~ntal to
an intereoting article c;onttmed with 1hc origin of rNying -ma· pa tantr•-
144SeeJo,oephHadtin. J.ormulair• Samcnt, Til>ltain du x~ suck
 462 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
The Way of Lone Buddha.a, the WayofSutru. the Bodhisattva Way,
Then Yoga, Kriya, Upaya,
Yoga offour kinds: Yoga. Mahayoga, Anuyoga, Atiyoga;
KriyA of four kinds: for Early Disciples, Lone Buddhas. Sutraa and
Bodhisattvu;
Upaya of four kinds: resulting in the "fruit" of Early Diaciples, of Lone
Buddbas, of Suu-asand of Bodhisattvas. m
Here upaya is clearly understood as umeans," whatever its phonetic connection
may be with "pa-and ubhaya in such a list. Kriyd ia understood as "ritual" of
varying kinds, as performed throughout the various pha.es of Buddhism. Thus ..
here there are in effect 1even "ways"(y4M). of which Yoga of four grade$ is the .<;
highest. while kri1(! and upaya are aspectS of the whole series.
The variow "ways"are also listed in the gSang-ba sN-,mg-po Tantm in a
rather simpler form:
For power of conversion thCTehave been announa-d the Ways of gods and
men,
The Way of Early Disciples, the Way of Lone Buddhas,
~ Way of Bodhisattvasand the Highest Way,
As well as the eighty-four thousand teachings (clharma) aa antidote
To the ruination of ignorance in its eighty-four thousand kinds of
affliction. 148
W~ may further note the litt of"ways" in a sbon work attributed to dPal-brtsega,
which has been arur.lyzed by Professor Tuc:ci. 1• 7 This comes to a total of ten and
CVl!neleven. The Early DisciplN are divided into Sautrantikas and Vaibhasikaa·
then following the Lone Budd.has, the Mahayuia is divided into "logic" ( ~1um'.
nyid) and the "middle way" (dbu-ma). 141 Thereafter come the six classes of
tantras as later established by the rNying-ma·pa• (liated on the diagram on
p. 407). Doubtless one could find other lists with major or minor variants, but
this is surely superfluous. It is 1ufficicntly clear that 1uch wt. were drawn up in
order to explain the different forms in which Buddhism appeared up to about
the tenth century.
One important category mi•ing is that of Supreme Yoga Tantras (antlttara-
yoga·tantra) and it would appear from the ordinance of King Zhi-ba-'od (see
V.S.a) that this particular term waa still unfamiliar in western Tibet as late as
the eleventh century, where such tantras a:re still referred to as prajna-or yogini-
tanlras. As such they are known of in Tibet from the eighth century onward, but
there is no suggestion that they should be placed in an especially high
1
46 See Ja."J>h Hadr.io, oJ,. eit .• p. 2 for the Tibetan tn.1. p. S for the romanned version and
pp. Sl ·2 fof his l'l-fflch translation. ' cit., p. S!, whett ,ogin.tanl'fflj are mend~.
1t1 Stt Cos.6alf.
147 SeeMBT 11, pp. 157-!I,
~-48~ mulum-~d and db!'·mo correspood ro ctllom<it,a and llldd/t,omaA.I, thu1 rogechcr with
...,l,ilafria and $01'/?onbl11mak.ing up me foar Plillo.ophkal Schools. See p. 250.
V.2.d Religiow Factors
category. 1•~ The recognized tantras held in particular respect. such as the
Guh'))tJJamajaand the Kalackara, are simply designated as "great yoga-tantras"
(mah4yoga·tantras). There can be little doubt that the term Supreme Yoga
Tantra, which was presumably alteady in use by tantric yogins of eaaern India
of a Buddhiat/Saivite background, was deliberately adopted by them as an indi-
cation of the exceptional value placed upon these curiou& works. ThU$ it become5
prevalent in Tibet during the latter part of the so-called "second diffusion" of
Buddhism in Tibet, when eastern India (modem Bihar and Bengal) became the
main source of Buddhist teaching for Tibetan itinerant scholars. 100
d. Freedom from Restraint
1'he assassination of the devout Buddhist King Ral·pa·can in 8S8 at the
instigation of his brother, and the fierce reaction agaimt organized Buddhimi
that followed, were probably provoked by the presence of Buddhist prelates in
high office and the unwonted costs of maintaining a well-organized Buddhist
community, comisting of foreign scholars, Tibetan translators, communities of
monks and the several temple staffs. Thus then:: is $OIIlebasil for the later sto~
concerning a limited persecution; foreign scholan had to leave, official
translation work came to an end, religious communitiet were dispersed and
temples were unattended. If their doon were eealed up with mud, as later
accounts say, then at least they were not systematically dettroyed. Books may
well have been carefully hidden, and othen would have been taken by th01e who
fled elsewhere. Three heroic monks are mentioned in particular, who fled first to
·· We5CernTibet, thence through Central A&iato the Kucha area, finally settling in
Easttm Tibet when they mana~d to keep a monastic community in being.
From here a monastic order was eventually reestablished in Central Tibet some
time during the tenth century. Tibetan accounts remain in ~neraldiaagreemcnt
over the various dates put forward. Accurate OtlC$ can hardly be expected during
a period when there waa no central organization to keep track of them. The later
recorders of these stray events had also DO thoughts in mind for the relatively
flouriahing conditions of their religion in the eastern part& of the Takla Mak.an
area, which were then controlled by the Uighurs u well as in w Hsi-hsia
kingdom that came into existence toward the end of the tenth century and where
Buddhism strongly influenced by Tibetan cukure continued to thrive until the
beginning of the thirteenth century. when the whole kingdom was destroyed and
the people exterminated by the Mongols. Until then there was no lack of
facilities for study and religious pracdce io these areaa, if any Tibetans from
eleewhere wished to join their fellow countrymen who had settled in these
149 See R. M. Davi&ao, "The Utany of Nunn of Mafljum," p. 8n. Abo Joseph Hackin, op.
This may be a tenth·<:mnuy text. but Im Intention I,
to collate tarlltt material. We may note 111passingthat the STI'S Is mentioned and also a certain
..fvotara T.ntr.a, which may be rhe - rd'crred to in Buddhaguhya's lcuer (- V .2.c).
150 I refer again to the significance of thi6:ihiflaway from nc,nhwettemlndia iowanl the cod of
section V .S.b. Sec allo the lndtt and« Tantras, various c:laaificationa.
464 V: THE CONVERSION OF T IBET
disrricts during the expansionist days of the Tibetan empire and who continued
to live there . Tibetan mamacripts continued to be copied and religious boob to
be written, often based as previously on Sar11lo-it and Chine.e originals or
compoeed from oral traditions received from a teac her . This kind of Tibetan
Buddhist literatutt is well represented among the Tun -huaog collection , which
must only comprise a very mull part of what was then available. In the later
accounts we read of one scholarly Tibetan monk, named dGc-ba Jub-gsal
(possibly 832 -915), who stud ied in the Mi-nyag territory (corresponding t0 the
later Hai·hsia kingdom) for several years and ended his days in Ea.stern Tibet , ..
There is the interesting report of his eetting out to villit Centtal Tibet, but he met · ":.
a meuenger of ii&ruler, who advised him : "Venerab le Sir, a great famine haa .,·
happened in O (dBw = Central Province); you cannot go there." So he
renounc .ed his intention . 151 He can scarcely ha~ been a 50litary figure and the re
must ha~ been far more practice of Buddhism during this "dark period " (dark
simply because ao little is known about it) than later accounts tend to suggest.
According to the Bl ue Annab, from which much of our material will be drawn
from now on , Claog -dar -ma c.iueed Buddhism to go into decli~ for acventy
years and there was not a single monk in Central Tibet. However, the numerous
followers of the Old (rNying -ma) timtras conti nued to practice their religion in
many localities. giving blessings and conaecrations, an d receiving in return giftJ
in kind from grateful villagers . Thus when monutic communities were later
establi,bed, people were already prepared for this .m It is noteworthy that when
we are able to follow reliably historical accounu from about A.D . 1000 onward.
there would no longer aecm to have bttn any suggestion of opposition to
Buddhism, which is such a common theme in the earlier period. Tibet seems to
have been largely converted to at least a general acceptance of this religion,
which wu earlier foWld to be strange and foreign, a5 a result of the preaching
and administrations of free -roving religioua brethren and lamas, who might
aometimes be M!lf-styled , but who rnore often bad received valid consecrations
from reputable maaten . The U6C of the term "Old " (rNying-ma) just above is an
anachronism, if one conceives of an already existing rNying-ma Order, but the
predecessors of the later lOOldy organized rNying -ma Order were certa.mly very
much in evidence and many of them were the direct successon of renowned
teachers and scholan of the earlier period. An important early link in such a
chain is provided by .Nuba Sangs·rgyaa Ye-ahes, who was born in 772 and is said
t0 ha\lt' lived for one hundred and thirt«n years. Whethe r u long u this or not ,
be cenainJy outlived the "persecution," viaiting Nepal. India and Gilgit, and
cnaured the continuance of his teachings through the medium of four favorite
disciples . One of his teachers had been Vimalaktrti (ett the lnd~ ). whole
151Concrrning Mu-zu dCe-ba Rab -gJ&l, 1cc Tiu BI•, Anncu. pp. 6S-7. Roerich ma.ka ,~ial
fflf'ncion of him in 1hr inttoduaion , pp. S\'U•niii . F<Whit dam I ha>t!a«qlUd H. E. llich:udaoo 's
t~tiv~ r«oosmKuoo iD hit aroc~, MA Tibe11111,-rip«ioQ m,m r('.,..I lha·khang; and a Note on
T,~an Chron~ from A.O. 841 co 1041!," JRAll, 1~7. pp. M-78.
IM See Tlt.11Bl.u Anncls, p . 1n .
465
v .2.d
teachings were also transmitted by Myang Ting-nge-'dz.in and rMa Rin-chen -
,:nchog. There ia a uadirion that both of these were killed by order of Glang-dar·
· ma. Whether cruc or not in both cases, the teaching th at they represented
certainly contin ued .
oneof Sangs -rgyas Ye-shes's e11entual succe9$0l'9 ~as Zur-chen or Zur -po the
Elder, ao known to distinguish him from his chosen d isciple Zur -chung, or
zur-po the Younger . With these two we find ourselves already in the world of
yogin magicians of the kind that one meeu throughout the whole latC1'history of
Tibetan religion. Both appear, however , to have bttn notable scholars ,
collecting and classifying Yoga Tantras and their commentaries, having first
received the appropriate col\9'!crations. Here Yoga Tantras must be understood
in the earlier sense (ace above). The Elder Zur . built a temple at '\Jg-pa-lung
(Vale of the Owl) and a hermitage for meditation in the ShangwValley, both in
the gTsang Province . m There is a curiou s story of how he captured a serpent
divinity and lr.ept it in a jar, thus producing as much barley-ale {chang) as was
required at any ceremony. An inquisitive follower of his opened the jar and the
,crpent and the magic were both lost . \!14 He also came to the aa.iatance of 'Brog•
mi of whom more will be said below (V.S .b) and found gold for him when he
needed it for his Indian tea cher . This was not .o difficult to do in Tibet , once
one had located it.1 presence and washed and aifted it out. There is also the
intere1ting story of a wealthy couple who mvited him as a follower of the tantras ,
together with a Buddhia t monk and a Bonpo, to perfonn a ceremony together .
He said that the shr ine they intended to build should be dedicated to Vajra·
.auva , while the monk insisted on booor being done to Slkyamwii and the
Boopo wanted a shrine for gShen-rab. The monk soon parted company with the
other two, while they built the tempk together, but finally they could not agree
whether Vajraaatcva or gShcn ·tab should have pride of placr , so Zur gave him
the temple. Whether historical or not , it is an interesting 1tory of friendly
relations between Bonpos and rNying -ma-pu . 1116
The relationship of Zu.r the Elder with his diKiple Zur the Younger is al110
interearing. He found hil pro~~ brilliant , but he lacked means , 10 Zur the
Elder got him to marry a wealthy widow and her daughter. The younger man
replied that he did nor want to be a family man . "Do not be narrow-minded,"
was the reply , "You have no means ;•bu t by becoming ma$tcr of thdr property ,
you can obtain tamric consecrations and boob and so complete your coune of
atudy. It will help tbete two to gain meri t and your objective will have bttn
achieved. " When he ach~ed what he wanted, his maate-r told him to leave them
and join him . The youth demurred , saying: "Thi.a will not do, for they were very
kind to IJM!." Again his master pcBuaded him , aayi.ng;"Do not be small-minded .
m Tl>e,c places are id«mtiticd in a ttavelog of~ 11\nettemh antury, da criblllg .:11.n'CI litcs lfl
Tibtt. $« AtrOIIIIIl'crr ari . mKltym ·tm's Giau to th , &ly ~ es of Centrol Tibll, W · 69-70.
1~ Th, BJucAMab . pp. 111-12. 1"1xaamc &tll>ry occurs in cbe biognphy orRi n-cben bunr ·po.
See Th, Cultvral H•rila, • of LadoM•. vol. 2, p. 95,
m Th, BI"' lfn,r,;w, p . llS.
 466 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
You will be one who is able to benefit living beings. In thne hard times you
should work for the well-being of all living beings by spreading the Buddhist
religion , and this will be a proper reward for their kindness. If you look after
these two only, you will achieve neithff your own benefit, nor the benefit of
others."
Having followed his teacher's advice, he developed pat sanctity and magical
powers and gathered many students around. He is said to have mastered the an
of levitation to high degree. not only circumambulating a stllpa moving a foot
above ground, but also being able to raise himself in the air to the height of a
palm tree (used juat as measurement in Ti~). He remained long periods in .f it
solitary meditation, but much of his time seems to have bcc-n devoted to his -?if~
disciples. His teaching was based upon the so-called Old Tantras (the gSang-ba
sNying-p,, is especially mentioned) and the doctrine of the Great FulfiJlment
(rDzoga-chen). On one occasion a monk named Khyung-po who belonged to the
reformed achool, which was making great progress in Western Tibet as a result
of the strenuous labon of Rin-chen bzang-po and othen , came to the dimict.
Rather than confront the Younger Zur penonaHy, he sent four of his own
followen to question him and, he hoped, defeat him in argument . However, he
so impressed them that they reaolved to become hia diaciplea, only delaying a
year so as to break more gentJy with their old teacher. He was so displeased when
he heard about this that he exclaimed: "This so-called Younger Zur is a man of
such wrong views, leading all living beings into false ways, that if he were
destroyed, the .killer would doubtless achieve Buddhahood . For this reuon,
otherwise wrong actiona have been allowed, if their effect is beneficial." When
this was repeated to Zur, he said nothing, but the next morning, when
surrounded by his students, he began laughing. When asked why, he replied:
"That kind of teaching is indeed found in my tantric tradition , and I thought
that the belief that Buddha hood might be achieved by slaying belonged only to
the tantras and certainly not to the siitras . But now that such a great scholar as
Kyu~g-po grags -se has said that by killing me, Zur the Younger, one might
obtam Buddhahood, he must really be following our teachings. and so I am
pleased." 1545 As will be ~ecn below. the two main charges brought against
Buddhist practice in Ti~t by the tenth - to elcventh-ccnuuy reformers was that
of th.! mistaken use of aexual intercourse in the name of religion (refer.red to as
sByor-ba or the practicr of union) and of permitting killing if it were for a good
purpose (refer~d to euphemistically as sCrol-ba, "releasing ," in that the victim
is released from a continuing vicious atate and will accumulate no further evil at
least in that particular life). If the dates can be trusted, Zur the Younger lived
from 1014-74, so that be would have followed Rin-chen bzang-po by fifty-six or
fifty-seven years. Even the extraordinarily Jong lives attributed to these masters
of yoga make it difficult to complete satisfactory lines of aucccaion from the .
Blue Annals, although gZhon -nu -dpal composed his bi-story from all
t" The Blue An,uals. pp . ll9 -l!O. Khyung -po. who imtigaaes the challengt", was a disdp~
Khyung-po grags,..:. tonc">'nlng whom let' ibid.. • pp. 70· 1.
I{ r.z.d Religi&w Facum
information available to him, treating the earlier trammittera of Buddhism in
467
Tibet with complete fairness. His statement that there was only one teacher
'
between Sangs-rgyas Ye-1hes and the Elder Zur (on p. 109} is scarcely humanly
p<>SSible. Later rNying·ma tradition preserves more convincing lines of
succession, but very little of subatance to aay about the lives of some of those
named. 151 However, there is no reason to doubt the continuan~ in Tibet of
e 11ddhilt traditions which had been introduced panly from the Central ~an
and Chinese side and probably largely from the Indian side during the eighth
and ninth centuries, despite the disruption of organiled religious life caused by
the breakup of the united kingdom of Tibet. Thu the rNying -ma claim to
connections through succc.ions of teachers must be accepted as valid, although
equally valid is the aucn:ion of thoec who later rejected their u-aditiona, that
inany of their texts were their own productions. How one could expect it to be
otherwi11ein the caae of any active religious tradition is the question that can
fairly be asked in rctum.
In the general atmosphere of complete religious tolerance tantric teachings
and practices continued to en ter Tibet from the Indian aide. Although most of
the known puaonaJitiea in this respect come from the eleventh century onward,
there is no reason why there should have been any break in the free uansmiuion
of Buddhist teachings from India and Nepal throughout the tenth century. At
the most there may be some interruption in truwniasion direct to Central Tibet
owing to the disturbed circumstances there in the aecond half of the ninth
century, but there wu nothing to prevent Indian monks and yogina viaiting
Western Tibet and traveling as far afield as they cboac. The most remarkable of
such travelen must surely he Dam-pa Sanga-rgyas, who was frequently in Tibet
in the latter half of the eleventh century. His life is recounted in the Bhl.e .Annals
on such a fantastic scale that he must have been extraordinarily old whal he
died (c.1117). He is said to have come of a merchant clus family in south India
and to have been recognized by a soothsayer as being a "seven-timer" (see the
Index). He studied under numerous teachers, becoming well vened in the
Vinaya, Silcras and Tantras. Among his tamric masters many famous names
from among the Eighty-Four Great Adepu are listed, mch as Anangav ajra,
Saraha, Kl~ha. and Tilopa. Haring completed his studies he is said to have
meditated at various places all over the Indian aubcontinent , the number of
years given for each place adding up to a total of &ixty-five.He is said to have
made fi~ journeys to T ibet, where he had as many disciples as the .stan that one
could count in the sky above Ding-ri, where the main cente:r of hi&followen
remained until the present century. He is also said to have spent twelve years in
China; thu• the scope of hi, activities, even if slightly mott modest than IUCb
m ~ Cryffal Miffa·r, YOI.V, "A Hl11ory of 1hr BuddhiM Dharma ." by Tanhang Tull.u , PP·
!l6-!l. s~ Tlw Blut A"11.4b,p . 167, for di(' linngr of ltong,zom Cbo.-baang, a ,;o~empor a? ~
Zur me Youn~r; this other famow rNying-ma teacher is linked back 10 Myang T~g-~· dun
of bzang·po . The later rNying-ma tradition (Cry,tal Mirror, vol V, p. 257) pre&~ to link him whh
Vairocana and Padmasambhava, bur tbtre is ~neral agrttment that aucb COl\llttbOM ulsted.
468 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
reports $uggest, must have been considerable for such impressions to remain
after him. 158 He is credited with two kinds of religious practice in addition to the
great variety that already existed in Tibet , namely those known as -Producing
Tranquility" (zhi-byed) and "Cutting Away" (gcod). The fint may be regarded
as a new term for old practices, and although no originating connection need be
usened between the two, "Producing Tranquility" came to TCSemblefor all ···
practical purposes the theory of the Great FuJfl.llment (rDiogs-chen) . gCod
(pronounced: cM) praents iteelf as a form of daring religious practice, which is
peculiarly Tibetan, but its Indian origin can doubtless be traced to the practice
of eolitary meditation in fearful places, especially cemeteriea, where one's state
of inner calm is both tested and confirmed by overcoming all the tcrron of
saq1&ara, envisaged in their Ill-Oil fearful manifestations. This solitary rite of
meditation was devised in the form of a mental self-sacrifice of one's own body to
the demons who beset the practitioner in his terrifying lonelinea . There is little
doubt that once endured, it had the most potent psychological effects, and
Tibetan monks and laymen have practiced it to this day. 1S9
One of his disciples wu an extraordinary woman, sanctified in Tibet with the
nickname of Ma-gcig, "One Mother" (Pl. 80a). Having broken her religious vows
quite early on in life by having intercourse with a man who 1ub1equently became
her husband, she was in the tint instance nicknamed as the "Renegade Nun."
Tiring of family life, she linked up with a travcling Tibetan scholar, known u
rMa Chos -bar, who had spent several years in India and Nepal. His teacher
Abhayakaragupta advised him to return to Tibet where he would meet a mani-
fC$tation of the Goddess Tara, with whom he could practice the Secret
Consecration and the Comecration of Knowledge of Wisdom (see lll.14 .a).
Following this advice he met Ma-gcig and they 1pent foUf years together
practicing ~xual yoga in the r61es of Heruka and Vajra-l)akinl. Following upon
this experience he took vowa as a monJr.,seemingly with the same monk Khyung-
po presiding who was mentioned above. Unhappily he died soon afterward at the:
early age offorty -aix in about 1090. Ma -gcig was then only twenty-eight and she
dutifully performed after-death rites on his bc-.half. Soon after this she suffered
from various indisp01itions, from a daily sexual discharge, from abscesses all
over her body and a general condition of physical discomfort . Birds and animals
refused anything she threw to them; the fire for her homa ceremony would not
ignite, ,he was obsessed with vulgar pas.,ion and other <f,dkinfswould not
associate with her. It was in this sad condition that she went to seek the help of
Dam-pa Sangs-rgyas at Ding•ri. He diagn01td the trouble at once as a
combination or those to which other partners in ritualized sexual intercourse
must have bl1'Cnprone. Without the coment of her principal panner (namely the
Hot See The Blue Annals, pp. 867-71..Ding-ri , appearing a,"fingri Oiong 011 Sur~
maps. is due north of Solu-Khumbu (M1. Evere.ot area) about fony mile. from the pr-nt ·day
Ncpala«- froorier .
l!>11A gcod rito, has bttn rranslated by Kui Dawa Sarndup in W. Y. F.vans-Wernz. Tiheun Yoga
u>adSur.i Doarine.i, pp. 299 -S54.
V.2.d Rt1ligiow Factors 469
Translator rMa) she had practiced with other tantric adepu; ahe had taken food
r.ogether with others who had broken their vows; she had been enviow of other
partners of her teacher; 1he had bn,ken her vow (o£ secrecy); she had herself sat
on her teacher's carpet; she had not offered him the fee for initiation : she had
not shared in the HCrifidal offerings. Dam-pa Sangs,rgyas pl'e&Cribed a
complicated ceremony of atonement, for which her brother, 'Khon-phu·ba. put
together a whole set of specially prescribed items: an egg of a black hen, the
right front leg of a sheep, seven young girls who had attained puberty, a relic of
the Buddha, a kingly carpet and a footprint of her former teacher, as well as a
skull cup full or barley-ale. As a reault of the ceremony and the merit sub·
sequently gained by her care for the stlipa containing the relics of rMa, she
recovered completely and made suitable offerings to her new gum. After that
the two of them went off together, leaving the property in the ueping of a
Bonpo couple . They spent nineteen days in the company of other yogins and
presumably their partners in various places in Nepal, and then ttturned to Ding-
ri. From then on Ma-gcig had nothing but success. Having labored extensively
for the benefit or living beings, she died at the age of eighty-eight in about 1150,
and no relics were found on her funeral pyre. IMI
Many more examples might be given of the continuing relationship between
Indian teachers and yogins and their ever-increasing number of converts in
Tibet. Becauee of the lack of earlier precise records one is bound to choose one's
examples from the period that coincided with the so-called second diffusion,
dating from about the year 1000 onward. This label can apply only to the
scholastic tradition, which was cenainly renewed thanks largely to the initiative
of the religious kings of Western Tibet , but there can have been no break in the
:#.n actual diffusion of Buddhism in its more practical applications and it was this
. :~ t· that must have resulted in its general acceptance. Pre-Buddhist religion
disappears altogether as a serious opponent, and when Bonpos are mentioned it
is usually within the context of mutual accommodation. The cult of local and
domestic divinities was accepted, sometimes unwillingly perhaps, quite as mu.eh
by Buddhist$ as by Bonpos, as essentially extraneous to their normal religious
..... practices, but aa old eaablished customs which it might be foolish to neglect .
These same local divinities could also be blamed for the troubles and illneucs
that comtantly beset people , and t.hcn Buddhist tantric rituals of a fierce kind,
even the! slaying rite, could quite properly be used against them. Neither can
.-.· . monastic lire have suffered so great an eclijll(: as later accounts sometimes
~< .'. suggest. There is no reason why it should have been greatly affected in outlying
areas, and the continuing existence of monJr.swho have taken vows seems to be
constantly taken for grantt!d. There doubtle81 developed a t11rious and in many
ways unacceptable mingling of monastic life and tbe use of tantric practices
of India
,:
.;~. involving a female partner, which were manifestly a breach of monastic
discipline. Tbe more reputable, but nol necessarily the more famous yogins,
16~ Se,,: 1'~ Blau Annals. pp. 2l!O-!;and 98'.tff. wlw:n, the storie, of oc~rs in Dam·pa San!9'"rgya1's
,uct'e5MOna~ gh~n.
::·
-470 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
lived either u laymen, or totally celibate, or they gained proficiency in aexual
yoga before taking vows as a monk (Pl. 77). These were dearly the s<andards
which all reformers expected and there was never any suggestion that tantric
theory and practice wtte an unwelcome addition to the Indian Buddhist
heritage. The Tibetans seem to have had no contact with any Indian teachers
who thought otherwiae or who C\'tt spokeout against the tantras.
