Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jngse

Experimental investigation of mechanical behavior and microstructural

analysis of bagasse fiber-reinforced polypropylene (BFRP) composites to
control lost circulation in water-based drilling mud
Maryam Abdollahi Khoshmardan a, Taraneh Jafari Behbahani b, *, Cyrus Ghotbi a, Alireza Nasiri c
a
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
b
Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, RIPI, Tehran, 14857-33111, Iran
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, 14857-33111, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: During the drilling operation in high-permeability, natural and artificial fractured formations, the lost circulation
Lost circulation materials of drilling mud is a common problem. Various methods have been applied to control lost circulation and among
Bagasse fiber reinforced polymer composite these methods, using Lost Circulation Materials (LCM) is the most common method that blocks the fluid loss
Drilling fluid
channels in the formation by creating structures. In this project, the aim is to develop and use natural fiber-
Mechanical properties
Natural fiber
reinforced composites as LCM can be an innovative and technical solution. Natural fiber-reinforced compos­
Scanning electron microscopy ites have excellent properties such as high specific strength, non-abrasive, eco-friendly, and biodegradability. It
seems to be possible that manufacturing composite can provide more desirable properties by changing its
formulation. In this work, the Bagasse Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) composites were prepared with a twin-
screw extruder and tested in Bridging Material Tester (BMT) with a slotted disk based on API standard. Finally,
the obtained results were compared with those obtained using some conventional LCM’s. In addition, the effect
of the fiber content on the mechanical properties has also been evaluated. At 30% Bagasse fiber loadings, BFRP
composite shows better mechanical properties compared to those of 40% fiber content BFRP composite. Also,
fractured surface and Fiber-PP interaction have been studied by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The results
show that the BFRP composite creates a suitable and persistent bridge inside the fractures and was able to seal
slotted disks up to 0.12-in. Moreover, a reasonable combination of BFRP composite and Bagasse fiber increase
plug breaking pressure contributing to reduce fluid loss can cause less fluid invasion upon the establishment of an
effective seal. Optimal selection of size distribution leads to building a network for opening of fractured for­
mations by Bagasse fiber. Also, BFRP granular particles can fill the empty space as well as reducing the amount of
leakage. This study proposes new insights into the design of engineered loss control material with more effective
loss formation control ability.

1. Introduction pressured underbalanced drilling (UBD), measured pressure drilling

Drilling fluid loss while oil wells drilling has been considered as one
of the most common and costly problems, and that is described as an
uncontrolled loss of mud into the natural or induced fractures during the
drilling or cementing operations. It is estimated approximately 1.8
million bbl./year of drilling fluids are lost in formations, therefore,
preventing and controlling lost circulation is an extremely important
issue while drilling oil wells (Alsaba et al., 2014).
Several methods have been suggested to cure lost circulation such as
(MPD), and deploying cement which may be effective. The most com­
mon method to lost circulation control is using Lost Circulation Mate­
rials (LCM) based on lost circulation conditions. According to the loss
rate, loss zones can be arranged as seepage loss (1–10 bbl./hr.), partial
loss (10–500 bbl./hr.), and complete loss (more than 500 bbl./hr.)
(Pilehvari eta Nyshadham, 2002). LCMs are either added to the whole or
pill mud systems, depending on the loss mechanism and loss severity.
Many researchers have carried out studies on testing and evaluating the
conventional LCMs to seal the fractures such as cellulose fibers, walnut

