Research Article Vol. 31, No.

25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41783

Near infrared luminescence properties and

mechanism of high bismuth-doped
SiO2 -Al2 O3 -La2 O3 glass
X INCHENG H UANG , 1,† X IANGXIN H UANG , 2,† Z HENSHI C HEN , 1,4
C HUNXU WANG , 1 AND Q INGMING C HEN 3,5
1 School of Electronic Information, Huzhou College, Huzhou, Zhejiang, 313002, China
2 Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optpelectronic Information Processing Chips and Systems,
School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong,
511400, China
3 School of Microelectronics Science and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, 519000,
China
4 chenzhenshi@zjhzu.edu.cn
5 chenqm28@mail.sysu.edu.cn
† Xincheng Huang and Xiangxin Huang contributed equally to this work

Abstract: This research investigated the wideband near-infrared spectroscopy characteristics

of 60SiO2 -25Al2 O3 -10La2 O3 glass doped with high levels of bismuth up to 5 mol%. The
near-infrared radiation range was explored under excitation wavelengths of 488 nm, 532 nm,
808 nm, and 980 nm, resulting in near-infrared radiation spanning from 1000 nm to 1800nm with
Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) values of 313.0 nm, 336.3 nm, 296.2 nm, and 262.9 nm,
respectively. Notably, the sample exhibited a lifetime of 1.473 ms when pumped at 808 nm,
corresponding to a stimulated cross-section of σe =3.35 × 10−21 cm2 . Through an in-depth
investigation of the luminescence properties, the underlying physical mechanism behind the
near-infrared luminescence was revealed. The emissions observed at approximately 1150 nm
and 1300 nm were attributed to the aluminum-related bismuth active center (BAC-Al) and the
silicon-related bismuth active center (BAC-Si), respectively. Furthermore, it is postulated that
the emission at the 1150 nm band originates from the 3 P1 , 3 P2 →3 P0 transition of Bi+ and the
2D 4
3/2 → S3/2 transition of Bi°, while the emission at the 1300 nm band may be linked to mixed
valence states of Bi3+ . This work will find potential applications in broadband near-infrared
optical devices.

© 2023 Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Optica Open Access Publishing Agreement

1. Introduction
The rapid advancement of computer networks and the exponential growth in data traffic necessitate
the development of efficient and high-capacity optical communication technologies. Wave division
multiplexing (WDM) systems have proven to be effective in expanding communication capacity
[1,2]. However, the limited bandwidth of optical amplifiers quickly saturates the transmission
capacity. Traditional rare earth fiber amplifiers (RDFAs) suffer from a narrow f-f electron energy
level transition, resulting in a gain bandwidth of less than 100 nm. Furthermore, the conventional
erbium-doped optical amplifier (EDFA) primarily operates within the C + L band and fails to
meet the demands of high-speed and high-capacity communication [3,4]. Consequently, the
pursuit of novel gain materials and amplification devices with wide bandwidth and high gain
has become a prominent research area [5–8]. In 2001, Fujimoto and Nakatsuka made a seminal
discovery regarding the ultra-wideband radiation phenomenon in bismuth-doped oxide materials.
They successfully demonstrated fluorescence at 1250 nm with an extraordinary bandwidth of
300 nm [9]. Since then, such materials have garnered significant recognition as highly promising
candidates for near-infrared fluorescence applications.

#503498 https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.503498
Journal © 2023 Received 24 Aug 2023; revised 25 Oct 2023; accepted 13 Nov 2023; published 28 Nov 2023
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41784