The second diffusion of Indian Buddhism in Tibet, regarded primarily as a
neceaaary scholarly enterprise, was a very important phase in the history of the
conversion of Tibet, but it represented a new beginning only so far as the
collation and translating of Indian Buddhist ,criptures were concerned. As we
shall observe ~low, those who were eventually responsible for founding the
various later Tibetan religious onler, sought their inspiration and their
teachings from exactly the same Buddhist circles in northern India as the
representatives of the older Tibetan traditions (later known a, the rNying-ma
Order) continued to do so. Often they went to the same Indian teachers, )earning
the same techniques of yoga, sometimes graced with a different name. However,
H theae later religious orders became established and developed scholarly
traditions of their own, they benefited enormously from the scholarly initiatives
tak.en by the rulen of Western Tibet, the effect of which was Jongluting for~
whole of Tibetan religion. Thus the rNying·ma-pas and t'IM:Bonpos established
celibate monasteries of their own in due course, adopting the same scholastic:
tradition as everyone else.
3. THE COMBINATION OJ R.ELICION AND POLITICS
a. The Rulers of We.stem Tibet
Western Tibet refers generally to w vast area of upland pastures and
mountainous waste lying beyond the province of gTsang, which together with 0
(dBt.fj) represents Central Tibet. la limiu westward are formed by the massive
ranges uniting the Himalaya and the Karakorum, into which Tibetan speaking
peoples have penetrated d~ply, including not only Ladakh, but alM>Baltietan
and Gilgit even furthtt weat. The Tibetans fint occupied this far western area in
the first part of the aeventh century , but were·forcxd to relax their bold over the
more remote districts as a result of the general breakup of the kingdom in the
~id-ninth century. By this time, however, the land of Zhiimg-zhung lying
directly to the ~•t of gTsang seems to have been folly incorporated into Tibet,
now understood as a <.-ulturaland linguistic entity, and has never been separated
from it since . As J have argued above (V. l. b), iu language was probably already
a fonn of Tibetan when this territory was first incorporated, and thus its cultural
cohesion with the rest of the country must have been easily achieved. To begin
with the Tibetans had allowed itll administration to continue under its old rulers,
but after several revolts a Tibetan commissioner waa appointed and it is likely
that various Tibetan aristocratic families closely involved in government affairs
v.,.a Co111binatio11
of Rid.igum and Politics 471
received estate& in the new domain. After the breakup of the kingdom the
owners of such estates would have become self-declared chieftains. as must have
happened elsewhere, and their many contentiom and conflicts were the cause of
the generally·unhappy state of the whole country, resulting in the absence of all
hiatorical records (Pl. 68b). Later attempts to write the story of this unseuled
period are nothing but more or less . in~elligent effor~s at histo~ical recon-
atruction. All that appears to be certain 1s that some ume early an the tenth
century a descendant of the laat of the effective Yarlung line of kings wa~
received as titular king of Western Tibet, now normally known as Nga-n
(mNga' -ris, probably simply meaning "royal domain") by the !ead~rsof one ~r
more Tibetan clans who already ruled there 1.ocaUy.One can Jmagme that th11
was an astute political move on the part of whichever ruling clan invited him
(most likely the 'Bro dan), for hav ing united one's family in this way with the
representative of the old Tibetan royal hou.e. it would be a far easier matter to
persuade one's neighbors into allegiance or for~ them into submiasion. There ia
no available account of how the new kingdom was created, but it probably
consisted to begin with of the comparatively small aJHS to the ,outh of Mount
Kailasa adjoining what are nowadays the extrem e northwoiern limits of the
modern state of Nepal, and also the area to the west ofKailiaa, bordering on the
present-day Indian state of Himacha) Pradcsh. The tint of these is Purang
( corrttt Tibetan spelling: 11Pu-hrangs, while known to the Nepalese as Taklakot)
and the second is Gu-ge, where a royal city was built by the new rulers at
T1aparang . From Gu-ge it must have been easy to occupy Spiti (now .part of
Indian tenitory). while a more ambitious canpaign mutt have been required for
the eventual occupation of Ladakh. One may note that all these tenitories
adjoin to the south and we&tdistricts of Indian culture, and that Buddhism
probably atill maintained a hold in many of the high Himalayan valleys, such as
Kulu and K.angra, as it most certainly did in Kashmir. The vast expanaes to the
north of Kailasa were understandably of little interest to the rulers of these
Western Tibetan territories, and thus they only partly correspond to the old
kingdom of Zhang-zhung. The first representative of the line of the Yarlung
kings to be declared king of Nga -ri is named Nyi-ma-mgon; he was probably the
grandson of 'Od-snmg. a posthumous son of the assaa.~inated Glang-dar-ma.
After the death of Nyi-ma-mgon ..his new kingdom was divided between three
sons, although just how the division was made remains uncertain. Ladakh wa,
dearly one unit (PL 69a), while Zangskar and Spiti may have been another, ~nd
Gu-ge and Pu rang the third unit. Certainly Gu-ge and Purang ~m to be united
when they enter our religious history during the life of Rin-chen bzang·po
(958 -1055). being ruled jointly by King Srong-nge (grandson of the founder of
the western line of kings, Nyi-ma-mgon) and h.is son Ilia-Ide. m Srong-nge
adopted the religious life, becoming known by his religious name of Lha-Lama
m Srong -11geappt-an ro be al\ r.lilion of Dr•ng·•rong-lde . while ~"' brolher ·~.name ·K_hor-re
n-ptt~nu 'Kb<>r-lo-lde.They are thus clearly royal name,i. S..e Samcen C,. Kannay, Thr Ord1~11c.-.-
of Lha Bia-ma 'Ye-shcs·'od. "
 472 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBE1'
(royal .Lama ) Ye-1hes-'od (Wi.dom's Light). Thesc rwo royal pcnona wen the
?re•t. Tranalator's main benefactors during the first part of his career. Ye-shes-
od died some time toward the end of the tenth century, and IHa-lde's son,
'Od- lde , was probably aseociated with his fathCT u co-rule r. His two brothers
known by their reli~ous nama of Byang -chub -'od and Zhi-ba ,'od , devoted
themselves to Buddh11t works, the younger of the two becom ing a renowned
transl~tor. At t~ same ti~e they continued to use royal titles and may also have
been mvolved m the affain of government together with their elder brother
'Od- l~ . During t he reign of his 110n, rTse -ldc , a great religjou, council wa, held:
for which the Bl- Amials give the date of 1076 . At leaat one of rTse-lde'a sons
ado?ted the ~ligious life, and hereafter this remarkable royal family becomes
~ga1~a bare_hit of dynaatic names. 16! It is remarkable because for the fim time
m Tibetan history an ariatoaatic family appears in the dual role of head of state
and religious head , sharing these functions between them. Thi, arrangement
w~ _adopted , whether in imitation or 1pontaneou1ly, by some of ~ new
r~h~ou~ orden as they began to shape their destinies, and has thus become a
d1.1tm.cuvef~~re o! later Tibeta~ government (see below V.5.c) . Thus we may
note 1u ~mg, m Western Tibet in tbe tenth and eleventh centuries. The
royal f~m~~ concro~Jed religion in so far u they provided the greater pan of the
cost of mvm~g fo~1~ scholars , o~ financing ellpeditions to India in quest of ever
~ore boob, .:n
bu,~dmg '™?nastenea and temple, and in establishing translation
workshops. Despi te certam pronouncements againlt wrong practices , to which
we shall refer below,_no ratrafo~ wouJd seem to have been actuaJly imp<*d.
and thus others rernamed free to import Buddhist teachings just as they pkascd.
O_ne m~y even ~ote that accounts of the so-called second diffusion, while ,taning
with brief 1tone1 of the reestabliahing of monastic inatitutions in Central Tibet
by monks from the e~_and t~n rather more detailed ones concerning the great
worb done by the religious ltinga of Western Tibet, go on to tell of the activities
of s_uc~in~ep~d ent_ttaveling scholars as 'Br og-mi and Marpa, and there is no
hClltaaon m including an approving neference to the activities of the "One
Motb_er." One or the sons of our last nam~ Western Tibetan icing, rT.se-lde, is
mentioned u one of the disciples of Dam-pa Sanga-rgyaa. T'hu1 once Buddhism
became the ac~pted religion of Tibet , tokrance of all kinds of religious ·
prac~ces be~me t~e nonn , Some comment seems to be n:qu.ired concerning the
neadineaa.w1~ which Buddh ism was generally accepted from the time of its
second diffa11on, when one recalls the opposition that it faced some two
,ul At i~ patnt elllfflt Pura~ '"ldl its capital at Y.a-~ {eithtr Taklakot itsrll or at an ar\Qffit
site, dent~ Prolcs.,?"
h)• T~o at tbe village of Sftl\ja near Jumt. in pr-n1-da)' WdlC:m Nq>at)
bee~ a. H111d~ ·Buddh11t kingdom with rukn wbt, wet~ c•~H lodua, na.mcd u Mallas, and
s~a 111-:an ea~:'" form o( the la~ (Khaau n), which was later 1a be known u Nepali . See
, l'reliml>t4ry
C.
SbaTuca p,.,1 ... .;.._, Rcfunl 01t r.,,, Scie>1=ic,.,., E:c4Yditions
r to N,.._, ~• 71, an d -..
•r-, pp . ._. R ·
~ra,ag •J
~ · -_·- -· J Stu.iy of tM Art tn1d Ar cltitcc11.,c of tlw Xcfflllli B~ Weu Nepal . Gu
·•
r~amed an. mdepc11den, kingdom uatil tM 1e,,eo1eemhcentury . wMn it wasfim taken ~ by
KmgSe"IJC~a~I ofLadakb and.thc!n fell into the hancr. of lhe fifthDelai Lima and his Mongol
•uppori,m: For a brief account of 1h11 unhtppy ending .ee cw- Cultural Hn2l"lftt QIlAtUJ.114, vol. 1,
p. 86. and 1n far more ~l L . l>~ech , Th• Kin1dmrt of .uul4fcA, pp . 38ff.
V.l!.a Combinati ·t»I. '!{ R~ligitm and Politics 475
centuries ear lier. Moreover it was pttciarly Western Tibet , then known u the
land of Zhang•zhung, which wu traditionally regarded as the &erongestccnter of
Bon. If storiC11of the triumph of Bon over Buddhism as a ttault of the aseassi·
nation of the laat Buddhist king, Ral -pa -can, had any truth in them, one would
have expected the people of Zhang-zhung not only to throw off the political
control of Cenual Tibet , but alio U> reven to thdr old rdigious ways, which in
any case were unlikely to have been suppressed in the mearuime. There .seems to
:, be only one answer to this imaginary situation and it confirms what I have
already written above about the need for distinguishing carefully between Boo,
aa it must surely be understood, and the pre -Buddhiat religion of Tibet. They
cannot be ao euily identified with one another .
As I have stressed just above, the new Western Tibetan kingdoms extended
into what i. nowa<bya Indian or Nepalese territory. Purang and Gu-ge lay
immediately to the south and west of Mount Kailua , regarded in Indian
mythology a1 the abode or the Lord Siva, and identified with Mount Meru, the
ccnter of the universe , according to both Hindu and Buddhist coemological
ide» . Thu part of the ancient land of Zhang-1.hung had for man y centuries been
open to cultural influences from nonhwartem India. and I have 1-uggeated above
that the Bon religion that was foste~ already in these western limiu or the
Tibetan plateau wa1 ~ry likely to be a form of partly understood Buddhism,
perhaps strongly affected by the vague philosophical ideas and sincere
mcditational practice, of traveling yogim. Spon taneou.s religious developments
of such a kind would have conflicted in no way with the kinda of pre-Buddhist
religious Cu.toms, which later came into conflict in Central Tibet with
Buddhism, on<:e it waa introduced officially as the state religion. While at first
·;lj
·r::;.
the followen of theee heterodox teachings, known as Bon, undeJ:$tandably
objected to the more orthodox forms of Buddhilm , when they began lo enter the
I
country , in .a far as they conflicted with their earlier ideas of what this religion
was all about, they would surely have gradually come to realue that their
position was a false one, as more and more Indian Buddhist teachings reached
}{> Tibet and more and more Tibetan, went in aearc:h of thete teachings in India.
Thus Bon in Zhang -zhung would havt- p~d the way for a Buddhilt revival.
and this bad probably largely taken place before the tenrh century when the
royal Tib etan dynasty became established there . Western Tibet is never again
.:.:: . JTKntioned as a stronghold of Bon, while the Bon tradition has flourished
precisely in Eastern Tibet as far away u pouible from theee genuine Ind ian
.}:
aou.rces, which prove ao easily the mi.tall.en nature of some of its fundamental
assumptions. tta Thus if I am speculating reuonably, the religious king, of
Wntern Tibet brough t order and direction to a proet!U that was already in
:,
operation. Tb~ alone e11tplainathe absence of any ,uggestion in the early 10urc:es
l&JThe import.ant Bon ·po mo~1:ry of tMan- ri iR gTsang ProYin<,ewas fow,ded In I.OS and
gYung-dni!ll ·sling not until t~ 111id-mnettcmh cmwry (Pls. 66a II b). Some Al'lall communities
lace.r dewlopt:d in the upper Kill ~ndaki Valley (uow in northwntem Nepal) and there ii one
«immunity in Bhutlln , but Bun·, tna.io llreogth hM been in lthama ,md Amdo far 10 lhe ean .
·.~
 474 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
~-~~ning thi, period that any other religious groups were oppoeed to the fresh ..
1n1t1at1ves that they supported so generously . They are concerned in theu- . .
pro?ouncement11 only with Buddhilm, and while they iuue the sternest warnings
a~ainst the practice of corrupt religion, it is corrupt Buddhism that they have in
~mi and not another religion known as Bon. The practices that they so strongly
d1Sapprove of are precisely those prescribed in some Yoga Tantras and especially
in the ~aUed Supreme Yoga Tanc~a,, namely ae:irual yoga if performed by
t~ who had ~It~ monast_ic vows, ~te.s of slaying or otherwise harming living
beings, and religious offenng, cons1St1ng of animal flesh or other impure
substances, all of which have been referred to enough already in Chapter III.
The Religious King Ye-shes-'od seems to have been the first to i.aauean ordinance
on the subject:
All of you tantrists, village specialists.
Must not say "we arc MahAymist."
And must reject theae erroneoua views.
Practice what ia taught in the Threefold Scriptures
What is correct and pure . · Yoga class. However the G11.h)-asami!.ja
Confesa the ten sins which you have previously committed.
If you ~ail to do so and follow such perverted religion,
You will not deflect the inevitable retribution .
Although it is true u our Teacher has taught
That the Dharma·sphere is essentiaUy void,
You must believe in the law of retribution.
The effects of one's action are not deflected, but follow cl~ behind.
As they do not simply reach a general state of maturation in the four
elements
And as the suffering• of the three states of evil rebirth are IO terrible
Reject such evil practice and keep to the Threefold Scriptures.1w ' 04
T<>_W1l~ the end ~f the elc\'Cnth century his grandson, the royal monk-traNlator
Zhi-ba- ~ proclanned another warning against wrong tantric practices, adding
a whole .Im of unautho_ri.zed Bu~dhist tttariscs, said to be indigenous Tibetan
~roducuons, the followmg of which could lead only to evil rebirths. The works
hs~ correspond in many respects to those of the earlier Yoga Tantra tradition,
wh.•<:1we haVI.!referred to above. It is interesting to note that ,the Tibetan
reltgi.ous leaden, who were Jater to be such prolific writers themw.Jves, should be
so mistrustful of any Buddhist teaching, which could not be shown to have an
Indian original to guarantee it. Thua the reformers were attempting to combat
on the one hand malpractices based upon genuine Indian Buddhist tantras and
on the other hand any form of Buddhist practi~ based upon texts that they
regar~d u spuriow. Having listed the many worb he willingly would have
proscribed . had he been able to, Zhi-ba-'od encb thua;
164
See Samu,n G. Karmar, ··n~ Ordinance of Uh Bia-ma Yc-slte5-'od" (already quoted aboff
p. 187), pp. 155 and J!,7 •. The ten sins a~: kUling. ft~ling. adul~ry. lying, cou 11e langgagc. angry-
speecb, malevolence. foolish tall, cov«om111:ss.and harboring wrong views.
V.5.a Combination of Relipm and Polilics 475
None of these represents the true path, and since they do not result in ~e
achieving of supreme enlightenment, no one shoald resort to them or accept
them as a path. Also thote who have taken vow. as monks must keep to the
monastic rule, and those who have taken up the practi« of Secret Mantras
must not be in conflict with adherence to the rule, for in the case of (tantras of
the) Kriya, Upa, Yoga class and even the Guh,asamaja and others, one should
strive to practice without breaking one's vows. Although the Willdom
( = Y ogini) tantras are excellent, there has been much neglect of the teachings
proper for a monk. owing co ignorance con«rning the true meaning of the
terminology, and for this reason there is nothing averse. if one does not
practice them. Jn particular the theories of the Great Fulfillment (rDwg.s·
ch•n) are mixed up with thoee of heretics (viz.. Hindu yogina), r,o if one
practices these, one will be led into evil rebinbs. Since they tbua obstruct
perfect enlightenment, in no wise is it suitable to practice them. 16r.
It may be interes<ing to note in passing that the various grades of tantras referred
to in this Western Tibetan ordinance correspond still to those of the earlier
period (see above V.2 .c) and do nOl yet include a specifically named Supreme
is already recognized as belonging to a
rather different category from the Yoga Tantras, and thus it comes to be
grouped with the Herub-type tantras with their circles of yoginia around the
central lord. One suspects that Zhi-ba-'od is only paying lip service to them when
he says they are excellent, and would rather ICC them dispensed with altogether .
By making the main criterion for orthodoxy the proYen existence of an Indian
original. the promoters of the new tra11$lationsseem to pave placed them&elvesin
a contradictory siwation. They found themselves eventually bound to accept all
thoee tantras described as Supreme Yoga despite the many .. heretical" (Hindu)
concepts contained within them, to which attention has been drawn above
(111.6.a-b) while they rejected many far less heretica1" works because of their
doubtful provenance. Thus Buddhist teacbinga were not judged according to
their particular merits, but trustfully accepted in accordance with the word of
one's teacheT, and at thia particular stage the teacher was essentially the Indian
master. This represents in general the attitude of thos,e responsible for this
second diffu11ion of the doctrine, although we must observe that the freer and
more eclectic approach of the earlier period still had many rqn-etentatives oot
only in the emerging rNying-ma li~eages. but alao among the leaders of the new
sects that were gradually establishing themselves. At the same time all and
sundry benefited from the high standard.,; of translation work achieved thanks to
the zealous support given by the rulers of Western Tibet. This ia best
summarized by a quotation from the Blue Annals:
Furthermore the Royal Lama Ye-shes-'od invited from Eastern India the great
scholar Dharmapila, who bad many disciples .such aa the three whose names
end in prua.
namely Sadhupala who was the forem0&t of his disciples in the
u,, Stt Samten G. liltnnay . to whom - are much indebted f<>T
brmging ,bi, pank11lar 1ext 10
ligb1, "An Opm L;,ucr by Pho-brang Zhi-ba-'od," The TibcljoUTMl , vol.!,, no . S (1980), pp. S·!8 .
 176 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
teaching and demonatration of the monastic rule, as well as Gunapala and
Praj iillpflla. Their lineage is known as the Monastic Rule of Upper Tibet
(sTod- 'dul-ba). Furthennore in the time of )Ha -Ide, SubMti Srllinti, known
as the Great Scholar of Kashmir, wu invited . He traml.lted many sutras and
commentarial works of the Perfection of Wisdom clau. such aa the uPcrfocti on
ofWildom in Eight Thou.sand Verses," its main commentary (the Ablaisama-
,ala,r,Mr4loia) , aJso the A bhisamayala,rikam/ika and other work&.Studenu
of the Great Translator (Rin -chen bzang -po) who themselves became skillful
translators, made man y translations of works from the monaatk rule ~ction
of the canon, from Perfection of Wisdom literature and from the tantras
(mantf'a·d/tarnur). Thus dGe -ba'i blo-gros of rMa translated many texu such
u the P1'am41JOvartikaand its matching commentary (f'ang-'grel), as wdl as
commentaries _byDevendramati and Stkyamati, thus establishing a course for
studr. Spreading f~ there, the study of logical philosophy reached the
prov1.nce of Central T1~t. At the same time Khyung -po gra~-se, renowned
for hia great learning, compoeed many works on logic. All dw is referred to a1
the Old System of Logic. Later the Translator Blo-ldan shes-rab was
responsible for the p;>.Calkd New System of Logic. The Great Scholar
Jiilnaiti came to Tibet , although he had not been invited, and many other
scholars came, $C that numerous good translations could be made. Jn dw time
of 'Od-lde the Princely Lord (Jo-bo rje , namely At.i!a) was invited and made
corrections in the doctrine. During the reign of the son (of 'Od-lde) King
rTse -~e. in the Fire Male Dragon Year (1076), m011t of th e grea.r sciu;lars of
cano~cal works from Central and Eastern Tibet came together for a religious
cou~cd ,, lmo~n a,. the Council of the Fire Dragon Year. They all kept in
mouon in their various ways the Wheel of the Doctrine. At the ,ame time the
Zangskar Translator was working on a transla tion of the Nyd-y4laf!l/,Am . AJI in
all th~ kings of Nga -ri in Upper Tibet rendered 11erviceato religion such as
have no parallel in other countriea. tM
Any detailed account of this period of scholutic activity might tttm to make
rather difficult reading , a.a it would corwst largely of lists of Indian scholars
their Tibetan collabora tors and the work, that they tranalated to~ther . Thu~
the brief quotation above may ~rve to~ some impression of the work that was
done . It may be noted in pauing that the term "canon ," which I have used to
translate Tn"Jn1aka(Tibetan: sDe-snod gsum, vu.,the three repositories), while
referring in the earlier Ind ian Buddhist period spccificalJy to the t hree -part
canon, consisting of Vmaya (Monastic Rule}. ·Sutrru (Discourses) and Ablti ·
dharma (Furth er Doctrine), ii applied much more loosely in the later period to
include any works regarded by their proponent.t u authentic Buddhist teaching
and thus with no panicular regard for the baaic meaning pf "threefold
$C?iptures." Thus the Tibetans ad opted the term in the sa.me rather vague sense .
,e._ The Blw An11<1ls,• ho, fos. ·1a$ff.; G. N. R«'t'icb 's 1aftllaci0r1, pp. 69 ·71 . I pay uibuu, 10 1he
amaung amount of worl that Roe.id, ha1 donP with the a11ltta1W:e,of the Tibc1a11 tdtolar d{'~-'dun
Ch,,.. 'phel in produdng his u anslation. which ind ud e,i identifiution of <Ulft (*-De ot" which may
have to be amended in acrordant'e wi( b the find s of' lau.r research) as well as 1~ San1kri1 tid<!I of all
quuccd worb.
V.S.a Com.bin«tion of Politic s a11dRel;giqn 477
When they later compiled their own canon, the earlier threefold arr an gement
had no direct relevance. Having separated the texts that were suppoeedly ·
genuine '' Buddha Word" from the works of recognued commentators and
exegetes , they arranged the Buddha Word, known as the "Tra n,lated Word"
( bKa' · g)'Uf') into four general section1, namely Vinaya , Perfection of Wisdom
slitras, other Mabllyina slitras, and tantras. Mahlyana treatises on "Further
Dharma," such as those of the Mind Only school, found their way quite properly
into the -.-aStset of "TraNl ated Treatiaes '' ( bsTan- gyur), 60 there was ne\'er any
question of retaining an Abhidharma component u the "Buddha Word." Thu,
all that their canon retained in common with the early canons of the "eighteen
.fnml4a ,ects" wai the Vinaya section , whic h was identical with that of the
Indian Mwa-Sarvutivadi.N . Although there are indications that some Mahl -
ytna sutraa and tantra, were already arranged in group during the later
centuries of Indian Buddhism, there wu llC'i'eJ" any Indian Buddhist Mahlyina
Canon for the Tibet am to model theirs on. Thus the pTOCa8of the conversion of
Tibet to Buddhism involved many generations of tcbolars in the enonnom task.
I
of seeking out many thousands of texts in India, whether from great monastic
centen such aa Vik.ramaiila or Odantapuri, or from the many 1maller ones,
mentioned in HsQan-uang'• travels , or from individual tea chers , especially
tantric yogim. in their homes, or in inviting any renowned Indian acholan, who
could ~ persuaded to come to Tibet ,o aasiat in the elucidation of the vut
li,erature that had been acquired , and in the preparation of approved
translations. lt is scarcely conceivable that at any other time in the history of
human civilizations such a wholesale importation of ,o vast a forcigll religious
culture wu achieved in 110 shon a time at such extraordinarily high llCholastic
standards. The importation of the same Indian Buddhi$t tradition1 imo China
may be considered a comparable undertaking, but this was a rather longer
process with iu own peculiar difficulties, which made the scholarly standards
achieved rather more uneven.
The two great religiolU figures who 1tand out on the Tibetan and the Indian
tide are Rin -chcn b:r.ang-po (Pl. 71), nicknamed the Great Tranalator (9S8·
10S5), and the Great Scholar Dipaobrairijfiin a, usually known as the Princely
Lord Qo-bo rJe) or Ati!a. who came to Tibet from Vikramaiila in 1042 and
remained teaching and guiding there until hia death in 1054 (PL 72). m Apart
from a few significant details, such as his appointment II Head Pricat (dBu'i
:-:: mCltod-gn,u) and Vajra Master to King IHa -lde an d bis founding of certain
~/.:
important monasteries, very littk is known of the Grea t Translator's life except
in rat.her ~neral tenn1 . IN While retaining some tcemingly quite valid traditiona
concerning him , presumably collected by bis ditciple dPal-ye -shes (to whom the
only known biography ia attributed), the eventual compiler of bia biograp hy hai
m I accqx tb., name .-fulo a. a popular abbrevialion <JfSanu.ri t 4'&,a , meauiqg ·'oot1tauding. ''
The jll"oblcm of iis interp~uon aod hmc:e iu COC"ffl:t spelling hu been di..:.-d by Helm111Eimrr
in bi1 Bnichte iibcr '4s J.den us A tala. pp. 17,ft.