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: maryamabdollahi.che@gmail.com (M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan), jafarit@ripi.ir (T. Jafari Behbahani), ghotbi@sharif.edu (C. Ghotbi), nasiriar@
ripi.ir (A. Nasiri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104490
Received 7 February 2021; Received in revised form 20 February 2022; Accepted 23 February 2022
Available online 26 February 2022
1875-5100/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al.
shells, nutshells, Mica, calcium carbonate, and graphite separately or in
a blend. The investigations are based on different factors such as type,
physical properties, Particle Size Distribution (PSD), concentration, and
sealing of fracture performance (Hettema et al., 2007; Sanders et al.,
2010; Savari and Whitfill, 2016; Wang et al., 2009; Whitfill and Miller,
2008).
Based on the physical properties, LCMs were divided into fibrous,
granular, flaked, and a mixture of all of them. Loeppke et al. performed
laboratory evaluation on the thermoset rubber and expanded aggregate
as LCM. Nasiri et al. evaluated the ability of different materials in
fracture sealing by Bridging Material Tester (BMT). (Ab Ahmad and
Ghani, 2011; Alsaba et al., 2017; Bengtsson et al., 2007; Howard and
Scott, 1951; Loeppke et al., 1990; Mansour et al., 2019; Nachtigall et al.,
2007; Nasiri et al., 2017; Rimdusit et al., 2011; Smith and Wolcott, 2006;
White, 1956; You, 2018; Zhong, 2018).
Properly designed blends were usually better than materials were
utilized alone; for example, a mixture of graphite, calcium carbonate,
and fiber with a weight ratio of 1–2 to 0.25, respectively showed
acceptable performance. Pilehravi and Nyshadam applied a mixture of
granular, fibers, and flaky particles as LCM and investigated the sealing
of fracture performance (Pilehvari et Nyshadham, 2002). Kumar et al.
declared that a blend of calcium carbonate, graphite and fibers could
successfully seal the fractures without reservoir damage (Kumar et al.,
2010). Using fibers in LCMs composition can help the formed LCM plug
to be stronger. The principal rule in using fibers as LCM is to form a mat
for the placement of granular particles. The particle size distribution of
granular materials on the mat should be compatible with the distribu­
tion of the size of empty spaces on the mat.
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) is the most important criterion in
designing LCMs and was studied by many researchers. Several models
have been proposed for the particle size distribution. Abrams Rule in
1977: Abrams proposed that the LCM particle size should be at least
equal to or greater than one-third of the mediocre opening size and their
maximum concentration in the drilling fluids should be 5% vol.
(Abrams, 1977). Smith suggested that 90 percent of the LCM particles
should be largely sufficient for bridging fractures (Smith et al., 1996). In
2006, Vickers declared that to form a complete seal, the D90 should be
equivalent to the largest pore, the D75 should be less than 2/3, D50
should be roughly equal to 1/3 of the apertures, and the D25 should be
as large as 1/7 of apertures, and the D10 should be as small as the
smallest of the pores. This five-dimensional distribution provides the
optimal size distribution (Vickers et al., 2006). In 2008, Whitfield pro­
posed a method for determining the particle size distribution. Based on
this method, the average particle size (D50) should be equal to the
fractures’ width (Whitfill, 2008). In the recent study done by Al-Saba
et al., in 2014, 4 samples of graphite, walnut, calcium carbonate, and
cellulose fibers were formulated with 40 different concentrations and
combinations. The mixtures were blended with 7% bentonite mud and
tested to evaluate their capabilities in sealing the slots. The tests were
performed at 100 psi with different fracture widths of 0.04–0.12 inches.
(Alsaba et al., 2014). Based on the relationship provided by Al-Saba and
his colleagues in 2016, at the pressures greater than 500 psi, the d50
value should be greater than or equal to 0.3 of the fracture width and
D90 must be larger than or equal to 6/5 of the fracture width (Alsaba
et al., 2017).
Effective LCM treatment design is required to limit the volume of
LCM-laden fluid invasion into the fractures while creating the desired
plugs, therefore for a successful fluid loss control, the LCM properties
such as type, shape, resiliency, and particle size distribution as key
factors should be considered. The crush strength or resiliency of the
formed bridge in fractures by LCMs is very significant because it must
endure pressure fluctuations and remain in place. Kumar and et al.