In recent years, there has been a burgeoning interest in the investigation of bismuth-doped
materials exhibiting near-infrared (NIR) luminescence. Extensive research efforts have been
devoted to exploring the potential of bismuth-doped optical fiber amplification devices [10–12],
thin film materials [13], and glasses infused with various dopants [14–18], particularly in relation
to their luminescent properties. The electronic configuration of a bismuth atom is denoted as
[Xe]4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 . Notably, the presence of partially filled outer electron shells renders the
outer electrons highly active, resulting in profound sensitivity of bismuth atoms to the surrounding
host material as well as the facile formation of ions with diverse valence states, such as Bi°
[15,16], Bi + [15–18], Bi2 + [19], Bi3 + [20] and Bi5 + [21]. In a comprehensive review by E.M.
Dianov, it was documented that distinct fluorescence bands in the NIR region were exhibited
by bismuth ions with varying valencies during stimulated emission [18]. Given the coexistence
of multiple valence states, each contributing to different excited radiation bands, the collective
effect leads to a broadening of the gain bandwidth. Hence, optimizing the composition system of
bismuth-doped glasses and carefully controlling the distribution of ions with differing valence
states hold paramount significance in advancing the development of NIR devices incorporating
bismuth-doped materials.
Qiu et al. [15] investigated the luminescence mechanism in bismuth-doped germanium
aluminum-silicate glass under different excitation conditions. They observed a fluorescence
lifetime of 473 µs when excited at 808 nm, and a fluorescence lifetime of 806 µs when excited at
980 nm. The authors attributed the luminescence of bismuth to the energy level transition of Bi+
and Bi° ions. Similarly, Meng et al. [17] explored the NIR broadband emission characteristics of
bismuth-doped aluminum phosphate glass. Upon excitation with lasers at 405, 514, and 808 nm,
three distinct infrared emission peaks were observed at wavelengths of 1210, 1173, and 1300 nm,
respectively, with corresponding FWHM values of 235, 207, and 300 nm. The fluorescence
lifetime was estimated to be 500 µs. It was postulated that the near-infrared luminescence in
bismuth originates from energy level transitions between the 3 P1 to 3 P0 in Bi+ ion. While
previous studies have confirmed the broadband luminescence of bismuth, achieving long lifetime
and high intensity fluorescence through high doping has remained a challenge due to the inherent
instability of the atomic structure.
To address these challenges, we studied the wideband NIR luminescence properties of SiO2 -
Al2 O3 -La2 O3 glass materials doped with bismuth ions. The co-dopant Al2 O3 was employed
to enhance the solubility of bismuth materials [22]. Additionally, the inclusion of La2 O3 was
found to enhance the excitation lifetime of rare-earth ions and improve other optical properties of
the glass [23–25]. By optimizing the composition and processing scheme, high concentration
doping of bismuth ions up to 5 mol% was successfully achieved. Experimental measurements
revealed a fluorescence lifetime of 1.473 ms and a maximum FWHM of 336.3 nm for the
broadband luminescence. Comprehensive studies were conducted on the optical absorption,
transmission, and refractive index of glasses with diverse component combinations. The
luminescence mechanism of bismuth ions was also analyzed. By systematically comparing
the luminescence under varying bismuth doping concentrations (1/3/5/10 mol%) and different
excitation wavelengths (488/532/808/980 nm), we discussed the plausible energy level models that
correlate with the observed behaviors in the sample. Furthermore, the individual luminescence
contributions from BAC-Al, BAC-Si, Bi+ , Bi° ions, and group luminescence were examined.

2. Experiment
Glass samples with composition xBi2 O3 -60SiO2 -(30-x)Al2 O3 -10La2 O3 (BSAL, where x = 1,3,5,10)
were prepared using a conventional melting technique. Industrial powders of high purity SiO2
(99.99%), Al2 O3 (99.9%), La2 O3 (99.99%), and Bi2 O3 (99.999%) were uniformly mixed in a
mortar to prepare a 20 g sample. Subsequently, the sample was placed in a ceramic crucible and
melted at 1650 °C for 1 hour. The molten glass was then cooled down to room temperature,
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41785