168Tbttc iii a 1raml~ico of his biography in our C:1tlt1tralHIJriu,g• of Lodoltla, •ol. !.
 478 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
introduced a certain amount of irrelevant legendary material and stories that
seem ,o belong originally to tTaditions concerning Ati&a.A large amount of the
earlier traditions appear to have been lost or elae they were deliberately omitted
for some doctrinal reason or other, which now escapes us. Rin-chen bzang-po
made three expeditions to India, including Kashmir and the eastern regions
(modem Bihar and Bengal). spending a total of seventeen years there, but there
are no details of his travels apart from a quite convincing description of how the
first expedition began. Thereafter we are left with the impression that having
become proficient in the art of "swift-footedne&&,"he traveled everywhere at
miraculous speed. Thus in summing up his various achievements, his biographer
informs \l$ that "having obtained the mastery of 'r.wift-footednesa' known as
'wish-fulfiller,' he went in six days and returned in six days, while it had
previously taken him six months to travel from Tibet to Kaahmir." 1" One can
scarcely npcct a travelog of the kind produced by Hsaan-tsang from IIOmeone
who is believed to have traveled at such incredible s~d; it would also have been
impoaible for his companiona to keep up with him. Of these there were often
quite a number, either fellow scholan or the trained aniaans and rdigious
painters whom he brought back with him to work on the many temples that bia
royal benefactors willingly financed. He is said to have founded one hundred
and e,.. temples, a roundly su,piciou, number, but a more likely list of twenty·
o~e ,is also given. He founded several monasteries, Tabo in Spiti, Nyarma in
Ladakh, probably Sumda in Zanpkar, as well as adding to the royal monastery
at Toling (mTho-gling) in Gu-ge. Of his many temples, one in particular, which
he founded at his birthplace of Radnis in Kyuwang, is specially mentioned , but
this place remaina unidentified. 110 His numerous worb of translation and the
names of his collaborators, Indian as well as Tibetan, can be reliably abstracted
from the colophons of all his productions. which were included later in the
Tibetan Canon. His main interests certainly seem to have been tantras and
· Perfection of Wisdom literature. Tantric worb include not only thOIICclused aa
Yoga (or Mahayoga) Tantras but also those which were referred to as Supreme
Yoga Tantras soon after his time. Thua he translated not only the "Sympolium
of Truth" and the Pa,-amaditontra, which relate directly to Vairocana's fivefold
ma~la (see above 111.12),but also the Guhyasamti.jaand the main Cakra-
.sar,ivara (Heruko) Tantra. 171 Aa we noted from the ordinance of Ye-shes-•od, the
separation of tantras into the four classes of kriyd (action). caryti(performance},
:,oga and anutta,·ayoga (supreme yoga), which mU&tcertainly have already been
known in eastern India at that time and was later to be accepted as more or less a
169This remarkable ability a11rib11ted 10 - yogira is known a, rla"K·"'OOfS in Tibetan;
Alexandra DaYid-Ncrl clam ro ha.e met .uch ackpt, on her lravelo, '" her Willi M,sli" '""'
Mcgarui11 Tibfi, PP· 18Sff.
110 Profeaor Tuui bu IUl!IJ8led a a possible idmtiflution a village below the Shipltl Pua near
the pre.!11( Indian and Tibetan bonier on the route betw~n Simla and Toling; see his Jntlo-
Tibd1'c4, vol. 11,p. S6.
171Lim may be found in C. Tucci, op. cit., pp. S9-49. This is 11K-SO•calledLagllu,o'l'IMlta
1'a,.tra; s« S. Tsuda. T#t11
S~d4,a Ttmtra, pp. 27-45 for u1eful obwroatiom on ill identity.
V.S.a Combination of Politics and Religicm 479
standard arrangement in Tibet, does not seem to have been current in Western
Tibet during the period with which we are now concerned. Thus no distinction is
made by Rin-chen bzang-po and his contemporaries between Yoga Tantras and
what are later referred to in Tibet as Supreme Yoga. In any case Rin-chen
bzang ·po remained a celibate monk and there is never any suggestion that he
:•; used these tantras for other than meditational exercises.
;~
, .• The arrival of Atiia (982-1054) in Tibet in 1042 and thf!'twelve or 10 year, that
be spent there until bis death came to be treated by later Tibetan historical
11
\flt
writers as one of the really great events of lndo-Tibetan relations. He was
responsible through his devoted disciple 'Brom-ston (1008-64) for the eventual
establi&hing of the fint di&tinctive Tibetan religious order, namely that of the
l>Ka'-gdJJ.ms-pa.pronounced Ka -dam-pa and meaning "bound to the
(Buddha's) word," which was later transformed under Tsong-kha-pa's powerful
direction in the early fifteenth century into the "New Ka-dam-pa" or dGe·lug.s·
pa Order. These two related religious orders , which in&isteQ upon monastic
celibacy as the basis for all their religious pt'actice, may be regarded as the
rcpre~ntatives of more onhodox forms of Buddhism during the whole
millennium that together they almost cover . They have provided a kind of
monastic model, which all other Tibetan religious orden (even the Bonpos) have
emulated, although these lave continued to encourage the freer kinds of
rcligiolli practice, suitable for noncelibate enthusia1ts, to which we have already
referred . Neither Atiia nor Tsong-ltha-pa were radical reformers of the kind
that one meets with in the hist0ry of Western Christianity, admitting no validity
'}~ in religiou& practices except those that are the result of their own prescribed
reforms. They are reformers only in the 8elYe that they established reformed
orders of monks at times when monastic discipline had become lax in many
I
other religious houees; they might protest again1t .uch laxity in general terms,
but only rarely did they presume to declare the invalidity of the teachings
followed by others, ao long as an Indian origin could be 1hown for them.
The general lines of AtiAa'slife are much better known than those of Rin,chcn
bzang-po. 172 He is said to have been the second son of a royal line in eastern
\~
f. India and to have taken up the religious life after a vision of the Goddess Tflrl.
..~}J; He resorted first to a tantric master and was initiated into Hevajra's cycle.
..\~·. Thereafter he continued to move in the circles of tantric yogim, until Slkya·
·~·'.
t:
<{ . muni himself, surrounded by a v~t retinue of monb, urged him in a dream to
:·.,?i,;:~ take monastic vows. He made these VOW$ at the age of twenty-nine in a
monastery at Bodhgaya !Ind thereafter devoted himself to scholastic studies,
./~ mainly of monastic rule (vmaya), Perfection of Wiadom literature and the
'':'i·:
\~~ l?IThis ii mainly thaw to 1he labon of Helmut Eimer. firady hi&&ricllle iiber d4$ L1b<n de.i
dfflo, ei,u Ultlenuchll,yt;6fl tkr Quellm. followed by a synoptic study of the biographies wlih t~
tide of tNam-lhar rG,<u·t,4. Moterialm .iu ebtl!"l Biograph~ des ltt&, ll ,t0lt.. TIie Blve A11111Jls,
pp. 24lff. has a good acCOllJltof euie-r a«C# 10 those who do not read ~nnan. Alaka Chatto-
padhyaya', A tisoa1td Tibet may provide much useful inform.atioo for 1hc!general reader. but d,e
KOJX'of this book extends unhappily ~yond the competcDCC of j" well-intentioned ccmpiler, who
hH not alwayaaougbt the ri3htadvice.
 480 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBl-:T
tantras. These three clas~s of the later Buddhist scriptures seem to come often
to the fore in courses of study during the final Indian Buddhist period and they
certainly provided the main basis for most Tibetan Buddhist practice. Some of
Atib's teachers were famous yogins who are listed among the conventional act of
the Eighty-Four Great Adepu ( mahtlsiddha), such as Jetari, Kil)ha, Avadhutipa,
I;>ombhipa and Nlropa. The connection with the tantric scholar Naropa
(956-1040) is perhaps wonhy of special note, as this master-y.ogin was also the
revered teacher of Mar-pa (1012-96), the founder (in retrospect) of the whole
Tibetan bKa'-brgyud-pa (pronounced Ka·gyu·pa) Order with its several
branches (Pl. 76). m Naropa seems to have had a considerable reputation both
in northern India and Tibet. Thu, it is related that before 'Brom-ston met Atiia
and was practicing the art of writing with a teacher who seems to have been
nicknamed "Verbal Thorn" (sGra'i Tsher-ma), he asked him: "Who ia really
great in India now?" The teacher replied: "When I was in India, Naropa was the
great one. There was also a monk of royal lineage named Dipankarairijnana,
and if he ia still around, he should be great too. " 17' As soon aa 'Brom·ston heard
this second name, he felt a great aspiration, and forwnately for him Atiia had
already anived in Tibet, ao there was never any need for him to go to India.
From what is known of rus later strict teaching, one might imagine that he would
have been scandalized by the teachings of the other great one. whose name was
mentioned to him. Yet others could easily revere Nlropa and Atiia at the same
time, perhaps because the difference between their rcligiou, practice was not
really so great as it might have appeared publicly, when Ati!a was invited to
1'ibet with the specific task of raising the local standards.
Several effona were made to persuade him to come, when 'Od-ldewas ruling in
Gu·gc and Purang, assisted by his two royal religioUJ brethren, Byang-chub-'od
and Zhi-ba- 'od. All the later stories tell how he .finally agreed to come because of
the self-sacrifice of their aging grandfather, the .Royal Lama Ye-shes-'od, who
was languishing in enemy captivity and having rejected the offer of ransom,
urged that the price for this, the weight of his own body in gold, should be used
to invite Indian scholara instead. This etory, which may have happened in some
other case in real life, is probably legendary so far as Ye-shcs-'od is concerned.
According to R.in-chen bza.ng-po's biography, he died of a severe illness in his
own palace at Toling, where the Great Translator himself performed the proper
funeral rites according to the DuTgatiparisodhana tradition. m
Atisa had agreed when be left Vikramaltla to return within thr« years, but
returning from Toling, where he bestowed many tantric initiations, he found the
route blocked on account of some local fighting beyond Kyirong, and thus was
persuaded by 'Brom-ston, who had met him on his journey, to visit Central
Heritage "f L1ula.lalt.
175 for 1~ d».tt'I gnoen her,, for Nllrop,l lM!eour C-11.llural vol. 2. pp. 90ft'. h
dlffen by Wltf_Jl!an frnm that put forward by H. V. Guttither in his elloellcnt study. TIie J..ij'eond.
T,tu:!tin, of Nim,pa. tQ which the rt11<kr is ttfer~d uohc,itatingly.
lU Tiu Blue lfnnals, p. 2&%(vol. ea. Co.6, U. 1-2).
11~ See The C1Jitu·ralH,,itog~ of l..adokh,vol. 2, p. 92.
V.S.a Combination of Politics and Religion 481
Tibet. Here he traveled quite extensively. staying in such famous places as
bSam-yu, Tbang·po·che, Yer-pa and aNyc-thang, where he finally died.
Having not fulfilled his promise to return to_Viltramalfla, he Uled to send back
there the large sums that he received on his Tibetan travels. After his death
'Brom·ston withdrew to Rva-sgreng (pronounced: Re-ting) together with a
group of faithful disciples and founded there in 1056 the monastery that was to
remain the center of his religious order until it was absorbed by the dGe-luga-
pas.116Although 'Brom-ston appears to have disapproved of nonccli~ate tantric
Buddhwn, Adia's attitude, like that of ao many of his contemporanes, whether
Indian or Tibetan, would seem to have been ambivalent. Ha\ing practiced his
religion earlier in life under the guidance of famous tantric yogins, be could
scarcely be eitpected to change his views later in order to pleue a few leading
people in Tibet, who wanted a far more thorough "reformation" than he was
prepared to countenancr. Being well trained in monastic rule (vinaya), he could
certainly urge the.e teachings, when .uch advice was required of him. Probably
it ia within such a context as this that one should underatand a ahon work of bu.
which be produced at the request of his royal host in Toling, who wanted a
concise tttatile in answer to the diaagttementa that exi1ted on points of doctrille
between various scholan in Tibet. Ati&athus composed the famous Bodhipalha·
pradipo .u a "Light on the Path toward Enlightenment."
Although not specifically mentioned, a main disagreement must haw been
continually present between those who urged the slow progreM of a Bodhisattva
toward enlightenment and those who preferred the far more rapid means, wruch
are promised in 10 many tantras. The usual way of explaining the existence of
such very different ways was to place human beings in three categories, low,
medium and high, where only the highest would follow the tantric path. These
three grades thus correspond with the three types of religioua vow. which may be
taken; that of a sravaka (HfnayaniS(), a Bodhisattva (usually understood in this
context as a monk of Mahayanist penuasion) and that of a tantric yogin. Arisa
must have been well aware of such distinctions; yet be begins bis little treatise,
WTitten for the benefit of Byang-chub-'od, by equating the three grades of
human beings with the way of a nonrcligious man, the way of onr who acu
religiously for his own benefit (viz., a Hinayanist} and the way of one who acts
religiously for the benefit of others as well (viz.. a Mahlylni.st). He iii thus free to
continue his treatise commending the life of a Mahaylniat monk as the highest
possible. He therefore commends explicitly the aame gradual path toward
enlightenment as wa, represented by the teaching of Kamalaitla toward the end
of the eighth ~ntury (aee above V.2.a). Thu, he can write in the name of hi,
ideal practitioner:
1111Jle-tinii, which is some fifty miles nonheaac of Lhaaa. has mnai~ :an important rnona11ery
within the dGe·lugs-pa fold. lu high incarnate lama enjoyed the privilege.shartd wl~ . onl~ two
oditt monnterics, of acting as ttgem during the minority of a Dalai Lama. Stt onr Cultu'itJ Hutory
of Tifnt. p . %28, and for its extnontinary topiul interest H. E. Richar~n's article, "The Rva·
qreng Compiruy" in Tih•tan Stu4"s in Honour of Hugh Riclwmbon, pp. XVMU<.
 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
I must keep to the practice of celibacy,
Avoiding sin and dea.ire.
Delighting in the vow of morality,
I must follow the teachings of the Buddhas.
I must not want to gain enlightenment
Q.uickly and just for myself.
For the sake of a single living being
I will delay to the very lut limit .
I will purify the realms
Inconceivably numberless,
Known in all ten directions of apace
By the name I have taken.
He then goes on to stress the importance of Wisdom and Means practiced
together, where Wisdom means the Perfection of Wildom in its normaJ
Mahayana senae, and Means refera to all the other perfections, generosity and
the rest. This is followed by a brief lesson in the doctrine of voidoea , namely the
voidness of .elf and thC!voidnen of all the elements of existence. This is in fact
the wis'.1°m t_hat one has to realitc with the help of scripture (l&1-ng)and
pcrceptton (ng-pa), and thus progressing through the various stages of con-
tem~lation one Is not far from a Buddha's enlightenment. At thi. point the
treatJSe suddenly appean to offer another alternative:
If one wishes to complete easily the components of enlightenment
By means of the rites of tranquilizing, prospering etc.,
Which are achieved by the power of mantras,
And also by the eight great achievements,
The achievement of the auspicious jar ( consecration), etc.,
And if one wishes to practice secret mantras,
As given in the kri-ya,carya and other tantras,
Then one must give due honor and gifta
For the sake of the Master's Consecration,
And make one's holy lama content
With your austerities and all else beside$.
By thus contenting your lama
And so receiving the complete Master's Consecration,
You are cleansed of all aim and become worthy o( achieving perfection.
But since it is strictly forbidden in the Great Tantra of Adibuddha,
Those who practice celibacy should not receive the Secret Consecration
or that of (the Knowkdge of) Wisdom.
H they receive these consecrations,
They break their vow of self-denial,
Since they have practiced that which is forbiddm
For tbmc committed to the state of celibate self-denial.
Jn that a fatal sin ia occasioned
By such u have broken their vows,
They assuredly fall into evil rebirths
And no achievement i.sposaible .
V.!l .a C1m1binationof Pol11icsand Religion 485
In the study and explanation of all tantras
And the performance of homa rites, and worship, etc.,
And in receiving the Master's Consecration,
All that is acc:eptable and no harm is done. 177
This famous little work of Atiia's aeems to be conceived as a kind of accom·
modation to the wishe~ of his h06t in that it commends in such explicit detail the
moral virtues of monastic life in accordance with Mahayana teachings about
one's primary concern for all other living creatures. Moreover, ac the outset, as
we noted, auch practice ia said to bt' only suitable for the belt of the three grades
of human beings. Following upon such a discounc, the concluding verses about
tantric practices (quoted above in full) suggest a conflict of priorities. Who
would not want to complete easily the components of enlightenment using
meam recommended in the tantras? But is the Master's Consecration suffkient
for this purpoiie1 Here we are informed that it removes sins and makes one
worthy of achieving perfection, clearly implying that the higher consecrations
are neceesary for its final realization. This is also the explicit teaching of thOM!
tantras that prescribe the series of four consecrations. Yet those who ha~ taken
monastic vows cannot r~ive the Secret Conaecration and the Knowledge of
Wi1dom Consecration. They are therefore given no choice but to follow the
gradual p~th of a Bodhisattva through many rebinm. Alao if we take his wording
literally Atiia does not even promise them final success by this means.
Progressing through the various stages of contemplation "one is not far from a
Buddha's enlightenment." The whole treati.e raises so many questions that one
may wonder if Byang-chub-'od, who requested it, was satisfied with the results.
An easy answer to these apparent difficulties is provided by the theory of the
various grades of human beings. Those who are born with keen senses (see above
Ill.I) are suitable clients for the higher consecrations. Since they arc in a
po5ition of advantage over their duller brethren. this can only be because of
merits achieved in previous lives. It thus follows that thoee who cannot aapire
beyond the conventional monastic state in their present life should hope to
render themselves fit for a higher calling in their next ollt'. Thus the essential
fallacy in Arib's little treatise is revealed. It was prestimably required of him
that he should commend the monastic state as highly as polilSible, for a weD-
ordettd religious life was clearly the chief requirement, if thttc were to be any
noticeable religious reform, and it was for this purpose that he had been invited.
However, having commended the monaatic life, be could scarcely omit all
117 Stt Helmut Eimer . Bodhipotho/"'"4ij,a. pp. lll6-9, where rhe i,dited Tibe1an te.Jtt and hi,
Gcnn.1n tranll••ion are ;nailabl.: . For tbt: poa.ge quoced just ,.1,ow. a« likcwilc pp . 118·21. The
.-ldibvddlto Ta,u,o is rM Kit.lacaJt.raTantra . The "eight great achievenu:nu- 1Ure\y refer to eight
compoMnt paN of the M:uteT'a C-rarion according to thia umn, viz., con11tt.rationa·with
water, crown, acole, vajl'll and bell, wlf-lordlhlp, na-. ••nctiOII and jar(ott 111. 14.d). I Mte that a
curioua Ii~ of inten<kd correspnndences is given in the Commentary (Bodh,margodlpapolljilu,) »s
quoted by Elmer on his p. lS7. For the ritea of uanquiluing, pr05pering. Ne. see 111.15.e. Alalta
Chauopadhyaya has also translated this rcu with rhr help of l..mia Chimpa. op. cit. . pp. ~2~·S!t.
The: rault i3 not .-ery sati$factory. as they appear to be unfamiliar with much of the terminology
relllling to consecrations.
484 V: 'Il-0:. CONVERSION OF TIB£T
ttfe.rence to the .higher tantric practices, and thus the inmtable conflict of
priorities , to wh.ich we have drawn attention, becomes apparent . 178
A solution could be found to thr problem by practicing the highrr con-
secrations as an imaginative proce55, It is recorded that Rin-chen bzang·po
meditated upon them precisely in this wa y and waa rebuked by Atiu, who was
twenty-four years bis junior, for treating each tantra separately. This is an oft-
told story, but may be worth repeating briefly. They were ,pend ing the night in
a three-story tempk. On the ground floor there was a circle of divinities of the
Guhya$amtija Tantra , on the next floor Hevajra's drd e, and on the top floor the
circle of Cakrasaqivara. At twilight the Translator practiced meditation on the
ground floor, at midnight on the next floor, and at dawn on the top floor . The
following morning when thry were having a meal. Atib asked: "O Great Trans-
lator , how was it that you practiced meditation yenerday at twilight on the
ground floor , at midnight on the next floor and at dawn on the top floor?" The
Translator replied : "In that way I can produce separately and reab$orb the
different sets of divinitie5 ." Atiia'1 face darkened as he 8aid: "There was indeed
need for me to come. " The Translator then asked: ..How do you understand it?"
and Atiia replied: "J don 't understand it like that . Even if one practices all these
religious ways with one's thoughts quite subdued. yet fundamentally th(1' all
have the same single flavor. It is quite sufficient to experience in one single spot
aJl product.ion and ~absorption. "11,
According to this story, which surely belongs to the cycle of stories about
At iia, although it is included in Rin -chen bzang-po's biography, the Great
Translator was duly grateful for this advice and practiced meditation success-
fully for the fir&ttime in his life. The point of the story iii obvious enough ; any of
the higher tantras properly practiced is as effective as any other . One might
argue that by pr;icticing several sets, one appreciates more easily the relative
nature of all of them , and having worked on so many diffe~nt tantras Rin-chen
bzang-po mU&thave acquired grea t wisdom in that respect . However, the scory
is of intett$l not because of its intended application so much as an incidental
account of how Rin-chen bung-po himself used the tantras on which he spent
his working life as a translator. He ~camr a monk and remained one , lacking
altogether Atisa's earlier training in the company of tantric yogios. Yet he is said
to have achieved enlightenmen t by means of his meditative practices. Hr is even
acclaimed at the end of his biography as an incarnation of th e Buddha Sik ya-
muni himself. One therefore leaves this discussion with the impttuion that the
way of the celibate monk might achieve just as quickly the goal of enlightenment
as the much vaunted way of the higher tantric initiations involving the act ual
practice of sexual yoga. Atisa might have been more explicit cm this matter in his
linle treatise, unless he held to the view of tantric yogins that their way is the
superior one.
178 Thi • mau~r ha~ also been dial'.wscd r<•ttntl y by D. S. R11t-gg." lkux prob~-l d-~~~s~ ~1~
pratiq~ 1amriqu<~$." Ttm.1.nc and Taoi.11Sludi ~.Jin Htmor of rrofes.w, R . /1. Stein , pp. 212-26.
llt Taken direct from my own 1~ 11sla1i,m in The Cultvral He-ritage of l.adakh , >'<>I . 2. p, 98.
V.3.b Combir111twn
of PoliticJ and Religion
b . Tiu Founding o.fReligiouj Orders
from the founding of bSam-yas Monasiery in the \'adung Valley toward the
end of the eighth century until the founding of Rva -sgreng (Re -ting) Monutery
by Atiia's disciple "Brom-ston in the mid-elev enth century, there was no dis-
tinctive religious order in Tibet. Indeed only in retrospect can 'Brom-ston's
foundation be regarded as a new religious order. Referring to themselves as
bKa' -gdams -pa, he and his followers conceived of themselves as restoring a more
diiciplined practice of religious life, as intended when bSam-yas was founded,
but which h-ad been weaken ed and often corrupted by the freer tantric practices
of home-dwelling yogins. These owed no allegian(;-e to any panicu lar monastic
, . establishment , and since they were often noncclibate, they remained free to
}ii follow any kind of teaching and practice, as prescribed by their chosen master,
whether Indian, Nepalese or Tibetan. In our references above to Zur-po the
Elder, Zur ·po the Younger, Dam -pa Sangs-rgyas and espttially perhaps the
amazing woman adept, Ma-gcig , we have already given a sufficient idea of what
was involved in .111cha kind of religious life, and whether or not effective in
achieving the results that were cla imed, it was clearly in conflict with the ordered
religious life of a celibate religious community . The Ti~tans were now reali1.ing
that there were two main paths toward enlightenment, as represented by the vast
variety of late Indian Buddhist trad ition&, which were now flooding their
country. and these tw0 they refer to as the way of the St'ltras and lM way of the
Tantr.s -- namely that of ordered monastic life and that of the free -roving
tanrric practitioner, who is bound only to the word of his cbOSffi religious
master . The so-called way of the Sutras certainly did not neglect the tantras , but
d.::.ji. these could only be practiced within the limitt permitted by t he OV4!rridingvow
of monastic celibacy. Since so many of the liturgies performed by the monks arc
l
~·;5:
balllC!dupon the cult of the same cycle, of tantric divinities, as were favored
outside the monaSl:erie.s, the whole general religious background tends to remain
,:J:
~
l-
...::~ ~
one and the same, whether for monks or nonc elibate yogim , depending alwayg ,
u may be expected , upon time and circumstances . Thus the tantras favored in
the bKa -gdams -pa temples continued to be tho&eof the Yoga Tantra tradition,
so well represented in some of the old surviving monaste~a founded in the time
•;/:
of the religious king1 of Western Tibet, which then included such districts as
J. Ladakh, Zangskar, and Spiti, nowadays foJJunately part of Jndfan territory .
One must mention in particular Toling (mTho-ling ) in Gu -ge, Tabo in Spiti ,
Sumda in Zangskar, all closely associated with the Great Translator Rin -cben
bung-po , and Akhi in Ladakh, where the two oldest temples were founded by
wealthy prelates of the famou11 'Bro family , namely ,Kal -ldan Shes-rab and
Tshul-lr.hrims-'od (PL 69b). Having been much neglected in later centuries,
some of these monureries presetve the mural paintings and much of the imagery
from the earlier bKa'-gdams -pa times, whereas their bener known monasteries
in Central T ibet . such as Re-ting itaelf, bavt" been repainted and redecorated
over the centuries in accordance with the later artistic traditiom of the d~r-lugs-
pa Order. Thi$, the latest of religious orders in Tibet, was founded a, the
·}.'