measured mechanical properties such as crush strength and resiliency
for various materials and the results showed Nutshell and ground rubber
have satisfactory strength at 5000 psi but they do not have any resiliency
(Kumar et al., 2010). The biggest limitation of conventional LCMs is
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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490
their dependence on nature, which causes them to have limited and
certain properties that are not changeable.
In this research, experimental investigations were conducted to
develop and use natural fiber-reinforced composites as LCM can be an
innovative and technical solution because composites have excellent
mechanical and resilient properties and their mechanical properties are
superior to those of the constituent material acting independently. They
have unique features such as significant mechanical properties,
controllable formulation, non-abrasive and chemically inert, so these
traits make them a competent choice for lost circulation control.
Many properties of the composite such as tensile strength,
compressive strength, tensile modulus, specific gravity, and thermal
properties are directly affected by nature and amount of fibers and their
arrangement in the composite structure. The aim of adding natural fi­
bers to polymer composites is to create unique properties such as
excellent versatility, biodegradability, and recyclability at low cost. (La
Mantia and Morreale, 2011). Natural fibers such as bagasse fiber can be
obtained from both new sources and waste resources. Some benefits of
this fiber are low cost, ease of handling, low abrasion effects on the
processing equipment, ease of fiber surfaces modification with the
coupling agent, reproducibility, and availability of resources (Kim et al.,
2017).
Most of the research is done on the fiber-thermoplastic polymer
composites that is related to polymers such as polyethylene, poly­
propylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and polyurethane since the
processing temperatures of these polymers are in the needed range to
maintain the thermal stability of cellulose fibers (Koivuranta et al.,
2017). Polypropylene, as one of the most common thermoplastic poly­
mers are widely used in various industries due to its advantages such as
low cost, excellent chemical resistance, and low density (Luz et al.,
2008).
The composites with 30–40 percent polymer can be stiffer and harder
several times more than polymer only. The tensile strength and shear
strength are very much improved, and the elastic modulus will be better
than single cellulose fiber (Klyosov, 2007; Ndiaye et al., 2011; Som­
batsompop et al., 2005).
Certain additives such as coupling agents are used to improve the
adhesion between matrix and fibers. One of the most common coupling
agents is polypropylene modified with maleic anhydride (P.V. et al.,
2003).
However, by now a few attempts have been done to investigate the
application of composite particles in lost circulation control and sealing
fractures. Wang et al. designed a gel composite and tested it as an LCM.
The results showed that the proposed gel composite has an effective
ability in controlling lost circulation into fractures and caves (Wang
et al., 2009). Hanyi Zhong et al. synthesized an oil-absorbent polymer by
methyl methacrylate (MMA), butyl acrylate (BA), and hexadecyl
methacrylate (HMA) and used in oil-based drilling fluids to control lost
circulation. Based on the result, the swelled and deformable
oil-absorbent polymer particles could be compacted to enter a fracture
opening and sealed.
Ahmed Mansour et al. designed a new type of smart expandable LCM
that was activated by the formation’s natural temperature. According to
the results, the smart LCM’s could seal the fractures and withstand up to
5000 psi differential pressure without breaking but it is very sensible to
formation temperature. Performances of smart LCM were more efficient
when it was combined with fibers. In order to lost circulation control,
Brent Aadnoy et al. added small amounts of carbon fibers to water-based
mud and based on the results, it has a positive effect on loss control
(Aadnoy et al., 2008). An Engineered fiber-based loss circulation
(EFBLC) control pill based on particle size distribution was designed by
Ashad et al. to control the losses. The results showed that the pill was
powerful in curing losses (Arshad et al., 2014).
For this study, two types of Bagasse Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP)
composites are designed by the extrusion method and are studied
experimentally for sealing fractures with different widths using Bridging
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