resulting in the formation of bulk glass. Microscopic examination confirmed the transparency
and absence of bubbles in the prepared glass samples. Following this, the glass samples were
cut and polished into dimensions of 10 mm × 10 mm × 2 mm for further measurements. In
order to investigate the luminescence mechanism of bismuth ions in the glass matrices, the NIR
fluorescence and absorption properties of the BSAL glasses were comprehensively investigated.
The density of the BSAL samples was determined using the Archimedes drainage method.
Transmittance and absorption spectra were recorded over a wavelength range of 300-2000nm
using a UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer (Lambda 950, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA). Emission spectra
and fluorescence decay curves were obtained by a fluorescence spectrophotometer (FLS1000,
Edinburgh, UK). The single pulse mode is selected to excite the glass and was sampled by
an oscilloscope. The fluorescence lifetime of the sample can be obtained by fitting the data.
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was employed to study the -OH groups. The
refractive index of the sample was measured by an ellipsometer (J.A Woollam RC2).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physical properties
Figure 1 displays samples with different concentrations of bismuth doping. As the concentration
increases, the color of the samples varies from light pink to a deeper wine red hue. This
change in color is due to the reduction degree of the bismuth element during the preparation
process [26]. During the preparation process, we strictly adhere to the molar ratios of the
various materials, ensuring accuracy to three decimal places. However, due to uncontrolled
self-reduction in the melting reactions at high temperatures, the number of active ions formed by
the bismuth components, which influence NIR luminescence, remains uncertain. To address this,
we conducted multiple repetitions of the melting process to verify the stability of the samples
and ensure the reliability of the experimental data.

Fig. 1. Samples with different bismuth concentration.

The density, refractive index, and bismuth particle concentration of the samples were measured
and listed in Table 1. Figure 2 elucidates the relationship between doping concentration and
density. It is evident that the density of the glasses monotonically increases from 3.340 g/cm3 to
3.702 g/cm3 with the increasing content of Bi2 O3 in the glass components. This linear increment
in the number of bismuth ions per cubic centimeter illustrates the effective doping of bismuth in
the samples. Furthermore, the refractive index gradually increases with the rise in Bi2 O3 doping
concentration.
Table 1. The physical properties of xBi2 O3 -60SiO2 -(30-x)Al2 O3 -10La2 O3 glass
x ρ (g/cm3 ) NBi (cm−3 ) N @808 nm N @980 nm N @1300 nm
1 3.340 1.9647 × 1020 1.631 1.627 1.624
3 3.494 5.4919 × 1020 1.637 1.633 1.629
5 3.585 9.1896 × 1020 1.649 1.644 1.639
10 3.702 1.6432 × 1021 / / /
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41786

Fig. 2. Composition dependence of density and Bi ion concentrations of BSALs.

3.2. Absorption and transmission properties

In the present section, an investigation into the absorption and transmission properties of the
BSAL samples is detailed. The absorption and transmission spectra of the BSAL samples,
measured within the range of 300-1000 nm, are showcased in Fig. 3 The obtained spectra manifest
three distinct absorption peaks located at 490 nm, 708 nm, and 810 nm, which correspond to
the excitational transitions of bismuth ions from their respective ground states to higher energy
levels. Notably, this finding substantiates the previous assertion in the literature regarding the
near-infrared emission center of Bi-doped fiber being likely attributed to Bi+ [21]. It is important
to note that the Bi+ (6s2 6p2 ) ion experiences splitting into the ground state (3 P0 ) and several
excited states (1 S0 , 1 D2 , 3 P2,1 ) due to the influence of spin-orbit coupling. Consequently, the
observed absorption bands occurring around 500 nm, 700 nm, and 800 nm in the Bi-doped
aluminosilicate glass samples can be ascribed to the transitions originating from the ground
state to these three excited states [27,28]. This attribution is consistent with existing theoretical
explanations in the field [29–32].

Fig. 3. (a) Absorption and (b) Transmittance spectra of BSAL samples with different
bismuth concentrations.
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41787

3.3. Fluorescence properties

The NIR emission spectra of samples with various concentrations of Bi-doping are presented
in Fig. 4, under excitation wavelengths of 488 nm, 532 nm, 808 nm, and 980 nm, respectively.
Notably, all samples exhibit wideband NIR luminescence ranging from 1000 nm to 1650 nm,
demonstrating excellent NIR luminescence characteristics. The corresponding excited near
infrared fluorescence spectra exhibit maximum FWHM values of 313.0 nm, 336.3 nm, 296.2 nm,
and 262.9 nm, respectively. Additionally, the sample with a Bi-doping concentration of 5 mol%
demonstrates the highest luminescence intensity, pointing to an optimal doping concentration for
the glass at approximately 9.19 × 1020 cm−3 , as indicated in Table 1. Higher doping concentrations
can lead to severe concentration quenching effects.