·':;-
,.
~
486 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
beginning of the fifteenth century by Tsong-kha-pa and his disciples. While
claiming quite justly to be a reconstituted bKa'-gdams -pa Order, coming some
three to four centuries later, it was inevitably imbued with lacer doctrinal and
anistic influence&. Thus absorbed by its successor. the: bKa'-gdam5-pa Order
disappean from the Tibetan s<~ne, and in retrospect tends to be remembered
only as a passing phase of Tibetan monasticism. However. iu influence has been
far more widespread than ita comparatively short-Iivt'd existence might suggest.
in that it affirmed the: importance of a sound monastic tradition precisely at a
time when the imponation of Indian Buddhist teachings into Tibet seems to
have depended so much upon the exertions of independent scholars. usually
noncelibate, who traveled in pursuit mainly of tantric initiations and the
relevant tantrk cexu and commentaries. It is remarkable that the greatest of the
Tibetan religious orders, whose origins may be traced back to the eleventh
century, namely the-Sa -sk.ya-pa and bKa'-brgyud-pa (pronounced: Ka-gyu-pa)
Orders, recognize as their founders the same type of free-roving tanrric yogins,
a&already referred to above. Yet they subsequently developed strong mona11tic:
traditiom. which have survived to this day, and it would seem certain that the
inspiration for this derived from contemporary bKa'-gdam.s·pa practice. It is
significant too that they, like all other later Tibetan religious orders, accepted
the same Indian Buddhist monastic rule (Vinaya) as had been impoeed by royal
decree in the late eighth century, namdy that of the MuJa-Sarvlstivadin Order,
and that no effort appears ever to have been made to introduce a variant form of
monastic order. This significant fact gives an OW!rallunity to Tibetan tnona.stic
life, however many religious orders there may be, whereas in India the varfoua
religious orders were distinguished largely by the variant forms of monastic rule
that they followed. We have already referred to these in the previous chapter in
their four main groupings of Sthaviravadin (or Theravadin), Sarvutiv&din,
Mahasa~ghika and Sammilfya, and of all these only one branch, the so-called
"basic" or Mwa -Sarvastivadin. is followed in Tibet. Since the question of this
particular allegiance wu never later raised in Tibet, one may assume that the
bKa'·gdams-pas , who reasserted. the practice of precisely this religious rule, mu,t
have done much to ensure its later general propagation.
The eventual development of religious orders in Tibet is closely related with
the great importance attached to de\'Otion to one's ch<isen teacher, whence there
derives immediately the concept of a spiritual lineage. As already emphasized.
(see section III.8 above), thia concept was fundamental to the transmission of
tantric teachings, which were normally regarded. as secret , and thus could
properly be transmitted only to a worthy disciple, whose capability and trust -
wonhiness had already been tested_ Tibetan rdigioU5 orders <kvdoped more or
less accidentally as the result of the fixing of such a apu-itual lineage at a
particular place, namely a monastic establishment, which happened to become
a recognized religious center of importance, conaequently g1·owingin wealth and
prestige. Many monasteries were founded in Tibet and there werr al,;o nwnerous
spiritual lineages. whether offew or numerous generations. but only a favorable
V.!l.b Combiru.uio·n of Politics and ReliBii>n 4-87
combination of a particular monastery with a particular lineage might result in
what came to be Tecognizcd a, a di11:inctivc:religious order. It i, in fact only in
retrospect that one can speak of the founding of a religiow order, for in most
caset the founder had died before any ,uch religious order had yet come into
existence. He had certainly provided the inspiration, as transmitted to his
immediate disciples, and it would be largely his teachings that they continued to
transmit as a more or le1111distinctive tradition. Thus one may observe that while
the various different orders of Buddhist monks in India were mainly
distinguished by the kind of mona1tic rule (Vinaya) that they followed, as well as
by their preference for .Hfnay:ma or Mahayana mtras, as the case may have
been, Tibetan religious orders developed quite differently, baaed upon the
transmission of particular late Indian Buddhist tantric traditions, which
happened to have been favored by certain renowned teachen, who in retrospect
may be regarded as their "founders." Although the Tibetans may be fairly
regarded as the chief inheritors of the whok range of Indian Buddhist teachings,
one may observe that so far as their petsonal connections with Indian teachen
.>
were concerned, the rangt> of actual religious practice adopted by them came to
be mainly limited to whatever was being currently taught and practiced in
northeast India and Nepal from the mid-tenth to the late twelfth century.
Owing to the total destruction of this later form of Indian Buddhism in the land
of its origin, our knowlcd~ of it is derived mainly from Tibetan source material,
npecially from the "histories of religion" (clws· 'bytmg), which Tibetan scholars
began to compile from their own accumulating traditions. largely based on
religious lineages dating back to the tenth century. 18~ This so-called second
diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet depended. so exclusively upon lndo-Tibetan
connections that the earlier period, of which a survey bas been given to the best
of our ability, was inevitably interpreted as though the relationship with India
was even then all important. That this was not so has been amply demonstrated
above. Thus whatever failed LO accord with the later traditions received direct
from India was regarded in retrosp«-t as erroneous or alto~ther heretical. We
have already 1101edthat throughout India , and Central Asia as well, there were
still many monastic communities that rejected not only iantric teachings, but
JI also the: Mah1yana sutras, thereby remaining faithful to the earlier fomu of
Buddhism, referred to correctly as the .mtvakay4na (Way of the Early Disciples)
f
l ·~
.:::,
and rather scornfully as the Hinayana. In the earlier period it would seem
inevitable that some Tibetans should have had contactS with such communities,
if nOl in India, then certainly in Central Asia and in the Ton-huang region. But
l! in the later period any such connection seems practically unknown. and the early
Indian Buddhist schools become almost as remote from the Tibetan scene as the
. /~; varioua ,cbools of Greek philosophy are now from us. Tibecan 5Cholars of all the
:.F'# later Tibetan religious orders wert cc:-rtainly aware of their existence as othc:r
: S!i
:.,·:? inadequate forms of Buddhist teaching, but apart from the Suvastivada
l tlO fo, n:fercnC>e$
ro ,uch "hiltories··-. chos-'b_yvn,,rin lhe Index.
488 V: TUE CONVF.RSION OF TJBET
vinaya to which I have r:derred just above, the teachings of the early Buddhist
schools have no practical application in Tibetan Buddhism, and important as
they were in India, distinguishing one Buddhist sect from another, they sutvive
in Tibet as mere philoeopbical speculation, influencing in no way the develop-
ment of the various Tibetan religious orders. Likewise the Tibetans inherited as
philoeophical doctrine all the teachings that we have surveyed under the general
title of "Later Developments in India," but once again the choice between them
had seldom anything to do with such differences as there may have been between
their various religious orden, u indeed was the case in China, where sects
developed basing themselves on cenain fundamental canonical sutras or tantras.
Befon ~ considering them in rather more detail it may be useful to list the
better-known Tibetan religious orders and suborders, grouping them according
to auch doctrinal or practical differences as may be discovered between them,
and noting the manner as well as the date of their foundation; always established
retr<>&pectivelyas has already been argued above.
1. Orders that emphasize the primary importance of monastic discipline :
(a) bKa'-gdams-pa (Ka-dam-pa), deriving its origins from the foundation of
Rva-~reng (Re-ting) Monastery by Atiia's disciple 'Brom-aton in 1057.
(b) dGe-lugs-pa, deriving ill origins from the reforming zeal of the renowned
scholar Tsong-kha-pa (1357-1419) and his immediate disciples and ba.sed
upon the varioua monasteries founded by them, eapecially Se-ra,
dGa'-ldan (Ganden), 'Bras-spungs (Drepung) and bKra-shis-lhun-po
(Tashilhunpo). This order, also earlier referred to as the New b'Ka'·
gdam1-pa, absorbed ita predecessor.
(c) Zhvo-lu-pa, deriving its origins fron, tbe foundation of Zhva-lu Monastery
by ICe-btsuo Shes-rab 'byung-gnas in 1040.
2. Orden whose origins are directly related to lineages c:onm-cting them with
Indian tamric masters of late Indian Buddhism (tenth to twelfth centuries);
(a) Sa-slt:,a-pa,deriving its origins from the teachings of the scholar-traveler
'Brog-mi (Drok-mi. 992-1072), wh~ disciple dKon-mchog rGyaJ-po of
the 'Khon family founded Sa-akya Monastery in 1075.
(b) bKa'-brgyud-pa (Ka ·gyfi-pa), deriving its origins from the teachings of
the sc:holar-traveler Mar-pa (1012-96) , transmitted by him to Mi-la
Ras-pa (Milarepa . 1040-1123) and then in tum to sGam-po-pa (1079-
1153), whoBCdirect diaciplcs were responsible for founding six suborders:
i. Phag-mo -gru, founded by the lama of that name (1110 -70), whose
aimple meditation hut, where he lived from 1158 onward, devdoped into
the important monastery of gDan-sa-mthil.
ii. KaT•ma-pa. deriving from the aucceuion of Lama Dus -gsum-mkhyen·
pa (1110-93) who founded mTshur-phu Monastery in 118!>. This
suborder is probably named after the monastery of Karma gDan -sa,
which he already founded earlier in eastern Tibet, whence he came.
Iii. Tshal-pa, named after the disrrict of Tshal, where the monastery of
Gung-thang was founded by sGom·pa (I 116-69), yet another of&Gam·po-
pa's disciples.
V.$.b Combination of Polilics arul Religion 489
'' iv. 'Bri-gung -pa, named after 'Bri-gung Monaatcry, founded by La.ma
'Jig-rtcn mGon-po (1143-121!) .
v. s1"ag-lung-pa, named after &Tag-lung Monastery, f~mded in 1180 by
Lama s'l'ag-lung thang-pa bKra·shis·dpal (1142-1210).
vi. 'Brug-pa, named after the Monastery of 'Brug (Druk) founded by
Gling -ras ·pa Pad -ma rDo-rje (1128-88), although it waa another
monastery of his, Rva-lung, that became the center of the order.
(c) Shangs-pa bKa'-brgyud, an order founded by Khyung·po rNal•'byor in
the second half of the eleventh century.
S. Orders related in their origins to the fint diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet:
(a) rNying-ma-pa, the "Old Order," whose adherents regard a& their founder
lama the yogin-magician Padmuambhava, who visited Tibet in the
second half of the eighth century. Deriving entirely from various spiritual
lineages, they did not begin to envisage themselves as a distinct religiOU$
... order until the eleventh and twelfth ccnturiea, when realizing that their
traditions were being threatened by the promoters of the second diffusion
they began to put their teachin3' together, whether genuine traditions
actually preaerved from the paat, or whether fresh compoaitions based
upon such traditions.
(b) Bon-po, the heterodox Buddhists of Tibet. Like the rNying-ma-pa , they
only began to organiie themselves as a distinctive order, suppoiC<lJy
founded upon the teachings of Mi-bo gShen-rab, who is said to have lived
in the distant past and to have taught among other doctrines all the
Buddhiat doctrine, which orthodox Buddhists ascribe with more ~ason
to Sakyamuni Buddha.
In order to complete this list we should add perhaps the Ngor-pa branch of
Sa -skya, ba,ed upon the monastery of Ngor Eva111Ch0$-ldan , founded in 1429
by the great Sa-skya-pa scholar Kun-dga' bZang-po (1382-1444), and alao the
Jo-nang-pa Order, which emerged as a distinct school in the fourteenth cenrury
as a result of certain teachings of Sbes-rab rGyal-tshan, known aa the Great
Scholar of DoJpo (1292-U61), and was named after his monastery of Jo-mo-
nang. While the Ngor-pa branch adherea generally to Sa-akya teaching, and
:'·.
f; practice, and thus scarcely claims distinction as a separate order or suborder, the
Jo -nang-pa ia a rare example in Tibetan Buddhism of an order that owed its
existence to the holding by its followers of a distinctive philosophical doctrine
concerning the nature of the abaolute. They were accused by their opponents of
assening the real existence of buddhahood in an absolute sense, thus denying its
true nature aa "pure void" (it"m.yatci). The justification for their views can easily
be found in the teachings of the Indian Mind Only school, described in some
detail in Chapter JI above , and especially in the theory concerning the "essence
of buddhahood·• (tathdgatagarbha) inherent in all living beings. It will be
recalled too that the followers of the Mind Only school were accu9ed of being
"Buddhist Brahmana," and the identical charge of unorthodoxy wu brought
against ~ Jo-nang-pas, resulting evenrually in their proscription by the fifth
490 V: TiiE CONVERSION OF TIBET
Dalai.Lama and the confiscation of their propeny. Howev('!r, this particular
order was probably suppressed, not so much on account of doctrinal divergence,
but on account of political spite, ae the Jo-nang-pas, like the Kar-ma-pas, had
benefited from the patronage of the king of Tsang, who was the main contender
in the first part of the seventeenth century against dGe-lugs-pa pretensions to the
political control of Tibet. 0~ may note that the rNying-ma-pas and certainly
the Bon·pos are far more unorthodox than ever thejo-nang-pu may .have bttn,
but no serious effort has ever been made to ruppttss them. Indeed the fifth Dahli
Lama himself is known to have been personally a rNying-ma-pa supporter.
Having already discussed the origins of the rNying-ma-pa and Bon-po Orders
in the earlier part of this preaent chapter, we are concerned now with the new
orden, which originue directly from the lnclo-Tibetan contacts of the tenth to
twelfth centuries, namely the Sa-!kya·pa, the bKa'-brgyud-pa and the Shangs-
pa bKa'-brgyud-pa, limiting ourselves to giving some account of their
beginnings. Their subsequent history together with that of the religious orden
that proceeded from them, must be allowed to fall outside the scope of this
present volume . Typical representatives of the new order of traveling scholars
and tranalators are 'Brog-mi ("man of the steppes") and Mar·pa, who are
regarded in retrospect as the founders of the Sa-skya-pa and the bKa'-brgyud-pa
Orden. 'Brog-mfa activities are most conveniently dt.scribed by extracting the
appropriate pa•agc from the Blue Annals.
At the time when monasteries were being founded and Rin-chen bzang-po was
nearing fifty years of age, the abbot and chief teacheT (namely Sakya·gzhon·
nu and Se Ye-shes brtson-'grus who we~ working for the rulers of Gu-ge)
having taken advice sent 'Brog-mi and sTag-lo gZhon-nu to India, entrasting
them with a lot of gold. These two had learned something of the Indian script
in Tibet and had then spent two years in Nepal, studying Sanskrit with the
Newar scholar, S:uitibhadra, disciple of Santipa, and also A.udying some
tantric texts with him. Following his advice, they (au~uently) viaitrd
Slnripa and establiilhed rdigious connectiom with other great scholars of
VikramaMla: Santipa of the Eastern College, Vagijvara.kirti of the Southern,
Prajnakaramati of the Western, Naropa of the Northern, Ratnavajra and
Jntnalr1 of the Central CoUege, these six. When they were leaving for India,
the abbot and chief teacher had told them: ''Study monastic discipline
(vmaya) as it is the foundation of our religion. Study the Perfection of Wisdom
scriptures, as these are the essence of our religion. Study the Mantras (\'U.,
tantric traditions), for these are the hurt (nying-khu) of our religion." In
accordance with thia command, 'Brog-mi fint studied monaatic discipline
with SAntipa. Thereafter he studied the Perfection of Wisdom literature and
the Mantras, thus becoming very leamed. But sTag-lo stayed at Vajrasana
(Bodhgaya}, making reverential rounda (of the temples) and did not study.
Thereafter 'Brog-mi rraveled further in eastern India, where he saw a monk
being presented with alms by a tree-goddess with ghostlike hands. This caused
him great amazement, and he bowed down before the monk and made
Combination of Pvlitics and Rdigion 491
reverential rounds. Later he asked to be accepted as his disciple. Hie name was
Prajna-indraruci, translated into Tibetan as Shes-rab·kyi dbang-po gsal-ba
("Trao.slucent Power of Wisdom"). He was the disciple of Mi-thub zla-ba
(Adhmacandra), who was in tum the ditciplc ~f J?ombi·Heruka, di~ip.le of
Virl'.lpa. He bestowed upon 'Brog-mi tan~ric inillatlol_lS and ..esplanauons all?,
many precise instructions. He abo gave him the teachmg of Way and. Result
(lam- 'bras) without a basic text. Feeling far greater confidence m t~ese
teachings than in the tantric teachings which he had r~-eived from _s:ui!1pa·
'Brog-mi remained there four years. In all he spe~t thineen years an Ne~al
and India (lko•bal) after which he returned to Tibet. The abbot and chief
teacher together with their monks went a Jong way to meet him. As he was by
now acquainted with many texts as mentioned above and had thu, become
very learned, the abbot and chief teacher were very pleased. He then tram•
lated three major tantras including the Hevo.j,a.Tantra as well as many other
tantric texts. He also reworked the translation of the $udhamati of Santipa, ( a
commenta.-y on the Abhisamay4la,riltlira), but he propagatrd mainly tantric
teaching, staying mostly at Myu·gu-lung and Lha-rtsc-brag. On one occasion
when he was staying with the nomads of gNam·thang dkar-po, who had
invited him, he received a measage saying: "Gayadhara is coming and he ia a
great scholar; come so that you can meet him." He went to Gung-thang and
having met him, he remained in his company and this great scholar taught
him much doctrine on the way. He invited him to Myu-gu-lung, where he
remained five years, bestowing upon 'Brog-mi all his precious teachings.
'Brog·mi promid to give him five hundred ounces of gold. He ~ompleted al!
hi&teaching within three years, but when he said that he wa, leavmg. 'Brog-mi
begged him to stay, so he remained there five years (in all). When he was given
the five hundred ounces of gold, he was very pleased, and having promised to
give hi&teachings to no other Tibetan. he returned to India."
'Brog-mi had quite a number of disciples, but only five of them seem to have
been especially favored. Among thC$Cwas dKon-mchog rgyal-po (born 10S4~ of
the 'Khon family, who eventually founded Sa-llcya Mona.iery, and havmg
married a lady known as Ma-gcig zang·mo, produced a son, who as Kun-dga'
mying -po (1092-1158) was the fint of the great hicrarchs of the new Sa-!kya
Order. Thus it was primarily in this particular religious order that 'Brog-mi's
learning continued to be propagated. The great Mar-pa also came to 'Brog·mi
as a disciple, but he would appear-to have bttn a very different character from
dKon·mchog rgyal-po, ccnainly of a far more independent disposition, so he did
not progressvery far with this particular master.
Both the Translator 'Gos and the Translator Mar-pa were his disciples. Marpa
used to say: "I learned reading and writing (of Sanskrit) at the glorious Myu-
gu-lung Monastery from the Translator 'Brog-mi. He was gracious and very
kind." But noting that be char~d large fees even for a little reachin,, _Mar-pa
decided to go to India on his own account. Also·~ wa~ of th~ opm10~ that
the Jama waa too strict, and so left the monastery with the mtentton of going to
other scholar&. Be that as it may, this great scholar posseaed many teachings
and was distinguished as one greatly learned. He wu aeadfast in the Processes
492 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
of Emanation and Realization (utpatti-.sampanna-limma), and thus by the
force of his vital breath he desired buddhahood without abandoning his
physical body, which at the approach of death he held in a levitated crosa-
legged potitioo. But when his sons cleared the funeral pyre, tMre was noi a
single auspicious sign. So he was one of those who achieve perfection (.siddhi)
of the Mabamudra while in the Intermediate Stage ( bar-do), 181
Although in retrospect both 'Brog-mi and Mu-pa may be fairly regarded as
the founding fathers of the Sa-skya-pa and the various bKa'-brgyud-pa orders,
their teaching and inspiration were received largely from the great tantric yogins
of eutern India who lived free of all monastic involvements. Mar-pa lived as a
Layman all his life. never taking any form of monastic vow, and it is scarcely
likely that be ever could have conceived himself as the founder of a whole series
of religious orders, such aa came into existence within a hundred years of his
death. His ch01en disciple, Mi-la Ru-pa, can likewuie have had little idea that
he was next in line of succession, leading eventually to the grand lamas of the
various bKa' -brgyud·pa orders, some of whom would in due course challenge the
authority of the great Sa-skya-pa hierarchs in the thirteenth to fourteenth
centuries and the growing power of the new dGe-lugs-pa Order from the mid-
fifteenth to the mid-seventeenth cenrury.1 111 All ideas of worldly honor and
secular authority were certainly far from the thoughts of Mar-pa, of his Indian
muten, and of his first Tibetan succes110rs. But even the idea of founding
specific religious orders can have scar<.-elyentered their thought. They were
certainly intent on establishing spiritual lineages so that their teachings would be
preserved, and it is entirely due to sub~uent combinations of historical circum-
stances that some of these developed into distinctive religious orders. As these
orders, listed just above. came into being. based upon cenain successful
monastic foundations, they appear to have adopted as a matter of course the
same type of monastic ditcipline as was already in vogue in a number of bKa'.
gdams·pa communities. Thus as already mentioned above, there gradually
came into exisknce in Tibet various groupings of monasteries, which all follow
essentially the same kind of monastic order (that of the Mula-Sarvastivadin
Order as it existed in India up to the thirteenth century). but which may be
regarded as distinctive religious orders in that they continue 10 lay claim to a
panicular sue1:eaio11 of "founder-lamas" togethCT with their transmitted
teachings. Many of these were tantric masters, leading the lives of rather
«centric laymen or as free-roving yogins, precisely of the kind whom we have
al~ady met with in India, especially eastern India. and Nepal from the tenth to
twelfth centuries. The lndo-Tibetan line of founder-lamas of all the bKa'·
brgyud-pa orders surely provide11us with the most impressive example of this.
sGam·po-pa (1079-1153), wh06e immediate disciples began to found
monasteries, some of which eventually became the chief religious houK of these
111 Translat°"' from T'fut .Bl'IU!
Amwtli. vol. 11gr,, f0&.2al. J,6, ,a•-b•. l'ar Roe-rich', tnn.obtlo,uet'
pp. 205ff. of his Part I.
1R For brief ttfettn<.~ ~ Rkhardson 's and my Tiu Cultural Heritage of 1'ib,11,pp. 149 & 193-4.
V.!.b Combination of Polilics and Ri k'gion 493
various communitiea, was the disciple of the famous free -roving yogin Mi•la
Ras-pa, who in turn was the disciple of the eccentric householder Mar-pa, who
acquired his teachings. all of the later tantric kind, from the Indian free-roving
yogins, Nlropa, Maiqpa and Kuklturtpa. Of these Nlropa had once been a
famous teacher at Vikramasila, but later abandoned the monastic way of life in
St"archof a tantric master of hi.aown. Thus he had eventually met Tilopa, wh01e
disciple he became after suffering harsh trials of endurance. 1~ Thus Mar-pa and
Mi-la Ras-pa can scarcely be credited with transmitting monastic traditions to
Tibet, and it would seem dear that as the various bKa'-brgyud-pa orders came
into existence toward the end of the twelfth century, the inapiration for the
; actual founding of religious communiti.rs can only have come from the earlier
foundations of 'Brom-ston and his master Atiia. Although the line of founders
who are primarily tanuic yogins is not so long in the case of the Sa-slr.ya-pa
Order. the same state of affairs must exist. Hence come11the eventual use of all
Tibetan religious orders of the one and same Indian Vinaya tradition. Thus it
would seem that Arlia and 'Brom·ston in founding the bKa'-gdams-pa Order
were in effect the founders of the whole later Tibetan monaatic tradition. Not
only the Sa-skya-pa and the bKa' -brgyud-pa Orders, but also the rNying-ma-pas
and the Bon-pos inevitably followed suit, when from the fourteenth century
onward they roo began to establish some celibate religious communitks. Al. for
the dGe-lulJll•pas. they quite conscioui.ly modeled their new communities on
those of the earlier bKa-gdams-pas, thus claiming to restore a purer monastic
jj'. way of life, which from their point of view had become muddied by the literal
interpretation and the actual practice of many of the tantric ritual, imported
from India.
:\?~ ~
.·::,~
,.
It thus comes aboul that all Tibetan religious orders arc derived from the one
/l f and the same Indian monastic tradition, as transmitted by Atisa and 'Brom·
ston, combined with separate lineages of religious masters, who transmitted
.:}{1 specific tancric teachings as rccdvcd from particulu Indian masters. Whoever
. {,~ : finally combined these two elements may be regarded as the actual founder of
.:·s~ any particular order. Whereas 'Brog-mi and his immediate successors combined
.::2
·<i theR rather divcnc elements, thus bringing the Sa-skya-pa Order into eventual
:·} existenc:t', in the case of d~ bKa'-brgyud-pa orders it is sGam-po-pa who
·.;-.:
.
::.~:. combined the esoteric teachings tr:ansmitted to him by Mi-la Ras-pa with the
\: l monastic traditions and nontantric teachings of the bK.a'-gdams-pas. Such
tantric teachings as the bKa',gdams-pas cenainly practiced as permitted within
a monastic framework were mainly of the Yoga Tantra tradition, which wa, now
.,. .
:~~ being rapidly superseded in Tibet by the so-called Tantras of Supreme Yoga, as
received from the tantric yogins of eutern India. Of the difference between
these two tanu-ic traditions much has already been written in Chapter III.