Materials Tester (BMT). Finally, the obtained results in this study are
compared with those obtained for conventional LCMs.

2. Material and methods

2.1. 1-1- material

The raw material is utilized in this work including Bagasse fibers,

Polypropylene polymer, Calcium carbonate, and maleic polypropylene.
Polypropylene as the polymeric matrix in granular form has been pur­
chased from Arak Petrochemical Corporation and the physical-
mechanical properties of the thermoplastic polymer of polypropylene
is shown in Table 1.
Bagasse fiber as the reinforcement phase was collected from the
sugarcane cultivation plant in Ahvaz (Fig. 1). Bagasse fiber is one of the
cellulose wastes that is exhausted after being squeezed and extracted
from the sugar factory and is mainly used as a burning raw material in
the sugar cane mill furnaces.
In this study, Maleic Anhydride Grafted Polypropylene (MAPP) is
used as a coupling agent and Calcium Carbonate is applied to raise the
density, with a concentration of 20% by weight.
Fig. 1. Bagasse fiber.

2.2. 1-2- preparation of composites

One of the most common methods of mixing and shaping fiber

polymer composites is extrusion technique. BFRP composites were
prepared by the extrusion process with Twin Screw counter-current
Extruders with L/D = 16 (Fig. 2). The extruder includes one or two
screws inside a chamber. Based on the rotation of the screws, the ex­
truders are divided into two groups: counter-current and co-current. In
2011, a comparative study was done on the behavior of water absorption
of cellulosic particle-polymer composites by counter-current and co-
current twin-screw extruders by Ghanei and Ahmad, it was concluded
that the composites prepared with counter-current extruders have less
water absorption values than those composited with co-current ex­
truders. Mixing and compositing of materials in extruders were done
continuously. The studied background on the polypropylene-bagasse
fibers composites showed that the best properties are 30–50% cellu­
losic fiber. In this study, BFRP composite is made with 30% and 40%
Bagasse fiber.
Bagasse fiber was dried in sunlight for 3 days and was milled into a Fig. 2. Twin Screw counter-current Extruder for the production of
semi-industrial mill (Fig. 3a) and then was sieved by two sieves of BFRP composite.
required (ASTM-30 & ASTM -60) size. The sieved fibers were dried in a
hot oven at 167 F for 10 h. Bagasse fiber and polypropylene were melt- Saba models (Alsaba et al., 2017). According to this model, the median
compounded in a counter-rotating twin-screw extruder. Polymers and particle size (D50) should be equal to or slightly greater than 1/3 of the
fibers are often fed from the hopper into the screw. The carriage is then median pore size. The main two parameters of the Al-Saba method
driven by a screw along with the chamber, heated by heat conduction (Alsaba et al., 2017) for the LCMs that sealed different fracture widths
from the heaters of the chamber, and the cutting caused by the move­ are the D50 and D90, respectively which are calculated based on the
ment is heated on the edges of the screw. The depth of rotation decreases fracture opening size. The particle size distribution of BFRP composite
along the screw and causes compressed material. At the end of the based on slot size is shown in Fig. 4.
extruder chamber, the melt material comes to the final product by
passing through the die in the desired form. The extrusion conditions are 2.3. 1-3- physical and mechanical properties
shown in Table 2.
Prepared BFRP composites have been allowed to cool by air and then Sheet sizes of 9.8-inch x 4.92-inch and 0.07 inch in thickness were
have been milled by the semi-industrial mill and were sieved through a prepared using a conventional compression molding press. The mold
series of sieves (Fig. 3). temperature was 337 F and the pressure was about 5076 psi (Fig. 5a–c).
The optimum size of the LCM combinations is selected based on Al- The samples for mechanical testing were cut from the sheets according
to ASTM standards.
Table 1 The mechanical properties (tensile, bending and impact) were per­
Physical-mechanical properties of polypropylene. formed according to ASTM D790, ASTM D638, and ASTM D256 stan­
Density Tensile Tensile Flexural Flexural Impact Melting dard methods, respectively. Water absorption as a physical property has
Strength Modulus Strength Modulus Strength point been carried out according to ASTM D570. Five specimens were tested in
gr/ psi ksi psi ksi kj/m2 F each experiment to obtain a reliable averaged value.
cm3
0.95 2610 98 2900 87 2.3 338

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M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

Fig. 3. (a) Semi-industrial mill (WG-LS 200/200 model) (b) Prepared BFRP composites.

2.5. 1-5- Fractures Sealing Performance test

Table 2
Parameters adjusted for the extrusion device.
The purpose of running this experiment is to create a field environ­
Type of composite BFRP composite ment of lost circulation at a small scale and see how effectively BFRP
type of extruder counter-rotating twin-screw composites will seal it. BFRP composites and other LCMs were examined
T1-T3 (K) 433–493 by using Bridging Material Tester (BMT) (Fig. 6). This apparatus is based
T4 (K) 448 on the standard API filter press design (API RP 13 B). This test was
T5 (K) 443
The screw diameter 62.5 mm
carried out using the discs with different width sizes (0.08-in to 0.2-in)
The length to diameter ratio 22 and the experiment was run at room temperature. In this work, Fractures
Screw Rotation speed (rpm) 60 Sealing Performance of 7 materials were tested including BFRP com­
type of cooling Air posite with 30% bagasse fiber (BFRP-30%) and BFRP composite with
40% bagasse fiber (BFRP-40%), a physical combination of BFRP-30%
and Bagasse fiber (with ratio 70/30) (CBFRP), Bagasse fiber, Mica,
2.4. 1-4- water-based mud (WBM) preparation
Nutshell and oyster shell.
After sieving the BFRP particles and designing the particle size dis­
A water-based mud (WBM) containing 0.05 lb (7%) bentonite with a
tribution based on Al-Sabah’s model [27], BFRP composite has been
mud weight of 8.83 lb/gal was prepared and was used as the base fluid.
mixed with 3500 ml of water-based mud and then the mixture was
Rheological properties for the WBM are summarized in Table 3. At the
placed in the special cell. Firstly, the cell is connected to atmospheric
end of the mixing, the materials as LCM were added with 20 ppb con­
pressure and a slot was placed before the open output valve. Then the
centrations (see Table 4).
volume of the exiting drilling fluid was measured. When the slot was
completely sealed by BFRC particles, the cell was closed and the 100-psi
pressure applied to push WBM containing BFRP particles to flow so the

Fig. 4. The particle size distribution of BFRP composite based on slot size.