Fig. 4. NIR emission spectra of BSAL samples with various bismuth doped concentrations
at the excitation bands of (a)488, (b) 532, (c) 808, (d)980 nm.

To better comprehend the nature of the active centers in the BSAL sample system, we discuss
the BAC-Al and BAC-Si centers. Notably, the NIR fluorescence peaks exhibit a discernible
red shift with increasing Bi-doping concentration, accompanied by a reduction in aluminum
content. This outcome aligns with the existing theory, which posits that BAC-Al can excite
NIR light at 1150 nm, while BAC-Si can excite NIR light at 1300 nm [15,17,27,34]. The NIR
luminescence centers will be discussed in detail in Section 3.4. Moreover, this observation
substantiates the overall NIR luminescence redshift phenomenon observed following the decrease
in BAC-Al content. Importantly, no shift in fluorescence peak position is observed with changing
concentration for the 808 nm excitation, as shown in Fig. 4(c) This suggests that the 808 nm
pump light can only be absorbed by BAC-Si, thereby stimulating fluorescence at approximately
1300 nm, but it fails to induce the luminescence of BAC-Al. Additionally, the sample doped with
3 mol% exhibits the most pronounced NIR luminescence under 980 nm excitation, as shown in
Fig. 4(d) This indicates that the material structure with a 3 mol% doping concentration is more
effective in absorbing 980 nm pump light, thus promoting the excitation of BAC-Al. Hence, the
experimental results provide valuable insights into the NIR luminescent characteristics of the
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41788

studied BSAL samples, shedding light on the optimal Bi-doping concentration for enhanced
luminescence and the correlation between the BAC-Al and BAC-Si active centers.
Additionally, Fig. 4 also shows the presence of absorption at 1380 nm. This absorption may be
attributed to impurity particles introduced during the material processing, specifically hydroxyl
groups. The characterization of -OH groups or water in glass is typically accomplished by
analyzing the -OH absorption peaks or transmission in the infrared (IR) spectrum. In the case of
silicate glasses [15,16], these absorption peaks are commonly observed at 2.8 µm. Moreover, the
presence of -OH groups in the samples was further confirmed by examining the transmission
spectrum in the wavelength range of 2.5-6 µm. In Fig. 5, a pronounced decrease in transmission
is evident at 2.8 µm, indicating significant absorption attributed to the presence of -OH groups.

Fig. 5. Transmission spectrum of BSAL samples at 2.5-6um.

3.4. Discussion on NIR luminescence centers

As mentioned above, the luminescence center wavelength is related to the doped concentration. It
indicates that different concentrations will result in different luminous centers and valence states
while forming the glasses. Theoretically, the higher doped concentration will lead to a stronger
the NIR luminescence. However, the high doped concentration reduces the bismuth’s ionic
distance, inducing adverse energy transfer. As a result, most of the ion clusters are quenched. By
designing the composition ratio scheme, the effective doped concentration of bismuth has been
increased to 5 mol% and the fluorescence performance well in the study. Exploring the internal
structure change brought by the concentration increases is valuable for studying NIR emission
mechanisms of Bi-doped materials. As shown in Fig. 4, there are a main emission peak centering
at 1300 nm and an acromion at 1400 nm. Due to the unstable structure of the bismuth material,
Bi ions show different valence states during the high-temperature firing process and influence
the NIR luminescence, resulting in the fluorescence spectrum is formed by the superposition of
multiple peaks [17,33]. Here, the NIR emission centers in Bi-doped samples are analyzed in
detail.
Multiple active Bi-doped centers are superimposed to form the NIR emission spectrum. To
analyze the spectrum, we selected the 808 nm excitation that conforms to Gaussian superposition
most regularly. And the peak-splitting method is used to analyze the NIR fluorescence spectrum.
By studying the center of the emission peak, the energy level transition mechanism of NIR
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41789