1g5 Fort~ livn of 1bete i.nuu: maiuus att H. V. Gucnioor . 1'he I.if~ t;rtJ T1.acliings of Noropa ;
Chilgyacn Trungpa et al., Tiu Lif• of MaTpathe ·rran,lat<w; 1::va116•Wcnu (with wma 11.aiiOawa
Samdup). T'ilnt1's Great Yogi Milarepa. Naropa lived c.956-1040 (nOI 1016-1100 aa arated else·
whrrr): 1tt Sncllgrowcand Skm-upsl<i,7"/te Cultural ll•Ti(age of Lada/th, v<1I,2, p. 90.
494 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
sCam-po -pa lost hi&wife-in his euly twenties and deciding to devote himself to
religion, he took the vows of a monk and received the teachings of the bKa'-
gdams-pa Order . Having heard of Mi-la Ras-pa, he set out to learn from him.
overcoming the objections of his old teachen in dBu -ru, to whom he first went to
pay hi5 respects. 1&1 "Are our teachings not sufficient?" they asked. However when
he insi1ted, they said: "Go, but do not abandon our habit. " 115 The passage from
the Blue Annals describing sGam·po-pa's meeting with Mi-la Ras--pa may well
be quoted in illustration of the inevitable t~ion that existed and has continued
to exist betwttn the monastic life and the later tantric teachings that have often
been combined with it.
When he reached Brin, a monk met him and said : ''You are very fortunate."
He asked why and was told: "Last year the Lama prophesied your coming.
and has now sent me to meet you."
Then sGam-po-pa thought: "How greatly bleaaed am I," and began to feel
rather proud.
Knowing thLII,_the Lama would not receive him for two weeks. Then one day
he summoned him and he approached. The Master waa sitting on top of a
boulder, and ~·~·po-pa ~ffered him a _piece of gold and a package of tea.
The Maaer said: A, for du5 gold, I and ll have no corre11ponding age:. As for
lhe tea. I have no means for preparing it." He handed them bad and then
gave sGam-po-pa a skull cup full of ch.ang(a slightly alcoholic brew made
from barley).
"Aa a monk, I should not clJ'inkthis,·· sGam-po-pa thought, but knowing his
thoughts, the Master ordered him to drink it. He drank it aJI. and then the
Master asked his name . ''I have been named Gem of Merit (bSod -nams
rin-chm)," he replied.
The Master repeated "Mct"it" three timea and then he chanted a (spon-
taneous) verse:
Such merit comes from a twofold accumulation, 111&
The gem of all Jiving beings!
Then bf: added : "So may I accept this Central Tibetan thus revealed!"
sGam-po-pa besought him: "I beg you to bestow upon me your profound
teachings."
"Ha~ you recei~d initiation?" he asked.
. ."~r'?m t~e Sa~ of Mar-yul (Mar-yul blo-ldan) J have received many
mmauo111 mcluding the 'Sixfold Jewel Ornament' and the SaJ?ivti1·aTantra.
Also I ha~ studied the teachings relating to bKa'-gdams-pa scriptures in
nort~ dBu-ru, an~ I have experienced for thineen days a state of trance
devoid of all seNattons," he replied .
, 184 ConcerningdBu-ru. •.Mn! Is found the funous mon.utery of Rva-'Sffng (Re-ting). foimded br
Brom-ston, and oth~ bk.a -gdams·pa 1cmples, tee Alfoma FC1Tari , naKhym-brt,•'J Guith to the
Holyl'tocesofCmtratTibft, pp. 57ff.
l8S Se~ T~e Blv, A_nnals,~I. "JO, fo. Hb 1• The pa-ge cranslared below follows i~~irly.
For Roench • uamlauon , '"h11 vol. II, pp . 4~ff .
,_. The twofold :accumularion refers 10
attributes ora P~"I l>odlwaum.
* ac:<:U1Pula1ionstJ( merit and of tnowledge. -ndal
V.3.b Combinalion of PolitiCJ and Relig ion 495
The MasteT laughed loudly and said: "Better than such a state of trance i.~
doubtless the trance of the gods of the Formed and Formless Realms (rupa/
arupadhdtu). but it is useless for achieving buddhahood, even if devoid of
semations for a whole c06mic agt>. As it is said: 'Although you press sand, no
butter comes. The bKa'-gdams -pas cenainly have teachings (gdams -ngag),
but they have no tantric learning ( man-ngag)."' Since a demon entered the
heart of Tibet. the Lord Atiia was not allowed to explain the Mantrayana. If
he had bttn allowed, Tibet would now be flooded with competent yogins
(siddha). The fivefold Process of Emanation of the bKa'-gdams-pas knows
only single male divinities, and their PTocas of Realization amounts to no
more than merging the univttl!le and all beings (literally: veuel and elixir,
s11od-bcud} in the sphere of th(' shining gods (4bla4.wrira, vi:r.., the highest
divine realm but still below buddhahood). But now you shall meditate upon
C~4Mi Single-Stroke. " 1"
sGam·po-pa then gave two drams of gold to a householder at Brin, who
agTecdto supply him with proviaio111. Next he constructed a hut at the foot of
the rock with branche, and turves which he collected . "Now J beg for the
I
teachings," he said. ·
The Master replied: "Although the initiations that you have received
previously are not altogether unsatisfactory, you should now praetice accord·
ing to my system." He bestowed upon him the consecration of Vajravlrnhl.
sGam ·po-pa practiced the precepts that be was given and reponed to the
Lama the signs as they appeared in due order.
"These are the signs," he said, "of the vital breath and the humors as they
pervade all the vital parts of your body . Thett is no harm in this and there is
no benefit, so just go on practicing." Thus he C(>ntinuedbis practice .
Then he reported: "One intake of vital breath once daily is now sufficient
for me, and this vital breath permeates to the tips of my fingen."
"This does not mean thiu you have control of your vi&albreath; it simply
mean, that you att capable oft.his." the Lama said.
Next it appeared to him as thought the planet ( ==Rahu, who consumes sun
or moon at the eclipse) were seizing the sun and moon.
"Now , now" said the Lama three times, and bestowed upon him the
supreme Cat;u!.ali rite . "When the signs are fully developed , you will be a
colossus," he said.
In this way sGam·po-pa spent thirteen months in his presence. After that
Mi-la Ras-pa said: "Now my diS(;iple from Central Tibet should return to his
own land of Central Tibet," and led him a, far as the end of the bridge. "From
now on abandon the world and just practice meditation. Do not asaociate with
wrong-minded people (lit. those affected by the Three Evils-- desire, wrath
and delusion) ; their exhaled breath will d iminish your virtue. Keep to retreats
187 man-1.ga, (Saosllril : (imna~) rrfers normally t<> any sacred K-achings tnosmined, somnimes
ecaedy , from mas!CTto pupil. ln T~an usage , probably because of ph<>Mlic equarioll of ngag
(word) andmgogs(manna)it mayofirn refer , ;u bere, t01annic ieaching;s.
111 Co~ (Tibaan: 1Tt,111-mo ) i, disc-din 1he ioection ..Special Cocaccpis of Taotric Yogins''
(111.15.c above). "Singt,,-Suoiu," is my interpreurioo of Tibetan •-1/n,ng. me&aing '"•hort A (of 1he
SaMkri1 alpba~t)," which ia in fac1 :asinglr ~rrical 1uolte, dnu; ~pn,Hnting C~t!a/i. aa ,he ucends
the cenual chunll'I of !he yogin's imagiMd body.
496 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
and solitary places. Three years from now a special vinue will come to you: at
that time too you will see me under a different aspect from the present one."
These and many such instructions he gave him.
sGam-po-pa proceeded to gNyal and setcled at the monastery ofSe-ba-lung,
where there were many bKa'·gdams-pa monks. Thinking that he would incur
ml karma if he did not take pan in their religious practices, he joined in with
them, but as their religiou, practice was not adapted to his meditation , his
thoughts were slightly deranged . Realizing that this would not do, he exerted
himself in his own religious practice without leaving his couch for three years.
Thus at length he recogni zed the true nature of mind and understood that all
phenomena are "just 90•• (tathata). He realized that this mull be the special
viz:tueof which his Lama had spoken and funhennore that. this lordly Lama
exmed as the Absolute Body ( dharmakaya) of buddhahood while we ronceive
of him as an ex~n yogin (siddha) .
Following Mi-la Ra5-pa'1 instruction he pasaed the time in solitary meditation
in lonely places, coming eventually to the slopes of 'Od-lde gung·rgyal (a famous
mountain in CentrafTibet, aaociated in earlier times with the descent to ea rth,
according t.o pre-Buddhist Tibetan beliefs, of the first line of divine kings). From
there he went to sGam-po , where he finally settled, and thus became known a1
sGam-po-pa, "Man of sGam-po."
On one occasion before his sojourn by Mount 'Od-lde gung-rgyal, he was
visited by the lamas of dBu-ru and they urged him stTOJ18ly saying: "Work for
the good of living beings," but he replied : "I haw no doubt (vikalpa.)about
the good of living bdngs. as I have no more than three years to live."
sNug-rum-po (one of his previous lamas) bestowed upon him a mantr a of
Whi1e Tara, saying: "'just recite this, and even if your grave were being dug, it
would be of no matter ."
Thus his life span was increased . When be visited the Religious Guick
(kalyanamit,a) sGre-pa at gYer Monastery, sGre·pa said : "Now it would be
very auspicious for you to accept our local protector (seemingly a local indi-
genous divinity identified as a manifestation of MahaUla) ." But on that
occaaion he ref111ed.Lat.er when he was in aGam -po and th~ number of the
hermitages had increased, he sent two of his disciples to ask for such local
protection. sGre·pa then said: ..If he had accep<ed him when I offered him
ptmOllsly, he would be even now dusting your matter's footsteps. However, he
did not accept him." Then he gave them a piece of butter saying: "Now your
Religious Guide himself should eat this consecrated butter (mar -t.fhud) as a
religious offering ( phyag -tshud ). "
sGam -po-pa did as he was ro!d, and there came forth a whole succession of
spells of the guardian divinity. (Presumably he found himself reciting them
spontaneously.) He put some of them down in writing himself. Later he
reflected that this guardian divinity seemed to be terribly fkTce. "Perhaps I
have some of the speUings wrong," be said , "bring me the separate writings ."
He never gave the text to othen, and he found some way of making this ·
guardian divinity more gentle.
It is said in the DMranisvt1.ro:rdja-pa.n'prcchaSutra ("The Siitra Requested
V.?!.b Comb ination of Politics and Religion 497
by th e Lord King of Mantras") that the Lord Buddha achieved enlighten·
ment in the fint place by realizing the sameness of all the dharma.s; in the
same way while sGam·po ·pa was at sGam·po his undemanding of the
Mahamudra reached perfection . Also just as it is said that the Lord Buddha
curned the Wheel of the Docttine to perfection, so our teacher turned ceue •
lessly day and night the wheel of his vast range of teachings. Although Mi-la
Ras·pa did not teach the Way ofMeam (viz., the Vajraylna-as theory) and
the Mah~udra aide by sick, sGarn·po-pa taught the precepts of the Way of
Means to those who were fitted for the way of the Perfections ( another way of
referring to monastic life) , ahhough they did not receive consecrations . He
produced an instruction book called "Union with the Innate" (lhan -c-ig·skyes·
st,yor). It is also known as "The Percept ions of the Dvags·po Sage" (Dmgs ·
po'i rtogs-chos). He once said: "Although much is written in the scriptures
about the required characteristics of teacher and pupil, a pupil does not
require so many. lf he shows devotion , that is enough. " Thus he arou1ed quite
some understanding of the Mahamudra even amongst pupils who were slow·
witted or miserable or even those who had been sinful. He produced an
I
ordered treatise on bKa ' ·gdams -pa doctrine , and he ga~ much oral teaching,
thus bringing together the two streafflli of bKa' -gdams·pa and Mahamudra
tradition. Thus his incomparable fame a, a Religious Guide (kalya1,U1mitra)
spread everywhet~. 119
i;Gam·po·pa or the Sage of Ovags·po. as he is also known, thus appears as the
true founder of the various bKa'-brgyud-pa orders , in that he succeeds in
combining the tantric teachings transmitted by Mar -pa and Mi-la Ras·pa with
the already escablished monastic traditiom of the bKa' ·gdams-pas. Without the
latter there would be no bKa' ·brgyud-pa religious orden as such, as there would
have been no organized community life. It is interesting to note how averse to
such community life was Mi-la Ras-pa himself, while Mar -pa, occupied with hi.
life as a rather eccentric householder, presumably gave ir no thought what ·
soever . Following the teachings of Tilopa and Naropa, he seema to have
practiced his religion without any reference to the Mahlyana monastic way as
remodelcd on th e Great Perfections. Not only do the descriptions of Mar-pa's
dealings with his teachers in India confirm the impreuions that one has of the
kind of life led by free-roving tantric yogins, as derived from the main rantras
themselwes (see section 111.7), but also Mar•pa himself exemplifies the tantric:
adept, who has passed beyond "good and evil" and to whom all things are
permitted.. Mar ·pa is frankly quite uninhib ited in the enjoyment of pleasures of
sense, claiming to be entirely free in rheir regard. He became very wealthy from
the consickrable fees expected of his students, and when a promising student was
too poor to pay, he readily made use of his services in ways which- according to
such nontantric traditions - would result in long periods of sub&equent suffering
Hit Exrracu translated from the Bliu Annals, vol. n,a , fos. 2Sa 1•6 and Ua 7-b~. For Ron-ich' s
traflllatlons - hil vol. 11, pp . 458ff. The order,:d nni:iae on bKa' -gdama-pa docuioc here rclen-ed
10 may -11 be hit "~wel Omammt or Liberation" (Yui,bzllin gyi no,-.bu 1h.or-pam•·Po·clle'i
'8)'<1>1)
, a• tnnalated by H . V. G\lmcbcr .
 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
498
in hell. The story of the cruel trials that he imposed upon Mi-la Ras -pa is well
known . Although the11emay be regaJ"ded as a form of penance for the evil that
Mi-la Ras-pa had already committed through the~ of his magical powers ,
Mar -pa make• ute of thellCsame power, to harry enemies of bia own. Laa well
known is the a<oryof an()(ber indigent disciple, 'T1hur -dbang-ngc . who was also
c1'pert in black magic. As an initial ..fee" Mar-pa demanded thill this would-be
disciple should perform a rite against a cenain Mar -pa Mon-nag, a cousin of
Mar -pa, who waa hanniog him. Having arranged for the victim to be killed by a
atoM that fell fortuitoual y from the roof , 'Tahur-dbang-nge wu accepted as a
student. t 90 It ia fau to draw attention to the whole magical atmosphe~ in terms
of which so much of this later tamric practice is conducted. This ia acarcely a
Tibetan transformation of higher Buddhist teachings, as we have already taken
note of very much the 11&mereligioua background in India during the period
when Mar-pa and other Tibetan truth seelr.en were collccting teachings from the
:ii
-~
):_qi:~
~
~at Indian tantric maatera .
Of special interest in thb respect ii the rite of "death-injection" (grong-) "11g),
perhaps better interpn:ted Ii "transference of conscioume11," whereby the
adept , while faJling apparently dead himaclf , injccu his "life principle" into any
t"Cttntly de ad body, human or animal , of hu choice. According to bis
biography,1t1 Mar-pa gave proof of his ability to do this on several occuioN .
However, he is said to have conferred this special magical power , which he had
received from Naropa, upon his eldest aon Dar •ma mdo-Jde . Thi6 son waa
unfortunately k.illed by being thrown from his hone , but before dying be bad
time to transfer hil cooaciousneu into • pigeon, the only recently -dead body that
I
happened to be available. Flying in the direction of Nepal. the pigeon located a
place where the funeral rites of a thirteen-year-old Brahman boy we-reabout to
be performed , and tbm falling dead by the corpec, he injected hia life-force into
the dead boy . Thi5 particular accomplidiment wu th\15 I06t to Mar -pa ',
ducipJu It ii recorded, however, that Karma Pak.ii, the second great lama of
the Kar·mit -pa Order, attempted unsuccessfully at the time of his death in 128!
co inject bis life-force into the body of a boy who bad juu died . The 1tory
continues :
Then this Lord of Religion in the form of one who traverses the Intermediate
Path (s-rang-pa baT·ma) approached the birthplace of Mi-la Ras -pa at Tac-
phu -gang-zhur -mo, where he experienced the conaec:ration in the maq4.ala of
the sixty -two divinities of Saqivara . Then the womb of a mOtbcr appeared to
him a1 a crystal palace and he settled in it without fee~ any discomfort ,
Thus he wu reborn on the eighth day of the first half of the month in a wood·
male-monkey year (1284). Although he al~ady knew how to ,peak, be acted
Ito ~ the Blwd4""4 ls. Roezich'uranslatioa , vol. U, pp. 412- IS.
19\ Sec Ch6gyam Tnmgpa , TIie Life of Marf,o, pp. 94-6, 146·~~. 172ff. The "mountain like an
elephant lying on iu •ide" to which the pige(>a is directed ~ht be idmcificd with the 11&mroit
thu,
deacribed. when, the- mooaitcry of sK11-1:ahab ·11cr·ng• now .Mandt. ~ Kaila1II, vol. VII (1979),
pp. 90-1. whnc the~ i, n:fercnce to thr umc rpndary ma1nial.
v.s.b Combin4him of Politicsand .Religion 499
as though be did not know .
This child seemingly demonstrated bis own knowledge of his special conception,
ahowing remarkable aptitude for religiou11learning: he thus became the next
great Kar-ma -pa lama with the name of Rang -'byung rDo-rje . 111t It is intaCl<ing
to note that this fJ1tCl'll of election of grand lamu by reincarnation, which wu
graduaUy adopted by other rdigiOU$orders, appcara conMcted in its origin with
Mar-pa's !oat magical power of "transference of conaciousnett." It could.
however . only be applied by those religious orden that \tttt free of a powerful
aristocratic family as founding spomon , u these reserved the righa of aucceaion
of ruling abbot to thcmaelvcs and their desccndanta. Thus while it could be
applied by the Kar-ma -pa and the 'Bri-gung -pa Orders amongst Mar -pa'•
1ucccsaon, it wu never adopted by the important Phag-mo -gru Order. It wu
never adopted by the Sa-skya, where the succewon remained the preserve of the
dcscendanta of the 'Khon family. Mainly thanb to the dGe -luga-paa. who
ado.pted the system of reincarnation in the latf! fift~nth «ntury, it has come to
be applied on a vut scale in other 11UTviving Tibetan religious orden, not only for
the bead lamas of these ordcn, but for many othe r religious dignitaries as well.
0£ the original six bKa '-brgyud -pa orden , .all founded by the direct diaciples
of sGam-po -pa. only three, the Kar-ma-pa, the 'Bri-gung-pa and the 'Brug-pa
survive to this day. The Shangs-pa bKa'-brgyud, which began as a acparatc
monastic foundation, has also disappeared, although a traditional lineage of
special teachings may 5till be idenrificd.
Although less famous in Tibetan historical tradition than the founding lamu
of the Sa-skya and bKa'-brgyud-pa Ordcn, Khyung ·po rnal -'byor, foundc-r of
the Shanga -pa bKa'-brgyud, cenainly merits special attention. He waa bom in a
"tiger-year ," probably 990, and must ha~ been active throughout much of the
eleventh century, po.aibl y extending inco the twelfth . If indeed he met Atiia in
~/~
.:~=-~ person, then he would of ~•ity have been active in India bdott 1054, the
;.::':.
.:
...... date of Atiia 's death. He i, noted u a follower of the 1eeret teachings of Niguma,
·~(
Nlropa'• remark.able sister , but he appears to have encountered her in a tram :~,
when she had already pallled into higher realms . These encounters could have
oocurttd some time about 1050. '"
The one who took this system (of Niguma) to Tibet was the siddha Khyung ,po
rnal-'byor . He was born in a tigcr ~year at sNye-mo-ra-manp as the son of a
father named sTag -skye of the Khyung -po family while his mother wu named
bKra -lbit -altyid. Immediately aftrr his birth an Indian siddlaa happened to
come, and he prophesied well for the child . At the age of ten he could read,
beiog profocient in both the Indian and the Tibetan alphabet. He already
ltl! FOt"th is ntt act, Stt th<eJJhs~Aruwls . vol. n.)ld, fo. ~ a 1, and Rocricb 's tr •~ation. vol . 11.
p. 488. Coace rning this parti<'war order one may -,fully rett r \0 H . E. Rkhirdton. "'The Karma -pa
Sea : A Historical Note, "'JllAS . 1958, pp. 159-164.
1'3 FOO' a brief a<:00\lnlof the Tibetan cycle,of twel•e and ailtC)'yean - my Frw.r I.Affl4s <1Dol/ltJ,
901. I, pp. i !l-'1. For a thorough study 111e Dieter Schuh, Unlroucha"llff zur G,schicht• d•r
Tibotuch.,n K4'«114ffr•clmuri, .
500 V: THE CONVERSION 01-' TIBET
knew the KiJJacd :ra Tant1'a. At the age of thirteen he studied Bon-po texts
with the Teacher gYung-dru.ng rgyal-ba so well that he was able to explain
them to othen; there were IIOIJleseven hundred there with their boob spread
out before them. Then with Lama 'Byung-gniu seng·&'! he ~tudied the Mind
Section of the Great Fulfillment (rDzogs-chen). and was able to explain it to
othen. Here too there were some seven hundred students. At Sho-ma•ra in
sTod-lung he heard of the whole cycle of teachings of Niguma. Taking with
him a large amount of gold, he went to Nepal and studied the an of tram;-
lat.ing with the Pa~qita Vaswnati. He requnted him for conaecrations and
t·exu of Kriyt and Yoga Tantras together with some five hundred tantric
evocations (sadhana). He was received by Atulyavajra and met Amoghavajra
(alao known as rDo-rje-gdan-pa), whose disciple he became, thus learning a
great deal. He also learned tantric: teachings from Sr1BhadrasajiiAna, Vairo-
cana, and the Hermit of Kashmir (kha-che dgon-po-pa) , from Zhing·gi-rdo-
rje, Atulyavajra and Ratnavajra, all three disciples of Maitrpa, from Danahi.
the tjdkinl of Deviltofa and from the Brahman Ratnaphala. On his way back
to Tibet he was attacked rwice by robbers , but he overcame them by means of
his magical power.
Back home his former disciples made him many presents, and by finding a
source of gold at Gu-}ang, he obtained more than a thousand ounces. Then he
travekd to Nepal, where he ttquested the Pharping Sage (Phom-thing-pa) for
tM S07?1wra Tantra and the "Four Abodes " (gDan-b:thi). After that he went
to India and offered Amoghavajra one hundred ounces of gold . He learned
many teachings from Nlkropa's dilciple Da -chen -po at Nalanda, from
Sumatiktni, Rllmaplla, Natekara, from the Lady Ratnadevl of Karttkata,
and from Kukkurlpa's disciple, S\'lryagarbha. He also met Maitrpa, of whom
he requested many tantras, offering him 5f!Venounces of gold. Al Tibetans are
always short of means, be asked him for a potent spell for the procuring of
wealth. He. was given the spell of the Six-Armed Protector of One's Desires.
Then taking five hundred ounces of gold, he asked if there might be anyone
who had encountered Vajradhara. He was told : "There is NAropa's sister,
named Niguma ; she resides in the Pure Stage (toward buddhahood) and since
she has a rainbow -body, she is normally inviaible. However, ahe goe11to preside
over the t.antric feau in the cemetery at So-sa-gling, and if one's mind is pure,
it is possible to see her there." So he went to So-sa-g)ing, and prayed with the
words: "All homa~ to the Buddha!" Then he .aw in the sky at a height
equivalent to that of seven palm trtts a t/,(Jkini, dark brown in hue, holding a
kh4tvanga and a skull cup, dancing and manifesting a whole variety of
magical fonns. Knowing for cenain rhat thia must be Niguma, he made ]f
obeisance and circled round respectfully. "I beg to request your pure · {/;'
teachings," he said. "I am a flesh-eating <µlkinl,'' she replied. Bowing low, he Ji
repeated his request. "If you want taruric teachings, gold ia required," she \__:.t,_-i_;_-_
i_.'_
said . He offered her the five hundred ounc~ of gold, which she took and
scauered amongst the trees. He began to doubt whether she really was a flesh- El'
eating ,!izkini, and then she turned her gaze toward the sky and other ,!izkims IH
2E:.:::£.::-s
~~~;;:.i::t.m;,1:tE:~~::
.II
V.!l.b Combination of Polilics otul Religi<m 501
a golden mountain. In the dream state the Vajra Lady gave him the "Six
Doctrinea" once, and then thrtt times in real life, as welJ as Vajra Songs
(dohd) and the "Illusory Stage," (,gyu ·ma lam -rim). Also she imparted lO him
many tantras and evocations (stidhana}. She said: "Except for myself and
Lavapa, no one knows these six teachings . Transmit them singly down a
spiritual lineage of seven. ThNe seven I shall blesa and foretell in prophecy ."
Then from a yogin who lived in concealment he obtained the Saqwara
group of the five main divinities, the White and Red l)aki.nia, "The Five Stages
Achieved on One and the Same Couch" (n·m-lnga stan thog gcig-ma), the
Sixfold Yoga (sbyor-dn ,g) and other teachings. He also gained many texts
from Lalitavajra , Aryade\'a and I.)aki.sumati. In accordance with their
prophetic word&he met the /)4/eini Sukhuiddhi , a disciple of the glorious
Vinlpa. He gave her gold and she consecrated him. She said: "I will manifest
myself to your spiritual lineage and bless them." She gave him otherteachings .