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M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

Fig. 5. (a) Hot press machine (b) cold press machine (c) composite sheet.

stage, the volume of the left drilling fluids was recorded. Based on the
Table 3 API standard 13 B, the efficiency of an LCM is considered to be excellent
WBM Properties based on API Standards (API- RP 13 B).
if it seals the slot and the amount of mud loss is 1000 ml or less. The fluid
Density (lb/gal) 8.83 loss volume could tell if the concentration and PSD are able to seal a
Plastic Viscosity (cp) 8 specific fracture width. It is important to observe how the bridging oc­
Yield Point (lb/100 ft2) 15 curs and the pressure varies in water-based fluids during the LCM
Gels Strength (lb/100 ft2) 1/2 experiment with the same slot opening and the same concentration of
the lost circulation materials. Mica, Nutshell, and Oyster shell as con­
ventional LCMs were used as a reference and the obtained experimental
Table 4 results were compared with them. Although considerable research has
Conversion Table Oilfield units to SI units. been devoted to the performance of LCMs, less attention has been paid to
Conversion Table the fracture aperture. In this study, in order to make the experiment
Variable Oilfield units Conversion (multiply oilfield units) SI units
closer to real conditions, it is considered.

Volume bbl. 0.158 m3

Length in 2.54 cm
3. Results and discussion
Pressure psi 6894 Pa
Density ppg 119.3 kg/m3 3.1. 2-1- physical and mechanical properties
Viscosity cp 0.001 Pa.s
temperature F (32 ◦ F − 32) × 5/9 = 0 ◦ C C
If LCM particles have appropriate mechanical properties, they can
YP and Gel lb/ft2 47.88 pa
Concentration lb/bbl 2.85 kg/ m3
withstand changing pressure which stems from bit or downhole pres­
sure. Since the properties of composites are strongly influenced by the
property and concentration of their components, and also the interac­
tion between them, these materials can be designed based on well
temperature and pressure. Often, the fiber concentration is the most
influencing parameter on the composite properties that can be easily
controlled during the process.
The reasons for measurement of mechanical properties is the
following:

• Tensile and flexural strength: Determines the strength of the material

against a bit pressure and downhole pressure
• Module: Determines the flexibility or rigidity of materials under
compressive, tensile, and flexural stresses.
• Impact strength: Impact resistance of composite in the fractures
• Compressive strength: Determines material resistance under pres­
sure fluctuations inside the fractures
• Swelling with water absorption: Swelling and increase in size after
placement within the fracture

3.2. 2-2- tensile properties

Fig. 7 illustrates the composite’s tensile properties as a function of

Fig. 6. The schematic of the BMT apparatus.
formed seal collapsed and then BFRP tried to build another bridge. As
the slot has been sealed again, pressure has been increased by 100 psi.
Several stages of sealing and collapsing have occurred until the formed
bridge can withstand 1000psi for 10 min without collapsing. At this
fiber loading. In comparison to pure PP, it can be seen a decreasing trend
in tensile strength with increasing fiber content. For the BFRP compos­
ite, the maximum tensile strength was found in Composites reinforced
with 30% BF. The tensile strength is reduced from 1826 psi to 1114 psi
by increasing the percentage of bagasse fibers from 30% to 40%. This
could be because of poor adhesion between Bagasse fiber and PP in BFRP