fluorescence excitation is deduced. Meanwhile, the valence states of bismuth ions involved in
excitation and their respective contributions are analyzed.
Figure 6 describes the peak splitting of the samples at 808 nm excitation. There are four
Gaussian peaks at 1200 nm, 1300 nm, 1450 nm, and 1560 nm, respectively. The calculation
reveals that the energy corresponding to all Gaussian curves continuously enhanced as the
Bi-doped concentration increases. Here, 1300 nm corresponds to the transition radiation from
2D 4
3/2 to S3/2 in Bi° [15,27,34]. While increasing the Bi concentration, more Bi° ions can be
formed. From Fig. 6, we find that the contribution of Bi-doped active centers to NIR emission
would change with the increase of the concentration, indicating that there are at least two Bi-doped
active centers affecting luminescence at 1200 nm and 1300 nm. In the study on the luminescence
mechanism of bismuth-doped oxide glass, the relevant particle model from the first-character
principle has been established [10,11]. It is found that the bismuth-doped material is complex in
the high-temperature environment, and the bismuth element reacts make it change from Bi3+ to
Bi+ to Bi° and the other Bi clusters [17].

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6. Peak analysis diagram of samples at 808 nm excitation with Bi-doped (a) 1mol% (b)
3mol% (c) 5mol%

Similarly, other Gaussian sub-peaks also affect the NIR luminescence, and there are various
bismuth particles of different forms in the samples. From the experimental data, we can find that
another particle produced by our samples may transit from 3 P1 to 3 P0, corresponding to the Bi+ ,
with the emission light of 1200 nm. According to the NIR emission spectra excited at 808 nm in
Fig. 4(c), it is inferred that the Bi+ ion is insensitive to this light absorption.
In exploring the mechanism of bismuth valence state on near-infrared luminescence, we found
that the sample color increased with the degree of reduction from shallow to deep through
high-temperature reduction and different degrees of reduction of reducing agent phosphorus,
which is consistent with Zhang’s result [10]. With the high concentration of bismuth, the color of
the sample deepens. At the same time, under the low concentration of bismuth doping of 1mol%,
there is 1200 nm leading NIR luminescence. With the concentration increasing to 3-10 mol%,
1300 nm becomes the main luminescence center. It is also confirmed the glowing valence should
be Bi+ in 1200 nm, and the contribution to the 1300 nm should be contributed to Bi°. Among
them, the peak around 1300 nm gradually becomes the main peak that mainly affects the NIR
luminescence while increasing the concentration of Bi°. In the test, I(Bi°)/I(Bi+ ) (the ratio
of the intensity of Bi° and Bi+ ) increases, indicating that the proportion of Bi° increases at
high concentration, leading to enhanced the Bi° radiative transition. It shows that the Bi ion
concentration increasement generates more clusters that affect the 1300 nm band, resulting in a
wider band of NIR emission.
In addition, there are two weaker Gaussian peaks at 1450 / 1560 nm, where the energy is only
0.7% of the 1300 nm peak. We believe that Bi+ ions are combined with the base material during
the melting process, forming Si-O-Bi groups and a small amount of Si-Bi groups. These two
clusters correspond to the excitation light near 1450 nm and 1560 nm [11,23]. Based on the
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41790

discussions above, we deduce the simplified energy-level distribution of the NIR luminescence
center of the samples, as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Simplified energy level of the Bi-doped system in BSAL.