Furthermore be made offerings of gold to the f/-li.kinisGangadhara and
Samantabhadri and asked them for teachings. He requested the cycle of
Yamimtaka from the Pawita Sukhav ajra and from Lalitavajra the cycle of
the goddeses . Having also received many teachings from Advayavajra and
others , he returned to Tibet. As many sources of gold had been discovered. be
went to 4&1\Jye-mo and obtained a large quantity of gold there. Then he
returned to India and went to BodhgayA (Vajrbana), where he madeofferinga
amounting weighty ounca of gold. The lamas and the ordinary people there
were amazed . Although Niguma , Sukhasiddhi, Amoghavajra. Maitrpa and
the three vajra ·brethren were not there, he made pments of gold to one
hundred and fifty lamas including Maiq-pa's wife, Gangadhara and others.
They gave him many teachings . Then he traveled to Western Tib et (mNga-
ris), where be met Ati§a (Dlparik.ara), who best~ upon him the Gulaya-
samllja and many other doctrines. As some of his Indian manuscripts were
rather worn, he reatored the text by reference to Atib 's books. Some trans-
lations had bttn made by Rin-chen bzang·po and Dhuma blo-groe. He was
ordained by Glang-ri-thang-pa. He founded 'Chad-dkar Monastery at Jog-po
in 'Phan-yul. Rahulagupta vajra, a yogin who came from the caves (khcmg·
gseng) of the Black Mountains (ri -nag). visited him there and gave him many
teach ings, including consecrations in the five classes of tantras and the textual
cycle of the Guardian (Mahaka)a). Later in the wood-female-sheep year
(1055) he went to Tsha -lung in 'jad. In the fire-male -monkey year (1056) he
went tb Shag-rtsa near Phag-ri. _In the iron -female-ox year (1061) he went co
Grein Upper Gro-mo. Receiving an in"itation from Jog-po, he went to Shangs
and in the course of three years he founded one hundred and eight monasteries
including Zhong-zhong . 19•
,,. Extraacd from the Blue An.rials, vol. 14. fos. Zb1-4a4 ; for R~rich 's tralllilation ue bis vol.· II,
pp. 728-!12.Stt also M. K.apstein."The Shangs-pa bK.a'-brgyud: Ao Unknown Tradition of Tibetan
Buddhiam." 1'ibetatt Scudi~smH011ov-r of Hi,gft Richard.wn , pp. I S8·41 . The fact that l>Ka' -l>rgyud-
pa is used specifically for du, religious orders deriving from Mar -pa, Mi-la Rai-pa and ,Cam-po-pa
don not preclude io use for ocher •-VC«-(lll.~ of "~al rnmmmioos ," which ~main distinct from
than. Ju for the period nf Kbyuog•po 's acrivitin, 1betc, is no pl'oblcm in accepting 990 u the "tijlrr ·
Y"U" in which be was born . This accor ds perf«tly well with 1hf: p1ttiae dates gi_, for his
502 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
Little of 1ubttan« is told of the remaining fifty years or so of his long life. We
learn that he preached extensively, that he insiated on the need for meditation
and inner realization as opposed to exceaive book learning. He is also credited
with mira(.-ulowi powen, reducing troublesome divinities to subjection and even
manifesting himseH in the form of a superior divinity . Although he ~ credited
with the founding of a large number (one hundred and eight being merely a
generally auapkioua number) of "monasteries," it mutt be ob~rved that in the
eleventh century they would generally have been very simple affairs, consisting
in origin of a few huta around a stone and mud built temple. Tha.e that
flourished gradually assumed ever gramkr proportions. On~ again Kbyung -po
prcaumably had no idea of founding a religious order u such. The bKa'•gdams,
pas had already provided a model and it was sufficient to follow the pattern laid
down by them. He was, however, concerned with hi• spiritual lineage, juu u
were so many other well ,traveled teachers of that period . At greatc01t in physical
exertion and acn.al .suffering as well as at great cxpenie of the gold that had to
be washed laboriously from alluvial tWposits in Tibet, these intrepid scholan
procured teachings from their Indian masters, who regul.uly impreaed upon
them the ~cd to preserve certain cberilhed teachings for the future lllf! of a
choeen few . They were thu s inrvitably conscious of having obtained something of
extraordinary value and it i• not surpri•ing that on their return to Tibet, they
were usually unwilling to transmit the,e particular teachings to .ill and sundry .
The value of these teachings was also a11ured by the intc:nae iotcrat shown by so
many fellow countrymen at home in acquiring these teaching& . Only a small
minority had the means and the physical stamina ncceaary for making the
cxhauating journey to India in aearch of religious masters and aped.al doctrines .
It waa often a hard enough task, traveling hither and thither within the confines
of Tibet in order to seek a religious teacher ready to accept one . Even then the
fea demanded might be ·aorbirant, as was often oblerved by student» who went
to 'Brog-mi or Mar-pa for inatruction. Th01e who ettablished a ,mall religious
community, u was done by Khyung-po, show thcmaclves as kindly and com ·
passionate mastcra of religion, to whom the term lual~amitt"a (literaJly :
Mreligious friend " but suggesting rather "rdigious guide " ) is often juatly applied .
While they may .still be concerned to pa• on certain apccia)teachings to a choleo
few, they have at the ,ame time committed them.selvu by the accepted code of
monastic life to "work for the good of living beings ." lney may 1till have their
ch<llen disciples . but they also receive others who show theiruclvcs fit for the
rcligous life. It is inten:sting to recall from the excerpt concerning .Cam-po -pa's
life that he Will approached by eome of hi& earlier teachen, when he wa1 intent
on solitary meditation in accordance with Mi-la Ras-pa's instruction. They urge
him to ''work for the good of living beings, " which means returning to the kind
m-nrs when ~finall y ~ to Tibtt . Romch has 1be,c later ~- quii.ec:omct ( Iris p . 7U ).
and it can ha~ bem a mctt ovusight on ha pan wbm he gives the "tigcr-yur " of birth a 1086.
Glancing hack OM ,ro,s at Ma, that this is non~nsc . It would seem thin Khyvng·po lh-rd to a pal
age,but the actual date of his death mnaim unccn.aln . Other reuom for placi111hia activities in the
elnentb century ffl>e!F from whilt Is writ~ below concerning hil woceaion.
Combination of Poli4icso,ul R•ligiun 50S
V.S.b
of monaatic life in which he Will prcviOllsly trained . In due cou.nc he does return
d it is thanks to the balance that he 1naintains between bis innn spiritual life
d ~
and hia more general religious teaching md guidance that ~roug~ as
unmediate dilciples the whole range of bKa'-brgyud ·pa orders of b11 particular
tradition comes into cxi5tence. Mi-la Ra1·pa himself apparently has no such
concern.
Khyung-po may be regar<kd as remarkable in that he too settles into a normal
religio~u life, de5pite the extraordinary number of special teachings of a 1ecrct
oarurc which he received during his three journeys to India . Si11cehe was scot to
a Bonpo teacher at the a~ of thirteen , he was praumably born into a .Bonpo
family. lt should be clear from what h.as been written earlier in this. cbap~er
about the nature of Bon that it was in fact a heterodox form of Buddhtam with
nothing in ita practical teachings that need conflict with the more orthodox
religion . He then goes oo to srudy one of the sections of t_?C G,-eat _Fulfillm_ent
(rDzoga-cben), and tbit would ai.o have been Bonpo teaching of a high myancal
nature. In Nepal and India be imbibes mainly tantric teachings.. firstly those of
the Kriyl and Yoga Tantra clau, and thereafter thoee that seem to hatt been in
vogue in nonheutem India from the tenth !o tw~lfth ~turies , ~amcly th~ of
the Supreme Yoga type . Since these CONISt pnmarsly of phya1opaycholog,cal
techniques of meditation and trance, there ia little or nothing in this later
training that need conflict with hi, earlier religious experience. On bis _return to
Tibet he accepts a life of regular monaatic discipline, baaed aa only posstble upon
the pattern ~t by Atiia and 'RTOm-aton. Once again one ma y emphuize that
there can have been no idea of establiahing a new religious order; u far as
mona1tlc life was concerned there was just one pattern to follow. At the aame
time Khyung -po, like other poaeuon of 1pecial teachings, wu concerned w pus
them on to a line of wonhy succc,sors. These might arrive from anywhere in
Tibet ; nor wu there any obligation on them to remain in his community after
their period of preparation with him. Religioua life in Tibet haa always been free
in a way that bean no comparoon with Christian monastic life. If theTe wu no
intention of founding a aeparate religious order and if thoee in a line of 1pirit~I
succetlion were free of any obligation t.o ttmain within the circle of monast\C
settlements founded by Khyung-po, no distinctive religious order would come
into be-ing. By contrast in the case . of the settlements founded by sGam-po -pa's
imrMdiate disciples, a distinctive unifying feature wu given to them all by the
already firmly established spiritual lineage of Tilopa, Naropa , Mar -pa ~od
Mi-la Ru -pa. Lik.ewile a distinctive character was given to the emergmg
Sa·skya -pa Order by it1 direct association with the powerful 'Khon family ...which
has controlled its destiniet down to the present day. Thus one notes how 11bctan
religious orden ~re seldom deliberate foundations (only in the case of the
bKa ' ,gdanu-pas and later dGe-luga-pas can this be aaid to be true), but rat~r
spontaneous developments conditioned lar~ly by the religious and social
background of whoever happened to found panicular religiou, house5. Khyung-
po would appear to have been w fint to found monasteries on the pattern of
504 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
the bKa'-gdams-pas, while introducing tantric teachin8$ of what may be
conveniently referred to as the Supreme Yoga clua, baaed upon his religious
experience received direct from Indian tantric yogins. The earlier foundations of
·srom-aton's diapenaation tended to restrict their tantric intere11tato the Yoga
Tantras although including cenain other tantras, notably the Guhyasamdjo., the
Sal}lvara and the Kalacakra Tantras, which were oot yet thought of a& con -
stituting a separate higher group. In the previous section of the presfflt chapter
the concern of the religious kings of Western Tibet that tana-ic practice should
not incerfere with monastic rules of celibacy has been amply illustrated. Howevet'
when traveling scholars such as Khyung-po, 'Brog-mi and Mar•pa started
importing a new range ortantric prac1ice as a result ortheif indoctrination by
the ta11tric yogi.ns (mahasiddha) of northeast India. not only did the concept of
Supreme Yoga Tantraa (anuttoroyoga-to.ntra) gain currency, but also a great
strain might seem to have been put upon the maintenance of monaMic
discipline. In the event this problem waa IOluble by the apontaneoua freedom o£
Tibetan religious life. While the monastic rule might continue to be maintained
within a religious community, there was nothing to prevent some of the inmates
sttking the p~epis of othtt religious masters elsewhere. sGam-po-pa himself
§l~E§;~fiI§t~§if;~f@
._:_
•.
wide seeking teachings of other masters. "Whose disciple are you?" he was asked
on two oc:casiom. "Of Khyung-po of Shangs," be replied. "Having dismounted
from a horse, would you then mount a donkey?° was the modest and slightly
chiding retort. However, he always seemed to obtain what he uked for. It waa
this peripatetic way of life that prevented Khyung-po's religious foundadona
becoming an enduring and distinctive order in the long tenn.
This peripatecic way of life must be seen, however, as the more usual state of
affairs. Here we have mentioned the select few whose foundations developed or
might have developed into ~If-constituted orders. Thet'C were very many more
travcling scholars and translators, who played an essential pan in transferring
gradually the whole range of later Indian Buddhist acriptures to Tibet and who
transmitted their own traditions of explanation and interpretation to lau:r
generations of Tibetan scholan. Of this generation of tranalator•scholan
mention should be made of rNgog Lo-tsa-ba, who stud~d mainly in Ka$hmir
and worked under the protection of the religious kinga of Western Tibet,
attending the important religious council that was summoned by King rTse-Jde
1wsI am unable to dilw~r dates for rMog-cbog_-pa, but hia U!Odalion \nib .Cam-po-pa and also
Lama Phag-mo-gru platt:S him \fell in10 the twelfth ff.DIil!')'. Although he wu Khyung·po's spiritual
succesor and presided a1 his mailer 's lalll rites, he is given as foonh in die ~piritual lineage, for which
Niguma ordained a rota I -ofse~o In single aucceision. This sugge•t, rll.a, two omm, 5«00.d and rhird
in succession, died before Kbyung-po himself, thll$ pr<111iding some cnnfum.,uioo.of Khyung-po's
exceedinglylong life. See Roerkh's nanslalion of the Bh,,, AnMl.s, vol. II , p . 7SSff.
V.S.b Combination of Politics 4nd Religion
in 1076. 196 His contemporary Rva Lo-1sa-ha, who was also presenl at the council,
pursued most of his studies in Nepal where he appears to have worked largely on
tantras classed as 1hose of Supreme Yoga. such as those of Sa~vara, Sampufa,
Vajra(jikinl, Heruka-abhyudaya, etc. It is during this comparatively late period
that tantras such as these begin to replace in general esteem the earlier Yoga
Tantraa, and thi11comes about ai; din:ct contacts wi1h Nepal and northeaatern
India tend to replace the earlier close relationship with Buddhist Kashmir. The
shift of Tibetan intcren from notthwestem India to Nepal and those pans of
India directly to the south (modern Bihar and Bengal) conuponds with the
gradual shift of the center of Tibetan religious interests from Western Tibet to
the middle of the country, when contacts with Nepal became ro very much
easier. The central provinces of O (dBus) and Tsang (gTsang) remained the
heartland or the whole country. and aa has been explained in the previous
section, it was due to the political turmoil following the breakup of the old
Tibetan kingdom in the mid-eighth century that led to the tranlference of the
center of Buddhist interests to the far west. As the ceoter of the country
gradually achieved some form of political stability, 10 the center of religious
.·· · interest progressively returned there. This return to the center orthe country was
finally given solid backing in the thirteenth century, when the grand-lamas of
:l:_,:;,
,_:__i_~::
~::;_:::_·:.·,:_i,:_:,:,.f!;:.r~_:·;,.
.,.
_:
,:;
Sa-skya were appointed as regents of the whole of Tibet by their Mongol
overlords. ,By then the religious shift to the center was already compkte, and
hence the almost exclusive dependence of the Tibetans upon Nepal and north-
eanem India for all Buddhist sour<.-ematerial during this latter period. It will be
recalled that the stt'ady advance of Islam eastward from Afghanistan across the
north Indian plains left Buddhism to survive and flourish only in the extreme
norchwest, primarily Kaahmir , and the areas farthest east (the central and lower
Ganges valley), which were not engulfed by Islam until the end of the twelfth
century. Thus it came about that the prestige of tantras of the Supreme Yoga
class, which were mainly promulgau,d in Nepal and nort~astem India by th06C
renowned yogins, classified collectively as the Eighty-Four Great AdepL~(maM·
siddha), came gradually to be taken for granted in Tibet. We have already
noticed that the actual term "supreme yoga-tantras" (amuto.rayoga-tantm) had
atill not gained general currency in Tibet even as late as the eleventh century,
·_; _!_·.i,_.,~_:
_:_'._;:
::,
and that most tantras of this class wen: more frequently reft>rred to as yogmt-
: tantras. The later cla1Wication of'che four main grade$ of tantras bad cerrainly
not yet been fixed, and readers may have noc:iced in some excerpts joat q-uoted
references to "five claues" of tantras. 197
196For a brief .attoun1 of 1ht<lire of the Tranllbio1· rNgog, att ,h ... Blue Attnals, Roe1'i,:h'1 tnn•·
-ba is .a pecwi.ar formation from the- Sa~krir IO(lt loe·. m<'aning 1-0
lation, vol. (, pp. ,2t.ff. l..1>-tsa
shine or illuminate: la u.-e as an honorilit citlc for a ttligious tramlator ptobably dc,-eloped in
Nepal, lhus becoming rhc n,,gular Tibellln term for "muislaior."
197 A$ the,dassification of tantl'ali Wa$still in a fluid State, it may not st't'tt any great purpose to
attempt to giw- names 10 such a set of five c1-. As a mere su~ion ouc might lis1: lrl)'(i·.
upayoga·,yota, mahil)v,ia·, and yop,or fwajiiiHIS1llros . xcsec:1ion V.l?.c.
 506 V: THE CONVF.RSION OF TIBET
Like his eleventh-century contemporaries, 'Brog-mi, Mar-pa and Khyung-po,
the Tran,lator Rva played a very important pan in making tantric teachin_g1of
the Supreme Yoga class acceptable in Tibet despite the earlier opposition to
them. Rva probably ,urpa•ed hia famous contemporarie, in the vaat number of
disciples whom be gathered around himself and in the influence that he has
since exerted through future generations of scholars upon the whole later history
of Buddhism in Tibet. Like other travding &ehotar-translaton. who made a
success of their labors, he became extremely wealthy and ii remembered for the
very large don.ttions that he made in India (especially to the great monastic
university of Vikramallla), as well as in Tibet. His gifts were on a most lavilh
scale , whether for the production of manuacripta, for the performance of
cettmonies (often paid for in perpetuity), or for the maintenance of poor
scholars and visiton to monastic houaea, He seemed to have paid almoat entirely
for the ra-omtruction of bSam-yas Monastery, whlch had been badly d amaged
by fire. This work alone took two years to complete .1111
Another famous translator-scholar of the same period is 'Gos Lo-tsa-ba. He
began hil 5tudies under Zur, of whom we have already written in section V.2.d,
but he was given manual work to do and taught little or nothing. He then sought
the guidance of 'Brog-mi, who having given him a brief exposition, told him to
go and bring gold. if he wanted detailed teachings in the tantras. As in the case
of Mar -pa. this had the effect of making him decide to go to Nepal and India on
his own account. He translated a number of tantras, the H(JlJ(ljratogether with
Kai:,ha's commentary, the Rmnam/Jla, 199 the Sa1!1,pu/aand the Ddkintvajra·
panjara, all lacer included in the Supreme Yoga class, but his main interest was
directed toward the Guhya.sal'Nlja and aho the Kdlacakra, both of which were
then still classed as Yoga or sometimes as Mahayoga Tantras, He appears to be
chiefly famed for hit interpretation of the Guh.J4S4m1Jjaand its main
commentary, the Pradlpodyotana, following the tradition of the Indian tantric
yogin Niga.rjuna. Like Rva Lo•tsa•ba he had a conaiderablr following of
students, and through them the influence of hi.~ teachings passed to later
generations of scholan. 10C>
This leads us to a brief cons.ideration of Bu-ston (1290-1364) who lived two
centuries later, but who became known III the greatest 11cholarwho belonged to
the spiritual lineage of 'Gos. Here we begin to trespass beyond the time limits set
for the subject of this book, for Bu-ston lived at a time when Buddhism had
ah-eady disappearrd from northern India and when Tibetan scholars were
mainly engaged in consolidating and categorizing the vast Buddhist literature
that they had accumulated in tramlation in the course of the paat •ix centuries.
198 for a brir.f a.oxount of hi. li{r.. which incladu long lillts of hio di.scipfos and his \'ariou. donatio11t
1ee the 8lve AnMIJ, Roeric,h'straml adon, vol. J, pp. ,74ff.
199TI\f: teal of this is availabk in myedition of thr Hevajr(}.Tozlha.
.i.oe For ao account of the activity of 'Go&Lo-r.a-ba (rTa-oag Kh11g·pa Lhas-bt5as) see rhe BlVII
Amiab , Ron-ich's translation. vol. I. pp. 559-67. He is not to be confuaed with another famous 'Cos
I..o-tsa-ba (gZhon·nu-dpal) , IM..icrual authOI' of the 8/i,e AnMIJ.
V.3.b Combinati<mof Poh~ks and R~ligum 507
However, mention of him is eaential, for it is thanb to hii; fame as a scholar and
teacher that the monastery of Zhva-Ju in Tsang Province is sometimes treated as
a distinctive order of Tibetan Buddhism. The monastery was founded in 1040 by
the local aristocratic family (the ICe clan) in much the same way that neighbor -
ing Sa-skya was founded by the even more powerful 'Khon family. Like all
monastic foundations of that period it followrd the bKa' -gdams-pa pattern, and
until the arrival of Bu-ston there in lll20 it was distinguished in no unusual way
either by its special teachings or by its political importance . It was thus
inevitably overshadowed by Sa-skya, whence has arisen the idea that it might
gradually have become affiliated to thia order. However, it clearly rema~ed as
independent in its own administration as it had been in its actual foundation. In
the early pan of the fourteenth century the local ruler, who was still its
heredit.;ary benefactor, set about works of restoration and improvement, and
then looked for notable scholars who might further its reputation for religious
practice and learning. Bu-ston not on1y ranged widely over Buddhist doctrine in
general , but he was also largely reaponsible for bringing work on the compilation
of the Tibetan Canon to its conclusion. The major work of bringing together in
order aU the works contained in the bKa '· gyur (Kanjur) had already been dolW
at the neigbboring monastery of aNar -thang, and it was upon these initial labon
that Bu-ston was able to build. 201 sNar-thang was founded in 1155 by gTum-
ston, a disciple of a renowned bKa'-gdams-pa ,cholar, Sar-ba-pa (1070-l l41). 2ot
While it is difficult to treat of the conversion of Tibet without reference to the
several distinctive religious orden, all of which ( except the dGe-lu~·pas unless
they are considered - quite legitimately -- ae a later continuation of the bKa' ·
gdams-pas) came into existence during the centuries devoted to lhe immense
task of importing Buddhiam from India to Tibet, their gradual emergence is in
fact incidental to the whole process of conversion. While it is true. for example,
that Sa-,kya produced a renowned series of lama-acholar,s during the twelfth and
thincentb centuries, this is but pan of the whole impressive ~rfonnance, and
there were many other monasteriei;, which for lack of any or.her particular
de110mination, can only be classed as bKa '-gdams-pa, where other great works
were being done. lr would seem clear from reading the Blue Annals, from which
many extractJ have now been drawn, and which remains the major available
work on the whole subject of the cl)llversion of Tibet, that most of those actively
engaged in the process were seldom aware of affiliation to a particular religiotd
order; they were however deeply conscious of the spiritual successions through
which they gained their knowledge . Presumably the label of bKa' -gdams -pa can
only be applied in a restrictive sense to those religious foundations that were
co1111ciously modeled on the pattern set by 'Brom -ston . But since all monastic
201 Concttning &·•ton and hi.speriod. one ma~ refer 10 D. S. R~gg, Tl,.i l.if_~of BtHt~n '!in-po,
~""· Goncemil18 1hc renowned Kholar Jam -dbyangs , who was chw.fiy rcsponnble for bnngmg 1hc,
canm1i<:alcollecciQn 1ogtther al aNar -1hang. I«' theBli.e .4,mat&, vol. I, pp . 357-8 .
ffl C(,nccrni..g Sar -ba ·pa, ibid .• PI'• !i!7lf{. The founding of sNar -1hang ia mo,ntioM<I on p. %8!.
s~ also p. ,s6for a c1.1riou1m>ry about its founding.
508 V: THE CONVt:RSION OF TIBET
foundations in Tibet, whatever variations existed in their transmitted teaching
traditions, were illt!vitably based upon the bKa' -gdams-pa model so far as
adherence to any monastic: rule was concerned, 'Brom-ston might well be hailed
as the father of Tibetan monuticiam. zos
c. Final Reflections
Tibetan religion is certainly complex, but its origins are considerably more so,
as must surdy be clear from the survey that I have now completed_- The most
complicated chapter of all is cenainly the one concerning the tantras, yet there is
vastly more material available in Tibetan tramlations from Sanskrit and in later
Tibetan exegetical literature, of which no account has been given here. However
it is likely that the same themes would continue to appear and thus mere may be
liule new of substance to be added to the present account. It is certain that we
would have many more names of divinities to deal with, and for most of my
readers there are probably quite enough to come to terms with already. Abo one
may note that for actual tantric practice, any one tantra is sufficient, a point
ckarly made by Atiia when he reproved Rin-chen bzang·po for C'lloking the
divinities of tbrtt separate tantras in the course of one night session (seep. 484).
This being so, one may well expres&surprise that Tibetans in pursuit of Indian
Buddhist teachings seem often concerned to collttt as many initiations u
possible within different tanttic cycles. It is one thing to amass such texts for
tramlation, a work which was easential to the transference of Buddhism from
India to Tibet, and it is quite another to seek the promised religious experience
for its own 1ake. Atiia's rebuke is thus quite unjUKified in the case of the Great
Translator Rin-cben bzang-po, and historically the whole story may be regarded
as rather doub1ful, but it would surely have been ju&rifaed if directed against
young enthusiasts who traveled far and wide seeking special teachings and
initiations from one master after another. Here one might mention as an
example Khyung -po's disciple rMog-chog-pa. who is rebuked when be later seeks
other teachings elsewhere by 1he challenging question: "Having dismounted
from a ho~. would you then mount a donkey?" As the tantras continually
teach, all that is necessary is to find a religious master, devote oneself to him
utterly, and let him guide one to the required objective. One can certainly quote
cases of such s.ingleminded disciples, of whom the most famous is probably Mi-la
Ru-pa, but one may well gain the impression from reading the Blue Annals that
few of such seekers after truth were so easily satisfied. There must be two reasons
for this: firstly there were not so very many teachers who inspired the confidence
demanded by Mar-pa, and secondly the choice of tantric traditions must have
been quite as bewildering in their variety then as now. 1f any one tantra, let us
say for example thf! renowned Guhyasamttja, already known in Tibet during the
20, 'Brom-s1on waa later CTiticiud ouiaiik mon1111tic
cirdea for hi, prudi.th aui11,de in nOI allowing
rhe more "advan<:ed" uuuric reachings to be tauKf,1 io Im community . He it suppo,,c,d 10 have
prnen~d Atiia rcachiRg tan1ric doctrine freely. See the Blw Annal,, vol. II, p. 844, a,ld Mi-la
Rae-~·, obliqlM' A!feTmcr 10 him, whrn sG«m·po·p• ub for u,aehiog, (quoted above, p. 49!>).
v.s.c Combin,ition of Pol11iCJtmd Religion 509
fur;t diffusion is ,ufficient, why ahou.ld there have been so many othert as well,
thus adding to the probkms both of those who wish to practice this form of
Buddhiam as well as of tho5e who wish to give some coherent account of the
whole teaching?