5
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al.
Fig. 7. The tensile properties of PP polymer and BERP composites by changing fiber concentration.
composites. Generally, the addition of Bagasse fibers increases the
modulus of the composites.
The modulus was enhanced from 99 ksi of neat PP to 138 ksi for
BFRP-30% because of fiber reinforcement. As can be seen in Fig. 7 the
tensile modulus of BFRP composites is decreased from 138 ksi to 68 ksi
by increasing the percentage of bagasse fibers from 30% to 40%. This
phenomenon in tensile modulus is due to the poor distribution of fibers
in the polymer matrix and their agglomerations in some points. Luz et al.
(S.M. Luz. et al., 2007) studied the mechanical properties of bagasse
fibers reinforced polypropylene composites and observed the same re­
sults. This result was consistent with the results of Zaini et al., (1996).
(Zaini et al., 1996). The percentage of failure strain for BFRP30% and
BFRP40% was 2.38 and 2.88, respectively.
3.3. 2-3- flexural properties
Fig. 8 shows the flexural properties of the BFRP composites. As the
Bagasse fiber percentage is increased in BFRP composite from 30% to
40%, flexural strength is reduced from 3077 to 2240 psi due to poor
interaction between the hydrophilic Bagasse fiber and the hydrophobic
matrix. The modulus of elasticity has also been reduced from 232 to 103
ksi by increasing the fiber from 30 to 40%. The percentage of failure
strain for BFRP30% and BFRP40% was 2.5 and 3.8, respectively. The
mechanical properties of composites are forcefully dependent on the
distribution of the fiber in the matrix. The reduction of flexural modulus
Fig. 8. The Flexural properties of PP polymer and BERP composites by changing fiber concentration.
6
Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490
can be attributed to the lack of sufficient resin to cover all fiber surfaces
or fiber agglomeration. Fiber agglomeration can act as defects or stress
concentration sites for crack nucleation.
3.4. 2-4- compressive strength
The compressive strength of the BFRP composites was determined by
a 100 KN servo testing machine at 1 mm/min crosshead speed under
displacement control mode. The results of the compressive strength tests
are shown in Fig. 9. As can be seen in Figure, both the studied com­
posites, due to their polymer structure, can resist stresses higher than
24,380 psi. The compression modulus of the samples increased from
3190 to 6526 ksi by increasing the fiber concentration from 30% to 40%.
Therefore, by referring to the results shown in Fig. 9, it can be concluded
that if BFRP composites have appropriate size distribution within the
fracture, they can form a bridge in the fracture and withstand the
pressure separately and, unlike the conventional LCM, by changing the
pressure of the well or Bit pressure, the designed PSD will not change
and as a result they can bond with each other and seal the fracture.
3.5. 2-5- impact strength test
Impact strength is one of the most important properties in the pro­
duction of composites. By increasing the impact strength, the energy loss
level decreases. The impact strength values of studied BFRP composites
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al.
Fig. 9. Compressive properties of PP polymer and BERP composites by changing fiber concentration.
are shown in Fig. 10. Impact strength is largely controlled by the factors
that affect the growth of failure at the center of stress concentration. As
shown in Fig. 10, the impact strength increased from 4.67 to 6.37 kJ/m2
with an increase in fiber loading from 30% to 40% in the PP matrix. So it
can be concluded that bagasse fibers act as an impact modifier.
3.6. 2-6- the morphological study using Scanning Electron Microscope
images (SEM)
The studied BFRP composites used in tensile experiments were cut
and the composites intact fracture surface were analyzed by Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM) is shown in Fig. 11(a and b). As shown in
these figures, there is no chemical reaction between the polypropylene
and the fiber in the studied composites and the surface of the bagasse
fibers has a high roughness causing the stronger bond between the fibers
and the polymer. It is estimated that the mean diameter of the bagasse
fibers is about 10 μm and its average length is 200–400 μm. The
dispersion of the fibers plays a very important role in the mechanical
properties of the composite. It was observed; the bagasse fibers have
different orientations in BFRP composites resulting in higher impact
resistance. It seems that the presence of holes and pull out, as shown in
Fig. 11, is caused by low adhesion between fibers and matrix. Because of
the lack of adhesion at the interface of the two phases of the fibers and
the matrix, fibers are easily slipped out of their polymeric chains at the
moment of stress. As shown in Fig. 11, in comparison to BFRP-40%
Fig. 10. Impact Strength of PP polymer and BERP composites by changing fiber concentration.
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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490
composite, the BFRP-30% has less number of pulled-out fibers which
indicates a better affinity at fiber/polymer interface.
3.7. 2-7- water absorption
In a water absorption test, the water molecules must first pass
through the polymer to reach the fiber surface. Any factor that prolongs
the path of water molecules through the polymer matrix or strengthens
the interface between composite components (using the coupling agent)
can lead to a decrease in water absorption. The matrix acts as the first
barrier to water absorption by fibers. In this work, the studied BFRPs
with specific dimensions were prepared to measure the water absorption
content. The sample was re-weighed after 2 h and 24 h immersion in
distilled water and the obtained results are presented in Fig. 12. As
shown in this figure, the percentage of water absorption after 2 h of
immersion in distilled water for BFRP-30% and BFRP-40% composites
was 3.1% and 3.5%, respectively. After 24 h, the percentage of water
absorption increased to 8.3% and 9.1% respectively. It is clear that
increasing bagasse fiber in composite led to increase in water absorption
due to the hydrophobicity of bagasse fibers.
3.8. 2-8- the comparison of sealing capability of material
In this work, Fractures Sealing Performance of 7 materials were
tested including BFRP composite with 30% bagasse fiber (BFRP-30%)
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

Fig. 11. The morphological structure of BFRP composites (a)BFRP-40% (b) BFRP-30%.