3.5. Fluorescence gain characteristics

Figure 8 illustrates the fluorescence decay behavior of the samples under the influence of lasers
with different wavelength bands at room temperature. It is evident that the lifetime curves of
the BASL samples manifest distinct characteristics, varying according to the concentration of
bismuth dopant. Remarkably, when excited by an 808 nm laser, the fluorescence lifetime of
the BASL sample doped with 5 mol% Bi was measured to be 1.473 ms. This value represents
a substantial improvement, ranging from four to ten times greater compared to the findings
reported in previous investigations concerning the fabrication and characterization of Bi-doped
materials and devices [29–31]. Such a considerable enhancement is attributed to the judicious
optimization of composition and ratio schemes employed in this study. Moreover, given the
unpredictability of the reaction behavior of bismuth in a high-temperature environment, the
heating and holding times were carefully calibrated to ensure the achievement of desirable
effective deposition concentrations and fluorescence lifetimes. It is worth noting that an increase
in the concentration of bismuth ions induces a bolstered energy transfer effect and an augmented
radiation rate, ultimately resulting in a shortened fluorescence lifetime. Consequently, as the
Bi-doped concentration escalates from 1 mol% to 10 mol%, a gradual reduction in fluorescence
lifetime from 1.8 ms to 1.4 ms is observed.
The efficiency of a laser gain medium is determined by a critical parameter known as the
product of the stimulated emission cross section and the emission lifetime (σem ×τrad ), which
displays an inverse relationship with the laser threshold. The determination of the stimulated
emission cross section (σem ) can be achieved through the utilization of the Fuchtbaner-Landenburg
formula [32]. In this work, the calculated value of σem amounts to 3.35 × 10−21 cm2 .To facilitate
a comprehensive analysis, an informative comparative overview has been compiled and presented
in Table 2, illustrating the performance data of diverse bismuth-doped glasses. It is evident that
our study presents a notable competitive advantage with the doping concentration of 5 mol% and
a fluorescence lifetime of 1.473 ms compared to other research endeavors.
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41791

Fig. 8. (a) Fluorescence decay curves of 5mol% Bi-doped sample at 488/532/808/980 nm

excitation. (b) The fluorescence lifetimes with different Bi-doped concentrations and different
band excitations.

Table 2. Comparison of the optical properties with reported Bi-doped glass

Glass Bismuth con- Total Fluorescence Emission σem ×τrad Reference
composition centration FWHM (nm) lifetime (ms) cross-section (cm2 ·s)
(mol%) (cm2 )
Bi-doped 5 336.3 1.473 3.35 × 10−21 4.93 × 10−24 This Work
SiO2 -Al2 O3 - @1300 nm
La2 O3
Bi/Er 0.5 442 0.421@1275 nm 0.65 × 10−20 2.74 × 10−24 [14]
co-doped
GeO2 -
Al2 O3 
Bi-doped 1 300 0.50 1.0 × 10−20 5.0 × 10−24 [17]
P2 O5 -Al2 O3 @1300 nm
Bi-doped 0.5 402 0.243 1.59 × 10−20 3.86 × 10−24 [28]
GeO2 -Ta2 O5 @1310 nm
Bi-doped 1 322 0.273 1.55 × 10−20 4.23 × 10−24 [32]
GeO2 - @1280 nm
Al2 O3
0.549@1092 nm 7.3 × 10−21 4.0 × 10−24
Bi-doped SiO2 -Al2 O3 -Li
1 2O 506 [33]
0.270@1347 nm 2.3 × 10−20 6.1 × 10−24
Bi-doped 1 268 0.420@1300 nm 1.13 × 10−20 4.7 × 10−24 [34]
SiO2 -Ta2 O5 -
Li2 O
 Research Article Vol. 31, No. 25 / 4 Dec 2023 / Optics Express 41792

4. Summary
In summary, this research focused on the investigation of the wideband near-infrared spectroscopy
characteristics and luminescence mechanism of highly Bi-doped SiO2 -Al2 O3 -La2 O3 glasses. The
glasses were synthesized using a melting technique, and the optical properties were explored under
different excitation wavelengths. The results showed that the optimum Bi-doped concentration
was 5 mol%, with a corresponding stimulated cross-section of 3.35 × 10−21 cm2 . When pumped
at 808 nm, the glass demonstrated a long fluorescence lifetime of 1.473 ms. Through a detailed
analysis of the luminescence properties, it was determined that the emissions around 1150 nm and
1300 nm originated from BAC-Al and BAC-Si. These findings indicate the potential applications
of highly Bi-doped SiO2 -Al2 O3 -La2 O3 glasses in broadband near-infrared optical devices. The
wideband spectrum and long fluorescence lifetime make these glasses suitable for use as gain
media in wideband active devices.

Funding. National Natural Science Foundation of China (62205381, 62205383).

Acknowledgments. This work was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), grant
number 62205383 and 62205381.
Disclosures. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability. Data underlying the results presented in this paper are not publicly available at this time but may
be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request.

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