The only answer to dm is that they happened to exist, and it would appear
that the spontaneous production of tantras (lacer eluted as anuttara-tantros) in
eastern India was truly prolific. As I have already suggested (section III.6.b),
they doubda.s originated among various groups of tantric yogins, differing
according to the particular sets of divinities that were favored in any one group.
The connections of some of these groupt with established Buddhist centers must
haVt?been very tenuow indeed. It is scarcely possible to UM>wwhat may have
been the relationship between the then still•exis«ing Buddhist monasteriH and
the cult-centen of peripatetic tantric yogins, but Ollt!may assume that those who
followed the traditional Buddhis.t way of the celibate monk must have regarded
those free -roving yogina, who 90 carelessly mixed Buddhist and Hindu
terminology, with a certain distaste. Their way of life and their casualness with
regard to doctrinal concepts must ha-veseemed to threaten more orthodox forms
of Buddhism to their very foundations. We know that the royal sponsors of
Buddhism in Western Tibet in the tenth and eleventh centuries expreased
concern at the corrupting effect that certain kinds of tantric practice might have
upon mona,tic life, and it is very likely indeed that the aame reaction was also
prevalent in northern India during the same period. In the event monastic life
was probably not corrupted, but it must certainly have been weakened, in so far
aa such Buddhist monastic communities held themaelves apan from these new
movements, thll$ losing contact with the surroundiug population on which they
relied for 11Upport. I have already quoted above(p. 509 n.) the scatementofCbos·
rje-dpaJ, who visited northern India in 1Z55/6, when the last of the Buddhist
ettablishmenta were being overrun by die invading Moalems, to the effect that
there were many non-Buddhists, few followers of the sr4urka-y4no and even
fewer Mahayanius . While no precise value can be placed on wch a statement,
one may observe that the followers of the .fr4mka-yana (alias Hlnayanisr.s) were
even le$$ likely to be affected by tantric influences than their Mahayanist
brethren. Moreover there can never have been so grt'&t a difference between
those communities that remained f~ithful to the earlier collection of siatra6 and
those that readily accepted the later Mahlytna sQtras as valid Buddha -Word,
since they all followed the earlier fonn of monastic rule (wndya). Thus the
difference between them for the majority of monks who were not gifted in
academic phil~ophical matters would have related only to the type of religious
ceremonial that waa practiced. While the Hinayiniau might restrict their
devotions to Sakyamuni, Maitreya and a few famous Arhats, the Mahayanists
would have introduced into their ceremonies of worship several great Bodhi-
sattvas, the Goddess Tllrl, and other celestial Buddhas, who might still be
regarded , however, as aspects ofSakyamuni. There is also iconographic evidence
in the form of archaeological remains that a cult of certain tantric divinities was
510 V: TH1': CONVERSION OF TIBET
also being gradually introduced.
If this process began in India, as seems very likely, it is certain that it was still
further developed in Tibet . Here, as in India, monastic life became the one
stable element for the general diffusion of Buddhism, and with the destruction
of the monasteries Buddhism no longer survived in India as a coherent religion
or as an effective 10Cial influence. Thus it might seem that the long chapter in
this book devoted to the cantras gives them an importance that is hardly
deserved. In ntrospcct they are seen to repn:tent a kind of unorthodox "fringe
development," which was somehow tamed and reintroduced within the fra~-
work of mona1tic life in a wholly innocuous form. As a fringe development they
might continue to go their own way outside monaatic life, thus leaving this
largely intact. Litde has been written in previous chapters about ceremonial and
liturgy apan from c.antric consecrations, but it would appear to be preciscJy
these that provide much of the material of Tibetan monastic ceremonies.
Unfortunately we know litt~ concerning the ceremonial petformed in Indian
Buddhi.,t monasteries except from what may be deduced from later Tibetan
practice, but we may auwne that there wu a cult io the later period of such
tantric divinities as Sambara and Hcvajra, since their images, however rarely,
have been found in the ruins of monastic precincts. Since these aame divinitie&
become the ccnters of lacer Tibetan monastic rituals, and exist for most of the
inmates only in just such a congregational ritual context , we may aawne that it
was more or less to the same extent that they won access to Indian Buddhi,t
monasteries of a Mahayana persuasion during the eleventh and twelfth
centuries. h is interesting to note that whereas the tantras themselves (and
especially Supreme Yoga Tantras) stre.nhe secrecy of the rite. as performed by
a nligious maateT for the benefit of one or two chosen disciples, tbt- same rite
according to later monastic usage finds itself transformed into a congregational
ceremony, incorporating.all the earlier ritual equipment and liturgical phrates
and mantras. Many of my readers will have had experience of Tibetan monastic
life, if not in lands of Tibetan culture, then certainly within exiled religious
communities, and they will have noted the all-important part that ceremonial ·
ritual plays in the life of the monks . Few monb are true contemplatives, but
whenever they are, it is precisely the monastic ritual that provides the basic
materials for their meditational practice. h is in this that young monks are
trained from the start, namely in the correct recitation of the liturgy, and some
of them go through their lives scarcely ever undentanding the actual meaning of
I
the words. One may thu1 reflect how very few of them would be able to analyze
the literal meaning of the t,ext in the way that 1 have freely attempted to do in
Chapter Ill.
When the meaning is ~plained, it is interpreted according to its ttligious
meaning without reference to literal interpretation, to which no thought hu .
been given for centuries since tbe days of the gTeat Tibetan translators . For it
should be noted that in their translation.5 from Sanskrit or other Indian dialects,
the Tibetans tranalated with greater literal pttcision than we are ~r likely to
I eighth to the thinccnth century, we have been concerned precisely with the
V.!l.c Combi11atimt of Politics and Religion 511
achie,-e. However, since tantric texu were properly understood , even from the
time of their.fim literal translation, in a reinterpreted sense, Tibetan teachera
have for the most part forgotten the importance that was once attached to lirerat
interpretation by toor own renowned translators, Among the hundred thousand
or so of Tibetan exiles who have fled their country since its occupation by
Chinese Communist forcea, there are some who ·have become aware of the
existence of Western scholarly works on the subject of their religion. Noting with
surprise our litCTal interpretationa, they inevitably exclaim that we have not
understood the true meaning and that we witJ never understand it until we
prostrate ourselves devotedly at the feet of a Tibetan religious master. Their
reaction is somf!'Whatsimilar to that of the "teaching authority" (magisterium) of
the Roman Catholic Church to the research work of more liberal-minded
scholars . Encl08ed in their own traditional ways of thought, they cannot conceive
the possibility of holding in mind two fonns of interpretation at the same time,
namely the literal one as well as the one pervaded with a special meaning that is
transmitted traditionally. The work of liberal-minded scholan is often
dangerous to the traditional religious practitioner, for unless he is firm in hi,
convictions, it threatens to undermine his faith in bis religion. Yet both interpre-
tariona remain valid on their own terms, and certainly the early Indian
commentators on tantric texts often had no hesitation in providing both a literal
and a reinterpreted meaning ( see for example the yoginis' song toward the end of
section Ill. 7). While an investigation of literal meanings is easential if one wishes
to understand how a cenain type of literature originated, o~ admowledges that
such an interpretation may appear irrelevant or even shocking to a religious
practitioner who knows only the reinterpreted meaning, and aU wo often may
not even understand this meaning at all well. For such as the,e, the great
majority, the words represent a kind of sacred formula, upon which the priest or
lama, as the cue may be, embroiders patterns in accordance with his far greater
expertise.
Thus it must be confessed that much of what bu been written in Chapter Ill,
while relevant in a literary and historical sense (and thus essential if any history
of Indian Buddhism is ever to be written honestly), may appear largely irrelevant
to those who are interested in lndo-Tibetan religion as a mean, toward salvarion
or as at least ensuring a better rebir,th in the next Jife to come. However, to give
an account of any great religion within the term&of the limited understanding of
the majority of its adherents would be an unrewarding task, leaving very little to
be said. The developed philo&ophical concepts that l have tried to explain in
Chapter II remain the preserve of a minority of Buddhist philosophers,
generation by generation throughout the whole history of Buddhism, and they
hue been scarcely more familiar to devout practitioners of the religion than
Western phil01iOphicalconcepts are to our contemporaries in the modern world.
Throughout the whole period of the conversion of Tibet:, generally from the
knowledgeable minority, who certainly engaged in doctrina1 disputes when the
512 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIB.ET
fundamental question whether Buddhism was to be accepted in the country or
not was still in the balance, and if it wu to be accepted then in which particular
forms. Similarly, while later generations of Tibetans may disclaim any interest in
the literal meanings of some of the grosser kind of tancru, at the time of their
translation and introduction into Tibet the literal meanings were very well under-
aood indeed, as is evident from the translation rules promulgated under royal
decree during the first diffusion (see V.2.b), and from the warning ordinances
on the subject iseued by the rulers of Western Tibet (V.3.a) during the second
diffuaion. The gradual abaorption of tantric ritual into monastic ceremonial
may be fairly regarded as a Tibetan achievement. If it had already been
absorbed into Indian Buddhist ritual on anything like the scale that was later
achieved by the Tibetans, there need not have been the conllict of interests,
community mona,tic life on the one hand, and the life of the free-roving tantric
yogin on the other, which comes so much to the fore during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries . These conflicting interests are represented dearly for WI in the
account given above of sGam-po-pa's relationship with his bKa'-gdams-pa
teachers as distinct from his relatiombip with Mi-la Raa-pa. Both sides
disapprove of one another: Mi-la Ras-pa regards the bKa'·gdams-pa teachings
11$ valid so far as they go, but as essentially inadequate if final enlightenment is
one's goaJ: the bKa' -gdams-pas, while not denying the pouible effectiveness of
Mi-la Ras-pa's methods, &ee them as representing a regrettable neglect of .a
Bodhisattva's vow to labor for the good of all living beings . sGam·po-pa's skill in
5Ub8equentlycombining these two apparently conflicting interesu indicates the
way jn which Tibetan Buddhism later realizes its great potentiality as a
distinctive synthesis of Indian Buddhist trends.
Syntheses and compromiaes are scarcely made without Joa on both sides and
Tibetan Buddhism is no exception to this general rule. The chief loss on the side
of monastic Buddhism has been that of the original concept of the Bodhisattva
as that of anyone committed to the religious life, who aeeb hit own salvation
through the salvation of all other living beings. Thus the career of a Bodhinttva
(att 11.3.b) should be primarily a human aapirat.ion, available to all who are
prepared to take the necessary vows and direct their life accordingly, namely in
accordance with the six (later ten) Great Perfections . It is the taking of this vow
that should di&tinguish a Mahayma monk from the Early Disciples (.§mvaka),
although they all continue to follow the same type of monastic rule . Such is the
clear teaching of the Perfection of Wisdom literatutt, with the result that one
can r.peakof bad Bodhisauvas ( \-iz. , those who are not keeping to their vows) as
well as of good ones. However, as we have noticed, the term Bodhisattva is also
applied quite logically to those who have progressed so far on the path that they
are now divine beingaintent on the welfare of all other living creatures . They are
even thought of as having already reached their goal, but as delaying the
moment of entry into final enlightenment, ao that they may n:main more readily·
available to others. They thus represent the active aspect of buddhahood in so
far aa a Buddha may be theoretically entii:ely aloof to the af&irs of this world. A
V.5.c Combinal.ion of Politics cmd R•ligion 513
distinction has thus been drawn in Chapter II between human ~nd celeuial
Bodhisattvas . Although they continue to pay lip service to the Bodhisattva ideal
in that a taotric practitioner may claim to be serving the cause of all living
beings (see the extract from Anar\gavajra's Praftu,pa,aviniscayasiddhi in section
Jll.10 or the instructions given by Zur the Elder to Zur the Younger in V.!1.d),
the connection may not be 10 obviou i to others. Thus the bKa-gdams-pa
teachers of sGam·po-pa summon him from his solitary yogic practice, which M
has learned from Mi-la Ras-pa, so that he may seTVethe cause of living being1iin
a rather less self-interested world . Mi-la Ras -pa wants bis disciple to live in
pennanent solitude, avoiding all ordinary people, lest their exhaled breath
disturb his mental equilibrium. This is ttrtainly not the way a Bodhisattva
should act, avoiding the very people whom he is supposed to be helping, and
there need be no shonagc of quotations from Mahayana aimas, fully justifying
sGam-po-pa in hls eventual return to monastic life. Perhaps partly as a result of
a certain weakening of the ideal as a human aspiration and partly because of a
seemingly ineradicable Tibetan interest in magic and mystery, in normal
Tibetan usage the term Bodhisattva, while retaining it1 earlier application to
benevolent divinities of a high order, is also used of reincarnating lamas, who
from the thirteenth century onward (see V.3.b) have come to form an eaential
part of the fabric of Tibetan religious life. Up to a certain point there is an
interesting parallel between the use of the word "saints" in the early Church,
where the term is uaed by St. Paul in his epistles to refer to all faithful Christiam,
and then in later Christian centuries when it comes to be applied only to those
who have distinguished them.elves by their special sanctity and even by their
miraculous powers. Thus high value has been set on their relics as a medium for
later miraculous events . In prccieely the same way the term "bodhisattva," which
could be applied to any monk or dedicated layman of a Mahaylna persuasion,
came to be applied to certain renowned lamas, whose miraculous powers were
never doubted and whose relics were sought for in the funeral ashes and duly
enshrined in a reliquary st(lpa whenever found . Beyond this point the theme
deyelops in accordance with Buddhist doctrinal theory. Firstly there may be no
relics at all , if the holy lama has passed directly into buddhahood, and secondly
if he has not yet entered into the final atate of buddhahood, then in accordance
with hi$ vow to save living beings he must return to eanh. normally as a human.
All then that ia neceaary .is to fmd· the child in whom he next becomes embodied.
It would sttm that only the Tibetans have d~eloped these theories, all clearly of
lndian origin, to a logical and practical conclusion. But in doing so, they have in
some real sense deprived the right-living monk or layman of bis just tide of
Bodhisattva, that is to say of one who strives through the imperfectiom of his
praent life toward achieving his own 1alvation together with that of others. If
this is a loss on the side of Mahayana Buddbim1, one may assume that the l<>M on
the tantric side is precilely that which Mi-la Ra.-pa feared for his disciple
sGam-po-pa, although he probably had no thought of a cantric cycle becoming a
fonn of monastic ceremonial . While there is no doubt that such ceremonies can
514 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
have an uplifting or regenerating effect, they can scarcely attain to the "two-in-
one" yogic practice of the Mahimudra. This may well continue to be pracriced
on the fringe of regular Tibetan Buddhism. just as previously it was practiced by
Indian tantric yogins on he fringe of Indian religioua life . However, whereas
such practices in their Buddlmt garb might have been a threat to Indian
Buddhist communities and were certainly felt to be a threat during the period of
Tibet's converaion to the new religion, later the Tibetans have simply removed
all such threat by absorbing the tantras into their regular ritual cycles. A short
quotation from Stephan :&eyer'sThe Cult of Tdr4, a work. to which the ttader
interested in the ritual aspect of Tibetan Buddhism should certainly tum, will
not be amiss at thia point.
Tibetan Buddhism has a ritual structure of its own, a syntax which has been
imposed upon the experiential "given" of the contemplative experience. This
structuring of meditative experience is pan of a tradition that goes back to
India. whett the raw data of contemplation were ordered into ritual pauerns,
and these were the structures that made up the framework of the basic
Tantras . But in Tibet this structure enclosed a basically Tibetan experience,
and the Indian prototypes were transfigured into an irreducibly Tibetan
expression. The interstices of the Indian outline were filled in with the fierce
and vibrant movemenu of the Tibetan shamans' dance and the drone and
roar of Tibetan chan t and music; and the flat Indian offering cake became
the refined and brilliant torma, made of barley flour and decorated with
intricate deligns of colored butter, reminding one of nothing so much as the
fartbett flight of a Max E.rnat. (p. 24)
Aa we have seen, Tibet was graduaUy enveloped by Buddhism from all sides
from the seventh century onward and probably even earlier . The religion,
known aa Bon, which b often misleadingly dCKTibedas the indi~us religion
of Tibet. develops from the earliest known historical period (seventh to ninth
centuries) as a heterodox form of Buddhism; we may au.rely assume that it had
drawn upon previous forms of 8uddlmm, which already from the first century
onward had spread from the Kushana empire northward and eastward across
Central Asia. This alone can ttplain the ease with which it became assimilated
with more onhodox fonns of Buddhism , introduced largely under royal interest
and then later under ai::istocratic protection from the eighth century onward.
The "indigenous religion" of Tibet, which is simply referred to as cho:s( =
religion, the very same term that was used to translate Sansk.rit dharma) on early
royal inscriptions, appears to have centred upon a cult of divine kingship , and
conseq .. et1dy dinppears with the fall of the Varlung dynasty in 842. All that
remain are cult.~ of local gods and domestic divinities involving popular
sacrificial rites and various forms of folk religion relating to prognostications,
healing rites, coercing rites, in shon the kind of popular religion known the
world over. There was thus no other major religious tradition as in India or
China to oppoi!t the overwhelming advance of Buddhism, which by the
thirteenth century pervaded the whole country in much the aame way that
V.5.c Combination o.fPolilics and Religion 515
Christianity already pervaded W estern Europe. The two proceuei; are remark·
ably parallel both in the manner of timing and of operation.
The undisputed claim of Buddhism to be the one and only true religion
inevitably gave it in Tibetan social and political life an importance that it never
enjoyed in the land of its origin. 10• This new state of affairs dates from the tenth
century onward, when the rulers of Western Tibet appear in the dual rbles of
head of state and religious head, &haring these primary functions between them.
This arrangement came to be adopted, whether in imitation or spontaneously,
by some of the latCTreligious orders, as they began to shape their own destinies,
notably by the Sa-skya-pa Order. The mandate bestowed upon the Sa -skya-pa
bierarchs by the Mongol rulers of China as their regents in Tibet seems to have
bad the effect of cstabli1hing such a form of government u an entirely normal
one. De&piteefforts to break away from it and C$tablish a quasisecular form of
government, the influence of Buddhism aa the state religion has been so strong
that every ruler bas been constrained to combine forces with it. This union of
religion and govemment has taken various forms. When it was given expression
within an aristocratic line, it might be formulated as a kind of Patron-Priest
relationship, where a powerful ruler was acknowledged as the protector of a
pani<:ular religioua order. The patron might be external or internal, depending
upon Tibet's standing with her neighbors . In the case of the Sa-skya dynasty,
already operating a dual aystem internally, the patron was represented by the
first Mongol emperor of China. When Tibet regained her independence with the
weakening of the Mongol dynasty, the patron who then ruled Tibet was a
Tibetan aristocrat Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan. and his religious supporters were
represented by the Phag -mo ·gru Order. Thereafter it was the turn of the
Kanna-pa Order. first to bmefh from the power of the Rin-spung family and
then from the royal family of gTaang. Having vanquished the king of gTsang
and his religioua 1Upporters, the fifth Dalai Lama of the dGe-lugs-pa Order
gained power, first with a Mongol clan as ally and patron during the mid-
seventeenth <.-enwry, and from the next century onward with the Manchu
emperors as patron and suzerain. Whatever the disadvantages of such a !.'f~tem
(and they can be considerable when the "patron" is a powerful foreign ruler, as
the Tibetans have recently learned to their great cost), there could never again
be the temion between uchurch and state" that was typical of the early royal
period in Tibet and which played so great a pan in the history of medieval
Europe. The particular religious order that happened to exercise power in Tibet
through its identification with the state usually left the other orders to pursue
their religious acti'lities in peace, so long as they showed no overweening political
ambitions or -re unfortunate enough to have been the ones who had only just
lost power and were thus regarded as the chief enemy. Some religious groups.
such a1 the rNying •ma -pa and the Ronpos, have never aspired to political power
and so have survived quietly down the centurieis. Others , having once suffered,
:!04 The Bonpo5 have n0t di,puted tht' truth of Buddhism :<$ such: they simply claim tb3l it was
flni promulgated by gSbcn-r.ib. and chat ~akyamuJ1ilearned tht doctrine at S<'COOO band.
516 V: TIO: CONVERSION OF TIBET
have renounced political ambitions and have survived by maintaining their
religious houses far from the new power center. 2~
Wherever it has spread throughout Asia, Buddbiam is characterized by its
peaceful tolerance of others. Buddhists may sometimes have been persecuted for
their religion, as in China, but they have never been penecutora for the sake of
their religion. However it is only fair to note that when other interests are at
atake, self-confe&Rd Buddhists can be as bellicose and aa cruel u any other
human species. While such extraneous interests were soon involved with
Buddhism in Tibet, it would aeem unlikely that there was much occuion for
such involvement during the seventttn hundred years or so that Buddhism
continued to thrive in the land of its origin . There it had no ambitions for
political or economic power: the most that was required was sufficient support
from well-di,posed local rulers , merchants and tradesfolk to maintain its many
monasteries in a flourishing condition. 206 While from early times onward there
were continual doctrinal disputes between one group of Indian Buddhisu and
another, resulting in the 1epara1ion of Sakyamuni's original united order of
monks into self-declared independent rdigiou, orders, there was never any
central authority that might have attempted to i.mpoae an established orthodoxy
of belief and practice. From Awl:a's time onward, when Buddhist communities
became ever more numerous, 5pread over the whole Indian subcontinent, any
fonn of centralized control would have been geographically impossible. Indeed
many of the divcr~ndes tha t occurred in the early collections of scriptures must
have been due quite as much to the effects of geographical separation as of
divergencies of opinion concerning Sakyamuni 's original teaching. Even without
central control a remark.able unity of opinion wu maintained, and there were
always certain limits beyond which no one school of thought could go without
being declared heretical by the otMra, although there can acarcely have ever
been any idea of imposing sanc:tions against the holders of such views. The best
known example of such "IM:reaies"is the one propounded by the sect known as
the Vatsiputriyas in ao effon to solve the vexed Buddhist problem of exactly
what pasees from one life to another in the series (santana) of lives in which all
living beings are inevitably involved (see section I.S.c). Their theory of a tram·
migrating "penon" {pudgala) , admirable as it may well appear as a solution to
the problem. was rejected by the others as having no warrant in Salr.yamuni's
teaching. It would seem that a tacit distinction has always been drawn between
20!> In particular w b.Ka'-brgyud·pa Order lo hs variOl.lftbranches Sttms co ha.-c sufferffl from
political eclipw, in Tibrt: the J>hag,mo-gru branch has died out; the 'Bri-gung-pa ha$ dnnolUlratcd
no political ptett'nsiom MC<' the diluter it suffered at the end of the tbim-,cmh cenwry when it
challenged Sa -,kya su~macy; the ltanna-pa , while retaining iu religious preaige, suffered badly u
the hands of the:fifth Dalai l.arna in the mid -lC"mtec-oth ccntv.ry; challenged by the ~me central
authority the 'Brug •pa branch sut"Ceededin esublilhing ht full independence in Bhutan during the
iamr «ntlll')' , while eo:12nding iu acrivities in Ladak.h.
1116Conccrn.ing cndowlllflUII, et<' . to Indian Buddhist monaeu:ri4'i, att L. J01hi, Studus in t~
lhuJdllistit: cu1,,,,-t,f l•dia, pp. 66JJ'.
V,3,c Combination of Polilics a,id Religion 517
what is taught as i.pecific philosophical doctrine and whatever may be pro·
claimed at a more popular level. The doctrine of rebirth in accordance with
one's previous acts (k,mna) remains fundamental in Buddbiam, and likewise the
doctrine of there being no transmigrating principle apart from the effects of
one's previous actions. At the same time various views may be held at a popu.lar
level. Some of the later tantras under Saivite influence refer explicitly to an
atman as existing in all living beings. Tibetans seem to take for granted the
function of ··consciousnC$s" ( vi]n4na = mam-shes) as a transmigrating
principle, although according to orthodox teaching "consciousness" is one of the
five "aggregates" (slunadha) of transient personality and is quite u ephemeral as
the other four.'°' Some justification might be found for this solution of the
problem, if ~con,ciousness" is undemood as standing for the "basic corucioua-
ness" (dla)'tivijndna) of the Mind Only acbool (see 11.4.b). But again one must
bear in mind that the sustaineTS of this panicular doctrine were accused of bftng
"Buddhilt brahmans" by their Madhyamaka opponents, and it is precisely the
extreme Madbyamaka school of the Prasangiltas that has come to be held in
chief honor in Tibet. 11118H~er. whatever dogmatic form Buddhist doctrine
may have assumed generally or in any particular sch-Ool, a vast area of
speculation and an equally vast range of religious practice has always remained
available to all and sundry. Buddhism has thus shown itself adaptable to a whole
range of different national cultures throughout most of Aaia, and it i1 certainly
adaptable in Europe and the Americas today.
Yet all religiow ariae and develop a certain recogniiable conaiacency within
predetermined cultural areas. Most remain so impregnated by their social and
cultural origins, that they are rarely transferable elsewhere. Thia would 1eem to
be generally the case of nonliterate ttibal religions. Of higher religions of tribal
origins, which established strong literary traditions and eventually broke their
cultural bond, to a limited extent, one may note in panicular Judaism with its
impreuive mythical and historical traditions, and Hinduism with its vast
accumulation• of mythical and philoaophical teachings. Both however limited
their appeal to outsiders by their insistence on peculial' dietary and social
conventions . Hellenizing Jews had .«>meaucceu in their proeelyti:ring efforts in
the Eastern Mediterranean area during the early centuries B.C .• while Hinduism
achieved some remarkable gains .,in the C$tablilhment of Hindu kingdoms
throughout Southe.ut Alia during the first millennium A.D. Su.eh 5Ucccsscswere
achieved exclusively by cultural persuasion. By contrast Islam , which may be
tteated in the present context as a local Arab restattment of Judaism, won a
spontaneous response in the Arabic world, but elsewhere achieved its con-
siderable proeelytizing successes mainly by force of arms and none too gmde
forms of persuasion. None of these great religions can fairly be desc:ribed as
adaptable.
m In a ,-cry recen1 book by W. d<.E-,lugs·pa Ceshe Kelsang Gyauo, Buddlusm in the TibetOfl
T1'oditio1t:A Guide, il is explicidy taught that ..mind" i, tM tTanllmigrating principle (e.g .. pp . .50·l)
contrary to a 11onhodox view&.