Fig. 12. Water absorption percentage of the BFRP composites.

and BFRP composite with 40% bagasse fiber (BFRP-40%), a physical
combination of BFRP-30% and Bagasse fiber (70/30 ratio) (CBFRP),
Bagasse fiber, Mica, Nutshell and oyster shell.
3.8.1. 2-8-1- The sealing capability of BFRP composite in the 0.08-inch
width slot
Fig. 13 compares the performance of the studied BFRP composite and
conventional LCMs and also CBFRP to seal the 0.08-in fracture. This
fracture could be considered as light loss in water-based mud. Overall, a
glance at the figure it is clear that in terms of sealing the fracture, both of
the studied BFRP composites successfully plugged the 0.08-in slot and
mud loss volume was about 500 ml. CBFRP shows excellent performance
in controlling mud loss in water-based mud. The addition of BF fibers
helps to improve the overall strength of the formed plug. In comparison
to Nutshell which was able to withstand 1000 psi differential pressure
and mud loss volume is just 700 ml, Mica and bagasse fiber and oyster
shell failed in controlling the mud loss and they were not able to with­
stand more than 700 psi pressure.

8
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al.
Fig. 13. Comparing the performance of the BFRP composites and other conventional LCM to control the lost circulation in water-based drilling fluids (0.08-
inch slot).
3.8.2. 2-8-2- The sealing ability of BFRP composite in the 0.12-inch width
slot
Fig. 14. Illustrates the performance of the studied material to seal the
0.12-in slot. The 0.12-inch width slot could be considered as light to
medium losses in water-based mud. Overall, it can be seen in the figure,
the CBFRP has shown a proper performance in controlling the lost cir­
culation of mud and can seal the 0.12-in slot well and the formed seal
can withstand 1000psi pressure. Bagasse fiber in this mixture, which can
be sheared and dispersed within the base fluid and create a lattice
network. The BFRP particles are often used as filler, while Bagasse fibers
act as reinforcement for the transmission of stress from a continuous
phase to a dispersed phase. The results also indicated that although the
performance of the BFRP-30% generally was higher than that of the
BFRP-40%, both BFRP composites followed a very similar trend and
successfully plugged the 0.12-in slot on their own. In contrast, Mica,
Bagasse fiber and Oyster shell failed in the same mud and were not able
to seal the slot. It may be because of an inappropriate particle size dis­
tribution and also the poor mechanical properties of materials to form a
strong seal.
3.8.3. 2-8-3- The sealing ability of BFRP composite in the 0.016-inch width
slot
Fig. 15 shows the capability of the studied materials to seal the 0.16-
inch fracture. This fracture could be considered as medium and severe
losses in water-based mud. It is immediately apparent that, in terms of
controlling the water-based mud loss circulation in 0.16-inch size
Fig. 14. Comparing the performance of the BFRP composites and other conventional LCM to control the lost circulation in water-based drilling fluids (0.12 inch slot).
9
Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490
fractures, in comparison to other materials, the performance of the
CBFRP produced the best results. It may be because an appropriate
combination of fiber and BFRP composites can provide the properties
that fit the requirement for a proper structure to seal the fractures. The
BFRP particles are often used as filler, while bagasse fibers act as rein­
forcement for the transmission of stress from a continuous phase to a
dispersed phase. As shown in Fig. 15, The mud loss volume for the
CBFRP began fairly high, at 300 ml. However, by increasing pressure, it
fell steadily to around 1300 ml under 1000 psi pressure. Both BFRP
composites show acceptable performance in controlling mud loss and
are able to effectively seal this fracture. Both BFRP composites, mean­
while, followed very similar patterns, with both starting quite low at
100 ml and 500 ml respectively, but then gradually increasing to finish
at 1600 ml and 2000 ml respectively. All conventional LCMs except
Nutshell were not able to seal this fracture, it may be because of an
inappropriate particle size distribution of the additives. The mixture of
the BFRP composite 30% and BF produced the best results.
3.8.4. 2-8-4- The sealing ability of BFRP composite in the 0.2-inch width
slot
The fluid loss results in the 0.2 inch-width fracture are shown in
Fig. 16. This fracture could be considered as severe losses. The results
indicated that all of the materials, even CBFRP, were not able to
adequately control the lost circulation of water-based mud in the 0.2-in
slot. However, the Bagasse fibers are flexible and may provide a struc­
ture that was not strong enough to sustain 500 psi. This is primarily
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al.
Fig. 15. Comparing the performance of the BFRP composites and other conventional LCM to control the lost circulation in water-based drilling fluids (0.16-
inch slot).
because the LCM-bridge was broken at this pressure. Although the LCM-
bridge was formed again at 500 psi and the amount of fluid loss for the
CBFRP was 2000 ml, it was not able to withstand more than 700 psi
pressure and, in this pressure, the seal was broken and a total of mud was
lost. The data shown in Fig. 12 also indicates that the amount of fluid
loss for BFRP-30% was less than that for BFRP-40%. Thus, it can be
concluded that the fracture sealing performance of BFRP-30% is higher
than that of BFRP-40%.
4. Conclusion
In this project, the aim is to develop and using natural fiber-
reinforced composites as LCM can be an innovative and technical solu­
tion to control lost circulation in “medium to high size” fractures
therefore BFRP composite has been fabricated with the extrusion pro­
cess. The mechanical and physical performance of BFRP-30% and BFRP-
40% composites in comparison to conventional LCMs in controlling the
water-based mud loss circulation in medium to high size fractures were
studied. The sealing fractures performance of composites was investi­
gated in water-based mud systems by the BMT apparatus with different
depth slots (0.08-in to 0.2-in). The particle size distribution of all LCMs
was determined based on Al-Saba methods. By using the obtained
experimental results, the amounts of spurt loss, total fluid loss and
sealing pressure for the studied conventional LCMs and BFRP compos­
ites in the bentonite mud were obtained and compared.
The summary of the results acquired in this study is as follows:
Fig. 16. Comparing the performance of the BFRP composites and other conventional LCM to control the lost circulation in water-based drilling fluids (0.2-inch slot).
10
Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490
• Unlike conventional materials, the properties of the composite ma­
terials can be changed by modifying their formulation.
• From the microscopic images results, it was concluded that Bagasse
fiber has a rough surface and also there is no chemical reaction be­
tween fibers and polypropylene.
• Increase in Bagasse fiber percentage from 30 to 40; deteriorate
almost all the studied mechanical properties of BFRP composite with
exception of impact strength.
• The BFRP-40% has a higher water absorption capability in compar­
ison to BFRP-30%, which is obviously because of the hydrophobicity
of bagasse fiber.
• The BFRP composite performance in WBM systems with the slot
openings of 0.04 to 016-in performed better than other studied ma­
terials because of its deformability nature. Although mica, oyster
shell course, and walnut shell are routinely used to control the lost
circulation of drilling fluids in different oil fields, it was found that
these materials could not even block small fractures properly.
• The excellent performance of CNFRP composite in controlling the
lost circulation in 0.12 and 0.16 inch-width fractures, is due to the
physical properties of bagasse fiber such as its shape and deform­
ability to form a mat in fracture opening in which the BFRP particles
fill empty spaces.
• In 0.2 inch-width fractures, none of the studied materials was not
able to control lost circulation.
M. Abdollahi Khoshmardan et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 100 (2022) 104490

Credit authorship statement Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Maryam Abdollahi Khoshmardan: Conceptualization, Methodol­

ogy, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Declaration of competing interest
Cyrus. Ghotbi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing –
review & editing, Supervision. Taraneh. Jafari Behbahani: Concep­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Su­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
pervision. Alireza. Nasiri: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, the work reported in this paper.

Nomenclatures

D90 D90 means that 90% of the total particles are smaller than this size
D75 D75 means that 75% of the total particles are smaller than this size
D50 D50 means that 50% of the total particles are smaller than this size
D25 D25 means that 25% of the total particles are smaller than this size
D10 D10 means that 10% of the total particles are smaller than this size
L/D The ratio of length of the screw to its outside diameter
T1-T5 Temperature
ppb pound per barrel
ppg pound per gallon

Abbreviations
BFRP Bagasse Fiber-reinforced polypropylene
BFRP-30% Bagasse Fiber-reinforced polypropylene with 30% bagasse fiber
BFRP-40% Bagasse Fiber-reinforced polypropylene with 40% bagasse fiber
CBFRP Combination of BFRP-30% and Bagasse fiber (70/30 ratio)
WBM Water-based mud
LCM Lost Circulation Materials
BMT Bridging Material Tester
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
PSD Particle Size Distribution
MMA Methyl methacrylate
BA Butyl acrylate
HMA Hexadecyl methacrylate
EFBLC Engineered fiber-based loss circulation
MAPP Maleic Anhydride Grafted Polypropylene
BF Bagasse Fiber
PSD Particle Size Distribution
PV Plastic Viscosity (cp)
YP Yield Point (lb./100 ft2 )
GS Gels Strength (lb./100 ft2 )

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