283S<lCJeffrey Hopkins, Prar.tfrermd Theory of Tibeta11Buadl,ism, pp. 133ff.
518 V: THE CONVERSION OF TIBET
The cue of Christianity is au unusual one in that it showed itself remukably
adaptable during the fint three c:enturies or so. thus completely overreaching
the earlier Jewish attempts at proselytizing work in the Mediterranean world and
$OOO establishing itself as the major religion of the Greco-Roman world. All this
was achieved by peaceful penuasion. It adapted itself equally well to the warrior
tribes of Western and Northern Europe. but unhappily lost thereby to a large
extent the gentleness and compassion that had always tempered the sterner
teachings of iu founder. Following upon the Moslem advances into Western Asia
and Northern Africa, Chriltianity gradually became a special form of European
religion, and in all its later missionary work throughout the world it hu aeldom
been able to dissociate itself from European culture and civiliution. Its early
adaptability in Asia may be illustrated by the succe55es achieved in South India
from the third century onward, if indttd not earlier, and throughout Central
Asia as far as Northern China from the second to the twelfth centuries .A.D. (see
above toward end ofsection IV.2.a). These, however, proved to be exceptional
developments, and Christianity in its normal European and later American
forms (all of European origin) is only with difficulty adaptable outside this
peculiar Western setting. Thus Christianity, once adaptable, is now hardly so,
and once spread by peaceful meam of persuasion, soon became ae forceful as
l$lam, not only in its efforts at conversion. but perhaps wo~ still in the brutal
efforts of many of iu kaders to maintain strict orthodoxy of belief.
Within the limits of this brief survey of world religions Buddhiam distinguishes
irse)f by its comi&tent gentleness, by its proven power to convert peoples of very
different cultural backgrounds entirely by peaceful means and its con~quent
remarkable adaptability in cultural settings very different indeed from that of
the small Indian atatea of the Ganges Valley, where SAkyamuni first set the
Wheel of the Doctrine in motion. Moreover, unlike Christianity, which was
largely transfened at a very early date from its Jewish cultural setting to that of
the Graeco-Roman world, .Buddhism continued to develop for some seventeen
ccnturin within the land of its origins, adapting itself, as we have noted in the
course of this book, to the changing religious and philosophical ideas of its more
general Indian background. Yet despite its penistently Indian characteT u baa
been welcome (except where Islam later penetrated) whe~r its communities of
monks have chosen to C$tablishthemselves throughout Asia. The one significant
exception, which also helps to explain the success of Buddhism elsewhere, has
been China. It has already been observed above (see lV.2 .c) that Buddhism
achieved its primary succeSICIin northnn China, when this had come under the
control of ,.barbarian" invaders, mainly Mongol or Turkish in origin, and that
later it wu fOlitcred almost exclusively by the Mongol (Yuan) and Manchu
(Cb'ing) dynasties. At other times, when Chinese rukrs were in command of
their own affain, it risked penecution as a foreign Indian -n:ligion, thua by iu .
very foreign nature inevitably inferior to the ~at Chinese philosophical and
politico -religious traditions. But it was only in China that Buddwat teachers
found themselves confronting such traditions, claiming equal antiquity and
V.!l.c Combination of Politic.sand Retigum 519
greatet' local dignity and maybe also (depending which aide one adhered to)
superior validity. El3ewhere it ga~ proof of its cultural superiority by the
comparative ease with which it supplanted earlier local rival1 u the main
religion of the land. However, thanks to itl! gentle and obliging Indian
character, it senled finally with them on mucually agreeable terms, seldom
objecting to local customs (except such extreme cages as sacrificial bloodshed)
and readily finding a pLace for local gods. convened demons and sprites in an
enlarged Buddhist pantheon. Such was the caee in Southeast Asia, Japan and
finally Tibet and Mongolia.
Although it:scloeest neighbor, no other Asian country was more different from
India than Tibet in climatic conditions, means of livelihood, political, &0eialand
religious traditions. Before the advent of Buddhism Tibetans continued to live in
an entirely different world, as diffettnt from the county and often gracious life
of the Indian Gupta peri.od, as that of Celtic Britain was from the fourth-century
Graeco-Roman world. Yet India and Tibet were neighbors, and it proved to be
the Tibetans who zealously accumulated from the eighth to the thirteenth
century all that was tO be found of ever developing Indian Buddhist traditions.
As has been noted. the process was greatly usisted by the interest that King
Kbri Srong-lde-brtsan and his aucceaors showed in the new religion. They
.. ..~ showed the same kind of enthusiasm as had already been shown by local rulers
throughout Central Asia and on China'• northern frontiera, and it is significant
that the peoples of these lands (mainly "barbarians" in Chinese eyn) pla~d an
important part in the conversion of Tibet. However, it was the Tibetans
themselves who took the task of conversion in hand, carrying it through to a
SU.CCC$s(ul conclusion and cramforming in the process their whole higher culture
and civimation.
Since the nineteenth century Buddhism has established itself here and there in
Europe and America. While it suffers no official opposition as once in China, it
.still confronts, as formerly in China, well-established phi.lo5ophical and religious
traditions, uauaUy considered by their adherents as superior. Some modem
Western Buddhi$ts choose to ignore the existence of such opposing teachings.
Othen attempt to explain and even to reaolve the differences that exist between'
Buddhist and Christian views of the world and their respective doctrines. This is
by far the most interesting position to adopt. However, just as Christianity
presenta itself in rather different styles, similarly Buddhism has reached the West
in diverse and to some extent conflicting forms, mainly Theravidin, Zen and
Tibetan Buddhism. Judged by the number of its adherents and their creative
enthusiasm, Tibetan Buddhism, the last to appear on the scene-in the counc
of the last twenty years-would seem to be the moat successful "transplant" by
far. This is perhaps strange, since for the complexity and esoteric nacure of its
traditions it far surp--. the other two. Its advanced buddbologicaJ theories and
its strange cults can be debunked by a Western rationalist with the same case
with which he may dispose of many of the dogmas and cult, of Catholic and
Orthodox Christianity. Tibetan Buddhism is cenainly not a religion for
520 V: THE CONVERSION Oli' TIBET
'protestants'; yet it is mainly in countries considered historically Protestant that
it seems to achieve its lar~st following. Conversely it has been mainly by sc:holara
of a Catholic background. whether still pr.lctidng Christians or not. that Indian
Mahlyana and Tancric Buddhism, which provide anthe essential ingredients for
Tibetan Buddhism, have received the IDO$tsympathetic treatment . There is no
need for names, as a study of the Bibliography will bear witness to thia
statement. It is almost enough to concran the amazing work done in London by
the Pa.Ii Text Society with the equally impre11ive work done in Paril and in
Belgium on Mah1ytna traditions. Presumably most scholars are more at ease
when they deal with religious literature that accords more or leu with their own
religiol.15background. OM may note correspondingly that scholan who conaidcr
them,elves primarily philologists often tend to deal with Oriental literature that
may be considered religiously innocuous, namely stories and legends. HoweVtt,
when anyone is interested in religious truth (OT itself, then he is liable to find
more attarctive those forms that provide at the 111metime the cultural ricbnea
that was lacking from his earlier religious or nonreligious badi.ground. Whether
a true observation or not, it ia only part of the truth. Many of the leading
Tibetan Lamas who come to the West speak with an air of authority based upon
inner conviction. It may be the same kind of penonal authority with which the
early apostles spread the "good news" of Christianity, but sadly such "authority"
is lacking in much preaent·day Christian teaching, and when recent attempts to
exert it have been made, they have aU too often been made against aU good
reaaon. By contrast a good Tibetan teacher will speak with authority within his
teaching tradition, but far more important also with an authority that should
come from inner personal experience of the truth he is teaching. It is this aspect
of Tibetan Buddhism, deriving as we ha~ seen direct from Indian Buddhist
tantric teachings , which accounts for the apparent success of Tibetan Buddhism
in the West. Also every teacher is, as it were, continuaUy under te11. If he no
longtt holds conviction, he loses his following, and they go their way to sttk
another teacher, normally free of punuing anathema,.
A detailed comparison between Buddhism and Christianity does not come
within the compaaa of thia book, but I can scarcely draw it to a d06e without
some reference to the challenge that they and indeed all other religions fai:e,
when confronted with the results of literary and historical criticism and the
plausible hypotheset resulting from the discoveries of the natural scien~ in the
course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The$e aroU&edconsiderable
hostility and alarm in Western religiom circles especially toward the end of the
last century, 209 and while all the major religions have since continued in their
more comfortable convictlona, still held as valid by the majority of the faithful,
future days of reckoning surely lie ahead. Educated Buddhists of Asia have
scarcely begun to confront these new challenges, perhape becauae they have been
Joe For tbe effects ol thctoein England, per~pa mott l!ftll'<!.IIChrd in no lon,er tena b~ ~lie& than
any other West- European couniry. - A. R. Vidler, 1'fte Chu"h in on Ag• of RMK>lution.
Penguin, 1971, pp. H2ff.
v,,.c Combiriatum of Politics tmd Religion 521
more concerned to seek 50me accommodation between their form of Buddhism
(especially Theravldln) and Marxist Communism, innocently unaware that
recent scientific discoveries are even more uncomfortable for the followera of
Marx than for the adherents of the great world religions. 210
Yet it would seem that of all "believers" Buddhists have the least caUSt-for
alarm or deapondency. Apart from a few ditcrepandes here and there,
Buddhism stiU presents itself as a cure for the world's ills in the kind of universe
with which prellent scientific knowledge presents iu. The early Indian mytho·
logical concept of the universe or world as a set of four island-continents (of
which thein was the southern one) set in an ocean with Mount Meru (Kailua) at
the center as the realm of higher beings, may not seem to accord very well with
modern theorie, . However, this idea of the universe was greatly expanded by
Mahaylna Buddhisu with their su~stion of the existence of innumerable
Buddha-fields in all directions of space. More important, perhape, was the belief
that each universe went through periods of emergence, fruition, decline . and
extinction, only to be followed by the reemergence of a new universe, the pauern
of which would be conditioned by the actions, good or bad, of all the living
beings who had inhabited the previous one .211 Moreover, except for the belief in
conditions of rebirth dependent upon one·, actions and intention, in a previous
life. the earliest canonical sources rcp~t $akyamuni Buddha as declining to
commit himself one way or the other with regard to a whole set of "undeter -
mined questions," of which the most relevant to the present discussion arc
whether the univene is eternal or not and whether it is ultimately self-made or
made by another. Thua prnent-day conttptions of an evolving universe present
no problem at all as far as Buddhist doctrine is concemed. At the same time one
muat observe that according to eaential Buddhist teaching the effecu of
previous actions not only link a newly emerging universe to the previous one , but
they are aleo believed to explain all the various conditiona of sentient life during
the course of any one world,age. It goes without aaying that there is no concept
of evolution of the various species, for it ia assumed that all varietie6 of living
beings exist just as they are. However, in compensation Buddhists are aware of
the Cllential unity of all such beings, and man can never be regarded as a being
apart, as a kind of special creation in the usual Christian sense. Stories about the
previous lives of human beings, no~bly of Siltyamuni himaelf, include many
accounts of &11chrebirths in animal form, and it is urumed that the mott dis-
tinguished of these animals are capable of incelligmt action. It is interesting to
110 5ff. Robfft Anln,y, Africmt Gnaii, London: Collins, 1961 & 1965, pp. 146-74.
'11 OM wiU find limllar theories, f\lgge&ted aa mere powbillties, 111th~ writings of Or~
(185/6 ·1!53). OM of the gttatffl ieartyChristian 1n.chen of Alexandria. See C. W. 8ut1trwonh.
Origen on Finl Principks (~ng K«u<:hau's Text of the De Pri,1cipii.1, translated into English).
London, 19~. reprinted New York: Harper & Row. 1966, especially pp. 1%8-$7and 257-44. Origen
puts forward this theory in order to explain die diver&ilyof conditions into which men an: born. ~
mains .a rigid distinction between rational ~-reacarea(human being,) and inational being, (all other
creatu-) aad applies hit tlwory of rebirth only 10 humans . Thie and ochff ieadiinp ol hla m~ with
increasing objeclion and they were formaOy anacbemiied a1 Conatant.inop~ in !15l'! .
522 V: THE CONVERSION OF 11BET
note that recent de&eriptions of carefully noted animal behavior go quite a long
way in suppon of this open-minded Buddhist view. Th~ries of the evolution of
man from less endowed living being5 ~ed caU$eno alarm to faithful Buddhisu.
In effect man is accorded a privileged position among his fellow creatures, in
that only a man i& capable of making the deliberate decision to $U'Wefor
enlightenment. No other living being, not even a woman according ,o early
schools of Buddhist thought, is capable of this final step until rebinh as a male
human, born as one in propitious circ,unstances, is first achie~d. · Naiareth: "Truly I say to you, unless a grain of wheat Callainto the eanh and
As for the effects of literary and historical criticism, which caused so much
perturbation amongst Chri.cian believers during the coune of the lut century,
upon Buddhim far and wide it has cau,ed no anxiety at all. This actual book has
been written along lines suggested by the literary research of its author,
supported by the vaat amount of literary and hiatorical re,earch done by his
predc-cessors and contemporaries, duly named in the bibliographies. He may
fairly safely assume mat he thus causes no offence to practicing Buddhiscs.
Depending upon the kind of Buddhism they profess, Buddhists themselves have
diverse ideas concerning which teachings may be properly accepted on me
authority of Sakyamuni Buddha or of other Buddhas or Bodhisatcvas. So far as
present-day Theravidins are concerned, only the Pali Canon is valid . So far as
Tibetan Buddhists are concerned, all the works included in the first part of their
canon, known as the Kanjur (bKa'-gyur ==Translated [Buddha-]Word) are
attributed traclitiooally either to Suyamuni or to as Glorified Buddha
(.sambhoga-ka,a} or to one of the great tantric divinities , who are generally
identified with Vairocana or A1¥>bhya. It is generally agreed that Sakyamuni
was responsible for many of the early teachings attributed to him, and no one
need be surprised if the text&, a.a we iiee them now, have 1ince undergone
considerable expansion and tlaboracion. As for the texts attributed to non-
human celestial being1, these may be accepted as divinely inspired, and one may
well be content as a practicing Buddhist to leave the matter thus. One can
proceed further, as a literary critic may feel his duty, and attempt to explain
how and when such texts were actually produced (see e.g., sections l.S.c, 111.5,
111.10}, but for a Buddhist who adheres to these teachings, this can in no way
diminish their inspired nature. While Slkyamuni's doctrine may be regarded u
a revelation so far as his immediate hearers wue concerned, it is the kind of
revelation which whenever explained anew may be freshly revealed by any
teacher who remains withln an acknowledged tradition. This also accounts for
the overriding imponance attributed to the word of one's teacher in the later
tantric tradition (Stt lll.9). He is regarded u the one representative of the
presiding Buddha of his tradition. superior in honor even to one's tutelary
divinity. and he may even be regarded as all -knowing.
Perhaps the most suitable subject on which to bring this long study of Indo·
Tibetan Buddhism to a conclusion is that of omniscience, namely the all-
comprehending knowledge of the whole process of phenomenal exiitence
throughout put, ptttent and future. It alao includes all knowledge of things
V.3.c Combination of Politics and Roligion 52~
supramundane and supernatural throughout time and space in so far as these
two concepts have any meaning beyond the human condition. The great
religions claim just such omniscience for their first revealers; thus those who are
committed followers of these human representatives of such abeolute wisdom
may be quite understandably penurbed when S<:ientific research or literary
criticism appean 10 prove them wrong. A, a boy at home many yeara ago I
always recall our family doctor once quoting the words attributed to Jesus of
dies, it remains alone; but if it dies it bears much fruit" Qohn xii.24). "How
could he be omniscient?" he added. This was probably my fint faltering lesson in
literary criticism. and at that time I had no answer to give. Many more such
examples might be adduced. It was clearly perturbing to many nineteenth·
century Christi.am to be told that the PMtateuch had not in fact been
promulgated by Moses, as tradition had always claimed, and it was even more
clisturbing to have to acknowledge that the Second Person of the Trinity
apparently shows himself in the gospels unaware of this literary and historical
fact. Now just u omniscience was traditionally claimed for Jesus in his r6le as a
human t~cher (never expressly claimed in the gospels themselves, be it noted,
but later assened in accordance with theological argument), so it is often
claimrd for Sakyamuni in the earliest known Buddhist scriptures. Thanks to bis
reticence in aru;wering what in human term& are probably unanswerable
questions (e.g., whether the world is eternal or not) and the generally philo -
sophical nature of bis reaching, he can seldom if ever be faulted. He is often
represented as explaining the present situation of a contemporary by exposing
detail$ of this person's previous life, but here we are scarcely able to check the
uuth of such an analyais. We should in all fairnea note, ho-ver, that the
descriptions of Silyamuni's own previous lives, as r~orded in early biographical
works and in collections of rebinh-stories (jiltaka), reveal themse)vea as popular
folk-literature, often delightful to read, but scarcely convincing as in any way
related to Sikyamuni's actual knowledge of his previous lives.m Thia is nevenbe·
leu one of the three essential "knowledges" of a Buddha, said to have been
experienced by him at the moment of his enlightenment (see 1.5.a). and if he
had felt the need to give proof to his followers of his buddhahood or even of the
truth of the essential doctrine of karmic rebirth, this was surely the one occasion
on which one might e.xpect it to have been done. We would then find in the
canonical scriptures accounts of previous lives that would fit more convincingly
as genuine descriptions of his activities during the seventh, eighth, ninth
centuries B.C. and u far back as he might have chosen to· describe them. Thus
while doubt need not be thrown upon Sa.kyamuoi's omniaciencc on account of
scientific or literary assumptioDl!, which have since proved to be fabe, doubt
might be cxpretSed on account of the absence of precise knowledge when his
followen could have had good reason to expect a convincing exposition.
tit Set,C. A. •·. Rh-yaDavids, Slqri.. ofth.eB"ddlu,, London, 1929.
524 V: THE CONVERSION OF TJBET
However, in the event they probably expected none, and much as such a demon-
stration might be welcome nowadays to those who favor a theory of human
transmigration, it would seem that no such account was given, or if indeed
given, it was not then accord.ed the signilkance that we nowadays would give it.
To more .serious scholars it may seem fanciful or frivolous to raise such a
queition aa this. Taking into account the rather anificiaJ life story of Sakya·
muni, would one really expect stories of his earlier lives to be even less artificial?
The uww« surely is that as a literary critic one might be well content with the
legends and animal stories that rep~~nt this pa.-ticular aspect of Stk.yamuni's
real or supposed omniscience; but should we not sometimes place ourselves in
the position of a sincere believer? What ia he or ahe to malte of a matter such as
this, which invotvu dittctly the basic and ~ntial Buddhist doctrine of
inevitable rebirth (or reincarnation) in accordance: with the effect$ of one's
previous acts, coupled with the equally dogmatic belief that at the time of his
enlightenment a Buddha recalls in detail all the event.s of his previou• livc:s?The
future should not affect him, for this is Im last birth and there will be no further
lives to he led. For him too the human concepts of time and space no longer )ii
exist. Like several other prob)ems raised by scientific retearch and literary
criticism for religious believers, it is no older than the nineteenth century , and
only Western Buddrum or local Buddhist scholal"I of Western background or
training(perhap& in Sri Lanka or Japan) are likely 10 be aware of it. However, it . -':~i J~I
is just thil kind of material that can be \lied by promoters of Communist theory
in Asian countries as pan of their amireligious propaganda, and far from being
able to defend their own poeition, local Buddhists are seldom if ever suffidently
up to date in matters of scientific re11Carchand literary criticism to turn the
tablca on their Communist foes. Let us at least defend the Buddhist (and
incidentally the Christian position in that the same argument applies) in this
matter of the omniscience generally attributed to its founder in this present
world-age.
Any religiol.li teacher who appears in this world in human fonn is inevitably
geographically and culturally limited in his activiti~. He would no longer
appear as a human being if he spoke spontaneously all the languages of the
world, knew all their literatures and all their past history . This is so obvious that
it scarcely needs staring. Moreover his displayable knowledge needs to accord
more or lea with what hil hearers might expect of him, if his essential religiou,
teaching is not to be deflected by largely irrelevant argument or altogether lost
in acrimonious debate. One would only be the loser to no purpose, if as a
religious teacher OM propounded "truths" relating to· the phenomenal world
totally in conflict with contemporary ideas on the subject. Funhcnnorc such
truths are usually relative, as opinions may change in their regard. Thus does a
religiow teacher, to whom the aura of omniscience is attached, refer to things as
they will be known in the tenth century, or in the fifteenth, the twentieth or the ·
twenty-fifth century? He can thus refer to things that have no bearing on his
primary religiow concenu, only in a mam1er that i5 comprehenaible to his
V.S.c Comb1Mlion ofPolitic$ and R•ligicm 525
hearen. This argument surely <.-oversa large number of cases, where a religious
teacher of the past, who is supposed to be omniscient, does not appear to know
things. which we now in the twentieth century are able to take for granted.
However, it does not cover the case of Saltyamuni's previous lives, the accounts of
which touch directly upon his religiow message. We must therefore proceed
further and ask what precisely is omniscience? Although it must surely include
them, is it I't!ally primarily concerned with the petty affair$ of human life, who
wrote such and such a book, or how men in particular timefl and places under-
stood the working, of nature. or indeed with all the activities of the mammal and
insect world, and so 011 and on to every minute detail of phenomenal existence?
The term omniscience surely suggests a form of wisdom of a far higher order,
and it is used only a$ a supremely divine auribute. This is the state of absolute
knowledge and witdom 10 which a Buddha is believed to attain at the moment of
enlightenment. At that moment he can theoretically direct his thought to any
,;~I particular point in rime and space and know what occun there, but we need
scarcely envisage his enlightened mind as encumbered with all the vast
,"•)i,'I information that no man-produced encydopedia has yet succeeded in amassing.
\wt
:j~/ Omniscience operates primarily in the supramundane sphere and only inci-
dentally in the fluctuating world in which we live. Assuming that Sakyamuni and
every other Buddha acrueved such a state of omniscience at the time (which is
essentially no time) of enlightenment, we have no reason to expect that on their
descent from the requisite suprunundane level (during which time they appear
to be in a condition of trance) to the t':veryday phenomenal world, they will be
disposed to relate what they have recently known. It would perhaps even be
impossible for them to remember clearly such details relating to the phenomenal
sphere, to wh.ich they might have chOlell to direct their thought while still in a
&tateof enlightenment. We need only remind ourselves that any religious teacher
in human form will only be intelligible to his followers if he instructs and advises
in concepts that are familiar to them, It is preciaety on this hasia that he can be
described as both Buddha and an ordinary human being at one and the same
tim.e(11ee1.4.a).
In itself the concept of omniscience is a most instructive one if we wish to
distinguith philosophy from religion. There can logically be no omni,cience
without a knowing agent. On Christian terms the definition is easy. But in
Buddhism who is the knowing agent? It can only be the One, whoevt-r he is, who
rests in a state of buddhahood, and this same one is identified with all those who
arc properly ac-cepted as Buddhas. Thus we are frequently told in Mahayana
~tras that all Buddhas are one and the same. It is here that faith mun enter the
bean of the believer, unlnl of course he has been brought up as a Buddhia~ and
simply takes his religion for granted, The equivalent of such a declaration of
,II faith may be quoted again (see also l.!1.a) in words attributed to Sakyamuni
hiDUl!lf:
There is, monks, an unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, and uncompounded;
II
if, monks, there were not thi11unborn, unbecome, unmade, uncompounded,
526 V: THE CONV.ER.SlON Of TIBET

there would not here be an escape from the born, the become, the made, the
compounded. But because there~ an unborn , an unbccome, an unmade , an
uncompounded, therefore there ia an escape from the unborn, the become,
the made, the compounded.
Philosophically (especially in terms of modern linguistic philosophy) such a
1tatemem can be analyzed as pure nonsense. Yet it asserts a belief that is the PLATES
basis of all religious aspiration. The evolving universe, whether preceded or
followed by other such universe5 or not, cannOt be accepted on 1uch religious
terms as an end in itself or aa a time-process that emei-ges from nothing and
results eventually in nothing . Moreover the concept of transcendent omniscience
suggests that the whole complex process in all its details is knowable at the "apex
of existence" (bhidakofi), the central point of the ma~','lala or by Vajradhara
himKJf. But all such terms and names are purely conventional. The asential
concept for the religious see.kerto hold to is that the One is all-knowing. and in
divene fomu He acts to assist living beings.

I '

',,
i '•

Zur the Ym1nger (see pp. 463·6)

"SaJutation to Zur the Younger who held to his Teacher's intentions,
Thus perfecting both learning and pe-rformance.
lly hi$ magical power he overcame evil karma,
And truatful to othen, he ia bonoumi by all faithful belicW?rt."
I

•
--- -
•• •r
•

i
4 'I II ii
Iii!
..
... • I
tr l ~--II
..

"
--..

T'i: .u I,
l
L ••!?!
"'"
I
'"
I [ 111
T.X
lfi 1
 T

-
I -.111
Ill
 Iii

II

-·
 -

•
l

].

!rUJ,.

..